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Commodore 1541
|
The **Commodore 1541** (also known as the **CBM 1541** and **VIC-1541**) is a floppy disk drive which was made by Commodore International for the Commodore 64 (C64), Commodore\'s most popular home computer. The best-known floppy disk drive for the C64, the 1541 is a single-sided 170-kilobyte drive for 5¼\" disks. The 1541 directly followed the Commodore 1540 (meant for the VIC-20).
The disk drive uses group coded recording (GCR) and contains a MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor, doubling as a disk controller and on-board disk operating system processor. The number of sectors per track varies from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of zone bit recording with 4 constant angular velocity zones). The drive\'s built-in disk operating system is CBM DOS 2.6.
## History
### Introduction
The 1541 was priced at under `{{US$|400}}`{=mediawiki} at its introduction. A C64 with a 1541 cost about \$900, while an Apple II with no disk drive cost \$1,295. The first 1541 drives produced in 1982 have a label on the front reading VIC-1541 and an off-white case to match the VIC-20. In 1983, the 1541 switched to the familiar beige case and a front label reading simply \"1541\" along with rainbow stripes to match the Commodore 64.
By 1983, a 1541 sold for \$300 or less. After a home computer price war instigated by Commodore, the C64 and 1541 together cost under \$500. The drive became very popular and difficult to find. The company said that the shortage occurred because 90% of C64 owners bought the 1541 compared to its 30% expectation, but the press discussed what *Creative Computing* described as \"an absolutely alarming return rate\" because of defects. The magazine reported in March 1984 that it received three defective drives in two weeks, and *Compute!\'s Gazette* reported in December 1983 that four of the magazine\'s seven drives had failed; \"COMPUTE! Publications sorely needs additional 1541s for in-house use, yet we can\'t find any to buy. After numerous phone calls over several days, we were able to locate only two units in the entire continental United States\", reportedly because of Commodore\'s attempt to resolve a manufacturing issue that caused the high failures.
The early (1982 to 1983) 1541s have a spring-eject mechanism (Alps drive), and the disks often fail to release. This style of drive has the popular nickname \"Toaster Drive\", because it requires the use of a knife or other hard thin object to pry out the stuck media, just like a piece of toast stuck in an actual toaster. This was fixed later when Commodore changed the vendor of the drive mechanism (Mitsumi) and adopted the flip-lever Newtronics mechanism, greatly improving reliability. In addition, Commodore made the drive\'s controller board smaller and reduced its chip count compared to the early 1541s (which had a large PCB running the length of the case, with dozens of TTL chips). The beige-case Newtronics 1541 was produced from 1984 to 1986.
### Versions and third-party clones {#versions_and_third_party_clones}
All but the very earliest non-II model 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the *VIC-1541* denomination, have an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, CBM changed the drive\'s color to brown-beige and the name to *Commodore 1541*.
The 1541\'s numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive. Examples include the *Oceanic OC-118* a.k.a. *Excelerator+*, the MSD Super Disk single and dual drives, the *Enhancer 2000*, the *Indus GT*, Blue Chip Electronics\'s BCD/5.25, and *CMD*{{\'}}s *FD-2000* and *FD-4000*. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units.
In 1986, Commodore released the 1541C, a revised version that offers quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in 1988 by the 1541-II, which uses an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allows the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply \"brick\" being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor). Later ROM revisions fixed assorted problems, including a software bug that causes the save-and-replace command to corrupt data.
### Successors
The Commodore 1570 is an upgrade from the 1541 for use with the Commodore 128, available in Europe. It offers MFM capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the 1571, the double-sided drive. Finally, the small, external-power-supply-based, MFM-based Commodore 1581 3½-inch drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64.
## Design
### Hardware
The 1541 does not have DIP switches to change the device number. If a user adds more than one drive to a system, the user has to cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive\'s device number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It is also possible to change the drive number via a software command, which is temporary and would be erased as soon as the drive was powered off.
1541 drives at power up always default to device #8. If multiple drives in a chain are used, then the startup procedure is to power on the first drive in the chain, alter its device number via a software command to the highest number in the chain (if three drives were used, then the first drive in the chain would be set to device #10), then power on the next drive, alter its device number to the next lowest, and repeat the procedure until the final drive at the end of the chain was powered on and left as device #8.
Unlike the Apple II, where support for two drives is normal, it is relatively uncommon for Commodore software to support this setup, and the CBM DOS copy file command is not able to copy files between drives -- a third party copy utility is necessary.
The pre-II 1541s also have an internal power source, which generates a lot of heat. The heat generation was a frequent source of humour. For example, *Compute!* stated in 1988 that \"Commodore 64s used to be a favorite with amateur and professional chefs since they could compute and cook on top of their 1500-series disk drives at the same time\". A series of humorous tips in *MikroBitti* in 1989 said \"When programming late, coffee and kebab keep nicely warm on top of the 1541.\" The *MikroBitti* review of the 1541-II said that its external power source \"should end the jokes about toasters\".
The drive-head mechanism installed in the early production years is notoriously easy to misalign. The most common cause of the 1541\'s drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment is copy-protection schemes on commercial software.`{{r|info19860506}}`{=mediawiki} The main cause of the problem is that the disk drive itself does not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head reaches track zero. Accordingly, when a disk is not formatted or a disk error occurs, the unit tries to move the head 40 times in the direction of track zero (although the 1541 DOS only uses 35 tracks, the drive mechanism itself is a 40-track unit, so this ensured track zero would be reached no matter where the head was before). Once track zero is reached, every further attempt to move the head in that direction would cause it to be rammed against a solid stop: for example, if the head happened to be on track 18 (where the directory is located) before this procedure, the head would be actually moved 18 times, and then rammed against the stop 22 times. This ramming gives the characteristic \"machine gun\" noise and sooner or later throws the head out of alignment.
A defective head-alignment part likely caused many of the reliability issues in early 1541 drives; one dealer told *Compute!{{\'}}s Gazette* in 1983 that the part had caused all but three of several hundred drive failures that he had repaired.`{{r|halfhill198312}}`{=mediawiki} The drives were so unreliable that *Info* magazine joked, \"Sometimes it seems as if one of the original design specs \... must have said \'Mean time between failure: 10 accesses.\'\" Users can realign the drive themselves with a software program and a calibration disk. The user can remove the drive from its case and then loosen the screws holding the stepper motor that move the head, then with the calibration disk in the drive gently turn the stepper motor back and forth until the program shows a good alignment. The screws are then tightened and the drive is put back into its case.
A third-party fix for the 1541 appeared in which the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop, giving the head a much easier life.`{{r|info19860506}}`{=mediawiki} The later 1571 drive (which is 1541-compatible) incorporates track-zero detection by photo-interrupter and is thus immune to the problem. Also, a software solution, which resides in the drive controller\'s ROM, prevents the rereads from occurring, though this can cause problems when genuine errors do occur.
Due to the alignment issues on the Alps drive mechanisms, Commodore switched suppliers to Newtronics in 1984. The Newtronics mechanism drives have a lever rather than a pull-down tab to close the drive door. Although the alignment issues were resolved after the switch, the Newtronics drives add a new reliability problem in that many of the read/write heads are improperly sealed, causing moisture to penetrate the head and short it out.
The 1541\'s PCB consists mainly of a 6502 CPU, two 6522 VIA chips, and 2 KB of work RAM. Up to 48 KB of RAM can be added; this is mainly useful for defeating copy protection schemes since an entire disk track could be loaded into drive RAM, while the standard 2 KB only accommodates a few sectors (theoretically eight, but some of the RAM was used by CBM DOS as work space). Some Commodore users use 1541s as an impromptu math coprocessor by uploading math-intensive code to the drive for background processing.
### Interface
The 1541 uses a proprietary serialized derivative of the IEEE-488 parallel interface, found in previous disk drives for the PET/CBM range of personal and business computers, but when the VIC-20 was in development, a cheaper alternative to the expensive IEEE-488 cables was sought. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard DIN connectors for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers connect to the computer via a daisy chain setup, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself.
### Control
## Throughput and software {#throughput_and_software}
*IEEE Spectrum* in 1985 stated that:
The C-64\'s designers blamed the 1541\'s slow speed on the marketing department\'s insistence that the computer be compatible with the 1540, which is slow because of a flaw in the 6522 VIA interface controller.`{{r|ieee85}}`{=mediawiki} Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (one component of the 6522) to maintain fast drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevents the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to Jim Butterfield, this causes a speed reduction by a factor of five; had 1540 compatibility not been a requirement, the disk interface would have been much faster. In any case, the C64 normally cannot work with a 1540 unless the VIC-II display output is disabled via a register write to the DEN bit (register \$D011, bit 4), which stops the halting of the CPU during certain video lines to ensure correct serial timing.
As implemented on the VIC-20 and C64, Commodore DOS transfers 512 bytes per second, compared to the Atari 810\'s 1,000 bytes per second, the Apple Disk II\'s 15,000 bytes per second,`{{r|ieee85}}`{=mediawiki} and the 300-baud data rate of the Commodore Datasette storage system. About 20 minutes are needed to copy one disk---10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive can easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some \"fast loader\" utilities (which bypassed routines in the 1541\'s onboard ROM) managed to achieve speeds of up to 2.5 kilobytes per second.`{{r|ieee85}}`{=mediawiki} The most common of these products are the Epyx Fast Load, the Final Cartridge, and the Action Replay plug-in ROM cartridges, which all have machine code monitor and disk editor software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with *Compute!\'s Gazette* publishing *TurboDisk* in 1985 and *RUN* publishing *Sizzle* in 1987.
Even though each 1541 has its own on-board disk controller and disk operating system, it is not possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing) as with older dual drives like the 4040 that was often found with the PET computer, and which the 1541 is backward-compatible with (it can read 4040 disks but not write to them as a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes the 4040 and 1541 only read-compatible). Originally, to copy from drive to drive, software running on the C64 was needed and it would first read from one drive into computer memory, then write out to the other. Only when Fast Hack\'em and, later, other disk backup programs were released, was true drive-to-drive copying possible for a pair of 1541s. The user could, if they wished, unplug the C64 from the drives (i.e., from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to copy the entire disk.
## Media
The 1541 drive uses standard 5¼-inch double-density floppy media; high-density media will not work due to its different magnetic coating requiring a higher magnetic coercivity. As the GCR encoding scheme does not use the index hole, the drive was also compatible with hard-sectored disks. The standard CBM DOS format is 170 KB with 35 tracks and 256-byte sectors. It is similar to the format used on the PET 2031, 2040 & 4040 drives, but a minor difference in the number of header bytes makes these drives and the 1541 only read-compatible; disks formatted with one drive cannot be written to by the other. The drives will allow writes to occur, but the inconsistent header size will damage the data in the data portions of each track.
The 4040 drives use Shugart SA-400s, which were 35-track units, thus the format there is due to physical limitations of the drive mechanism. The 1541 uses 40-track mechanisms, but Commodore intentionally limited the CBM DOS format to 35 tracks because of reliability issues with the early units. It is possible via low-level programming to move the drive head to tracks 36--40 and write on them, this is sometimes done by commercial software for copy protection purposes and/or to get additional data on the disk.
However, one track is reserved by DOS for directory and file allocation information (the BAM, block availability map). And since for normal files, two bytes of each physical sector are used by DOS as a pointer to the next physical track and sector of the file, only 254 out of the 256 bytes of a block are used for file contents.
If the disk side is not otherwise prepared with a custom format, (e.g. for data disks), 664 blocks would be free after formatting, giving 664`{{resx}}`{=mediawiki}254 = `{{val|168656|ul=bytes|fmt=commas}}`{=mediawiki} (or almost `{{val|165|u=KB}}`{=mediawiki}) for user data.
By using custom formatting and load/save routines (sometimes included in third-party DOSes, see below), all of the mechanically possible 40 tracks can be used.
Owing to the drive\'s non-use of the index hole, it is also possible to make \"flippy floppies\" by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it is commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks.
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
| Tracks | Sectors\ | bits/s |
| | (256 bytes) | |
+========+=============+========================+
| 1--17 | 21 | 16M/4/(13+0) = 307,692 |
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
| 18--24 | 19 | 16M/4/(13+1) = 285,714 |
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
| 25--30 | 18 | 16M/4/(13+2) = 266,667 |
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
| 31--35 | 17 | 16M/4/(13+3) = 250,000 |
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
| 36--42 | 17 | 16M/4/(13+3) = 250,000 |
+--------+-------------+------------------------+
Tracks 36--42 are non-standard. The bitrate is the raw one between the read/write head and signal circuitry so actual useful data rate is a factor 5/4 less due to GCR encoding.
The 1541 disk typically has 35 tracks. Track 18 is reserved; the remaining tracks are available for data storage. The header is on 18/0 (track 18, sector 0) along with the BAM, and the directory starts on 18/1 (track 18, sector 1). The file interleave is 10 blocks, while the directory interleave is 3 blocks.
Header contents: The header is similar to other Commodore disk headers, the structural differences being the BAM offset (`{{mono|$04}}`{=mediawiki}) and size, and the label+ID+type offset (`{{mono|$90}}`{=mediawiki}).
`$00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (18/1)`\
` 02 DOS version ('A')`\
` 04–8F BAM entries (4 bytes per track: Free Sector Count + 24 bits for sectors)`\
` 90–9F Disk Label, $A0 padded`\
` A2–A3 Disk ID`\
` A5–A6 DOS type ('2A')`
## Uses
Early copy protection schemes deliberately introduce read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message is returned. The general idea is that simple disk-copy programs are incapable of copying the errors. When one of these errors is encountered, the disk drive (as do many floppy disk drives) will attempt one or more reread attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes have much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released \"nibbler\" utilities that enable protected disks to be copied and, in some cases, the protection removed.
Commodore copy protection sometimes fails on specific hardware configurations. *Gunship*, for example, does not load if a second disk drive or printer is connected to the computer. Similarly *Roland\'s Ratrace* will crash if additional hardware is detected. The tape version will even crash if a floppy drive is switched on while the game is running.
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Commodore 1581
|
\| discontinued = 1990`{{r|w81}}`{=mediawiki} \| media = 3½\" floppy disk DS`{{r|w81}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=125}}`{=mediawiki} DD using MFM \| os = CBM DOS 10.0 \| power = 10 W (220 V at 50 Hz) \| cpu = MOS 6502 @ `{{nowrap|2 MHz}}`{=mediawiki} , WD1770 or WD1772 \| memory = 8 KB RAM, 32 KB ROM`{{r|w81}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=125}}`{=mediawiki} \| storage = 790 KB`{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=125}}`{=mediawiki} \|connectivity = Commodore proprietary serial IEEE-488 burst mode `{{nowrap|9000 bytes/s}}`{=mediawiki} \| dimensions = 63 x`{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=125}}`{=mediawiki} \| weight = 1.4 kg`{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=125}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|arc81}}`{=mediawiki} \| compatibility= `{{hlist|[[Commodore 128]]{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=1}}|[[Commodore 64]]{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=1}}|[[Commodore Plus/4]]{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=1}}|[[Commodore 16]]{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=1}}|[[VIC-20]]{{r|1987_1581UsersGuide|page=1}}}}`{=mediawiki} \| predecessor = Commodore 1571 \| successor = \| related = }}
The **Commodore 1581** is a 3½-inch double-sided double-density floppy disk drive that was released by Commodore Business Machines (CBM) in 1987, primarily for its C64 and C128 home/personal computers. The drive stores 800 kilobytes using an MFM encoding but formats different from the MS-DOS (720 KB), Amiga (880 KB), and Mac Plus (800 KB) formats. With special software it\'s possible to read C1581 disks on an x86 PC system, and likewise, read MS-DOS and other formats of disks in the C1581 (using Big Blue Reader), provided that the PC or other floppy handles the `{{nowrap|"720 KB"}}`{=mediawiki} size format. This capability was most frequently used to read MS-DOS disks. The drive was released in the summer of 1987 and quickly became popular with bulletin board system (BBS) operators and other users.
Like the 1541 and 1571, the 1581 has an onboard MOS Technology 6502 CPU with its own ROM and RAM, and uses a serial version of the IEEE-488 interface. Inexplicably, the drive\'s ROM contains commands for parallel use, although no parallel interface was available. Unlike the 1571, which is nearly 100% backward-compatible with the 1541, the 1581 is only compatible with previous Commodore drives at the DOS level and cannot utilize software that performs low-level disk access (as the vast majority of Commodore 64 games do).
The version of Commodore DOS built into the 1581 added support for partitions, which could also function as fixed-allocation subdirectories. PC-style subdirectories were rejected as being too difficult to work with in terms of block availability maps, which were still very much in vogue, and which for some time had been the traditional way of inquiring into block availability. The 1581 supports the C128\'s burst mode for fast disk access, but not when connected to an older Commodore machine like the Commodore 64. The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 bytes). The number of permitted directory entries was also increased, to 296 entries. With a storage capacity of 800 KB, the 1581 is the highest-capacity serial-bus drive that was ever made by Commodore (the 1-MB SFD-1001 uses the parallel IEEE-488), and the only 3½-inch one. However, starting in 1991, Creative Micro Designs (CMD) made the FD-2000 high density (1.6 MB) and FD-4000 extra-high density (3.2 MB) 3½-inch drives, both of which offered not only a 1581-emulation mode but also 1541- and 1571-compatibility modes.
Like the 1541 and 1571, a nearly identical job queue is available to the user in zero page (except for job 0), providing for exceptional degrees of compatibility.
Unlike the cases of the 1541 and 1571, the low-level disk format used by the 1581 is similar enough to the MS-DOS format as the 1581 is built around a WD1770 FM/MFM floppy controller chip. The 1581 disk format consists of 80 tracks and ten 512 byte sectors per track, per side, used as 40 logical sectors of 256 bytes each . Special software is required to read 1581 disks on a PC due to the different file system. An internal floppy drive and controller are required as well; USB floppy drives operate strictly at the file system level and do not allow low-level disk access. The WD1770 controller chip, however, was the seat of some early problems with 1581 drives when the first production runs were recalled due to a high failure rate; the problem was quickly corrected. Later versions of the 1581 drive have a smaller, more streamlined-looking external power supply provided with them.
## Specifications
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Quantity | Value |
+===========================+================================================================================================================+
| Onboard CPU | MOS Technology 6502 @ 2 MHz |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RAM | 8 KB`{{r|z81sv02|page=2}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ROM | 32 KB`{{r|z81sv02|page=2}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Disk controller | WD1770`{{r|w81}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|z81sv02|page=2, 12}}`{=mediawiki} or WD1772`{{r|1987_LtKernal}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Communications controller | MOS Technology 8520A |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Transfer protocols | Standard and fast serial; burst mode; and commands for parallel interface (the latter not used) |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Disk type | 3.5-inch |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Storage format | MFM, double density, double-sided |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Interface | CBM\'s proprietary serial IEEE-488 |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Power | `{{nowrap|(5 [[Volt-ampere|VA]])}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | `{{nowrap|12 V @ 0.5 A}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|(6 VA)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
### 1581 Image Layout {#image_layout}
The 1581 disk has 80 logical tracks, each with 40 logical sectors (the actual physical layout of the diskette is abstracted and managed by a hardware translation layer). The directory starts on 40/3 (track 40, sector 3). The disk header is on 40/0, and the BAM (block availability map) resides on 40/1 and 40/2.
Header Contents
`$00–01 T/S reference to first directory sector (40/3)`\
` 02 DOS version ('D')`\
` 04–13 Disk Label, $A0 padded`\
` 16–17 Disk ID`\
` 19–1A DOS type ('3D')`
BAM Contents, 40/1
`$00–01 T/S to next BAM sector (40/2)`\
` 02 DOS version ('D')`\
` 04–05 Disk ID`\
` 06 I/O byte`\
` 07 Autoboot flag`\
` 10–FF BAM entries for Tracks 1–40`
BAM Contents, 40/2
`$00–01 00/FF`\
` 02 DOS version ('D')`\
` 04–05 Disk ID`\
` 06 I/O byte`\
` 07 Autoboot flag`\
` 10–FF BAM entries for Tracks 41–80`
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Consubstantiation
|
**Consubstantiation** is a Christian theological doctrine that (like transubstantiation) describes the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. It holds that during the sacrament, the substance of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. It was part of the doctrines of Lollardy, and considered a heresy by the Roman Catholic Church. It was later championed by Edward Pusey of the Oxford Movement, and is therefore held by many high church Anglicans, seemingly contrary to the Black Rubric of the Book of Common Prayer. The Irvingian Churches (such as the New Apostolic Church) adhere to consubstantiation as the explanation of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.
## Development
In England in the late 14th century, there was a political and religious movement known as Lollardy. Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation---that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ. Lollardy survived up until the time of the English Reformation.
Whilst ultimately rejected by him on account of the authority of the Church of Rome, William of Ockham entertains a version of consubstantiation in his *Fourth Quodlibet, Question 30*, where he claims that \"the substance of the bread and the substance of the wine remain there and that the substance of the body of Christ remains in the same place, together with the substance of the bread\".
Literary critic Kenneth Burke\'s dramatism takes this concept and utilizes it in secular rhetorical theory to look at the dialectic of unity and difference within the context of logology.
The doctrine of consubstantiation is often held in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation.
To explain the manner of Christ\'s presence in Holy Communion, many high church Anglicans teach the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation. A major leader in the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Edward Pusey, championed the view of consubstantiation. Pusey\'s view is that: `{{blockquote|I cannot deem it unfair to apply the name of Consubstantiation to a doctrine which teaches, that "the true flesh and true blood of Christ are in the true bread and wine", in such a way that "whatsoever motion or action the bread" and wine have, the body and blood "of Christ also" have "the same"; and that "the substances in both cases" are "so mingled—that they should constitute some one thing".<ref name="Vogan1871">{{cite book|last=Vogan|first=Thomas Stuart Lyle|title=The True Doctrine of the Eucharist|year=1871|publisher=Longmans, Green|language=en |page=54}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The Irvingian Churches adhere to the doctrine of consubstantiation; for example, *The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church* states:
The term *consubstantiation* has been used to describe Martin Luther\'s Eucharistic doctrine, the sacramental union. Lutheran theologians reject the term because it refers to a philosophical construct that they believe differs from the Lutheran doctrine of the sacramental union, denotes a mixing of substances (bread and wine with body and blood), and suggests a \"gross, Capernaitic, carnal\" presence of the body and blood of Christ.
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6,796 |
Ceres Brewery
|
The **Ceres Brewery** was a beer and soft drink producing facility in Århus, Denmark, that operated from 1856 until 2008. Although the brewery was closed by its owner Royal Unibrew the Ceres brand continues, with the product brewed at other facilities. The area where the brewery stood is being redeveloped for residential and commercial use and has been named CeresByen (Ceres City).
## History
\"Ceres Brewery\" was founded in 1856 by Malthe Conrad Lottrup, a grocer, with chemists \"A. S. Aagard\" and \"Knud Redelien\", as the city\'s seventh brewery. It was named after the Roman goddess Ceres, and its opening was announced in the local newspaper, *Århus Stiftstidende*.
Lottrup expanded the brewery after ten years, adding a grand new building as his private residence.
He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Laurits Christian Meulengracht, who ran the brewery for almost thirty years, expanding it further before selling it to \"Østjyske Bryggerier\", another brewing firm.
The Ceres brewery was named an official purveyor to the \"Royal Danish Court\" in 1914.
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6,801 |
Crew
|
A **crew** is a body or a group of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. A location in which a crew works is called a **crewyard** or a **workyard**. The word has nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship\'s crew, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship\'s company. Members of a crew are often referred to by the titles *crewmate*, *crewman* or *crew-member.*
*Crew* also refers to the sport of rowing, where teams row competitively in racing shells.
## Types
- For a specific sporting usage, see rowing crew.
- For filmmaking usage, see film crew.
- For live music usage, see road crew.
- For analogous entities in research on human judgment and decision-making, see team and judge--advisor system.
- For stagecraft usage, see stage crew.
- For video production usage, see television crew.
- For crews in aviation and the airline industry, see groundcrew and aircrew.
- For crews in human spaceflight, see astronaut.
- Tank crew
- Boat crew
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6,814 |
Congregational polity
|
**Congregational polity**, or **congregationalist polity**, often known as **congregationalism**, is a system of ecclesiastical polity in which every local church (congregation) is independent, ecclesiastically sovereign, or \"autonomous\". Its first articulation in writing is the Cambridge Platform of 1648 in New England.
Major Protestant Christian traditions that employ congregationalism include Baptist churches, the Congregational Methodist Church, and Congregational churches known by the *Congregationalist* name and having descended from the Independent Reformed wing of the Anglo-American Puritan movement of the 17th century. More recent generations have witnessed a growing number of nondenominational churches, which are often congregationalist in their governance. Although autonomous, like minded congregations may enter into voluntary associations with other congregations, sometimes called conventions, denominations, or associations.
Congregationalism is distinguished from episcopal polity which is governance by a hierarchy of bishops, and is also distinct from presbyterian polity in which higher assemblies of congregational representatives can exercise considerable authority over individual congregations.
Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian church congregations. The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the Unitarian Universalist Association and the Canadian Unitarian Council.
## Basic form {#basic_form}
The term *congregational polity* describes a form of church governance that is based on the local congregation. Each local congregation is independent and self-supporting, governed by its own members. Some band into loose voluntary associations with other congregations that share similar beliefs (e.g., the Willow Creek Association and the Unitarian Universalist Association). Others join \"conventions\", such as the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Baptist Convention or the American Baptist Churches USA (formerly the Northern Baptist Convention). These conventions generally provide stronger ties between congregations, including some doctrinal direction and pooling of financial resources. Congregations that belong to associations and conventions are still independently governed. Most non-denominational churches are organized along congregationalist lines. Many do not see these voluntary associations as \"denominations\", because they \"believe that there is no church other than the local church, and denominations are in variance to Scripture.\"
## Denominational families {#denominational_families}
These Christian traditions use forms of congregational polity.
### Congregational churches {#congregational_churches}
Congregationalism is a Protestant tradition with roots in the Puritan and Independent movements. In congregational government, the covenanted congregation exists prior to its officers, and as such the members are equipped to call and dismiss their ministers without oversight from any higher ecclesiastical body. Their churches ordinarily have at least one pastor, but may also install ruling elders.
Statements of polity in the congregational tradition called \"platforms\". These include the Savoy Confession\'s platform, the Cambridge Platform, and the Saybrook Platform. Denominations in the congregational tradition include the UCC, NACCC, CCCC, and EFCC. Denominations in the tradition support but do not govern their constituent members.
### Baptist churches {#baptist_churches}
Most Baptists hold that no denominational or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over an individual Baptist church. Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion. Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control. Exceptions to this local form of local governance include the Episcopal Baptists that have an episcopal system.
Independent Baptist churches have no formal organizational structure above the level of the local congregation. More generally among Baptists, a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all, depending entirely upon the local congregation\'s customs and predilections. Usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies, which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve. These practices also find currency among non-denominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships, many of which derive from Baptist origins, culturally if not theologically.
Most Southern Baptist and National Baptist congregations, by contrast, generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuasion. However, they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology, refusing to permit outside control or oversight of the affairs of the local church.
### Churches of Christ {#churches_of_christ}
Ecclesiastical government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level. Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations. Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.
Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders (also known in some congregations as shepherds, bishops, or pastors) who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons. Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church. Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries. Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership. Elders and deacons are chosen by the congregation based on the qualifications found in Timothy 3 and Titus 1. Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform governance functions. In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by an unelected committee of the congregation\'s men.
While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than \"located Preachers\", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ. Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders. While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created \"significant *de facto* ministerial authority\" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the \"ultimate locus of authority in the congregation\". There is a small group within the Churches of Christ which oppose a single preacher and, instead, rotate preaching duties among qualified elders (this group tends to overlap with groups which oppose Sunday School and also have only one cup to serve the Lord\'s Supper).
Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers. No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as clergy. Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between \"clergy\" and \"laity\" and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church.
### Congregational Methodist Church {#congregational_methodist_church}
Methodists who disagreed with the episcopal polity of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South left their mother church to form the Congregational Methodist Church, which retains Wesleyan-Arminian theology but adopts congregationalist polity as a distinctive.
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6,839 |
Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow
|
**Reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flow** (*\'\'\'Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme\'\'\'*, **CRESU**) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures.
The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high-pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber. As it expands, the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam, which is essentially collision-free and has a temperature that, in the centre-of-mass frame, can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas. Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature. This way, any temperature between room temperature and about 10 K can be achieved.
## Apparatus
There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge, which makes them expensive to run. Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes (France) and the University of Birmingham (UK). A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU, which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps.
## Kinetics
Most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures, and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus. Essentially, the CRESU technique provides a \"wall-less flow tube\", which allows the kinetics of gas-phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible.
Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a pump--probe fashion, using a laser to initiate the reaction (for example, by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that same species (for example, by laser-induced fluorescence) after a known time delay. The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle. The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance. By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a (usually stable) co-reagent species, the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined.
Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier. In the case of neutral--neutral reactions (i.e., not involving any charged species, ions), these types of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species, such as molecular oxygen (O~2~), the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long-range intermolecular potential.
CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases. They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic species have been detected (by radio astronomy).
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
6,840 |
Cygwin
|
**Cygwin** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|ɡ|w|ɪ|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|SIG|win}}`{=mediawiki}) is a free and open-source Unix-like environment and command-line interface (CLI) for Microsoft Windows. The project also provides a software repository containing open-source packages. Cygwin allows source code for Unix-like operating systems to be compiled and run on Windows. Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications.
The terminal emulator mintty is the default command-line interface provided to interact with the environment. The Cygwin installation directory layout mimics the root file system of Unix-like systems, with directories such as `/bin`, `/home`, `/etc`, `/usr`, and `/var`.
Cygwin is released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3. It was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat (now part of IBM), to port the GNU toolchain to Win32, including the GNU Compiler Suite. Rather than rewrite the tools to use the Win32 runtime environment, Cygwin implemented a POSIX-compatible environment in the form of a DLL.
The brand motto is \"*Get that Linux feeling -- on Windows*\", although Cygwin doesn\'t have Linux in it.
## History
Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib. He thought that it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows. A prototype was later developed. Chamberlain bootstrapped the compiler on a Windows system, to emulate Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run.
Initially, Cygwin was called *Cygwin32*. When Microsoft registered the trademark Win32, the \"32\" was dropped to simply become *Cygwin*.
In 1999, Cygnus offered Cygwin 1.0 as a commercial product. Subsequent versions have not been released, instead relying on continued open source releases.
Geoffrey Noer was the project lead from 1996 to 1999. Christopher Faylor was lead from 1999 to 2004; he left Red Hat and became co-lead with Corinna Vinschen. Corinna Vinschen has been the project lead from mid-2014 to date (as of September, 2024).
From June 23, 2016, the Cygwin library version 2.5.2 was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3.
## Description
Cygwin is provided in two versions: the full 64-bit version and a stripped-down 32-bit version, whose final version was released in 2022. Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Windows system calls to enable the running of a large number of application programs equivalent to those on Unix systems, and a GNU development toolchain (including GCC and GDB). Programmers have ported the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services. Cygwin programs have full access to the Windows API and other Windows libraries.
Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin\'s \"setup\" program, which downloads them from repositories on the Internet.
The Cygwin API library is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (or later), with an exception to allow linking to any free and open-source software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition.
Cygwin consists of two parts:
1. A dynamic-link library in the form of a C standard library that acts as a compatibility layer for the POSIX API and
2. A collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel.
Cygwin supports POSIX symbolic links, representing them as plain-text files with the system attribute set. Cygwin 1.5 represented them as Windows Explorer shortcuts, but this was changed for reasons of performance and POSIX correctness. Cygwin also recognises NTFS junction points and symbolic links and treats them as POSIX symbolic links, but it does not create them. The POSIX API for handling access control lists (ACLs) is supported.
### Technical details {#technical_details}
A Cygwin-specific version of the Unix `mount` command allows mounting Windows paths as \"filesystems\" in the Unix file space. Initial mount points can be configured in `/etc/fstab`, which has a format very similar to Unix systems, except that Windows paths appear in place of devices. Filesystems can be mounted in binary mode (by default), or in text mode, which enables automatic conversion between LF and CRLF endings (which only affects programs that open files without explicitly specifying text or binary mode).
Cygwin 1.7 introduced comprehensive support for POSIX locales, and the UTF-8 Unicode encoding became the default.
The fork system call for duplicating a process is fully implemented, but the copy-on-write optimization strategy could not be used.
Cygwin\'s default user interface is the bash shell running in the mintty terminal emulator. The DLL also implements pseudo terminal (pty) devices, and Cygwin ships with a number of terminal emulators that are based on them, including rxvt/urxvt and xterm. The version of GCC that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, such as specifying whether a program is a windowing or console-mode program. Support for compiling programs that do not require the POSIX compatibility layer provided by the Cygwin DLL used to be included in the default GCC, but `{{as of | 2014 | lc = on}}`{=mediawiki}, it is provided by cross-compilers contributed by the MinGW-w64 project.
## Software packages {#software_packages}
Cygwin\'s base package selection is approximately 100MB, containing the bash (interactive user) and dash (installation) shells and the core file and text manipulation utilities. Additional packages are available as optional installs from within the Cygwin \"setup\" program and package manager (\"setup-x86_64.exe\" -- 64 bit). The Cygwin Ports project provided`{{When|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} additional packages that were not available in the Cygwin distribution itself. Examples included GNOME, K Desktop Environment 3, MySQL database, and the PHP scripting language. Most ports have been adopted by volunteer maintainers as Cygwin packages, and Cygwin Ports are no longer maintained. Cygwin ships with GTK+ and Qt.
The Cygwin/X project allows graphical Unix programs to display their user interfaces on the Windows desktop for both local and remote programs.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
6,845 |
Corinth
|
**Corinth** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒr|ɪ|n|θ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|KORR|inth}}`{=mediawiki}; *Kórinthos*, `{{IPA|el|ˈkorinθos|label=[[Modern Greek]] pronunciation:|Ell-Korinthos.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality of Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It is the capital of Corinthia.
It was founded as **Nea Korinthos** (*Νέα Κόρινθος*), or **New Corinth**, in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of Corinth, which had developed in and around the site of the ancient city.
## History
Corinth derives its name from Ancient Corinth, a city-state of antiquity. The site was occupied from before 3000 BC.
### Ancient Greece {#ancient_greece}
Historical references begin with the early 8th century BC, when ancient Corinth began to develop as a commercial center. Between the 8th and 7th centuries, the Bacchiad family ruled Corinth. Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiad family, and between 657 and 585 BC, he and his son Periander ruled Corinth as the Tyrants.
In about 585 BC, an oligarchical government seized power. This government later allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League, and Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta. After Sparta\'s victory in the Peloponnesian war, the two allies fell out with one another, and Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BC. After the Macedonian conquest of Greece, the Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison until 243 BC, when the city joined the Achaean League.
### Ancient Rome {#ancient_rome}
Nearly a century later, in 146 BC, Corinth was captured and was completely destroyed by the Roman army.
As a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BC, Corinth flourished and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea.
### Medieval times {#medieval_times}
A major earthquake struck Corinth and its region in 856, causing around 45,000 deaths.
### Modern era {#modern_era}
In 1858, the old city, now known as Ancient Corinth (Αρχαία Κόρινθος, *Archaia Korinthos*), located 3 km southwest of the modern city, was totally destroyed by a magnitude 6.5 earthquake. New Corinth (*Nea Korinthos*) was then built to the north-east of it, on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. In 1928, a magnitude 6.3 earthquake devastated the new city, which was then rebuilt on the same site. In 1933, there was a great fire, and the new city was rebuilt again.
During the German occupation in World War II, the Germans operated a Dulag transit camp for British, Australian, New Zealander and Serbian prisoners of war and a forced labour camp in the town.
## Geography
Located about 78 km west of Athens, Corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) Lechaio, Isthmia, Kechries, and the inland townlets of Examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient Corinth. Natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of Vocha, the Corinthian Gulf, the Isthmus of Corinth cut by its canal, the Saronic Gulf, the Oneia Mountains, and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built.
### Climate
According to the nearby weather station of Velo, operated by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, Corinth has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: *Csa*), with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The hottest month is July with an average temperature of 28.7 C while the coldest month is January with an average temperature of 9.1 C. Corinth receives about 463 mm of rainfall per year and has an average annual temperature of 18.1 C.`{{Weather box
| location = Velo, Corinth (1988–2010)
| metric first = y
| single line = y
| collapsed =
| Jan high C = 13.4
| Feb high C = 13.9
| Mar high C = 16.5
| Apr high C = 20.3
| May high C = 25.7
| Jun high C = 30.7
| Jul high C = 33.2
| Aug high C = 32.9
| Sep high C = 28.4
| Oct high C = 23.6
| Nov high C = 18.5
| Dec high C = 14.4
| Jan mean C = 9.1
| Feb mean C = 9.4
| Mar mean C = 11.9
| Apr mean C = 15.7
| May mean C = 21.1
| Jun mean C = 26.1
| Jul mean C = 28.7
| Aug mean C = 28.1
| Sep mean C = 23.4
| Oct mean C = 18.8
| Nov mean C = 13.8
| Dec mean C = 10.5
| Jan low C = 5.3
| Feb low C = 5.0
| Mar low C = 6.5
| Apr low C = 9.0
| May low C = 12.9
| Jun low C = 16.8
| Jul low C = 19.5
| Aug low C = 19.8
| Sep low C = 16.9
| Oct low C = 13.8
| Nov low C = 9.9
| Dec low C = 6.9
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 72.0
| Feb precipitation mm = 50.9
| Mar precipitation mm = 53.7
| Apr precipitation mm = 28.7
| May precipitation mm = 22.3
| Jun precipitation mm = 6.4
| Jul precipitation mm = 5.0
| Aug precipitation mm = 11.9
| Sep precipitation mm = 19.4
| Oct precipitation mm = 40.8
| Nov precipitation mm = 73.5
| Dec precipitation mm = 78.6
| source 1 =
| source = [[HNMS]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.emy.gr/emy/el/climatology/climatology_city?perifereia=Peloponnese&poli=Velos_Korinthia | title=Κλιματικά Δεδομένα ανά Πόλη- ΜΕΤΕΩΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΑ, ΕΜΥ, Εθνική Μετεωρολογική Υπηρεσία }}</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Demographics
The Municipality of Corinth (Δήμος Κορινθίων) had a population of 55,941 according to the 2021 census, the second most populous municipality in the Peloponnese Region after Kalamata. The municipal unit of Corinth had 38,485 inhabitants, of which Corinth itself had 30,816 inhabitants, placing it in second place behind Kalamata among the cities of the Peloponnese Region.
The municipal unit of Corinth (Δημοτική ενότητα Κορινθίων) includes apart from Corinth proper the town of Archaia Korinthos, the town of Examilia, and the smaller settlements of Xylokeriza and Solomos. The municipal unit has an area of 102.187 km^2^.
## Economy
### Industry
Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. The Corinth Refinery is one of the largest oil refining industrial complexes in Europe. Ceramic tiles, copper cables, gums, gypsum, leather, marble, meat products, medical equipment, mineral water and beverages, petroleum products, and salt are produced nearby. `{{As of|2005}}`{=mediawiki}, a period of Economic changes commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility diminished their operations.
## Transport
### Roads
Corinth is a major road hub. The A7 toll motorway for Tripoli and Kalamata, (and Sparta via the A71 toll), branches off the A8/E94 toll motorway from Athens at Corinth. Corinth is the main entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece.
### Bus
KTEL Korinthias provides intercity bus service in the peninsula and to Athens via the Isthmos station southeast of the city center. Local bus service is also available.
### Railways
The metre gauge railway from Athens and Pireaeus reached Corinth in 1884. This station closed to regular public transport in 2007. In 2005, two years prior, the city was connected to the Athens Suburban Railway, following the completion of the new Corinth railway station. The journey time from Athens to Corinth is about 55 minutes. The train station is 5 minutes by car from the city centre and parking is available for free.
### Port
The port of Corinth, located north of the city centre and close to the northwest entrance of the Corinth Canal, at 37 56.0' N / 22 56.0' E, serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility.
It is an artificial harbour (depth approximately 9 m, protected by a concrete mole (length approximately 930 metres, width 100 metres, mole surface 93,000 m2). A new pier finished in the late 1980s doubled the capacity of the port. The reinforced mole protects anchored vessels from strong northern winds.
Within the port operates a customs office facility and a Hellenic Coast Guard post. Sea traffic is limited to trade in the export of local produce, mainly citrus fruits, grapes, marble, aggregates and some domestic imports. The port operates as a contingency facility for general cargo ships, bulk carriers and ROROs, in case of strikes at Piraeus port.
#### Ferries
There was formerly a ferry link to Catania, Sicily and Genoa in Italy.
### Canal
The Corinth Canal, carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, is about 4 km east of the city, cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth that connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland, thus effectively making the former an island. The builders dug the canal through the Isthmus at sea level; no locks are employed. It is 6.4 km in length and only 21.3 m wide at its base, making it impassable for most modern ships. It now has little economic importance.
The canal was mooted in ancient times and an abortive effort was made to dig it in around 600 BC by Periander which led him to pave the Diolkos highway instead. Julius Caesar and Caligula both considered digging the canal but died before starting the construction. The emperor Nero then directed the project, which consisted initially of a workforce of 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war, but it was interrupted because of his death. The project resumed only in 1882, after Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, but was hampered by geological and financial problems that bankrupted the original builders. It was finally completed in 1893, but due to the canal\'s narrowness, navigational problems and periodic closures to repair landslips from its steep walls, it failed to attract the level of traffic anticipated by its operators. It is now used mainly for tourist traffic.
## Sport
The city\'s association football team is Korinthos F.C. (*Π.Α.E. Κόρινθος*), established in 1999 after the merger of Pankorinthian Football Club (*Παγκορινθιακός*) and Corinth Football Club (*Κόρινθος*). During the 2006--2007 season, the team played in the Greek Fourth Division\'s Regional Group 7. The team went undefeated that season and it earned the top spot. This granted the team a promotion to the Gamma Ethnikí (Third Division) for the 2007--2008 season. For the 2008--2009 season, Korinthos F.C. competed in the Gamma Ethniki (Third Division) southern grouping.
## Twin towns/sister cities {#twin_townssister_cities}
Corinth is twinned with:
- Syracuse, Sicily
- Jagodina, Serbia
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Anastasios Bakasetas (1993--), Greek footballer
- Evangelos Ikonomou (1987--), Greek footballer
- George Kollias (1977--), drummer for US technical death metal band Nile.
- Georgios Leonardopoulos, army officer
- Macarius (1731--1805), Metropolitan bishop of Corinth
- Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766--1826), revolutionary leader during the Greek War of Independence.
- Irene Papas (1929--2022), Greek actress
- Costas Soukoulis (1951--2024), Professor of Physics at Iowa State University
- Konstantinos Triantafyllopoulos (1993--) Greek footballer
- Panagis Tsaldaris (1868--1936), Greek politician and prime minister of Greece
- Panagiotis Tzanavaras (1964--), Greek footballer and football manager
- Nikolaos Zafeiriou (1871--1947), Greek artillery officer
## Other locations named after Corinth {#other_locations_named_after_corinth}
Due to its ancient history and the presence of St. Paul the Apostle in Corinth some locations all over the world have been named Corinth.
## Gallery
<File:Pegasus> Square in New Corinth.jpg\|Pegasus Square in New Corinth <File:Squarecorinth.jpg%7CView> of the Central Square of the city <File:Istmo> de Corinto ESC large ISS011 ISS011-E-13188.JPG\|Aerial photograph of the Isthmus of Corinth
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
6,848 |
Charge of the Goddess
|
The **Charge of the Goddess** (or **Charge of the Star Goddess**) is an inspirational text often used in the neopagan religion of Wicca. The Charge of the Goddess is recited during most rituals in which the Wiccan priest/priestess is expected to represent, and/or embody, the Goddess within the sacred circle, and is often spoken by the High Priest/Priestess after the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon.
The Charge is the promise of the Goddess (who is embodied by the high priestess) to all witches that she will teach and guide them. It has been called \"perhaps the most important single theological document in the neo-Pagan movement\". It is used not only in Wicca, but as part of the foundational documents of the Reclaiming tradition of witchcraft co-founded by Starhawk.
Several versions of the Charge exist, though they all have the same basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by the Great Goddess to her worshippers. The earliest version is that compiled by Gerald Gardner. This version, titled \"Leviter Veslis\" or \"Lift Up the Veil\", includes material paraphrased from works by Aleister Crowley, primarily from Liber AL (The Book of the Law, particularly from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess), and from Liber LXV (The Book of the Heart Girt with a Serpent) and from Crowley\'s essay \"The Law of Liberty\", thus linking modern Wicca to the cosmology and revelations of Thelema. It has been shown that Gerald Gardner\'s book collection included a copy of Crowley\'s *The Blue Equinox* (1919) which includes all of the Crowley quotations transferred by Gardner to the Charge of the Goddess.
There are also two versions written by Doreen Valiente in the mid-1950s, after her 1953 Wiccan initiation. The first was a poetic paraphrase which eliminated almost all the material derived from Leland and Crowley. The second was a prose version which is contained within the traditional Gardnerian Book of Shadows and more closely resembles Gardner\'s \"Leviter Veslis\" version of 1949.
Several different versions of a Wiccan Charge of the God have since been created to mirror and accompany the Charge of the Goddess.
## Themes
The opening paragraph names a collection of goddesses, some derived from Greek or Roman mythology, others from Celtic or Arthurian legends, affirming a belief that these various figures represent a single Great Mother: `{{blockquote|Listen to the words of the Great Mother, who was of old also called [[Artemis]]; [[Astarte]]; [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]; [[Melusine]]; [[Aphrodite]]; [[Cerridwen]]; [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Dana]]; [[Arianrhod]]; [[Isis]]; [[Brigid|Bride]]; and by many other names.|source=Charge of the Goddess<ref name="ValienteWebsite">{{cite web |title=Doreen Valiente Poetry |url=http://www.doreenvaliente.com/Doreen-Valiente-Doreen_Valiente_Poetry-11.php#sthash.OvFLVGe4.dpbs |website=The Official Doreen Valiente Website |access-date=18 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>|author=Doreen Valiente}}`{=mediawiki}
This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten thousand names and also that the Goddess still worshipped today by Wiccans and other neopagans is known under many guises but is in fact one universal divinity.
The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland\'s 1899 book *Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches* (London: David Nutt; various reprints). The third paragraph is largely written by Doreen Valiente, with a significant content of phrases loosely from *The Book of the Law* and *The Book of the Heart Girt with the Serpent* by Aleister Crowley.
The charge affirms that *all* acts of love and pleasure are sacred to the Goddess, e.g.:
## History
### Ancient precedents {#ancient_precedents}
In book eleven, chapter 47 of Apuleius\'s *The Golden Ass*, Isis delivers what Ceisiwr Serith calls \"essentially a charge of a goddess\". This is rather different from the modern version known in Wicca, though they have the same premise, that of the rules given by a great Mother Goddess to her faithful.
The Charge of the Goddess is also known under the title *Leviter Veslis*. This has been identified by the historian Ronald Hutton, cited in an article by Roger Dearnsley \"The Influence of Aleister Crowley on *Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical*, as a piece of medieval ecclesiastical Latin used to mean \"lifting the veil.\" However, Hutton\'s interpretation does not reflect the Latin grammar as it currently stands. It may represent Gardner\'s attempt to write *Levetur Velis*, which has the literal meaning of \"Let the veil be lifted.\" This expression would, by coincidence or design, grammatically echo the famous *fiat lux* (*Gen. 1:3*) of the Latin Vulgate.
### Origins
The earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the late 1940s, Gerald Gardner\'s ritual notebook titled *Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical*. The oldest identifiable source contained in this version is the final line, which is traceable to the 17th-century *Centrum Naturae Concentratum* of Alipili (or Ali Puli). This version also draws extensively from Charles Godfrey Leland\'s *Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches* (1899) and other modern sources, particularly from the works of Aleister Crowley.
It is believed to have been compiled by Gerald Gardner or possibly another member of the New Forest coven. Gardner intended his version to be a theological statement justifying the Gardnerian sequence of initiations. Like the Charge found in Freemasonry, where the charge is a set of instructions read to a candidate standing in a temple, the Charge of the Goddess was intended to be read immediately before an initiation.
Valiente felt that the influence of Crowley on the Charge was too obvious, and she did not want \"the Craft\" (a common term for Wicca) associated with Crowley. Gardner invited her to rewrite the Charge. She proceeded to do so, her first version being into verse.
The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of which was:
Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that \"people seemed to have some difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to pronounce\", and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her initial version, and is more akin to Gardner\'s version. This prose version has since been modified and reproduced widely by other authors.
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6,856 |
Chomsky (surname)
|
**Chomsky** (*Chomski*, *Хомскі*, *Хомский*, *Хомський*, *חומסקי*, \"from (Vyoska) Chomsk/ Khomsk (nearby Brest, now Belarus)\") is a surname of Slavic origin. Notable people with the surname include:
- Alejandro Chomski (born 1968), Argentine film director and screenwriter
- Aviva Chomsky (born 1957), American historian
- Carol (Schatz) Chomsky (1930--2008), American linguist and wife of Noam Chomsky
- Judith Chomsky (born 1942), American human rights lawyer and co-founder of the Juvenile Law Center
- Marvin J. Chomsky (1929--2022), American television and film director
- Noam Chomsky (born 1928), American linguist and political activist, professor emeritus at MIT
- (born 1957), Polish speedway rider and coach
- William Chomsky (1896--1977), American scholar of Hebrew
- (1925--2016), Soviet and Russian theater director
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6,857 |
Computer multitasking
|
In computing, **multitasking** is the concurrent execution of multiple tasks (also known as processes) over a certain period of time. New tasks can interrupt already started ones before they finish, instead of waiting for them to end. As a result, a computer executes segments of multiple tasks in an interleaved manner, while the tasks share common processing resources such as central processing units (CPUs) and main memory. Multitasking automatically interrupts the running program, saving its state (partial results, memory contents and computer register contents) and loading the saved state of another program and transferring control to it. This \"context switch\" may be initiated at fixed time intervals (pre-emptive multitasking), or the running program may be coded to signal to the supervisory software when it can be interrupted (cooperative multitasking).
Multitasking does not require parallel execution of multiple tasks at exactly the same time; instead, it allows more than one task to advance over a given period of time. Even on multiprocessor computers, multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs.
Multitasking is a common feature of computer operating systems since at least the 1960s. It allows more efficient use of the computer hardware; when a program is waiting for some external event such as a user input or an input/output transfer with a peripheral to complete, the central processor can still be used with another program. In a time-sharing system, multiple human operators use the same processor as if it was dedicated to their use, while behind the scenes the computer is serving many users by multitasking their individual programs. In multiprogramming systems, a task runs until it must wait for an external event or until the operating system\'s scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Real-time systems such as those designed to control industrial robots, require timely processing; a single processor might be shared between calculations of machine movement, communications, and user interface.
Often multitasking operating systems include measures to change the priority of individual tasks, so that important jobs receive more processor time than those considered less significant. Depending on the operating system, a task might be as large as an entire application program, or might be made up of smaller threads that carry out portions of the overall program.
A processor intended for use with multitasking operating systems may include special hardware to securely support multiple tasks, such as memory protection, and protection rings that ensure the supervisory software cannot be damaged or subverted by user-mode program errors.
The term \"multitasking\" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as German, Italian, Dutch, Romanian, Czech, Danish and Norwegian.
## Multiprogramming
In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed access to a peripheral, the central processing unit (CPU) would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was usually very inefficient. Multiprogramming is a computing technique that enables multiple programs to be concurrently loaded and executed into a computer\'s memory, allowing the CPU to switch between them swiftly. This optimizes CPU utilization by keeping it engaged with the execution of tasks, particularly useful when one program is waiting for I/O operations to complete.
The Bull Gamma 60, initially designed in 1957 and first released in 1960, was the first computer designed with multiprogramming in mind. Its architecture featured a central memory and a Program Distributor feeding up to twenty-five autonomous processing units with code and data, and allowing concurrent operation of multiple clusters.
Another such computer was the LEO III, first released in 1961. During batch processing, several different programs were loaded in the computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral, the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued until all programs finished running.
Multiprogramming gives no guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the first program may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive terminal, this was no problem: users handed in a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced wait times when multiple batches were being processed.
## `{{Anchor|COOP|Cooperative multitasking/time-sharing}}`{=mediawiki}Cooperative multitasking {#cooperative_multitasking}
Early multitasking systems used applications that voluntarily ceded time to one another. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer operating systems, is known today as cooperative multitasking. Although it is now rarely used in larger systems except for specific applications such as CICS or the JES2 subsystem, cooperative multitasking was once the only scheduling scheme employed by Microsoft Windows and classic Mac OS to enable multiple applications to run simultaneously. Cooperative multitasking is still used today on RISC OS systems.
As a cooperatively multitasked system relies on each process regularly giving up time to other processes on the system, one poorly designed program can consume all of the CPU time for itself, either by performing extensive calculations or by busy waiting; both would cause the whole system to hang. In a server environment, this is a hazard that makes the entire environment unacceptably fragile.
## Preemptive multitasking {#preemptive_multitasking}
Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee to each process a regular \"slice\" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process. Operating systems were developed to take advantage of these hardware capabilities and run multiple processes preemptively. Preemptive multitasking was implemented in the PDP-6 Monitor and Multics in 1964, in OS/360 MFT in 1967, and in Unix in 1969, and was available in some operating systems for computers as small as DEC\'s PDP-8; it is a core feature of all Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, Solaris and BSD with its derivatives, as well as modern versions of Windows.
Possibly the earliest preemptive multitasking OS available to home users was Microware\'s OS-9, available for computers based on the Motorola 6809 such as the TRS-80 Color Computer 2, with the operating system supplied by Tandy as an upgrade for disk-equipped systems. Sinclair QDOS on the Sinclair QL followed in 1984, but it was not a big success. Commodore\'s Amiga was released the following year, offering a combination of multitasking and multimedia capabilities. Microsoft made preemptive multitasking a core feature of their flagship operating system in the early 1990s when developing Windows NT 3.1 and then Windows 95. In 1988 Apple offered A/UX as a UNIX System V-based alternative to the Classic Mac OS. In 2001 Apple switched to the NeXTSTEP-influenced Mac OS X.
A similar model is used in Windows 9x and the Windows NT family, where native 32-bit applications are multitasked preemptively. 64-bit editions of Windows, both for the x86-64 and Itanium architectures, no longer support legacy 16-bit applications, and thus provide preemptive multitasking for all supported applications.
## Real time {#real_time}
Another reason for multitasking was in the design of real-time computing systems, where there are a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system is coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time.
## Multithreading
Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as *lightweight processes* because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.
While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named *fibers*, that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on machines with multiple processors.
Some systems directly support multithreading in hardware.
## Memory protection {#memory_protection}
Essential to any multitasking system is to safely and effectively share access to system resources. Access to memory must be strictly managed to ensure that no process can inadvertently or deliberately read or write to memory locations outside the process\'s address space. This is done for the purpose of general system stability and data integrity, as well as data security.
In general, memory access management is a responsibility of the operating system kernel, in combination with hardware mechanisms that provide supporting functionalities, such as a memory management unit (MMU). If a process attempts to access a memory location outside its memory space, the MMU denies the request and signals the kernel to take appropriate actions; this usually results in forcibly terminating the offending process. Depending on the software and kernel design and the specific error in question, the user may receive an access violation error message such as \"segmentation fault\".
In a well designed and correctly implemented multitasking system, a given process can never directly access memory that belongs to another process. An exception to this rule is in the case of shared memory; for example, in the System V inter-process communication mechanism the kernel allocates memory to be mutually shared by multiple processes. Such features are often used by database management software such as PostgreSQL.
Inadequate memory protection mechanisms, either due to flaws in their design or poor implementations, allow for security vulnerabilities that may be potentially exploited by malicious software.
## Memory swapping {#memory_swapping}
Use of a swap file or swap partition is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of the primary memory in secondary storage. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time. Typically, a multitasking system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from secondary storage.
## Programming
Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric multiprocessing has introduced new complexities and capabilities.
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Concordat of Worms
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upright=1.5\|alt=Image of the original document\|thumb\|The Concordat of Worms, written in Papal minuscule on Vellum The **Concordat of Worms** (*Concordatum Wormatiense*; *Wormser Konkordat*), also referred to as the ***Pactum Callixtinum**\'\' or***Pactum Calixtinum**\'\', was an agreement between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire which regulated the procedure for the appointment of bishops and abbots in the Empire. Signed on 23 September 1122 in the German city of Worms by Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V, the agreement set an end to the Investiture Controversy, a conflict between state and church over the right to appoint religious office holders that had begun in the middle of the 11th century.
By signing the concordat, Henry renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections. Callixtus, in turn, agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to intervene in the case of disputed outcomes. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with a sceptre, representing the lands that constituted the temporalities associated with their episcopal see.
## Background
During the middle of the 11th century, a reformist movement within the Christian Church sought to reassert the rights of the Holy See at the expense of the European monarchs. Having been elected in 1073, the reformist Pope Gregory VII proclaimed several edicts aimed at strengthening the authority of the papacy, some of which were formulated in the *Dictatus papae* of 1075. Gregory\'s edicts postulated that secular rulers were answerable to the pope and forbade them to make appointments to clerical offices (a process known as investiture).
The pope\'s doctrines were vehemently rejected by Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, who habitually invested the bishops and abbots of his realm. The ensuing conflict between the Empire and the papacy is known as the Investiture Controversy. The dispute continued after the death of Gregory VII in 1084 and the abdication of Henry IV in 1105.
Even though Henry\'s son and successor, the Emperor Henry V, looked towards reconciliation with the reformist movement, no lasting compromise was achieved in the first 16 years of his reign. In 1111, Henry V brokered an agreement with Pope Paschal II at Sutri, whereby he would abstain from investing clergy in his realm in exchange for the restoration of church property that had originally belonged to the Empire. The Sutri agreement, Henry hoped, would convince Paschal to assent to Henry\'s official coronation as emperor.
The agreement failed to be implemented, leading Henry to imprison the pope. After two months of captivity, Paschal vowed to grant the coronation and to accept the emperor\'s role in investiture ceremonies. He also agreed never to excommunicate Henry. Given that these concessions had been won by force, ecclesiastical opposition to the Empire continued. The following year, Paschal reneged on his promises.
## Mouzon summit {#mouzon_summit}
In January 1118, Pope Paschal died. He was succeeded by Gelasius II, who died in January 1119. His successor, the Burgundian Callixtus II, resumed negotiations with the Emperor with the aim of settling the dispute between the church and the Empire. In the autumn of 1119, two papal emissaries, William of Champeaux and Pons of Cluny, met Henry at Strasbourg, where the emperor agreed in principle to abandon the secular investiture ceremony that involved giving new bishops and abbots a ring and a crosier.
The two parties scheduled a final summit between Henry and Callixtus at Mouzon, but the meeting ended abruptly after the emperor refused to accept a short-notice change in Callixtus\'s demands. The church leaders, who were deliberating their position at a council in Reims, reacted by excommunicating Henry. However, they did not endorse the pope\'s insistence upon the complete abandonment of secular investiture. The negotiations ended in failure.
Historians disagree as to whether Calixtus actually wanted peace or fundamentally mistrusted Henry. Due to his uncompromising position in 1111, Calixtus has been termed an \"ultra\", and his election to the papacy may indicate that the College of Cardinals saw no reason to show weakness to the emperor. This optimism about victory was founded on the very visible, and very vocal opposition to Henry from within his own nobility, and the cardinals may have seen the emperor\'s internal weaknesses as an opportunity for outright victory.
## Further negotiations {#further_negotiations}
After the failure of the Mouzon negotiations, and the disappearance into the horizon of the chances of Henry\'s unconditional surrender, the majority of the clergy became willing to compromise in order to settle the dispute. The polemic writings and pronouncements that had figured so highly during the Investiture Dispute had died down by this point. Historian Gerd Tellenbach argues that, despite appearances, these years were \"no longer marked by an atmosphere of bitter conflict\".
This was in part the result of the papacy\'s realization that it could not win two different disputes on two separate fronts, as it had been trying to do. Calixtus had been personally involved in negotiations with the Emperor over the last decade, and his intimate knowledge of the delicate situation made him the perfect candidate for the attempt. The difference between 1119 and 1122, argues Stroll, was not Henry, who had been willing to make concessions in 1119, but Calixtus, who had then been intransigent, but who now was intent upon reaching an agreement\". `{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 400
| image1 = Emperor Henry V cropped.png
| alt1 = Hebry V, from an 1130 [[fresco]] from St George abbey church, [[Regensburg-Prüfening]]
| caption1 = {{center|[[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]]}}
| image2 = Calixtus II.jpg
| alt2 = Pope Calixtus II. From: from the "Liber ad honorem Augusti" of [[Petrus of Ebulo]], 1196
| caption2 = {{center|[[Calixtus II]]}}
| footer =
}}`{=mediawiki}
The same sentiment prevailed in much of the German nobility. In 1121, pressured by a faction of nobles from the Lower Rhine and Duchy of Saxony under the leadership of the archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, Henry agreed to submit to make peace with the pope. In response in February 1122, Calixtus wrote to Henry in a conciliatory tone via the Bishop of Acqui. His letter has been described as \"a carefully crafted overture\".
In his letter, Calixtus drew attention to their blood relationship, suggesting that while their shared ancestry compelled them to love each other as brothers, it was fundamental that the German kings draw their authority from God, but via his servants, not directly. However, Calixtus also emphasised for the first time that he blamed not Henry personally for the dispute but his bad advisors who had dictated unsound policy to him. In a major shift in policy since the Council of Reims of 1119, the pope stated that the church gifts what it possesses to all its children, without making claims upon them. This was intended to reassure Henry that in the event of peace between them, his position and Empire were secure.
Shifting from the practical to the spiritual, Calixtus next asked Henry to bear in mind that he was a king, but like all men limited on his earthly capability; he had armies, and kings below him, but the church had Christ and the Apostles. Continuing his theme, he referred, indirectly, to Henry\'s excommunication by himself (twice), he begged Henry to allow the conditions for peace to be created, as a result of which the church\'s, and God\'s glory would be increased, as concomitantly would the Emperor\'s. Conversely, he made sure to include a threat: if Henry did not change his ways, Calixtus threatened to place \"the protection of the church in the hands of wise men\".
Historian Mary Stroll argues that, in taking this approach, Calixtus was taking advantage of the fact that, while he himself \"was hardly in a position to sabre rattle\" due to his military defeat in the south and his difficulty with his own Cardinals, Henry was also under pressure in Germany in both the military and spiritual spheres.
The Emperor replied through the Bishop of Speyer and the Abbot of Fulda, who travelled to Rome and collected the pope\'s emissaries under the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. Speyer was a representative of Henry\'s political opponents in Germany, whereas Fulda was a negotiator rather than politically partisan. Complicating matters was a disputed election to the bishopric of Wurzburg in February 1122 of the kind that was at the heart of the Investiture Dispute. Although this almost led to an outbreak of civil war, a truce was arranged in August, allowing the parties to return to the papal negotiations.
In the summer of 1122, a synod was convened in Mainz, at which imperial emissaries concluded the terms of their agreement with representatives of the church. In a sign that the Pope intended the impending negotiations to be successful, a Lateran council was announced for the following year.
## Worms
The Emperor received the papal legates in Worms with due ceremony, where he awaited the outcome of the negotiations which appear to have actually taken place in nearby Mainz, which was hostile territory to Henry. As such, he had to communicate via messenger to keep up with events. Abbot Ekkehard of Aura chronicles that discussions took over a week to conclude. On 8 September, he met the papal legates and their final agreements were codified for publication.
Although a possible compromise solution had already been received from England, this does not seem to have ever been considered in depth, probably on account of it containing an oath of Homage between Emperor and Pope, which had been a historical sticking point in earlier negotiations. The papal delegation was led by Cardinal bishop Lamberto Scannabecchi of Ostia, the future Pope Honorius II.
Both sides studied previous negotiations between them, including those from 1111, which were considered to have created precedent. On 23 September 1122, papal and imperial delegates signed a series of documents outside the walls of Worms. There was insufficient room in the city for the number of attendees and watchers. Adalbert, Archbishop of Mainz wrote to Calixtus of how complex the negotiations had been, given that, as he said, Henry regarded the powers he was being asked to renounce as being hereditary in the Imperial throne. It is probable that what was eventually promulgated was the result of almost every word being carefully considered. The main difference between what was to be agreed at Worms and previous negotiations were the concessions from the pope.
## Concordat
The agreements come to at Worms were in the nature of both concessions and assurances to the other party. Henry, on oath before God, the apostles and the church renounced his right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crosier, and opened ecclesiastical appointments in his realm to canonical elections, *regno vel imperio*. He also recognised the traditional extent and boundaries of the papal patrimony as a legal entity rather than one malleable to the emperor. Henry promised to return to the church those lands rightfully belonging to the church seized by himself or his father to the church; furthermore, he would assist the pope in regaining those that were taken by others, and \"he will do the same thing for all other churches and princes, both ecclesiastical and lay\". If the pope requested Imperial assistance, he would receive it, and if the church came to the empire for justice, it would be treated fairly. He also swore to abstain from \"all investiture by ring and staff\", marking the end of an ancient imperial tradition.
Callixtus made similar reciprocal promises regarding the empire in Italy. He agreed to the presence of the emperor or his officials at the elections and granted the emperor the right to ajudge in the case of disputed outcomes on episcopal advice---as long as they had been held peacefully and without simony---which had officially been the case ever since precedent had been set by the London Accord of 1107. This right to judge was constrained by an assurance that he would support the majority vote among electors, and further that he would take the advice of his other bishops before doing so. The emperor was also allowed to perform a separate ceremony in which he would invest bishops and abbots with their *regalia*, a sceptre representing the imperial lands associated with their episcopal see. This clause also contained a \"cryptic\" condition that once the elect had been so endowed, the new bishop \"should do what he ought to do according to imperial rights\". In the German imperial lands this was to take place prior to the bishop-elect\'s consecration; elsewhere in the empire---Burgundy and Italy, exempting the Papal States---within six months of the ceremony. The differentiating between the German portion of the Empire and the rest was of particular importance to Calixtus as the papacy had traditionally felt threatened more from it in the peninsular than the broader Empire. Finally, the pope granted \"true peace\" on the emperor and all those who had supported him. Calixtus had effectively overturned wholesale the strategy he had pursued during the Mouzon negotiation; episcopal investitures in Germany were to take place with very little substantive change in ceremony, while temporal involvement remained, only replacing investiture with homage, although the word itself---*hominium*---was studiously avoided. Adalbert, from whom Calixtus first received news of the final concordat, emphasized that it still had to be approved in Rome; this suggests, argues Stroll, that the Archbishop---and probably the papal legation as a whole---were against making concessions to the emperor, and probably wanted Calixtus to disown the agreement. Adalbert believed the agreement would make it easier for the Emperor to legalise intimidation of episcopal electors, writing that \"through the opportunity of \[the emperor\'s\] presence, the Church of God must undergo the same slavery as before, or an even more oppressive one\".
However, argues Stroll, the concessions Calixtus made were an \"excellent bargain\" in return for eradicating the danger on the papacy\'s northern border and therefore allowing him to focus, without threat or distraction, on the Normans to the south. It had achieved its peace, argues Norman Cantor, by allowing local national custom and practice to determine future relations between crown and pope; in most cases, he notes, this \"favored the continuance of royal control over the church\".
The concordat was published as two distinct charters, each laying out the concessions the one party was making to the other. They are known respectively as the Papal (or the *Calixtinum*) and the Imperial (*Henricianum*) charters. Calixtus\'s is addressed to the emperor---in quite personal terms---while Henry\'s is made out to God. The bishop of Ostia gave the emperor the kiss of peace on behalf of the pope and said Mass. By these rites was Henry returned to the church, the negotiators were lauded for succeeding in their delicate mission and the concordat was called \"peace at the will of the pope\". Neither charter was signed; both contained probably intentional vagaries and unanswered questions---such as the position of the papacy\'s churches that lay outside both the patrimony and Germany---which were subsequently addressed on a case-by-case basis. Indeed, Robert Benson has suggested that the brevity of the charters was deliberate and that the agreement as a whole is as important for what it omits as for what it includes. The term *regalia*, for example, was not only undefined but literally meant two different things to each party. In the *Henricianum* it referred to the feudal duty owed to a monarch; in the Calixtinium, it was the episcopal temporalities. Broader question, such as the nature of the church and Empire relationship, were also not addressed, although some ambiguity was removed by an 1133 Papal privilege.
The Concordat was widely, and deliberately, publicised around Europe. Calixtus was not in Rome when the concordat was delivered. He had left the city by late August and was not to return until mid- to late October, making a progress to Anagni, taking the bishopric of Anagni and Casamari Abbey under his protection.
### Agreements
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| Agreement of Calixtus II | Edict of Henry V |
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| I, Calixtus, bishop, servant of the servants of God, do grant to thee, beloved son, Henry---by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus---that the elections of bishops and abbots of the German kingdom, who belong to that kingdom, shall take place in thy presence, without simony or any violence; so that if any dispute shall arise between the parties concerned, thou, with the counsel or judgment of the metropolitan and the coprovincial bishops, shalt give consent and aid to the party which has the more right. The one elected shall receive the regalia from thee by the scepter and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account. But he who is consecrated in the other parts of thy empire \[i.e., Burgundy and Italy\] shall, within six months, and without any exaction, receive the regalia from thee by the scepter, and shall perform his lawful duties to thee on that account (saving all rights which are known to belong to the Roman Church). Concerning matters in which thou shalt make complaint to me, and ask aid---I, according to the duty of my office, will furnish aid to thee. I give unto thee true peace, and to all who are or have been of thy party in this conflict. | In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity I, Henry, by the grace of God emperor of the Romans, Augustus, for the love of God and of the Holy Roman Church and of our lord Pope Calixtus, and for the salvation of my soul, do surrender to God, and to the holy apostles of God, Peter and Paul, and to the Holy Catholic Church, all investiture through ring and staff; and do grant that in all the churches that are in my kingdom or empire there may be canonical election and free consecration. All the possessions and regalia of St. Peter which, from the beginning of this discord unto this day, whether in the time of my father or in mine have been seized, and which I hold, I restore to that same Holy Roman Church. And I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold. The possessions also of all other churches and princes, and of all other persons lay and clerical which have been lost in that war: according to the counsel of the princes, or according to justice, I will restore, as far as I hold them; and I will faithfully aid in the restoration of those things which I do not hold. And I grant true peace to our lord Pope Calixtus, and to the Holy Roman Church, and to all those who are or have been on its side. And in matters where the Holy Roman Church shall ask aid I will grant it; and in matters concerning which it shall make complaint to me I will duly grant to it justice. All these things have been done by the consent and counsel of the princes. Whose names are here adjoined: Adalbert archbishop of Mainz; F. archbishop of Cologne; H. bishop of Ratisbon; O. bishop of Bamberg; B. bishop of Spires; H. of Augsburg; G. of Utrecht; Ou. of Constance; E. abbot of Fulda; Henry, duke; Frederick, duke; S. duke; Pertolf, duke; Margrave Teipold; Margrave Engelbert; Godfrey, count Palatine; Otto, count Palatine; Berengar, count. |
| | |
| | I, Frederick, archbishop of Cologne and arch-chancellor, have ratified this. |
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### Preservation
The concordat was ratified at the First Council of the Lateran and the original *Henricianum* charter is preserved at the Vatican Apostolic Archive; the *Calixtinum* has not survived except in subsequent copies. A copy of the former is also held in the *Codex Udalrici*, but this is an abridged version for political circulation, as it reduces the number of imperial concessions made. Indicating the extent that he saw the agreement as a papal victory, Calixtus had a copy of the *Henricianum* painted on a Lateran Palace chamber wall; while nominally portraying the concordat as a victory for the papacy, it also ignored the numerous concessions made to the emperor. This was part of what Hartmut Hoffmann has called \"a conspiracy of silence\" regarding papal concessions. Indeed, while the Pope is pictured enthroned, and Henry only standing, the suggestion is still that they were jointly wielding their respective authority to come to this agreement. An English copy of the *Calixtinum* made by William of Malmsbury is reasonably accurate but omits the clause mentioning the use of a sceptre in the granting of the *regalia*. He then, having condemned Henry\'s \"Teuton fury\", proceeds to praise him, comparing him favourably to Charlemagne for his devotion to God and the peace of Christendom.
## Aftermath
The first invocation of the concordat was not in the empire, as it turned out, but by Henry I of England the following year. Following a long-running dispute between Canterbury--York which ended up in the Papal court, Joseph Huffman argues that it would have been controversial for the Pope \"to justify one set of concessions in Germany and another in England\". The concordat ended once and for all the \"Imperial church system of the Ottonians and Salians\". The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms. The council was most representative with nearly 300 bishops and 600 abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present. It convened on March 18, 1123. One of its primary concerns was to emphasise the independence of diocesan clergy, and to do so it forbade monks to leave their monasteries to provide pastoral care, which would in future be the sole preserve of the diocese. In ratifying the Concordat, the Council confirmed that in future bishops would be elected by their clergy, although, also per the Concordat, the Emperor could refuse the homage of German bishops.
Decrees were passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders. These, argues C. Colt Anderson \"established important precedents in canon law restricting the influence of the laity and the monks\". While this led to a busy period of reform, it was important for those advocating reform not to allow themselves to be confused with the myriad heretical sects and schismatics who were making similar criticisms.
The Concordat was the last major achievement for Emperor Henry, as he died in 1125; an attempted invasion of France came to nothing in 1124 in the face of \"determined opposition\". Fuhrmann comments that, as Henry had shown in his life \"even less interest in new currents of thought and feeling than his father\", he probably did not understand the significance of the events he had lived through. The peace only lasted until his death; when Imperial Electors met to choose his successor, reformists took the opportunity to attack the imperial gains of Worms on the grounds that they had been granted to him personally rather than Emperors generally. However, later emperors, such as Frederick I and Henry VI, continued to wield as much, if intangible, power as their predecessors in episcopal elections, and to a greater degree to that allowed them by Calixtus\' charter. Successive emperors found the Concordat sufficiently favourable that it remained, almost unaltered until the empire was dissolved by Francis II in 1806 on account of Napoleon. Popes, likewise, were able to use the powers codified to them in the Concordatto their advantage in future internal disputes with their Cardinals.
## Reception
The most detailed contemporary description of the Concordat comes to historians through a brief chronicle known as the 1125 continuation chronicle. This pro-papal document lays the blame for the schism squarely upon Henry---by his recognition of Gregory VIII---and the praise for ending it on Calixtus, through his making only temporary compromises. I. S. Robinson, writing in The New Cambridge Medieval History, suggests that this was a deliberate ploy to leave further negotiations open with a more politically malleable Emperor in future. To others it was not so clear cut; Honorius of Autun, for example, writing later in the century discussed lay investiture as an aspect of papal-Imperial relations and, even a century later the *Sachsenspiegel* still stated that Emperors nominated bishops in Germany. Robinson suggests that, by the end of the 12th century, \"it was the imperial, rather than the papal version of the Concordat of Worms that was generally accepted by German churchmen\".
The contemporary English historian William of Malmesbury praised the Concordat for curtailing what he perceived as the emperor\'s overreach, or as he put it, \"severing the sprouting necks of Teuton fury with the axe of Apostolic power\". However, he regarded the final settlement not as a defeat of the Empire at the hands of the church, but rather as a reconciliatory effort by the two powers. Although polemicism had died down in the years preceding the Concordat, it did not finish them completely, and factionalism within the church especially continued. Gerhoh of Reichersberg believed that the emperor now had the right to request German bishops pay homage to him, something that would never have been allowed under Paschal, due to the vague clause instructing newly-elects to the things the emperor wished. Gerhoh argued that now imperial intervention in episcopal elections had been curtailed, Henry would use this clause to extend his influence in the church by means of homage. Gerhoh was torn between viewing the concordat as the end of a long struggle between pope and empire, or whether it marked the beginning of a new one within the church itself. Likewise Adelbert of Mainz---who had casually criticised the agreement in his report to Calixtus---continued to lobby against it, and continued to bring complaints against Henry, whom, for example, he alleged had illegally removed the Bishop of Strassburg who was suspected of complicity in the death of Duke Berthold of Zaehringen.
The reformist party within the church took a similar view, criticising the Concordat for failing to remove all secular influence on the church. For this reason, a group of followers of Paschal II unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the agreement\'s ratification at the Lateran Council, crying *non placet!* when asked to do so: \"it was only when it was pointed out that much had to be accepted for the sake of peace that the atmosphere quietened\". Calixtus told them that they had \"not to approve but tolerate\" it. At a council in Bamberg in 1122 Henry gathered those nobles who had not attended the Concordat to seek their approval of the agreement, which they did. The following month he sent cordial letters to Calixtus agreeing with the pope\'s position that as brothers in Christ they were bound by God to work together, etc., and that he would soon visit personally to discuss the repatriation of papal land. These letters were, in turn, responded to positively by Calixtus, who instructed his delegates to make good the promises they had made at Worms.
### Historiography
`{{Catholic Church sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called the agreements made at Worms \"the oldest concordat in German history, an international treaty\", while Augustin Fliche argued that the Concordat effectively instituted the statutes of Ivo of Chartres, a prominent reformer in the early years of the Investiture Contest, a view, it has been suggested, that most historians agree with. The historian Uta-Renate Blumenthal writes that, despite its shortcomings, the Concordat freed \"\[the church and the Empire\] from antiquated concepts with their increasingly anachronistic restrictions\". According to the historian William Chester Jordan, the Concordat was \"of enormous significance\" because it demonstrated that the emperor, in spite of his great secular power, did not have any religious authority. On the other hand, argues Karl F. Morrison, any victory the papacy felt it had won was pyrrhic, as \"the king was left in possession of the field\". The new peace also now allowed the papacy to expand its territories in Italy, such as the Sabina, which were unobtainable while the dispute with Henry was ongoing, while in Germany, a new class of ecclesiastics was created, what Horst Fuhrmann calls the \"ecclesiastical princes of the Empire\".
While most historians agree that the Concordat marks a clear close to the fifty-year-old struggle between church and empire, disagreement continues on just how decisive a termination that was. Historians are also unclear as to the commitment of the pope to the concordat. Stroll, for example, notes that, while Henry\'s oaths were made to the church corporate, so in perpetuity, while Calixtus\'s may have been in a personal capacity. This, Stroll argues, would mean that it could be argued that while Henry\'s commitments to the church applied forever, Calixtus\'s applied only for the duration of Henry\'s reign, and at least one contemporary, Otto of Freising, wrote later in the century that he believed this to be the church\'s position. Stroll considers it \"implausible\" that Henry and his counsel would ever have entered into such a one-sided agreement. Indeed, John O\'Malley has argued that the emperor had effectively been granted a veto from Calixtus; while in the strictest interpretation of the Gregorian reformers the only two important things in the making of a bishop were his election and consecration, Calixtus had effectively codified a role---however small---for the emperor in this process. Conversely, Benson reckons that while Henry\'s agreement was with the church in perpetuity, Calixtus\'---based on the personal mode of address---was with him personally, and as such not binding on his successors. However, this was also an acknowledgement, he suggests, that much of what the pope did not address was already considered customary, and so did not need addressing.
There has also been disagreement in why the Investiture contest ended with the Concordat as it did. Benson notes that, as a truce, it was primarily intended to stop the fighting rather than to address its original causes. It was \"a straightforward, political engagement\... a pragmatic agreement\" between two political bodies. Indeed, controversy over investiture continued for at least another decade; in that light, suggests Benson, it could be argued that the Concordat did not end the dispute at all. There were \"many problems unsolved, and \[it\] left much room for the free play of power\". Political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita has argued that, in the long term, the Concordat was an essential component to the later---gradual---creation of the European nation state.
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Context-free language
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In formal language theory, a **context-free language** (**CFL**), also called a **Chomsky type-2 language**, is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG).
Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages, in particular, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars.
## Background
### Context-free grammar {#context_free_grammar}
Different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. Intrinsic properties of the language can be distinguished from extrinsic properties of a particular grammar by comparing multiple grammars that describe the language.
### Automata
The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata, which makes these languages amenable to parsing. Further, for a given CFG, there is a direct way to produce a pushdown automaton for the grammar (and thereby the corresponding language), though going the other way (producing a grammar given an automaton) is not as direct.
## Examples
An example context-free language is $L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}$, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki}\'s, and the entire second halves of which are `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}\'s. `{{mvar|L}}`{=mediawiki} is generated by the grammar $S\to aSb ~|~ ab$. This language is not regular. It is accepted by the pushdown automaton $M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a,b\}, \{a,z\}, \delta, q_0, z, \{q_f\})$ where $\delta$ is defined as follows:
$$\begin{align}
\delta(q_0, a, z) &= (q_0, az) \\
\delta(q_0, a, a) &= (q_0, aa) \\
\delta(q_0, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\
\delta(q_1, b, a) &= (q_1, \varepsilon) \\
\delta(q_1, \varepsilon, z) &= (q_f, \varepsilon)
\end{align}$$
Unambiguous CFLs are a proper subset of all CFLs: there are inherently ambiguous CFLs. An example of an inherently ambiguous CFL is the union of $\{a^n b^m c^m d^n | n, m > 0\}$ with $\{a^n b^n c^m d^m | n, m > 0\}$. This set is context-free, since the union of two context-free languages is always context-free. But there is no way to unambiguously parse strings in the (non-context-free) subset $\{a^n b^n c^n d^n | n > 0\}$ which is the intersection of these two languages.
### Dyck language {#dyck_language}
The language of all properly matched parentheses is generated by the grammar $S\to SS ~|~ (S) ~|~ \varepsilon$.
## Properties
### Context-free parsing {#context_free_parsing}
The context-free nature of the language makes it simple to parse with a pushdown automaton.
Determining an instance of the membership problem; i.e. given a string $w$, determine whether $w \in L(G)$ where $L$ is the language generated by a given grammar $G$; is also known as *recognition*. Context-free recognition for Chomsky normal form grammars was shown by Leslie G. Valiant to be reducible to Boolean matrix multiplication, thus inheriting its complexity upper bound of *O*(*n*^2.3728596^). Conversely, Lillian Lee has shown *O*(*n*^3−ε^) Boolean matrix multiplication to be reducible to *O*(*n*^3−3ε^) CFG parsing, thus establishing some kind of lower bound for the latter.
Practical uses of context-free languages require also to produce a derivation tree that exhibits the structure that the grammar associates with the given string. The process of producing this tree is called *parsing*. Known parsers have a time complexity that is cubic in the size of the string that is parsed.
Formally, the set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata (PDA). Parser algorithms for context-free languages include the CYK algorithm and Earley\'s Algorithm.
A special subclass of context-free languages are the deterministic context-free languages which are defined as the set of languages accepted by a deterministic pushdown automaton and can be parsed by a LR(k) parser.
See also parsing expression grammar as an alternative approach to grammar and parser.
### Closure properties {#closure_properties}
The class of context-free languages is closed under the following operations. That is, if *L* and *P* are context-free languages, the following languages are context-free as well:
- the union $L \cup P$ of *L* and *P*
- the reversal of *L*
- the concatenation $L \cdot P$ of *L* and *P*
- the Kleene star $L^*$ of *L*
- the image $\varphi(L)$ of *L* under a homomorphism $\varphi$
- the image $\varphi^{-1}(L)$ of *L* under an inverse homomorphism $\varphi^{-1}$
- the circular shift of *L* (the language $\{vu : uv \in L \}$)
- the prefix closure of *L* (the set of all prefixes of strings from *L*)
- the quotient *L*/*R* of *L* by a regular language *R*
#### Nonclosure under intersection, complement, and difference {#nonclosure_under_intersection_complement_and_difference}
The context-free languages are not closed under intersection. This can be seen by taking the languages $A = \{a^n b^n c^m \mid m, n \geq 0 \}$ and $B = \{a^m b^n c^n \mid m,n \geq 0\}$, which are both context-free. Their intersection is $A \cap B = \{ a^n b^n c^n \mid n \geq 0\}$, which can be shown to be non-context-free by the pumping lemma for context-free languages. As a consequence, context-free languages cannot be closed under complementation, as for any languages *A* and *B*, their intersection can be expressed by union and complement: $A \cap B = \overline{\overline{A} \cup \overline{B}}$. In particular, context-free language cannot be closed under difference, since complement can be expressed by difference: $\overline{L} = \Sigma^* \setminus L$.
However, if *L* is a context-free language and *D* is a regular language then both their intersection $L\cap D$ and their difference $L\setminus D$ are context-free languages.
### Decidability
In formal language theory, questions about regular languages are usually decidable, but ones about context-free languages are often not. It is decidable whether such a language is finite, but not whether it contains every possible string, is regular, is unambiguous, or is equivalent to a language with a different grammar.
The following problems are undecidable for arbitrarily given context-free grammars A and B:
- Equivalence: is $L(A)=L(B)$?
- Disjointness: is $L(A) \cap L(B) = \emptyset$ ? However, the intersection of a context-free language and a *regular* language is context-free, hence the variant of the problem where *B* is a regular grammar is decidable (see \"Emptiness\" below).
- Containment: is $L(A) \subseteq L(B)$ ? Again, the variant of the problem where *B* is a regular grammar is decidable, while that where *A* is regular is generally not.
- Universality: is $L(A)=\Sigma^*$?
- Regularity: is $L(A)$ a regular language?
- Ambiguity: is every grammar for $L(A)$ ambiguous?
The following problems are *decidable* for arbitrary context-free languages:
- Emptiness: Given a context-free grammar *A*, is $L(A) = \emptyset$ ?
- Finiteness: Given a context-free grammar *A*, is $L(A)$ finite?
- Membership: Given a context-free grammar *G*, and a word $w$, does $w \in L(G)$ ? Efficient polynomial-time algorithms for the membership problem are the CYK algorithm and Earley\'s Algorithm.
According to Hopcroft, Motwani, Ullman (2003), many of the fundamental closure and (un)decidability properties of context-free languages were shown in the 1961 paper of Bar-Hillel, Perles, and Shamir
### Languages that are not context-free {#languages_that_are_not_context_free}
The set $\{a^n b^n c^n d^n | n > 0\}$ is a context-sensitive language, but there does not exist a context-free grammar generating this language. So there exist context-sensitive languages which are not context-free. To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the pumping lemma for context-free languages or a number of other methods, such as Ogden\'s lemma or Parikh\'s theorem.
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Cecilia Beaux
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**Eliza Cecilia Beaux** (May 1, 1855 -- September 17, 1942) was an American artist and the first woman to teach art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Known for her elegant and sensitive portraits of friends, relatives, and Gilded Age patrons, Beaux painted many famous subjects including First Lady Edith Roosevelt, Admiral Sir David Beatty and Georges Clemenceau.
Beaux was trained in Philadelphia and went on to study in Paris where she was influenced by academic artists Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau as well as the work of Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas. Her style was compared to that of John Singer Sargent; at one exhibition, Bernard Berenson joked that her paintings were the best Sargents in the room. Like her instructor William Sartain, she believed there was a connection between physical characteristics and behavioral traits.
Beaux was awarded a gold medal for lifetime achievement by the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as \"the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world\".
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Beaux was born on May 1, 1855, in Philadelphia, the younger daughter of French silk manufacturer Jean Adolphe Beaux and teacher Cecilia Kent Leavitt. Her mother was the daughter of prominent businessman John Wheeler Leavitt of New York City and his wife, Cecilia Kent of Suffield, Connecticut. Cecilia Kent Leavitt died from puerperal fever 12 days after giving birth at age 33.
Cecilia and her sister Etta were subsequently raised by their maternal grandmother and aunts, primarily in Philadelphia. Her father, unable to bear the grief of his loss, and feeling adrift in a foreign country, returned to his native France for 16 years, with only one visit back to Philadelphia. He returned when Cecilia was two, but left four years later after his business failed. As she confessed later, \"We didn\'t love Papa very much, he was so foreign. We thought him *peculiar*.\" Her father did have a natural aptitude for drawing and the sisters were charmed by his whimsical sketches of animals. Later, Beaux would discover that her French heritage would serve her well during her pilgrimage and training in France.
In Philadelphia, Beaux\'s aunt Emily married mining engineer William Foster Biddle, whom Beaux would later describe as \"after my grandmother, the strongest and most beneficent influence in my life.\" For fifty years, he cared for his nieces-in-law with consistent attention and occasional financial support. Her grandmother, on the other hand, provided day-to-day supervision and kindly discipline. Whether with housework, handiwork, or academics, Grandma Leavitt offered a pragmatic framework, stressing that \"everything undertaken must be completed, conquered.\" The Civil War years were particularly challenging, but the extended family survived despite little emotional or financial support from Beaux\'s father.
After the war, Beaux began to spend some time in the household of \"Willie\" and Emily, both proficient musicians. Beaux learned to play the piano but preferred singing. The musical atmosphere later proved an advantage for her artistic ambitions. Beaux recalled, \"They understood perfectly the spirit and necessities of an artist\'s life.\" In her early teens, she had her first major exposure to art during visits with Willie to the nearby Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, one of America\'s foremost art schools and museums. Though fascinated by the narrative elements of some of the pictures, particularly the Biblical themes of the massive paintings of Benjamin West, at this point Beaux had no aspirations of becoming an artist.
Her childhood was a sheltered though generally happy one. As a teen she already manifested the traits, as she described, of \"both a realist and a perfectionist, pursued by an uncompromising passion for carrying through.\" She attended the Misses Lyman School and was just an average student, though she did well in French and Natural History. However, she was unable to afford the extra fee for art lessons.
At age 16, Beaux began art lessons with a relative, Catherine Ann Drinker, an accomplished artist who had her own studio and a growing clientele. Drinker became Beaux\'s role model, and she continued lessons with Drinker for a year. She then studied for two years with the painter Francis Adolf Van der Wielen, who offered lessons in perspective and drawing from casts during the time that the new Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was under construction. Given the bias of the Victorian age, female students were denied direct study in anatomy and could not attend drawing classes with live models (who were often prostitutes) until a decade later.
At 18, Beaux was appointed as a drawing teacher at Miss Sanford\'s School, taking over Drinker\'s post. She also gave private art lessons and produced decorative art and small portraits. Her own studies were mostly self-directed. Beaux received her first introduction to lithography doing copy work for Philadelphia printer Thomas Sinclair and she published her first work in *St. Nicholas* magazine in December 1873. Beaux demonstrated accuracy and patience as a scientific illustrator, creating drawings of fossils for Edward Drinker Cope, for a multi-volume report sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey. However, she did not find technical illustration suitable for a career (the extreme exactitude required gave her pains in the \"solar plexus\"). At this stage, she did not yet consider herself an artist.
Beaux began attending the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia in 1876, then under the dynamic influence of Thomas Eakins, whose work *The Gross Clinic* had \"horrified Philadelphia Exhibition-goers as a gory spectacle\" at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. She steered clear of the controversial Eakins, though she much admired his work. His progressive teaching philosophy, focused on anatomy and live study and allowed the female students to partake in segregated studios, eventually led to his firing as director of the academy. She did not ally herself with Eakins\' ardent student supporters, and later wrote, \"A curious instinct of self-preservation kept me outside the magic circle.\" Instead, she attended costume and portrait painting classes for three years taught by the ailing director Christian Schussele. Beaux won the Mary Smith Prize at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts exhibitions in 1885, 1887, 1891, and 1892.
After leaving the academy, the 24-year-old Beaux decided to try her hand at porcelain painting and she enrolled in a course at the National Art Training School. She was well suited to the precise work but later wrote, \"this was the lowest depth I ever reached in commercial art, and although it was a period when youth and romance were in their first attendance on me, I remember it with gloom and record it with shame.\" She studied privately with William Sartain, a friend of Eakins and a New York artist invited to Philadelphia to teach a group of art students, starting in 1881. Though Beaux admired Eakins more and thought his painting skill superior to Sartain\'s, she preferred the latter\'s gentle teaching style which promoted no particular aesthetic approach. Unlike Eakins, however, Sartain believed in phrenology and Beaux adopted a lifelong belief that physical characteristics correlated with behaviors and traits.
Beaux attended Sartain\'s classes for two years, then rented her own studio and shared it with a group of women artists who hired a live model and continued without an instructor. After the group disbanded, Beaux set in earnest to prove her artistic abilities. She painted a large canvas in 1884, *Les Derniers Jours d\'Enfance*, a portrait of her sister and nephew whose composition and style revealed a debt to James McNeill Whistler and whose subject matter was akin to Mary Cassatt\'s mother-and-child paintings. It was awarded a prize for the best painting by a female artist at the academy, and further exhibited in Philadelphia and New York. Following that seminal painting, she painted over 50 portraits in the next three years with the zeal of a committed professional artist. Her invitation to serve as a juror on the hanging committee of the academy confirmed her acceptance amongst her peers. In the mid-1880s, she was receiving commissions from notable Philadelphians and earning \$500 per portrait, comparable to what Eakins commanded. When her friend Margaret Bush-Brown insisted that *Les Derniers* was good enough to be exhibited at the famed Paris Salon, Beaux relented and sent the painting abroad in the care of her friend, who managed to get the painting into the exhibition.
### Paris
At 32, despite her success in Philadelphia, Beaux decided that she still needed to advance her skills. She left for Paris with cousin May Whitlock, forsaking several suitors and overcoming the objections of her family. There she trained at the Académie Julian, the largest art school in Paris, and at the Académie Colarossi, receiving weekly critiques from established masters like Tony Robert-Fleury and William-Adolphe Bouguereau. She wrote, \"Fleury is much less benign than Bouguereau and don\'t temper his severities...he hinted of possibilities before me and as he rose said the nicest thing of all, \'we will do all we can to help you\'...I want these men...to know me and recognize that I can do something.\" Though advised regularly of Beaux\'s progress abroad and to \"not be worried about any indiscretions of ours\", her Aunt Eliza repeatedly reminded her niece to avoid the temptations of Paris, \"Remember you are first of all a Christian -- then a woman and last of all an Artist.\"
When Beaux arrived in Paris, the Impressionists, a group of artists who had begun their own series of independent exhibitions from the official Salon in 1874, were beginning to lose their solidarity. Also known as the \"Independents\" or \"Intransigents\", the group which at times included Degas, Monet, Sisley, Caillebotte, Pissarro, Renoir, and Berthe Morisot, had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Their art, though varying in style and technique, was the antithesis of the type of Academic art in which Beaux was trained and of which her teacher William-Adolphe Bouguereau was a leading master. In the summer of 1888, with classes in summer recess, Beaux worked in the fishing village of Concarneau with the American painters Alexander Harrison and Charles Lazar. She tried applying the plein-air painting techniques used by the Impressionists to her own landscapes and portraiture, with little success. Unlike her predecessor Mary Cassatt, who had arrived near the beginning of the Impressionist movement 15 years earlier and who had absorbed it, Beaux\'s artistic temperament, precise and true to observation, would not align with Impressionism and she remained a realist painter for the rest of her career, even as Cézanne, Matisse, Gauguin, and Picasso were beginning to take art into new directions. Beaux mostly admired classic artists like Titian and Rembrandt. Her European training did influence her palette, however, and she adopted more white and paler coloration in her oil painting, particularly in depicting female subjects, an approach favored by Sargent as well.
### Return to Philadelphia {#return_to_philadelphia}
Back in the United States in 1889, Beaux proceeded to paint portraits in the grand manner, taking as her subjects members of her sister\'s family and of Philadelphia\'s elite. In making her decision to devote herself to art, she also thought it was best not to marry, and in choosing male company she selected men who would not threaten to sidetrack her career. She resumed life with her family, and they supported her fully, acknowledging her chosen path and demanding of her little in the way of household responsibilities, \"I was never once asked to do an errand in town, some bit of shopping...so well did they understand.\" She developed a structured, professional routine, arriving promptly at her studio, and expected the same from her models.
The five years that followed were highly productive, resulting in over forty portraits. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition, obtained in 1893 the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy of Design. She exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts and The Woman\'s Building at the 1893 World\'s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. Her portrait of *The Reverend Matthew Blackburne Grier* was particularly well-received, as was *Sita and Sarita*, a portrait of her cousin Charles W. Leavitt\'s wife Sarah (Allibone) Leavitt in white, with a small black cat perched on her shoulder, both gazing out mysteriously. The mesmerizing effect prompted one critic to point out \"the witch-like weirdness of the black kitten\" and for many years, the painting solicited questions by the press. But the result was not pre-planned, as Beaux\'s sister later explained, \"Please make no mystery about it---it was only an idea to put the black kitten on her cousin\'s shoulder. Nothing deeper.\" Beaux donated *Sita and Sarita* to the Musée du Luxembourg, but only after making a copy for herself. Another highly regarded portrait from that period is *New England Woman* (1895), a nearly all-white oil painting which was purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.
In 1895, Beaux became the first woman to have a regular teaching position at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where she instructed in portrait drawing and painting for the next twenty years. That rare type of achievement by a woman prompted one local newspaper to state, \"It is a legitimate source of pride to Philadelphia that one of its most cherished institutions has made this innovation.\" She was a popular instructor. In 1896, Beaux returned to France to see a group of her paintings presented at the Salon. Influential French critic M. Henri Rochefort commented, \"I am compelled to admit, not without some chagrin, that not one of our female artists...is strong enough to compete with the lady who has given us this year the portrait of Dr. Grier. Composition, flesh, texture, sound drawing---everything is there without affectation, and without seeking for effect.\" In 1898, Beaux painted probably her finest portrait, Man with the Cat (Henry Sturgis Drinker), now in Smithsonian American Art Museum. Drinker was Beaux\'s very successful brother-in-law.
Cecilia Beaux considered herself a \"New Woman\", a 19th-century woman who explored educational and career opportunities that had generally been denied to women. In the late 19th century Charles Dana Gibson depicted the \"New Woman\" in his painting, *The Reason Dinner was Late*, which is \"a sympathetic portrayal of artistic aspiration on the part of young women\" as she paints a visiting policeman. This \"New Woman\" was successful, highly trained, and often did not marry; other such women included Ellen Day Hale, Mary Cassatt, Elizabeth Nourse and Elizabeth Coffin.
Beaux was a member of Philadelphia\'s The Plastic Club. Other members included Elenore Abbott, Jessie Willcox Smith, Violet Oakley, Emily Sartain, and Elizabeth Shippen Green. Many of the women who founded the organization had been students of Howard Pyle. It was founded to provide a means to encourage one another professionally and create opportunities to sell their works of art.
### New York City {#new_york_city}
By 1900 the demand for Beaux\'s work brought clients from Washington, D.C., to Boston, prompting the artist to move to New York City, where she spent the winters, while summering at Green Alley, the home and studio she had built in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Beaux\'s friendship with Richard Gilder, editor-in-chief of the literary magazine *The Century*, helped promote her career and he introduced her to the elite of society. Among her portraits which followed from that association are those of Georges Clemenceau; First Lady Edith Roosevelt and her daughter; and Admiral Sir David Beatty. She also sketched President Teddy Roosevelt during her White House visits in 1902, during which \"He sat for two hours, talking most of the time, reciting Kipling, and reading scraps of Browning.\" Beaux also became very close with Gilder\'s daughter Dorothea, and the two women exchanged affectionate letters for many years. Her portraits *Fanny Travis Cochran*, *Dorothea and Francesca*, and *Ernesta and her Little Brother*, are fine examples of her skill in painting children; *Ernesta with Nurse*, one of a series of essays in luminous white, was a highly original composition, seemingly without precedent. She became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1902. and won the Logan Medal of the arts at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1921.
### Green Alley {#green_alley}
By 1906, Beaux began to live year-round at Green Alley, in a comfortable colony of \"cottages\" belonging to her wealthy friends and neighbors. All three aunts had died and she needed an emotional break from Philadelphia and New York City. She managed to find new subjects for portraiture, working in the mornings and enjoying a leisurely life the rest of the time. She carefully regulated her energy and her activities to maintain a productive output, and considered that a key to her success. On why so few women succeeded in art as she did, she stated, \"Strength is the stumbling block. They (women) are sometimes unable to stand the hard work of it day in and day out. They become tired and cannot reenergize themselves.\"
While Beaux stuck to her portraits of the elite, American art was advancing into urban and social subject matter, led by artists such as Robert Henri who espoused a totally different aesthetic, \"Work with great speed..Have your energies alert, up and active. Do it all in one sitting if you can. In one minute if you can. There is no use delaying...Stop studying water pitchers and bananas and paint everyday life.\" He advised his students, among them Edward Hopper and Rockwell Kent, to live with the common man and paint the common man, in total opposition to Cecilia Beaux\'s artistic methods and subjects. The clash of Henri and William Merritt Chase (representing Beaux and the traditional art establishment) resulted in 1907 in the independent exhibition by the urban realists known as \"The Eight\" or the Ashcan School. Beaux and her art friends defended the old order, and many thought (and hoped) the new movement to be a passing fad, but it turned out to be a revolutionary turn in American art.
In 1910, her beloved Uncle Willie died. Though devastated by the loss, at 55 year old, Beaux remained highly productive. In the next five years she painted almost 25 percent of her lifetime output and received a steady stream of honors. She had a major exhibition of 35 paintings at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., in 1912. Despite her continuing production and accolades, however, Beaux was working against the current of tastes and trends in art. The famed \"Armory Show\" of 1913 in New York City was a landmark presentation of 1,200 paintings showcasing Modernism. Beaux believed that the public, initially of mixed opinion about the \"new\" art, would ultimately reject it and return its favor to the Pre-Impressionists.
Beaux was crippled after breaking her hip while walking in Paris in 1924. With her health impaired, her work output dwindled for the remainder of her life. That same year Beaux was asked to produce a self-portrait for the Medici collection in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. In 1930 she published an autobiography, *Background with Figures*. Her later life was filled with honors. In 1930 she was elected a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters; in 1933 came membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters, which two years later organized the first major retrospective of her work. Also in 1933 Eleanor Roosevelt honored Beaux as \"the American woman who had made the greatest contribution to the culture of the world\". In 1942 The National Institute of Arts and Letters awarded her a gold medal for lifetime achievement.
## Death
Beaux died at the age of 87 on September 17, 1942, in Gloucester, Massachusetts. She was interred at West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania. In her will she left a Duncan Phyfe rosewood secretaire made for her father to her cherished nephew Cecil Kent Drinker, a Harvard University physician whom she had painted as a young boy and who later founded the Harvard School of Public Health.
## Legacy
Beaux was included in the 2018 exhibit *Women in Paris 1850-1900* at the Clark Art Institute.
Though Beaux was an individualist, comparisons to Sargent would prove inevitable, and often favorable. Her strong technique, her perceptive reading of her subjects, and her ability to flatter without falsifying, were traits similar to his. \"The critics are very enthusiastic. (Bernard) Berenson, Mrs. Coates tells me, stood in front of the portraits -- Miss Beaux\'s three -- and wagged his head. \'Ah, yes, I see!\' Some Sargents. The ordinary ones are signed John Sargent, the best are signed Cecilia Beaux, which is, of course, nonsense in more ways than one, but it is part of the generous chorus of praise.\" Though overshadowed by Mary Cassatt and relatively unknown to museum-goers today, Beaux\'s craftsmanship and extraordinary output were highly regarded in her time. While presenting the Carnegie Institute\'s Gold Medal to Beaux in 1899, William Merritt Chase stated \"Miss Beaux is not only the greatest living woman painter, but the best that has ever lived. Miss Beaux has done away entirely with sex \[gender\] in art.\"
During her long productive life as an artist, she maintained her personal aesthetic and high standards against all distractions and countervailing forces. She constantly struggled for perfection. \"A perfect technique in anything,\" she stated in an interview, \"means that there has been no break in continuity between the conception and the act of performance.\" She summed up her driving work ethic, \"I can say this: When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle...And I do my own work with a refusal to accept defeat that might almost be called painful.\"
## Gallery
<File:Landscape> with Farm Building Cecilia Beaux.jpeg\|Landscape with Farm Building, 1888 <File:Cecilia> Beaux - Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge (Catherine Eddy, Lady Primrose Portrait) - 1999.44 - Indianapolis Museum of Art.jpg\|Portrait of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge, 1916 <File:William> Henry Howell (painting, 1911).jpg\|Painting of William Henry Howell (1919) <File:Cecilia> Beaux painting Cardinal Mercier.jpg\|Cecilia Beaux painting of Cardinal Mercier (c. 1919) <File:Portrait> of Cecil Kent Drinker.jpg\|Portrait of Cecil Kent Drinker, 1891 <File:Lady> George Darwin by Cecilia Beaux 1889.jpeg\|Lady George Darwin, Beaux\'s pastel portrait of the former Martha du Puy of Philadelphia, who married Sir George Darwin. 1889 <File:Mother> and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 PAFA.jpg\|Mother and Daughter Cecilia Beaux 1898 <File:Mrs>. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|Mrs. Robert Chapin and Daughter Christina by Cecilia Beaux, 1902 <File:A> Little Girl by Cecilia Beaux.png\|*A Little Girl* (1887) <File:The> Green Cloak by Cecilia Beaux.jpg\|*The Green Cloak*, a portrait of George Dudley Seymour, on display at the Wadsworth Atheneum (1925)
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Clitoris
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In amniotes, the **clitoris** (`{{IPAc-en|audio=Clitoris pronunciation 1.ogg|ˈ|k|l|ɪ|t|ər|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|KLIT|ər|iss}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPAc-en|audio=Clitoris pronunciation 2.ogg|k|l|ɪ|ˈ|t|ɔər|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|klih|TOR|iss}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{plural form}}`{=mediawiki}: **clitorises** or **clitorides**) is a female sex organ. In humans, it is the vulva\'s most erogenous area and generally the primary anatomical source of female sexual pleasure. The clitoris is a complex structure, and its size and sensitivity can vary. The visible portion, the glans, of the clitoris is typically roughly the size and shape of a pea and is estimated to have at least 8,000 nerve endings.
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- Peters, B; Uloko, M; Isabey, P; [How many Nerve Fibers Innervate the Human Clitoris? A Histomorphometric Evaluation of the Dorsal Nerve of the Clitoris](https://www1.statusplus.net/misc/prog-management/v2/general/abstract/5850?persons=4928&pm=23) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102083626/https://www1.statusplus.net/misc/prog-management/v2/general/abstract/5850?persons=4928&pm=23 |date=2 November 2022 }}`{=mediawiki} 2 p.m. ET 27 October 2022, 23rd annual joint scientific meeting of Sexual Medicine Society of North America and International Society for Sexual Medicine
Sexological, medical, and psychological debate has focused on the clitoris, and it has been subject to social constructionist analyses and studies. Such discussions range from anatomical accuracy, gender inequality, female genital mutilation, and orgasmic factors and their physiological explanation for the G-spot. The only known purpose of the human clitoris is to provide sexual pleasure.
Knowledge of the clitoris is significantly affected by its cultural perceptions. Studies suggest that knowledge of its existence and anatomy is scant in comparison with that of other sexual organs (especially male sex organs) and that more education about it could help alleviate stigmas, such as the idea that the clitoris and vulva in general are visually unappealing or that female masturbation is taboo and disgraceful.
The clitoris is homologous to the penis in males.
## Etymology and terminology {#etymology_and_terminology}
The Oxford English Dictionary states that the Neo-Latin word *clītoris* likely has its origin in the Ancient Greek *κλειτορίς* (`{{Transliteration|grc|kleitorís}}`{=mediawiki}), which means \"little hill\", and perhaps derived from the verb *κλείειν* (`{{Transliteration|grc|kleíein}}`{=mediawiki}), meaning \"to shut\" or \"to sheathe\". *Clitoris* is also related to the Greek word *κλείς* (`{{Transliteration|grc|kleís}}`{=mediawiki}), \"key\", \"indicating that the ancient anatomists considered it the key\" to female sexuality. In addition, the Online Etymology Dictionary suggests other Greek candidates for this word\'s etymology include a noun meaning \"latch\" or \"hook\" or a verb meaning \"to touch or titillate lasciviously\", \"to tickle\". The Oxford English Dictionary also states that the colloquially shortened form *clit*, the first occurrence of which was noted in the United States, has been used in print since 1958: until then, the common abbreviation was *clitty*. Other slang terms for clitoris are *bean*, *nub*, and *love button*. The term `{{em|clitoris}}`{=mediawiki} is commonly used to refer to the glans alone. In recent anatomical works, the clitoris has also been referred to as the **bulbo-clitoral organ**.
## Structure
Most of the clitoris is composed of internal parts. Regarding humans, it consists of the glans, the body (which is composed of two erectile structures known as the corpora cavernosa), the prepuce, and the root. The frenulum is beneath the glans.
Research indicates that clitoral tissue extends into the vaginal anterior wall. Şenaylı et al. said that the histological evaluation of the clitoris, \"especially of the corpora cavernosa, is incomplete because for many years the clitoris was considered a rudimentary and nonfunctional organ\". They added that Baskin and colleagues examined the clitoris\' masculinization after dissection and using imaging software after Masson\'s trichrome staining, put the serial dissected specimens together; this revealed that nerves surround the whole clitoral body.
The clitoris, its bulbs, labia minora, and urethra involve two histologically distinct types of vascular tissue (tissue related to blood vessels), the first of which is trabeculated, erectile tissue innervated by the cavernous nerves. The trabeculated tissue has a spongy appearance; along with blood, it fills the large, dilated vascular spaces of the clitoris and the bulbs. Beneath the epithelium of the vascular areas is smooth muscle. As indicated by Yang et al.\'s research, it may also be that the urethral lumen (the inner open space or cavity of the urethra), which is surrounded by a spongy tissue, has tissue that \"is grossly distinct from the vascular tissue of the clitoris and bulbs, and on macroscopic observation, is paler than the dark tissue\" of the clitoris and bulbs. The second type of vascular tissue is non-erectile, which may consist of blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle.
### Glans
Highly innervated, the **clitoral glans** (*glans* means \"acorn\" in Latin), also known as the \"head\" or \"tip\", exists at the top of the clitoral body as a fibro-vascular cap and is usually the size and shape of a pea, although it is sometimes much larger or smaller. The glans is separated from the clitoral body by a ridge of tissue called the *corona*. The clitoral glans is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly 10,000 or more sensory nerve endings, making it the most sensitive erogenous zone. The glans also has numerous genital corpuscles. Research conflicts on whether the glans is composed of erectile or non-erectile tissue. Some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans. They state that the clitoral glans and labia minora have blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle, or that the clitoral glans is \"a midline, densely neural, non-erectile structure\". The clitoral glans is homologous to the male penile glans.
Other descriptions of the glans assert that it is composed of erectile tissue and that erectile tissue is present within the labia minora. The glans may be noted as having glandular vascular spaces that are not as prominent as those in the clitoral body, with the spaces being separated more by smooth muscle than in the body and crura. Adipose tissue is absent in the labia minora, but the organ may be described as being made up of dense connective tissue, erectile tissue and elastic fibers.
### Frenulum
The **clitoral frenulum** or **frenum** (***frenulum clitoridis**\'\' and***crus glandis clitoridis**\'\' in Latin; the former meaning \"little bridle\") is a medial band of tissue formed between the undersurface of the glans and the top ends of the labia minora. It is homologous to the penile frenulum in males. The frenulum\'s main function is to maintain the clitoris in its innate position.
### Body
The **clitoral body** (also known as the **shaft of the clitoris**) is a portion behind the glans that contains the union of the corpora cavernosa, a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that hold most of the blood in the clitoris during erection. It is homologous to the penile shaft in the male. The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro-elastic tunica albuginea, a sheath of connective tissue. These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septum`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}a comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa. The clitoral body is also connected to the pubic symphysis by the suspensory ligament.
The body of the clitoris is a bent shape, which makes the clitoral angle or elbow. The angle divides the body into the ascending part (internal) near the pubic symphysis and the descending part (external), which can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood.
### Root
Lying in the perineum (space between the vulva and anus) and within the superficial perineal pouch is the **root of the clitoris**, which consists of the posterior ends of the clitoris, the crura and the bulbs of vestibule.
The crura (\"legs\") are the parts of the corpora cavernosa extending from the clitoral body and form an upside-down \"V\" shape. Each crus (singular form of crura) is attached to the corresponding ischial ramus`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}extensions of the corpora beneath the descending pubic rami. Concealed behind the labia minora, the crura end with attachment at or just below the middle of the pubic arch.`{{refn|"The long, narrow crura arise from the inferior surface of the ischiopubic rami and fuse just below the middle of the pubic arch."<ref name="Cunningham" />|group="N"|name="quote_Cunningham"}}`{=mediawiki} Associated are the urethral sponge, perineal sponge, a network of nerves and blood vessels, the suspensory ligament of the clitoris, muscles and the pelvic floor.
The vestibular bulbs are more closely related to the clitoris than the vestibule because of the similarity of the trabecular and erectile tissue within the clitoris and its bulbs, and the absence of trabecular tissue in other parts of the vulva, with the erectile tissue\'s trabecular nature allowing engorgement and expansion during sexual arousal. The vestibular bulbs are typically described as lying close to the crura on either side of the vaginal opening; internally, they are beneath the labia majora. The anterior sections of the bulbs unite to create the bulbar commissure, which forms a long strip of erectile tissue dubbed the infra-corporeal residual spongy part (RSP) that expands from the ventral shaft and terminates as the glans. The RSP is also connected to the shaft via the pars intermedia (venous plexus of Kobelt). When engorged with blood, the bulbs cuff the vaginal opening and cause the vulva to expand outward. Although several texts state that they surround the vaginal opening, Ginger et al. state that this does not appear to be the case and tunica albuginea does not envelop the erectile tissue of the bulbs. In Yang et al.\'s assessment of the bulbs\' anatomy, they conclude that the bulbs \"arch over the distal urethra, outlining what might be appropriately called the \'bulbar urethra\' in women\".
### Hood
The clitoral hood or prepuce projects at the front of the labia commissure, where the edges of the labia majora meet at the base of the pubic mound. It is partially formed by fusion of the upper labia minora. The hood\'s function is to cover and protect the glans and external shaft. There is considerable variation in how much of the glans protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it, ranging from completely covered to fully exposed, and tissue of the labia minora also encircles the base of the glans.
### Size and length {#size_and_length}
There is no identified correlation between the size of the glans or clitoris as a whole, and a woman\'s age, height, weight, use of hormonal contraception, or being postmenopausal, although women who have given birth may have significantly larger clitoral measurements. Centimetre and millimetre measurements of the clitoris show variations in size. The clitoral glans has been cited as typically varying from 2 mm to 1 cm (less than an inch) and usually being estimated at 4 to 5 mm in both the transverse and longitudinal planes.
A 1992 study concluded that the total clitoral length, including glans and body, is 16.0 +/-, where 16 mm is the mean and 4.3 mm is the standard deviation. Concerning other studies, researchers from the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital in London measured the labia and other genital structures of 50 women from the age of 18 to 50, with a mean age of 35.6., from 2003 to 2004, and the results given for the clitoral glans were 3`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}10 mm for the range and 5.5 \[1.7\] mm for the mean. Other research indicates that the clitoral body can measure 5 - in length, while the clitoral body and crura together can be 10 cm or more in length.
## Development
The clitoris develops from a phallic outgrowth in the embryo called the genital tubercle. In the absence of testosterone, the genital tubercle allows for the formation of the clitoris; the initially rapid growth of the phallus gradually slows and the body and glans of the clitoris are formed along with its other structures.
## Function
### Sexual stimulation and arousal {#sexual_stimulation_and_arousal}
The clitoris has an abundance of nerve endings, and is the human female\'s most erogenous part of the body. When sexually stimulated, it may incite sexual arousal, which may result from mental stimulation (sexual fantasy), activity with a sexual partner, or masturbation, and can lead to orgasm. The most effective sexual stimulation of this organ is usually manually or orally, which is often referred to as direct clitoral stimulation; in cases involving sexual penetration, these activities may also be referred to as additional or assisted clitoral stimulation.
Direct stimulation involves physical stimulation to the external anatomy of the clitoris`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}glans, hood, and shaft. Stimulation of the labia minora, due to it being connected with the glans and hood, may have the same effect as direct clitoral stimulation. Though these areas may also receive indirect physical stimulation during sexual activity, such as when in friction with the labia majora, indirect clitoral stimulation is more commonly attributed to penile-vaginal penetration. Penile-anal penetration may also indirectly stimulate the clitoris by the shared sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into two terminal branches: the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris).
Due to the glans\' high sensitivity, direct stimulation to it is not always pleasurable; instead, direct stimulation to the hood or near the glans is often more pleasurable, with the majority of women preferring to use the hood to stimulate the glans, or to have the glans rolled between the labia, for indirect touch. It is also common for women to enjoy the shaft being softly caressed in concert with the occasional circling of the glans. This might be with or without digital penetration of the vagina, while other women enjoy having the entire vulva caressed. As opposed to the use of dry fingers, stimulation from well-lubricated fingers, either by vaginal lubrication or a personal lubricant, is usually more pleasurable for the external clitoris.
As the clitoris\' external location does not allow for direct stimulation by penetration, any external clitoral stimulation while in the missionary position usually results from the pubic bone area. As such, some couples may engage in the woman-on-top position or the coital alignment technique, a sex position combining the \"riding high\" variation of the missionary position with pressure-counterpressure movements performed by each partner in rhythm with sexual penetration, to maximize clitoral stimulation. Same-sex female couples may engage in tribadism (vulva-to-vulva or vulva-to-body rubbing) for ample or mutual clitoral stimulation during whole-body contact.`{{refn|"A common variation is 'tribadism,' where two women lie face to face, one on top of the other. The genitals are pressed tightly together while the partners move in a grinding motion. Some rub their clitoris against their partner's pubic bone."<ref name="Westheimer" />|group="N"|name="quote_Westheimer"}}`{=mediawiki} Pressing the penis in a gliding or circular motion against the clitoris or stimulating it by the movement against another body part may also be practiced. A vibrator (such as a clitoral vibrator), dildo or other sex toy may be used. Other women stimulate the clitoris by use of a pillow or other inanimate object, by a jet of water from the faucet of a bathtub or shower, or by closing their legs and rocking.
During sexual arousal, the clitoris and the rest of the vulva engorge and change color as the erectile tissues fill with blood (vasocongestion), and the individual experiences vaginal contractions. The ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles, which insert into the corpora cavernosa, contract and compress the dorsal vein of the clitoris (the only vein that drains the blood from the spaces in the corpora cavernosa), and the arterial blood continues a steady flow and having no way to drain out, fills the venous spaces until they become turgid and engorged with blood. This is what leads to clitoral erection.
The prepuce has retracted and the glans becomes more visible. The glans doubles in diameter upon arousal and further stimulation becomes less visible as it is covered by the swelling of the clitoral hood. The swelling protects the glans from direct contact, as direct contact at this stage can be more irritating than pleasurable. Vasocongestion eventually triggers a muscular reflex, which expels the blood that was trapped in surrounding tissues, and leads to an orgasm. A short time after stimulation has stopped, especially if orgasm has been achieved, the glans becomes visible again and returns to its normal state, with a few seconds (usually 5`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}10) to return to its normal position and 5`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}10 minutes to return to its original size.`{{refn|"Within a few seconds the clitoris returns to its normal position, and after 5{{ndash}}10 minutes shrinks to its normal size."<ref name="Dennerstein" />|group="N"|name="quote_Dennerstein"}}`{=mediawiki} If orgasm is not achieved, the clitoris may remain engorged for a few hours, which women often find uncomfortable. Additionally, the clitoris is very sensitive after orgasm, making further stimulation initially painful for some women.
#### Clitoral and vaginal orgasmic factors {#clitoral_and_vaginal_orgasmic_factors}
General statistics indicate that 70`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}80 percent of women require direct clitoral stimulation (consistent manual, oral, or other concentrated friction against the external parts of the clitoris) to reach orgasm.`{{refn|"Most women report the inability to achieve orgasm with vaginal intercourse and require direct clitoral stimulation ... About 20% have coital climaxes ..."<ref name="Kammerer-Doak" />|group="N"|name="quote_Kammerer-Doak"}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|"Women rated clitoral stimulation as at least somewhat more important than vaginal stimulation in achieving orgasm; only about 20% indicated that they did not require additional clitoral stimulation during intercourse."<ref name="Mah" />|group="N"|name="quote_Mah"}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|"a. The amount of time of sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm is variable – and usually much longer – in women than in men; thus, only 20–30% of women attain a coital climax. b. Many women (70–80%) require manual clitoral stimulation ..."<ref name="Flaherty" />|group="N"|name="quote_Flaherty"}}`{=mediawiki} Indirect clitoral stimulation (for example, by means of vaginal penetration) may also be sufficient for female orgasm.`{{refn|"In sum, it seems that approximately 25% of women always have orgasm with intercourse, while a narrow majority of women have orgasm with intercourse more than half the time ... According to the general statistics, cited in Chapter 2, [women who can consistently and easily have orgasms during unassisted intercourse] represent perhaps 20% of the adult female population, and thus cannot be considered representative."<ref name="Lloyd pp21-53" />|group="N"|name="quote_Lloyd"}}`{=mediawiki} The area near the entrance of the vagina (the lower third) contains nearly 90 percent of the vaginal nerve endings, and there are areas in the anterior vaginal wall and between the top junction of the labia minora and the urinary meatus that are especially sensitive, but intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, solely from vaginal stimulation is occasional or otherwise absent because the vagina has significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris.
The prominent debate over the quantity of vaginal nerve endings began with Alfred Kinsey. Although Sigmund Freud\'s theory that clitoral orgasms are a prepubertal or adolescent phenomenon and that vaginal (or G-spot) orgasms are something that only physically mature females experience had been criticized before, Kinsey was the first researcher to harshly criticize the theory. Through his observations of female masturbation and interviews with thousands of women, Kinsey found that most of the women he observed and surveyed could not have vaginal orgasms, a finding that was also supported by his knowledge of sex organ anatomy. Scholar Janice M. Irvine stated that he \"criticized Freud and other theorists for projecting male constructs of sexuality onto women\" and \"viewed the clitoris as the main center of sexual response\". He considered the vagina to be \"relatively unimportant\" for sexual satisfaction, relaying that \"few women inserted fingers or objects into their vaginas when they masturbated\". Believing that vaginal orgasms are \"a physiological impossibility\" because the vagina has insufficient nerve endings for sexual pleasure or climax, he \"concluded that satisfaction from penile penetration \[is\] mainly psychological or perhaps the result of referred sensation\".
Masters and Johnson\'s research, as well as Shere Hite\'s, generally supported Kinsey\'s findings about the female orgasm. Masters and Johnson were the first researchers to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia. They observed that both clitoral and vaginal orgasms have the same stages of physical response, and found that the majority of their subjects could only achieve clitoral orgasms, while a minority achieved vaginal orgasms. On that basis, they argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms, reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood. The research came at the time of the second-wave feminist movement, which inspired feminists to reject the distinction made between clitoral and vaginal orgasms. Feminist Anne Koedt argued that because men \"have orgasms essentially by friction with the vagina\" and not the clitoral area, this is why women\'s biology had not been properly analyzed. \"Today, with extensive knowledge of anatomy, with \[C. Lombard Kelly\], Kinsey, and Masters and Johnson, to mention just a few sources, there is no ignorance on the subject \[of the female orgasm\]\", she stated in her 1970 article *The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm.* She added, \"There are, however, social reasons why this knowledge has not been popularized. We are living in a male society which has not sought change in women\'s role\".
Supporting an anatomical relationship between the clitoris and vagina is a study published in 2005, which investigated the size of the clitoris; Australian urologist Helen O\'Connell, described as having initiated discourse among mainstream medical professionals to refocus on and redefine the clitoris, noted a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the bulbs and corpora, and the distal urethra and vagina while using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology. While some studies, using ultrasound, have found physiological evidence of the G-spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse, O\'Connell argues that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-spot and experience of vaginal orgasms, taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration. \"The vaginal wall is, in fact, the clitoris\", she said. \"If you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls, you get the bulbs of the clitoris`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue\". O\'Connell et al., having performed dissections on the vulvas of cadavers and used photography to map the structure of nerves in the clitoris, made the assertion in 1998 that there is more erectile tissue associated with the clitoris than is generally described in anatomical textbooks and were thus already aware that the clitoris is more than just its glans. They concluded that some females have more extensive clitoral tissues and nerves than others, especially having observed this in young cadavers compared to elderly ones, and therefore whereas the majority of females can only achieve orgasm by direct stimulation of the external parts of the clitoris, the stimulation of the more generalized tissues of the clitoris via vaginal intercourse may be sufficient for others.
French researchers Odile Buisson and Pierre Foldès reported similar findings to that of O\'Connell\'s. In 2008, they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating how erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina. Based on their findings, they argued that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm through stimulation of the G-spot because the clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible. In their 2009 published study, it states the \"coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall\". Buisson and Foldès suggested \"that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris\' root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction\".
Researcher Vincenzo Puppo, who, while agreeing that the clitoris is the center of female sexual pleasure and believing that there is no anatomical evidence of the vaginal orgasm, disagrees with O\'Connell and other researchers\' terminological and anatomical descriptions of the clitoris (such as referring to the vestibular bulbs as the \"clitoral bulbs\") and states that \"the inner clitoris\" does not exist because the penis cannot come in contact with the congregation of multiple nerves/veins situated until the angle of the clitoris, detailed by Georg Ludwig Kobelt, or with the root of the clitoris, which does not have sensory receptors or erogenous sensitivity, during vaginal intercourse. Puppo\'s belief contrasts the general belief among researchers that vaginal orgasms are the result of clitoral stimulation; they reaffirm that clitoral tissue extends, or is at least stimulated by its bulbs, even in the area most commonly reported to be the G-spot.
The G-spot is analogous to the base of the penis and has additionally been theorized, with the sentiment from researcher Amichai Kilchevsky that because female fetal development is the \"default\" state in the absence of substantial exposure to male hormones and therefore the penis is essentially a clitoris enlarged by such hormones, there is no evolutionary reason why females would have an entity in addition to the clitoris that can produce orgasms. The general difficulty of achieving orgasms vaginally, which is a predicament that is likely due to nature easing the process of childbearing by drastically reducing the number of vaginal nerve endings, challenge arguments that vaginal orgasms help encourage sexual intercourse to facilitate reproduction. Supporting a distinct G-spot, however, is a study by Rutgers University, published in 2011, which was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; the scans indicated that the brain registered distinct feelings between stimulating the clitoris, the cervix and the vaginal wall`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}where the G-spot is reported to be`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}when several women stimulated themselves in a functional magnetic resonance machine. Barry Komisaruk, head of the research findings, stated that he feels that \"the bulk of the evidence shows that the G-spot is not a particular thing\" and that it is \"a region, it\'s a convergence of many different structures\".
### Vestigiality, adaptionist and reproductive views {#vestigiality_adaptionist_and_reproductive_views}
Whether the clitoris is vestigial, an adaptation, or serves a reproductive function has been debated. Geoffrey Miller stated that Helen Fisher, Meredith Small and Sarah Blaffer Hrdy \"have viewed the clitoral orgasm as a legitimate adaptation in its own right, with major implications for female sexual behavior and sexual evolution\". Like Lynn Margulis and Natalie Angier, Miller believes, \"The human clitoris shows no apparent signs of having evolved directly through male mate choice. It is not especially large, brightly colored, specifically shaped or selectively displayed during courtship\". He contrasts this with other female species that have clitorises as long as their male counterparts. He said the human clitoris \"could have evolved to be much more conspicuous if males had preferred sexual partners with larger brighter clitorises\" and that \"its inconspicuous design combined with its exquisite sensitivity suggests that the clitoris is important not as an object of male mate choice, but as a mechanism of female choice\".
While Miller stated that male scientists such as Stephen Jay Gould and Donald Symons \"have viewed the female clitoral orgasm as an evolutionary side-effect of the male capacity for penile orgasm\" and that they \"suggested that clitoral orgasm cannot be an adaptation because it is too hard to achieve\", Gould acknowledged that \"most female orgasms emanate from a clitoral, rather than vaginal (or some other), site\" and that his nonadaptive belief \"has been widely misunderstood as a denial of either the adaptive value of female orgasm in general or even as a claim that female orgasms lack significance in some broader sense\". He said that although he accepts that \"clitoral orgasm plays a pleasurable and central role in female sexuality and its joys\", \"\[a\]ll these favorable attributes, however, emerge just as clearly and just as easily, whether the clitoral site of orgasm arose as a spandrel or an adaptation\". He added that the \"male biologists who fretted over \[the adaptionist questions\] simply assumed that a deeply vaginal site, nearer the region of fertilization, would offer greater selective benefit\" due to their Darwinian, *summum bonum* beliefs about enhanced reproductive success.
Similar to Gould\'s beliefs about adaptionist views and that \"females grow nipples as adaptations for suckling, and males grow smaller unused nipples as a spandrel based upon the value of single development channels\", American philosopher Elisabeth Lloyd suggested that there is little evidence to support an adaptionist account of female orgasm. Canadian sexologist Meredith L. Chivers stated that \"Lloyd views female orgasm as an ontogenetic leftover; women have orgasms because the urogenital neurophysiology for orgasm is so strongly selected for in males that this developmental blueprint gets expressed in females without affecting fitness\" and this is similar to \"males hav\[ing\] nipples that serve no fitness-related function\".
At the 2002 conference for Canadian Society of Women in Philosophy, Nancy Tuana argued that the clitoris is unnecessary in reproduction; she stated that it has been ignored because of \"a fear of pleasure. It is pleasure separated from reproduction. That\'s the fear\". She reasoned that this fear causes ignorance, which veils female sexuality. O\'Connell stated, \"It boils down to rivalry between the sexes: the idea that one sex is sexual and the other reproductive. The truth is that both are sexual and both are reproductive\". She reiterated that the vestibular bulbs appear to be part of the clitoris and that the distal urethra and vagina are intimately related structures, although they are not erectile in character, forming a tissue cluster with the clitoris that appears to be the location of female sexual function and orgasm.
## Clinical significance {#clinical_significance}
### Modification
Genital modification may be for aesthetic, medical or cultural reasons. This includes female genital mutilation (FGM), sex reassignment surgery (for trans men as part of transitioning), intersex surgery, and genital piercings. Use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders and other athletes can result in significant enlargement of the clitoris along with other masculinizing effects on their bodies. Abnormal enlargement of the clitoris may be referred to as *clitoromegaly* or *macroclitoris*, but clitoromegaly is more commonly seen as a congenital anomaly of the genitalia.
Clitoroplasty, a sex reassignment surgery for trans women, involves the construction of a clitoris from penile tissue.
People taking hormones or other medications as part of a gender transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires and the difficulties of phalloplasty (construction of a penis) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analog (metoidioplasty). However, the clitoris cannot reach the size of the penis through hormones. A surgery to add function to the clitoris, such as metoidioplasty, is an alternative to phalloplasty that permits the retention of sexual sensation in the clitoris.
In clitoridectomy, the clitoris may be removed as part of a radical vulvectomy to treat cancer such as vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia; however, modern treatments favor more conservative approaches, as invasive surgery can have psychosexual consequences. Clitoridectomy more often involves parts of the clitoris being partially or completely removed during FGM, which may be additionally known as female circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC). Removing the glans does not mean that the whole structure is lost, since the clitoris reaches deep into the genitals.
In reduction clitoroplasty, a common intersex surgery, the glans is preserved and parts of the erectile bodies are excised. Problems with this technique include loss of sensation, loss of sexual function, and sloughing of the glans. One way to preserve the clitoris with its innervations and function is to imbricate and bury the glans; however, Şenaylı et al. state that \"pain during stimulus because of trapped tissue under the scarring is nearly routine. In another method, 50 percent of the ventral clitoris is removed through the level base of the clitoral shaft, and it is reported that good sensation and clitoral function are observed in follow-up\"; additionally, it has \"been reported that the complications are from the same as those in the older procedures for this method\".
Concerning females who have the condition congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the largest group requiring surgical genital correction, researcher Atilla Şenaylı stated, \"The main expectations for the operations are to create a normal female anatomy, with minimal complications and improvement of life quality\". Şenaylı added that \"\[c\]osmesis, structural integrity, the coital capacity of the vagina, and absence of pain during sexual activity are the parameters to be judged by the surgeon\". (Cosmesis usually refers to the surgical correction of a disfiguring defect.) He stated that although \"expectations can be standardized within these few parameters, operative techniques have not yet become homogeneous. Investigators have preferred different operations for different ages of patients\".
Gender assessment and surgical treatment are the two main steps in intersex operations. \"The first treatments for clitoromegaly were simply resection of the clitoris. Later, it was understood that the clitoris glans and sensory input are important to facilitate orgasm\", stated Atilla. The clitoral glans\' epithelium \"has high cutaneous sensitivity, which is important in sexual responses\", and it is because of this that \"recession clitoroplasty was later devised as an alternative, but reduction clitoroplasty is the method currently performed\".
What is often referred to as a \"clitoris piercing\" is the more common (and significantly less complicated) clitoral hood piercing. Since piercing the clitoris is difficult and very painful, piercing the clitoral hood is more common than piercing the clitoral shaft or glans, owing to the small percentage of people who are anatomically suited for it. Clitoral hood piercings are usually channeled in the form of vertical piercings, and, to a lesser extent, horizontal piercings. The triangle piercing is a very deep horizontal hood piercing and is done behind the clitoris as opposed to in front of it. For styles such as the Isabella piercing, which passes through the clitoral shaft but is placed deep at the base, they provide unique stimulation and still require the proper genital build. The Isabella starts between the clitoral glans and the urethra, exiting at the top of the clitoral hood; this piercing is highly risky concerning the damage that may occur because of intersecting nerves. (See Clitoral index.)
### Sexual disorders {#sexual_disorders}
Persistent genital arousal disorder (PGAD) results in spontaneous, persistent, and uncontrollable genital arousal in women, unrelated to any feelings of sexual desire. Clitoral priapism is a rare, potentially painful medical condition and is sometimes described as an aspect of PGAD. With PGAD, arousal lasts for an unusually extended period (ranging from hours to days); it can also be associated with morphometric and vascular modifications of the clitoris.
Drugs may cause or affect clitoral priapism. The drug trazodone is known to cause male priapism as a side effect, but there is only one documented report that it may have caused clitoral priapism, in which case discontinuing the medication may be a remedy. Additionally, nefazodone is documented to have caused clitoral engorgement, as distinct from clitoral priapism, in one case, and clitoral priapism can sometimes start as a result of, or only after, the discontinuation of antipsychotics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Because PGAD is relatively rare and, as its concept apart from clitoral priapism, has only been researched since 2001, there is little research into what may cure or remedy the disorder. In some recorded cases, PGAD was caused by or caused, a pelvic arterial-venous malformation with arterial branches to the clitoris; surgical treatment was effective in these cases.
In 2022, an article in *The New York Times* reported several instances of women experiencing reduced clitoral sensitivity or inability to orgasm following various surgical procedures, including biopsies of the vulva, pelvic mesh surgeries (sling surgeries), and labiaplasties. The Times quoted several researchers who suggest that surgeons\' lack of training in clitoral anatomy and nerve distribution may have been a factor.
As it is part of the vulva, the clitoris is susceptible to pain (clitorodynia) from various conditions such as sexually transmitted infections and pudendal nerve entrapment. The clitoris may also be affected by vulvar cancer, although at a much lower rate.
Clitoral phimosis (or clitoral adhesions) is when the prepuce cannot be retracted, limiting exposure of the glans.
### Smegma
The secretion of smegma (smegma clitoridis) comes from the apocrine glands of the clitoris (sweat), the sebaceous glands of the clitoris (sebum) and desquamating epithelial cells.
## Society and culture {#society_and_culture}
### Ancient Greek--16th century knowledge and vernacular {#ancient_greek16th_century_knowledge_and_vernacular}
Concerning historical and modern perceptions of the clitoris, the clitoris and the penis were considered equivalent by some scholars for more than 2,500 years in all respects except their arrangement. Due to it being frequently omitted from, or misrepresented in, historical and contemporary anatomical texts, it was also subject to a continual cycle of male scholars claiming to have discovered it. The ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and Greek and Roman generations up to and throughout the Renaissance, were aware that male and female sex organs are anatomically similar, but prominent anatomists such as Galen and Vesalius regarded the vagina as the structural equivalent of the penis, except for being inverted; Vesalius argued against the existence of the clitoris in normal women, and his anatomical model described how the penis corresponds with the vagina, without a role for the clitoris.
Ancient Greek and Roman sexuality additionally designated penetration as \"male-defined\" sexuality. The term *tribas*, or `{{em|tribade}}`{=mediawiki}, was used to refer to a woman or intersex individual who actively penetrated another person (male or female) through the use of the clitoris or a dildo. As any sexual act was believed to require that one of the partners be \"phallic\" and that therefore sexual activity between women was impossible without this feature, mythology popularly associated lesbians with either having enlarged clitorises or as incapable of enjoying sexual activity without the substitution of a phallus.
In 1545, Charles Estienne was the first writer to identify the clitoris in a work based on dissection, but he concluded that it had a urinary function. Following this study, Realdo Colombo (also known as Renaldus Columbus), a lecturer in surgery at the University of Padua, Italy, published a book called *De re anatomica* in 1559, in which he describes the \"seat of woman\'s delight\". In his role as researcher, Colombo concluded, \"Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings, if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me, it should be called the love or sweetness of Venus.\", about the mythological Venus, goddess of erotic love. Colombo\'s claim was disputed by his successor at Padua, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tube), who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris. In 1561, Falloppio stated, \"Modern anatomists have entirely neglected it \... and do not say a word about it \... and if others have spoken of it, know that they have taken it from me or my students\". This caused an upset in the European medical community, and, having read Colombo\'s and Falloppio\'s detailed descriptions of the clitoris, Vesalius stated, \"It is unreasonable to blame others for incompetence on the basis of some sport of nature you have observed in some women and you can hardly ascribe this new and useless part, as if it were an organ, to healthy women\". He concluded, \"I think that such a structure appears in hermaphrodites who otherwise have well-formed genitals, as Paul of Aegina describes, but I have never once seen in any woman a penis (which Avicenna called albaratha and the Greeks called an enlarged nympha and classed as an illness) or even the rudiments of a tiny phallus\".
The average anatomist had difficulty challenging Galen\'s or Vesalius\' research; Galen was the most famous physician of the Greek era and his works were considered the standard of medical understanding up to and throughout the Renaissance (i.e. for almost two thousand years), and various terms being used to describe the clitoris seemed to have further confused the issue of its structure. In addition to Avicenna\'s naming it the *albaratha* or *virga* (\"rod\") and Colombo\'s calling it the sweetness of Venus, Hippocrates used the term *columella* (\"little pillar\"), and Albucasis, an Arabic medical authority, named it *tentigo* (\"tension\"). The names indicated that each description of the structures was about the body and glans of the clitoris but usually the glans. It was additionally known to the Romans, who named it (vulgar slang) *landica*. However, Albertus Magnus, one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages, felt that it was important to highlight \"homologies between male and female structures and function\" by adding \"a psychology of sexual arousal\" that Aristotle had not used to detail the clitoris. While in Constantine\'s treatise *Liber de Coitu*, the clitoris is referred to a few times, Magnus gave an equal amount of attention to male and female organs.
Like Avicenna, Magnus also used the word *virga* for the clitoris, but employed it for the male and female genitals; despite his efforts to give equal ground to the clitoris, the cycle of suppression and rediscovery of the organ continued, and a 16th-century justification for clitoridectomy appears to have been confused with intersex conditions and the imprecision created by the word *nymphae* substituted for the word *clitoris*. Nymphotomy was a medical operation to excise an unusually large clitoris, but what was considered \"unusually large\" was often a matter of perception. The procedure was routinely performed on Egyptian women, due to physicians such as Jacques Daléchamps who believed that this version of the clitoris was \"an unusual feature that occurred in almost all Egyptian women \[and\] some of ours, so that when they find themselves in the company of other women, or their clothes rub them while they walk or their husbands wish to approach them, it erects like a male penis and indeed they use it to play with other women, as their husbands would do \... Thus the parts are cut\".
### 17th century--present day knowledge and vernacular {#th_centurypresent_day_knowledge_and_vernacular}
thumb\|right\|upright=1\|A Georg Ludwig Kobelt illustration of the anatomy of the clitoris (1844)
Caspar Bartholin (whom Bartholin\'s glands are named after), a 17th-century Danish anatomist, dismissed Colombo\'s and Falloppio\'s claims that they discovered the clitoris, arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to medical science since the second century. Although 17th-century midwives recommended to men and women that women should aspire to achieve orgasms to help them get pregnant for general health and well-being and to keep their relationships healthy, debate about the importance of the clitoris persisted, notably in the work of Regnier de Graaf in the 17th century and Georg Ludwig Kobelt in the 19th.
Like Falloppio and Bartholin, de Graaf criticized Colombo\'s claim of having discovered the clitoris; his work appears to have provided the first comprehensive account of clitoral anatomy. \"We are extremely surprised that some anatomists make no more mention of this part than if it did not exist at all in the universe of nature\", he stated. \"In every cadaver, we have so far dissected we have found it quite perceptible to sight and touch\". De Graaf stressed the need to distinguish `{{em|nympha}}`{=mediawiki} from `{{em|clitoris}}`{=mediawiki}, choosing to \"always give \[the clitoris\] the name clitoris\" to avoid confusion; this resulted in the frequent use of the correct name for the organ among anatomists, but considering that `{{em|nympha}}`{=mediawiki} was also varied in its use and eventually became the term specific to the labia minora, more confusion ensued. Debate about whether orgasm was even necessary for women began in the Victorian era, and Freud\'s 1905 theory about the immaturity of clitoral orgasms (see above) negatively affected women\'s sexuality throughout most of the 20th century.
Toward the end of World War I, a maverick British MP named Noel Pemberton Billing published an article entitled \"The Cult of the Clitoris\", furthering his conspiracy theories and attacking the actress Maud Allan and Margot Asquith, wife of the prime minister. The accusations led to a sensational libel trial, which Billing eventually won; Philip Hoare reports that Billing argued that \"as a medical term, \'clitoris\' would only be known to the \'initiated\', and was incapable of corrupting moral minds\". Jodie Medd argues regarding \"The Cult of the Clitoris\" that \"the female non-reproductive but desiring body \[\...\] simultaneously demands and refuses interpretative attention, inciting scandal through its very resistance to representation\".
From the 18th to the 20th century, especially during the 20th, details of the clitoris from various genital diagrams presented in earlier centuries were omitted from later texts. The full extent of the clitoris was alluded to by Masters and Johnson in 1966, but in such a muddled fashion that the significance of their description became obscured; in 1981, the Federation of Feminist Women\'s Health Clinics (FFWHC) continued this process with anatomically precise illustrations identifying 18 structures of the clitoris. Despite the FFWHC\'s illustrations, Josephine Lowndes Sevely, in 1987, described the vagina as more of the counterpart of the penis.
Concerning other beliefs about the clitoris, Hite (1976 and 1981) found that, during sexual intimacy with a partner, clitoral stimulation was more often described by women as foreplay than as a primary method of sexual activity, including orgasm. Further, although the FFWHC\'s work significantly propelled feminist reformation of anatomical texts, it did not have a general impact. Helen O\'Connell\'s late 1990s research motivated the medical community to start changing the way the clitoris is anatomically defined. O\'Connell describes typical textbook descriptions of the clitoris as lacking detail and including inaccuracies, such as older and modern anatomical descriptions of the female human urethral and genital anatomy having been based on dissections performed on elderly cadavers whose erectile (clitoral) tissue had shrunk. She instead credits the work of Georg Ludwig Kobelt as the most comprehensive and accurate description of clitoral anatomy. MRI measurements, which provide a live and multi-planar method of examination, now complement the FFWHC\'s, as well as O\'Connell\'s, research efforts concerning the clitoris, showing that the volume of clitoral erectile tissue is ten times that which is shown in doctors\' offices and anatomy textbooks.
In Bruce Bagemihl\'s survey of *The Zoological Record* (1978--1997)`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}which contains over a million documents from over 6,000 scientific journals`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}539 articles focusing on the penis were found, while seven were found focusing on the clitoris. In 2000, researchers Shirley Ogletree and Harvey Ginsberg concluded that there is a general neglect of the word `{{em|clitoris}}`{=mediawiki} in the common vernacular. They looked at the terms used to describe genitalia in the PsycINFO database from 1887 to 2000 and found that `{{em|penis}}`{=mediawiki} was used in 1,482 sources, `{{em|vagina}}`{=mediawiki} in 409, while `{{em|clitoris}}`{=mediawiki} was only mentioned in 83. They additionally analyzed 57 books listed in a computer database for sex instruction. In the majority of the books, `{{em|penis}}`{=mediawiki} was the most commonly discussed body part`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}mentioned more than `{{em|clitoris}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{em|vagina}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{em|uterus}}`{=mediawiki} put together. They last investigated terminology used by college students, ranging from Euro-American (76%/76%), Hispanic (18%/14%), and African American (4%/7%), regarding the students\' beliefs about sexuality and knowledge on the subject. The students were overwhelmingly educated to believe that the vagina is the female counterpart of the penis. The authors found that the student\'s belief that the inner portion of the vagina is the most sexually sensitive part of the female body correlated with negative attitudes toward masturbation and strong support for sexual myths.
thumb\|upright=1\|Protester for clitoris awareness at a women\'s rights rally in Paris, France (2019)
A study in 2005 reported that, among a sample of undergraduate students, the most frequently cited sources for knowledge about the clitoris were school and friends, and that this was associated with the least tested knowledge. Knowledge of the clitoris by self-exploration was the least cited, but \"respondents correctly answered, on average, three of the five clitoral knowledge measures\". The authors stated that \"\[k\]nowledge correlated significantly with the frequency of women\'s orgasm in masturbation but not partnered sex\" and that their \"results are discussed in light of gender inequality and a social construction of sexuality, endorsed by both men and women, that privileges men\'s sexual pleasure over women\'s, such that orgasm for women is pleasing but ultimately incidental\". They concluded that part of the solution to remedying \"this problem\" requires that males and females are taught more about the clitoris than is currently practiced.
The humanitarian group Clitoraid launched the first annual International Clitoris Awareness Week, from 6 to 12 May in 2015. Clitoraid spokesperson Nadine Gary stated that the group\'s mission is to raise public awareness about the clitoris because it has \"been ignored, vilified, made taboo, and considered sinful and shameful for centuries\". (See also Vulva activism)
Odile Fillod created a 3D printable, open source, full-size model of the clitoris, for use in a set of anti-sexist videos she had been commissioned to produce. Fillod was interviewed by Stephanie Theobald, whose article in *The Guardian* stated that the 3D model would be used for sex education in French schools, from primary to secondary level, from September 2016 onwards; this was not the case, but the story went viral across the world.
A questionnaire in a 2019 study was administered to a sample of educational sciences postgraduate students to trace the level of their knowledge concerning the organs of the female and male reproductive system. The authors reported that about two-thirds of the students failed to name parts of the vulva, such as the clitoris and labia, even after detailed pictures were provided to them. An analysis in 2022 reported that the clitoris is mentioned in only one out of 113 Greek secondary education textbooks used in biology classes from the 1870s to present.
### Contemporary art {#contemporary_art}
New York artist Sophia Wallace started work in 2012 on a multimedia project to challenge misconceptions about the clitoris. Based on O\'Connell\'s 1998 research, Wallace\'s work emphasizes the sheer scope and size of the human clitoris. She says that ignorance of this still seems to be pervasive in modern society. \"It is a curious dilemma to observe the paradox that on the one hand, the female body is the primary metaphor for sexuality, its use saturates advertising, art, and the mainstream erotic imaginary\", she said. \"Yet, the clitoris, the true female sexual organ, is virtually invisible\". The project is called `{{em|Cliteracy}}`{=mediawiki} and it includes a \"clit rodeo\", which is interactive, climb-on model of a giant golden clitoris, including its inner parts, produced with the help of sculptor Kenneth Thomas. \"It\'s been a showstopper wherever it\'s been shown. People are hungry to be able to talk about this\", Wallace said. \"I love seeing men standing up for the clit \[\...\] Cliteracy is about not having one\'s body controlled or legislated \[\...\] Not having access to the pleasure that is your birthright is a deeply political act\".
Another project started in New York, in 2016, street art that has since spread to almost 100 cities: Clitorosity, a \"community-driven effort to celebrate the full structure of the clitoris\", combining chalk drawings and words to spark interaction and conversation with passers-by, which the team documents on social media. In 2016, Lori-Malépart Traversy made an animated documentary about the unrecognized anatomy of the clitoris.
Alli Sebastian Wolf created a golden `{{Ratio|100|1}}`{=mediawiki} scale model of the clitoris in 2017, called the *Glitoris* and said, she hopes knowledge of the clitoris will soon become so uncontroversial that making art about them would be as irrelevant as making art about penises.
Other projects listed by the BBC include Clito Clito, body-positive jewellery made in Berlin; *Clitorissima*, a documentary intended to normalize mother-daughter conversations about the clitoris; and a ClitArt festival in London, encompassing spoken word performances as well as visual art. French art collective Les Infemmes (a blend word of \"infamous\" and \"women\") published a fanzine whose title can be translated as \"The Clit Cheatsheet\".
### Influence on female genital mutilation {#influence_on_female_genital_mutilation}
Significant controversy surrounds female genital mutilation (FGM), with the World Health Organization (WHO) being one of many health organizations that have campaigned against the procedures on behalf of human rights, stating that \"FGM has no health benefits\" and that it is \"a violation of the human rights of girls and women\" which \"reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes\". The practice has existed at one point or another in almost all human civilizations, most commonly to exert control over the sexual behavior, including masturbation, of girls and women, but also to change the clitoris\' appearance. Custom and tradition are the most frequently cited reasons for FGM, with some cultures believing that not performing it has the possibility of disrupting the cohesiveness of their social and political systems, such as FGM also being a part of a girl\'s initiation into adulthood. Often, a girl is not considered an adult in an FGM-practicing society unless she has undergone FGM, and the \"removal of the clitoris and labia`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}viewed by some as the `{{em|male parts}}`{=mediawiki} of a woman\'s body`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}is thought to enhance the girl\'s femininity, often synonymous with docility and obedience\".
Female genital mutilation is carried out in several societies, especially in Africa, with 85 percent of genital mutilations performed in Africa consisting of clitoridectomy or excision, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the Middle East and Southeast Asia, on girls from a few days old to mid-adolescent, often to reduce the sexual desire to preserve vaginal virginity. The practice of FGM has spread globally, as immigrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East bring the custom with them. In the United States, it is sometimes practiced on girls born with a clitoris that is larger than usual. Comfort Momoh, who specializes in the topic of FGM, states that FGM might have been \"practiced in ancient Egypt as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy\"; there are reports that traces of infibulation are on Egyptian mummies. FGM is still routinely practiced in Egypt. Greenberg et al. report that \"one study found that 97 percent of married women in Egypt had had some form of genital mutilation performed\". Amnesty International estimated in 1997 that more than two million FGM procedures are performed every year. `{{Anchor|In other animals}}`{=mediawiki}
## Other animals {#other_animals}
Although the clitoris (and clitoral prepuce/sheath) exists in all mammal species, there are few detailed studies of the anatomy of the clitoris in non-humans. Studies have been done on the clitoris of cats, sheep and mice. Some mammals have clitoral glands. The clitoris is especially developed in fossas, non-human apes, lemurs, moles, and often contains a small bone known as the os clitoridis. Many species of talpid moles exhibit peniform clitorises that are tunneled by the urethra and are found to have erectile tissue. The clitoris is contained in fossa, which is a small pouch of tissue in horses and dogs. The clitoris is found in other amniotic creatures including reptiles such as turtles and crocodilians, and birds such as ratites (e.g., cassowaries, ostriches) and anatids (e.g., swans, ducks). The hemiclitoris is one-half of a paired structure in squamates (lizards and snakes). Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are grizzly bears, brown bears, American black bears and polar bears. Although the bears have been described as having \"a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina\" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears\' population), scientists state that female spotted hyenas are the only non-intersex female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening, and whose sexual anatomy is distinct from usual intersex cases.
### Non-human primates {#non_human_primates}
In spider monkeys, the clitoris is especially developed and has an interior passage, or urethra, that makes it almost identical to the penis, and it retains and distributes urine droplets as the female spider monkey moves around. Scholar Alan F. Dixson stated that this urine \"is voided at the bases of the clitoris, flows down the shallow groove on its perineal surface, and is held by the skin folds on each side of the groove\". Because spider monkeys of South America have pendulous and erectile clitorises long enough to be mistaken for a penis, researchers and observers of the species look for a scrotum to determine the animal\'s sex; a similar approach is to identify scent-marking glands that may also be present on the clitoris.
The clitoris erects in squirrel monkeys during dominance displays, which indirectly influences the squirrel monkeys\' reproductive success.
The clitoris of bonobos is larger and more externalized than in most mammals; Natalie Angier said that a young adolescent \"female bonobo is maybe half the weight of a human teenager, but her clitoris is three times bigger than the human equivalent, and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks\". Female bonobos often engage in the practice of genital-genital (GG) rubbing. Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, \"which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement\"; he added that, on average, they engage in this practice \"about once every two hours\", and as bonobos sometimes mate face-to-face, \"evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse\".
Many strepsirrhine species exhibit elongated clitorises that are either fully or partially tunneled by the urethra, including mouse lemurs, dwarf lemurs, all *Eulemur* species, lorises and galagos. Some of these species also exhibit a membrane seal across the vagina that closes the vaginal opening during the non-mating seasons, most notably mouse and dwarf lemurs. The clitoral morphology of the ring-tailed lemur is the most well-studied. They are described as having \"elongated, pendulous clitorises that are \[fully\] tunneled by a urethra\". The urethra is surrounded by erectile tissue, which allows for significant swelling during breeding seasons, but this erectile tissue differs from the typical male corpus spongiosum. Non-pregnant adult ring-tailed females do not show higher testosterone levels than males, but they do exhibit higher A~4~ and estrogen levels during seasonal aggression. During pregnancy, estrogen, A~4~, and testosterone levels are raised, but female fetuses are still \"protected\" from excess testosterone. These \"masculinized\" genitalia are often found alongside other traits, such as female-dominated social groups, reduced sexual dimorphism that makes females the same size as males, and even ratios of sexes in adult populations. This phenomenon that has been dubbed the \"lemur syndrome\". A 2014 study of *Eulemur* masculinization proposed that behavioral and morphological masculinization in female Lemuriformes is an ancestral trait that likely emerged after their split from Lorisiformes.
### Spotted hyenas {#spotted_hyenas}
While female spotted hyenas were sometimes referred to as pseudohermaphrodites and scientists of ancient and later historical times believed that they were hermaphrodites, modern scientists do not refer to them as such. That designation is typically reserved for those who simultaneously exhibit features of both sexes; the genetic makeup of female spotted hyenas \"are clearly distinct\" from male spotted hyenas.
Female spotted hyenas have a clitoris 90 percent as long and the same diameter as a male penis (171 millimetres long and 22 millimetres in diameter), and this pseudo-penis\' formation seems largely androgen-independent because it appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland. The spotted hyenas have a highly erectile clitoris, complete with a false scrotum; author John C. Wingfield stated that \"the resemblance to male genitalia is so close that sex can be determined with confidence only by palpation of the scrotum\". The pseudo-penis can also be distinguished from the males\' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans. The female possesses no external vagina, as the labia are fused to form a pseudo-scrotum. In the females, this scrotum consists of soft adipose tissue. Like male spotted hyenas with regard to their penises, the female spotted hyenas have small spines on the head of their clitorises, which scholar Catherine Blackledge said makes \"the clitoris tip feel like soft sandpaper\". She added that the clitoris \"extends away from the body in a sleek and slender arc, measuring, on average, over 17 cm from root to tip. Just like a penis, \[it\] is fully erectile, raising its head in hyena greeting ceremonies, social displays, games of rough and tumble or when sniffing out peers\".
thumb\|upright=1.8\|**Male and female reproductive systems of the spotted hyena, from Schmotzer & Zimmerman, *Anatomischer Anzeiger* (1922)**. Abb. 1 (Fig. 1.) *Male reproductive anatomy*. Abb. 2 (Fig. 2.) *Female reproductive anatomy*. Principal abbreviations (from Schmotzer & Zimmerman) are: **T**, testis; **VD**, vas deferens; **BU**, bulbus urethrae; **Ur**, urethra; **R**, rectum; **P**, penis; **S**, scrotum; **O**, ovarium; **FT**, tuba Fallopii; **RL**, ligamentum uteri; **Ut**, uterus; **CC**, corpus clitoridis. Remaining abbreviations, in alphabetical order, are: *AG*, glandula analis; *B*, vesica urinaria; *CG*, glandula Cowperi; *CP*, corpus penis; *CS*, corpus spongiosum; *GC*, glans clitoridis; *GP*, glans penis; *LA*, musculus levator ani; *Pr*, praeputium; *RC*, musculus retractor clitoridis; *RP*, musculus retractor penis; *UCG*, canalis urogenitalis. `{{anchor|Genital grooming}}`{=mediawiki} Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure during fetal development, the female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts; social-wise, they are of higher rank than the males, being dominant or dominant and alpha, and the females who have been exposed to higher levels of androgen than average become higher-ranking than their female peers. Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher-ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience, but females also lick each other\'s clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds; in contrast, while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females, the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank.
The female spotted hyenas urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris since the urethra and vagina exit through the clitoral glans. This trait makes mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals, and also makes attempts to sexually coerce (physically force sexual activity on) females futile. Joan Roughgarden, an ecologist and evolutionary biologist, said that because the hyena\'s clitoris is higher on the belly than the vagina in most mammals, the male hyena \"must slide his rear under the female when mating so that his penis lines up with \[her clitoris\]\". In an action similar to pushing up a shirtsleeve, the \"female retracts the \[pseudo-penis\] on itself, and creates an opening into which the male inserts his own penis\". The male must practice this act, which can take a couple of months to successfully perform. Female spotted hyenas exposed to larger doses of androgen have significantly damaged ovaries, making it difficult to conceive. After giving birth, the pseudo-penis is stretched and loses much of its original aspects; it becomes a slack-walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips. Approximately 15% of the females die during their first time giving birth, and over 60% of their species\' firstborn young die.
A 2006 Baskin et al. study concluded, \"The basic anatomical structures of the corporeal bodies in both sexes of humans and spotted hyenas were similar. As in humans, the dorsal nerve distribution was unique in being devoid of nerves at the 12 o\'clock position in the penis and clitoris of the spotted hyena\" and that \"\[d\]orsal nerves of the penis/clitoris in humans and male spotted hyenas tracked along both sides of the corporeal body to the corpus spongiosum at the 5 and 7 o\'clock positions. The dorsal nerves penetrated the corporeal body and distally the glans in the hyena\", and in female hyenas, \"the dorsal nerves fanned out laterally on the clitoral body. Glans morphology was different in appearance in both sexes, being wide and blunt in the female and tapered in the male\".
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Outline of chemistry
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The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry:
**Chemistry** is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. `{{TOC limit|limit=2}}`{=mediawiki}
## Summary
Chemistry can be described as all of the following:
- An academic discipline -- one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals.
- A scientific field (a branch of science) -- widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals.
- A natural science -- one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method.
- A physical science -- one that studies non-living systems.
- A biological science -- one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. *See Outline of biochemistry.*
## Branches
- Physical chemistry -- study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap.
- Chemical kinetics -- study of rates of chemical processes.
- Chemical physics -- investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes.
- Electrochemistry -- branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.
- Femtochemistry -- area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10^−15^ seconds (one femtosecond).
- Geochemistry -- chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology.
- Photochemistry -- study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.
- Quantum chemistry -- branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.
- Solid-state chemistry -- study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids.
- Spectroscopy -- study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy.
- Stereochemistry -- study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules
- Surface science -- study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid--liquid interfaces, solid--gas interfaces, solid--vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces.
- Thermochemistry -- the branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated.
- Calorimetry -- the study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes.
- Organic chemistry (outline) -- study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
- Biochemistry -- study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.
- Neurochemistry -- study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
- Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering -- an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression.
- Bioorganic chemistry -- combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology.
- Biophysical chemistry -- is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems.
- Medicinal chemistry -- discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes.
- Organometallic chemistry -- is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin.
- Physical organic chemistry -- study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
- Inorganic chemistry -- study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
- Bioinorganic chemistry -- is a field that examines the role of metals in biology.
- Cluster chemistry -- focuses on crystalline materials most often existing on the 0--2 nanometer scale and characterizing their crystal structures and understanding their role in the nucleation and growth mechanisms of larger materials.
- Nuclear chemistry -- study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.
- Analytical chemistry -- analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
**Other**
- Astrochemistry -- study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.
- Cosmochemistry -- study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions.
- Computational chemistry -- is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems.
- Environmental chemistry -- study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment.
- Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances.
- Supramolecular chemistry -- refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
- Theoretical chemistry -- study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics.
- Polymer chemistry -- multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
- Wet chemistry -- is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase.
- Agrochemistry -- study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation.
- Atmospheric chemistry -- branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth\'s atmosphere and that of other planets.
- Chemical biology -- scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems.
- Chemo-informatics -- use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.
- Flow chemistry -- study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment.
- Immunohistochemistry -- involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues.
- Immunochemistry -- is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.
- Chemical oceanography -- study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth\'s oceans.
- Mathematical chemistry -- area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
- Mechanochemistry -- coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale.
- Molecular biology -- study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry.
- Petrochemistry -- study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.
- Phytochemistry -- study of phytochemicals which come from plants.
- Radiochemistry -- chemistry of radioactive materials.
- Sonochemistry -- study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.
- Synthetic chemistry -- study of chemical synthesis.
## History
History of chemistry
- Precursors to chemistry
- Alchemy (outline)
- History of alchemy
- History of the branches of chemistry
- History of analytical chemistry -- history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.
- History of astrochemistry -- history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.
- History of cosmochemistry -- history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
- History of atmospheric chemistry -- history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth\'s atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines
- History of biochemistry -- history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.
- History of agrochemistry -- history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation.
- History of bioinorganic chemistry -- history of the examination of the role of metals in biology.
- History of bioorganic chemistry -- history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry.
- History of biophysical chemistry -- history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems.
- History of environmental chemistry -- history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
- History of immunochemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components of the immune system.
- History of medicinal chemistry -- history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs).
- History of natural product chemistry -- history of the scientific study of chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms---history of chemical compounds found in nature that usually have a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design.
- History of neurochemistry -- history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function.
- History of computational chemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems.
- History of chemo-informatics -- history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry.
- History of molecular mechanics -- history of the uses of Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems.
- History of flavor chemistry -- history of the use of chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.
- History of flow chemistry -- history of chemical reactions run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production.
- History of geochemistry -- history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry
- History of aqueous geochemistry -- history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions
- History of isotope geochemistry -- history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology
- History of ocean chemistry -- history of the study the chemistry of marine environments, including the influences of different variables.
- History of organic geochemistry -- history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth
- History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry -- history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth
- History of inorganic chemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
- History of nuclear chemistry -- history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.
- History of radiochemistry -- history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).
- History of organic chemistry -- history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
- History of petrochemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.
- History of organometallic chemistry -- history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
- History of photochemistry -- history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.
- History of physical chemistry -- history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.
- History of chemical kinetics -- history of the study of rates of chemical processes.
- History of chemical thermodynamics -- history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
- History of electrochemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.
- History of femtochemistry -- history of the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10^−15^ seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).
- History of mathematical chemistry -- history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
- History of mechanochemistry -- history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines.
- History of physical organic chemistry -- history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
- History of quantum chemistry -- history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.
- History of sonochemistry -- history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems.
- History of stereochemistry -- history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules.
- History of supramolecular chemistry -- history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
- History of thermochemistry -- history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations.
- History of phytochemistry -- history of the study of phytochemicals.
- History of polymer chemistry -- history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
- History of solid-state chemistry -- history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
- History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry:
- History of chemical biology -- history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.
- History of chemical oceanography -- history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth\'s oceans.
- History of chemical physics -- history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering.
- History of oenology -- history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.
- History of spectroscopy -- history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy
- History of surface science -- history of the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid--liquid interfaces, solid--gas interfaces, solid--vacuum interfaces, and liquid--gas interfaces.
- History of chemicals
- History of chemical elements
- History of carbon
- History of hydrogen
- Timeline of hydrogen technologies
- History of oxygen
- History of chemical products
- History of aspirin
- History of cosmetics
- History of gunpowder
- History of pharmaceutical drugs
- History of vitamins
- History of chemical processes
- History of manufactured gas
- History of the Haber process
- History of the chemical industry
- History of the petroleum industry
- History of the pharmaceutical industry
- History of the periodic table
## Chemicals
- Dictionary of chemical formulas
- List of biomolecules
- List of inorganic compounds
- Periodic table
## Atomic theory {#atomic_theory}
Atomic theory
- Atomic models
- Atomism -- natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces.
- Plum pudding model
- Rutherford model
- Bohr model
## Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry
### Terminology
- Thermochemistry
- Chemical kinetics -- the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction\'s mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.
- Exothermic -- a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow.
- Endothermic -- a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow.
- Thermochemical equation
- Enthalpy change -- internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure.
- Enthalpy of reaction
- Temperature -- an objective comparative measure of heat.
- Calorimeter -- an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity.
- Heat -- A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation.
- Joule -- a unit of energy.
- Calorie
- Specific heat
- Specific heat capacity
- Latent heat
- Heat of fusion
- Heat of vaporization
- Collision theory
- Activation energy
- Activated complex
- Reaction rate
- Catalyst
### Thermochemical equations {#thermochemical_equations}
- Chemical equations that include the **heat** involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side.
- Examples:
- H~2~O(l) + 240kJ → H~2~O(g)
- N~2~ + 3H~2~ → 2NH~3~ + 92kJ
- Joule (J)
## Chemists
: *For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists*
- Amedeo Avogadro
- Elias James Corey
- Marie Curie
- John Dalton
- Humphry Davy
- George Eastman
- Michael Faraday
- Rosalind Franklin
- Eleuthère Irénée du Pont
- Dmitriy Mendeleyev
- Alfred Nobel
- Wilhelm Ostwald
- Louis Pasteur
- Linus Pauling
- Joseph Priestley
- Robert Burns Woodward
- Karl Ziegler
- Ahmed Zewail
## Chemistry literature {#chemistry_literature}
- Scientific literature
- Scientific journal
- Academic journal
- List of important publications in chemistry
- List of scientific journals in chemistry
- List of science magazines
- Scientific American
## Lists
Chemical elements data references
- List of chemical elements -- atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name
- List of minerals -- Minerals
- Electron configurations of the elements (data page) -- electron configuration, electrons per shell
- Densities of the elements (data page) -- density (solid, liquid, gas)
- Electron affinity (data page) -- electron affinity
- Melting points of the elements (data page) -- melting point
- Boiling points of the elements (data page) -- boiling point
- Critical points of the elements (data page) -- critical point
- Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) -- heat of fusion
- Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) -- heat of vaporization
- Heat capacities of the elements (data page) -- heat capacity
- Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) -- vapor pressure
- Electronegativities of the elements (data page) -- electronegativity (Pauling scale)
- Ionization energies of the elements (data page) -- ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol)
- Atomic radii of the elements (data page) -- atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius
- Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) -- electrical resistivity
- Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) -- thermal conductivity
- Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) -- thermal expansion
- Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) -- speed of sound
- Elastic properties of the elements (data page) -- Young\'s modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus
- Hardnesses of the elements (data page) -- Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness
- Abundances of the elements (data page) -- Earth\'s crust, sea water, Sun and solar system
- List of oxidation states of the elements -- oxidation states
List of compounds
- List of CAS numbers by chemical compound
- List of Extremely Hazardous Substances
- List of inorganic compounds
- List of organic compounds
- List of alkanes
- List of alloys
Other
- List of thermal conductivities
- List of purification methods in chemistry
- List of unsolved problems in chemistry
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Outline of critical theory
|
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory:
**Critical theory** -- the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary criticism. This has led to the very literal use of \'critical theory\' as an umbrella term to describe any theory founded upon critique. The term \"Critical Theory\" was first coined by Max Horkheimer in his 1937 essay \"Traditional and Critical Theory\".
## Essence of critical theory {#essence_of_critical_theory}
- Cultural studies --
- Critical theorists --
- Works in critical theory --
- Truth theory --
### Concepts
- Aesthetics
- Agency (sociology)
- Authorship
- History
- Human rights
- Ideology
- Law
- Money
- Objectivity and subjectivity
- Sex--gender distinction
## Branches of critical theory {#branches_of_critical_theory}
- Social theory --
- Literary theory --
- Thing theory --
- Critical theory of technology --
- Critical legal studies --
- Hermeneutics --
## Actor--network theory {#actornetwork_theory}
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms}
- Articulation (sociology)
- Assemblage (philosophy)
- Blackboxing
## African-American studies {#african_american_studies}
- Henry Louis Gates Jr. --
- Frantz Fanon --
## Gender studies {#gender_studies}
- Lauren Berlant --
- Judith Butler --
- Raewyn Connell --
- Susan McClary --
- Laura Mulvey --
## Marxist theory {#marxist_theory}
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_1}
## Postcolonialism
- Chinua Achebe --
- \"An Image of Africa\" --
- Frantz Fanon --
- \"The Wretched of the Earth\" --
- Homi Bhabha --
- Double consciousness --
## Structuralism
- Roland Barthes --
- Ferdinand de Saussure --
- Claude Lévi-Strauss --
- Louis Althusser --
## Post-structuralism {#post_structuralism}
- Roland Barthes --
- Michel Foucault --
- Julia Kristeva --
- Bruno Latour --
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_2}
- Critical apparatus
- Event (philosophy)
- Genealogy (philosophy)
- Heterotopia (space)
## Deconstruction
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_3}
- Bricolage
## Postmodern philosophy {#postmodern_philosophy}
- Jean-François Lyotard --
- Gilles Deleuze --
- Félix Guattari --
- Ernesto Laclau --
- Claude Lefort --
- A Cyborg Manifesto --
## Reconstructivism
- Paulo Freire --
- John Dewey --
## Psychoanalytic theory {#psychoanalytic_theory}
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_4}
## Schizoanalytic theory {#schizoanalytic_theory}
- Félix Guattari --
- Gilles Deleuze --
- Deleuze and Guattari --
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_5}
- Assemblage (philosophy)
- Body without organs
- Rhizome (philosophy)
## Queer theory {#queer_theory}
- Judith Butler --
- Heteronormativity --
- Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick --
- Gloria E. Anzaldúa --
- New Queer Cinema --
- Queer pedagogy --
## Semiotics
- Roland Barthes --
- Julia Kristeva --
- Charles Sanders Peirce --
- Ferdinand de Saussure --
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_6}
- Semiotic square
## Literary theory {#literary_theory}
- Mikhail Bakhtin
- Mary Louise Pratt --
- René Girard --
### Commonly used terms {#commonly_used_terms_7}
- Carnivalesque
- Chronotope
- Dialogic
- Narratology
- Heteroglossia
## Theories of identity {#theories_of_identity}
- Private sphere -- certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions. Examples of the private sphere are family and home. The complement or opposite of public sphere.
- Public sphere -- area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is \"a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment.\"
- Creolization
## Major works {#major_works}
- Bloch, Ernst (1938--47). *The Principle of Hope*
- Fromm, Erich (1941). *The Fear of Freedom* (UK)/*Escape from Freedom* (US)
- Horkheimer, Max; Adorno, Theodor W. (1944--47). *Dialectic of Enlightenment*
- Barthes, Roland (1957). *Mythologies*
- Habermas, Jürgen (1962). *The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere*
- Marcuse, Herbert (1964). *One-Dimensional Man*
- Adorno, Theodor W. (1966). *Negative Dialectics*
- Derrida, Jacques (1967). *Of Grammatology*
- Derrida, Jacques (1967). *Writing and Difference*
- Habermas, Jürgen (1981). *The Theory of Communicative Action*
## Major theorists {#major_theorists}
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6,904 |
Context switch
|
In computing, a **context switch** is the process of storing the state of a process or thread, so that it can be restored and resume execution at a later point, and then restoring a different, previously saved, state. This allows multiple processes to share a single central processing unit (CPU), and is an essential feature of a multiprogramming or multitasking operating system. In a traditional CPU, each process -- a program in execution -- uses the various CPU registers to store data and hold the current state of the running process. However, in a multitasking operating system, the operating system switches between processes or threads to allow the execution of multiple processes simultaneously. For every switch, the operating system must save the state of the currently running process, followed by loading the next process state, which will run on the CPU. This sequence of operations that stores the state of the running process and loads the following running process is called a context switch.
The precise meaning of the phrase \"context switch\" varies. In a multitasking context, it refers to the process of storing the system state for one task, so that task can be paused and another task resumed. A context switch can also occur as the result of an interrupt, such as when a task needs to access disk storage, freeing up CPU time for other tasks. Some operating systems also require a context switch to move between user mode and kernel mode tasks. The process of context switching can have a negative impact on system performance.
## Cost
Context switches are usually computationally intensive, and much of the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context switches. Switching from one process to another requires a certain amount of time for doing the administration`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} saving and loading registers and memory maps, updating various tables and lists, etc. What is actually involved in a context switch depends on the architectures, operating systems, and the number of resources shared (threads that belong to the same process share many resources compared to unrelated non-cooperating processes).
For example, in the Linux kernel, context switching involves loading the corresponding process control block (PCB) stored in the PCB table in the kernel stack to retrieve information about the state of the new process. CPU state information including the registers, stack pointer, and program counter as well as memory management information like segmentation tables and page tables (unless the old process shares the memory with the new) are loaded from the PCB for the new process. To avoid incorrect address translation in the case of the previous and current processes using different memory, the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) must be flushed. This negatively affects performance because every memory reference to the TLB will be a miss because it is empty after most context switches.
Furthermore, analogous context switching happens between user threads, notably green threads, and is often very lightweight, saving and restoring minimal context. In extreme cases, such as switching between goroutines in Go, a context switch is equivalent to a coroutine yield, which is only marginally more expensive than a subroutine call.
## `{{Anchor|When to switch}}`{=mediawiki}Switching cases {#switching_cases}
There are three potential triggers for a context switch:
### Multitasking
Most commonly, within some scheduling scheme, one process must be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. This context switch can be triggered by the process making itself unrunnable, such as by waiting for an I/O or synchronization operation to complete. On a pre-emptive multitasking system, the scheduler may also switch out processes that are still runnable. To prevent other processes from being starved of CPU time, pre-emptive schedulers often configure a timer interrupt to fire when a process exceeds its time slice. This interrupt ensures that the scheduler will gain control to perform a context switch.
### Interrupt handling {#interrupt_handling}
Modern architectures are interrupt driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to busy-wait until the read is over; it can issue the request (to the I/O device) and continue with some other task. When the read is over, the CPU can be *interrupted* (by a hardware in this case, which sends interrupt request to PIC) and presented with the read. For interrupts, a program called an *interrupt handler* is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk.
When an interrupt occurs, the hardware automatically switches a part of the context (at least enough to allow the handler to return to the interrupted code). The handler may save additional context, depending on details of the particular hardware and software designs. Often only a minimal part of the context is changed in order to minimize the amount of time spent handling the interrupt. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts, but instead the handler executes in the (often partial) context established at the beginning of interrupt handling. Once interrupt servicing is complete, the context in effect before the interrupt occurred is restored so that the interrupted process can resume execution in its proper state.
### User and kernel mode switching {#user_and_kernel_mode_switching}
When the system transitions between user mode and kernel mode, a context switch is not necessary; a *mode transition* is not by itself a context switch. However, depending on the operating system, a context switch may also take place at this time.
## Steps
The state of the currently executing process must be saved so it can be restored when rescheduled for execution.
The process state includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. This is usually stored in a data structure called a *process control block* (PCB) or *switchframe*.
The PCB might be stored on a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode call stack), or there may be some specific operating system-defined data structure for this information. A handle to the PCB is added to a queue of processes that are ready to run, often called the *ready queue*.
Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of one process, it can then switch context by choosing a process from the ready queue and restoring its PCB. In doing so, the program counter from the PCB is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the chosen process. Process and thread priority can influence which process is chosen from the ready queue (i.e., it may be a priority queue).
## Examples
The details vary depending on the architecture and operating system, but these are common scenarios.
### No context switch needed {#no_context_switch_needed}
Considering a general arithmetic addition operation A = B+1. The instruction is stored in the instruction register and the program counter is incremented. A and B are read from memory and are stored in registers R1, R2 respectively. In this case, B+1 is calculated and written in R1 as the final answer. This operation as there are sequential reads and writes and there\'s no waits for function calls used, hence no context switch/wait takes place in this case.
### Context switch caused by interrupt {#context_switch_caused_by_interrupt}
Suppose a process A is running and a timer interrupt occurs. The user registers --- program counter, stack pointer, and status register --- of process A are then implicitly saved by the CPU onto the kernel stack of A. Then, the hardware switches to kernel mode and jumps into interrupt handler for the operating system to take over. Then the operating system calls the `switch()` routine to first save the general-purpose user registers of A onto A\'s kernel stack, then it saves A\'s current kernel register values into the PCB of A, restores kernel registers from the PCB of process B, and switches context, that is, changes kernel stack pointer to point to the kernel stack of process B. The operating system then returns from interrupt. The hardware then loads user registers from B\'s kernel stack, switches to user mode, and starts running process B from B\'s program counter.
## `{{Anchor|LATENCY}}`{=mediawiki}Performance
Context switching itself has a cost in performance, due to running the task scheduler, TLB flushes, and indirectly due to sharing the CPU cache between multiple tasks. Switching between threads of a single process can be faster than between two separate processes because threads share the same virtual memory maps, so a TLB flush is not necessary.
The time to switch between two separate processes is called the **process switching latency**. The time to switch between two threads of the same process is called the **thread switching latency**. The time from when a hardware interrupt is generated to when the interrupt is serviced is called the interrupt latency.
Switching between two processes in a single address space operating system can be faster than switching between two processes in an operating system with private per-process address spaces.
### Hardware vs. software {#hardware_vs._software}
Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the Intel 80386 and its successors, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the task state segment (TSS). A task switch can be explicitly triggered with a CALL or JMP instruction targeted at a TSS descriptor in the global descriptor table. It can occur implicitly when an interrupt or exception is triggered if there is a task gate in the interrupt descriptor table (IDT). When a task switch occurs, the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS.
As with other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows and Linux, do not use this feature. This is mainly due to two reasons:
- Hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general-purpose registers, not floating-point registers --- although the `TS` bit is automatically turned on in the `CR0` control register, resulting in a fault when executing floating-point instructions and giving the OS the opportunity to save and restore the floating-point state as needed).
- Associated performance issues, e.g., software context switching can be selective and store only those registers that need storing, whereas hardware context switching stores nearly all registers whether they are required or not.
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Rod (optical phenomenon)
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In cryptozoology and ufology, \"**rods**\" (also known as \"**skyfish**\", \"**air rods**\", or \"**solar entities**\") are elongated visual artifacts appearing in photographic images and video recordings.
Most optical analyses to date have concluded that the images are insects moving across the frame as the photo is being captured, although cryptozoologists and ufologists claim that they are paranormal in nature.
## Optical analysis {#optical_analysis}
Robert Todd Carroll (2003), having consulted an entomologist (Doug Yanega), identified rods as images of flying insects recorded over several cycles of wing-beating on video recording devices. The insect captured on image a number of times, while propelling itself forward, gives the illusion of a single elongated rod-like body, with bulges.
A 2000 report by staff at \"The Straight Dope\" also explained rods as such phenomena, namely tricks of light which result from how (primarily video) images of flying insects are recorded and played back, adding that investigators have shown the rod-like bodies to be a result of motion blur, if the camera is shooting with relatively long exposure times.
The claims of these being extraordinary creatures, possibly alien, have been advanced by either people with active imaginations, or hoaxers.
In August 2005, China Central Television (CCTV) aired a two-part documentary about flying rods in China. It reported the events from May to June of the same year at Tonghua Zhenguo Pharmaceutical Company in Tonghua City, Jilin Province, which debunked the flying rods. Surveillance cameras in the facility\'s compound captured video footage of flying rods identical to those shown in Jose Escamilla\'s video. Getting no satisfactory answer to the phenomenon, curious scientists at the facility decided that they would try to solve the mystery by attempting to catch these airborne creatures. Huge nets were set up and the same surveillance cameras then captured images of rods flying into the trap. When the nets were inspected, the \"rods\" were no more than regular moths and other ordinary flying insects. Subsequent investigations proved that the appearance of flying rods on video was an optical illusion created by the slower recording speed of the camera.
After attending a lecture by Jose Escamilla, UFO investigator Robert Sheaffer wrote that \"some of his \'rods\' were obviously insects zipping across the field at a high angular rate\" and others appeared to be \"appendages\" which were birds\' wings blurred by the camera exposure.
## Paranormal claims {#paranormal_claims}
Various paranormal interpretations of this phenomenon appear in popular culture. One of the more outspoken proponents of rods as alien life forms was Jose Escamilla, who claimed to have been the first to film them on March 19, 1994, in Roswell, New Mexico, while attempting to film a UFO. Escamilla later made additional videos and embarked on lecture tours to promote his claims.
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Clitoridectomy
|
**Clitoridectomy** or **clitorectomy** is the surgical removal, reduction, or partial removal of the clitoris. It is rarely used as a therapeutic medical procedure, such as when cancer has developed in or spread to the clitoris. Commonly, non-medical removal of the clitoris is performed during female genital mutilation.
## Medical uses {#medical_uses}
### Malignancies
A clitoridectomy is often done to remove malignancy or necrosis of the clitoris. This is sometimes done along with a radical complete vulvectomy. Surgery may also become necessary due to therapeutic radiation treatments to the pelvic area.
Removal of the clitoris may be due to malignancy or trauma.
### Clitoromegaly and other conditions {#clitoromegaly_and_other_conditions}
Female infants born with a 46,XX genotype but have a clitoris size affected by congenital adrenal hyperplasia and are treated surgically with vaginoplasty that often reduces the size of the clitoris without its total removal. The atypical size of the clitoris is due to an endocrine imbalance in utero. Other reasons for the surgery include issues involving microphallism and those who have Müllerian agenesis. Treatments on children raise human rights concerns.
## Technique
Clitoridectomy surgical techniques are used to remove an invasive malignancy that extends to the clitoris. Standard surgical procedures are followed in these cases. This includes evaluation and biopsy. Other factors that will affect the technique selected are age, other existing medical conditions, and obesity. Other considerations are the probability of extended hospital care and the development of infection at the surgical site.
The surgery proceeds with the use of general anesthesia, and prior to the vulvectomy/clitoridectomy an inguinal lymphadenectomy is first done. The extent of the surgical site extends 1 to 2 cm beyond the boundaries of malignancy. Superficial lymph nodes may also need to be removed. If the malignancy is present in any muscles in the region, then the affected muscle tissue is also removed. In some cases, the surgeon is able to preserve the clitoris despite extensive malignancy. The cancerous tissue is removed and the incision is closed.
Post-operative care may employ the use of suction drainage to allow the deeper tissues to heal toward the surface. Follow-up after surgery includes the stripping of the drainage device to prevent blockage. A typical hospital stay can last up to two weeks. The site of the surgery is left unbandaged to allow for frequent examination.
Complications can include the development of lymphedema; not removing the saphenous vein during the surgery can help prevent this. In some instances, the buildup of fluid can be reduced through methods such as foot elevation, diuretic medication, and wearing compression stockings.
In a clitoridectomy for infants with a clitoromegaly, the clitoris is often reduced instead of removed. The surgeon cuts the shaft of the elongated phallus and sews the glans and preserved nerves back onto the stump. In a less common surgery called clitoral recession, the surgeon hides the clitoral shaft under a fold of skin so only the glans remains visible.
## Society and culture {#society_and_culture}
### General
While much feminist scholarship has described clitoridectomy as a practice aimed at controlling women\'s sexuality, the historic emergence of the practice in ancient European and Middle Eastern cultures may also have derived from ideas about what a normal female genitalia should look like and the policing of boundaries between the sexes.
In the seventeenth century, anatomists remained divided on whether a clitoris was a normal female organ, with some arguing that it was an abnormality in female development and, if large enough to be visible, it should always be removed at birth. In the 19th century, a clitoridectomy was thought by some to curb female masturbation; until the late 19th century, masturbation was thought by many to be unhealthy or immoral. Isaac Baker Brown (1812--1873), an English gynaecologist who was president of the Medical Society of London believed that the \"unnatural irritation\" of the clitoris caused epilepsy, hysteria, and mania, and he worked \"to remove \[it\] whenever he had the opportunity of doing so\", according to his obituary in the *Medical Times and Gazette*. Peter Lewis Allen writes that Brown\'s views caused outrage, and he died penniless after being expelled from the Obstetrical Society.Allen, Peter Lewis. *The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present*. University of Chicago Press, 2000, [p. 106](https://archive.org/details/wagesofsinsexdis00alle/page/106).
- For the obituary, see J.F.C. [\"Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S.\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223171914/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2023-12-23 }}`{=mediawiki}, *Medical Times and Gazette*, 8 February 1873.
- Also see Brown, Isaac Baker. *On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females*. Robert Hardwicke, 1866.
Occasionally, in American and English medicine of the nineteenth century, circumcision was done as a cure for insanity. Some believed that mental and emotional disorders were related to female reproductive organs and that removing the clitoris would cure the neurosis. This treatment was discontinued in 1867.
Aesthetics may determine clitoral norms. A lack of ambiguity of the genitalia is seen as necessary in the assignment of a sex to infants and therefore whether a child\'s genitalia is normal, but what is considered ambiguous or normal can vary from person to person.
Sexual behavior is another reason for clitoridectomies. Author Sarah Rodriguez stated that the history of medical textbooks has indirectly created accepted ideas about the female body. Medical and gynecological textbooks are also at fault in the way that the clitoris is described in comparison to a male\'s penis. The importance and originality of a female\'s clitoris is underscored because it is seen as \"a less significant organ, since anatomy texts compared the penis and the clitoris in only one direction.\" Rodriguez said that a male\'s penis created the framework of the sexual organ.
Not all historical examples of clitoral surgeries should be assumed to be clitoridectomy (removal of the clitoris). In the nineteen thirties, the French psychoanalyst Marie Bonaparte studied African clitoral surgical practices and showed that these often involved removal of the clitoral hood, not the clitoris. She also had a surgery done to her own clitoris by the Viennese surgeon Dr Halban, which entailed cutting the suspensory ligament of the clitoris to permit it to sit closer to her vaginal opening. These sorts of clitoral surgeries, contrary to reducing women\'s sexual pleasure, actually appear aimed at making coitus more pleasurable for women, though it is unclear if that is ever their actual outcome.
### Human rights concerns {#human_rights_concerns}
Clitoridectomies are the most common form of female genital mutilation. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that clitoridectomies have been performed on 200 million girls and women that are currently alive. The regions that most clitoridectomies take place are Asia, the Middle East and west, north and east Africa. The practice also exists in migrants originating from these regions. Most of the surgeries are for cultural or religious reasons.
Clitoridectomy of people with conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia that cause a clitoromegaly is controversial when it takes place during childhood or under duress. Many women who were exposed to such treatment have reported loss of physical sensation in the affected area, and loss of autonomy. In recent years, multiple human rights institutions have criticized early surgical management of such characteristics.
In 2013, it was disclosed in a medical journal that four unnamed elite female athletes from developing countries were subjected to gonadectomies and partial clitoridectomies after testosterone testing revealed that they had an intersex variation or disorder of sex development. In April 2016, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on health, Dainius Pūras, condemned this treatment as a form of genital mutilation \"in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures.\"
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Cytochrome
|
**Cytochromes** are redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central iron (Fe) atom at its core, as a cofactor. They are involved in the electron transport chain and redox catalysis. They are classified according to the type of heme and its mode of binding. Four varieties are recognized by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB), cytochromes a, cytochromes b, cytochromes c and cytochrome d.
Cytochrome function is linked to the reversible redox change from ferrous (Fe(II)) to the ferric (Fe(III)) oxidation state of the iron found in the heme core. In addition to the classification by the IUBMB into four cytochrome classes, several additional classifications such as cytochrome o and cytochrome P450 can be found in biochemical literature.
## History
Cytochromes were initially described in 1884 by Charles Alexander MacMunn as respiratory pigments (myohematin or histohematin). In the 1920s, Keilin rediscovered these respiratory pigments and named them the cytochromes, or "cellular pigments". He classified these heme proteins on the basis of the position of their lowest energy absorption band in their reduced state, as cytochromes *a* (605 nm), *b* (≈565 nm), and *c* (550 nm). The ultra-violet (UV) to visible spectroscopic signatures of hemes are still used to identify heme type from the reduced bis-pyridine-ligated state, i.e., the pyridine hemochrome method. Within each class, cytochrome *a*, *b*, or *c*, early cytochromes are numbered consecutively, e.g. cyt *c*, cyt *c~1~*, and cyt *c~2~*, with more recent examples designated by their reduced state R-band maximum, e.g. cyt *c~559~*.
## Structure and function {#structure_and_function}
The heme group is a highly conjugated ring system (which allows its electrons to be very mobile) surrounding an iron ion. The iron in cytochromes usually exists in a ferrous (Fe^2+^) and a ferric (Fe^3+^) state with a ferroxo (Fe^4+^) state found in catalytic intermediates. Cytochromes are, thus, capable of performing electron transfer reactions and catalysis by reduction or oxidation of their heme iron. The cellular location of cytochromes depends on their function. They can be found as globular proteins and membrane proteins.
In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, a globular cytochrome cc protein is involved in the electron transfer from the membrane-bound complex III to complex IV. Complex III itself is composed of several subunits, one of which is a b-type cytochrome while another one is a c-type cytochrome. Both domains are involved in electron transfer within the complex. Complex IV contains a cytochrome a/a3-domain that transfers electrons and catalyzes the reaction of oxygen to water. Photosystem II, the first protein complex in the light-dependent reactions of oxygenic photosynthesis, contains a cytochrome b subunit. Cyclooxygenase 2, an enzyme involved in inflammation, is a cytochrome b protein.
In the early 1960s, a linear evolution of cytochromes was suggested by Emanuel Margoliash that led to the molecular clock hypothesis. The apparently constant evolution rate of cytochromes can be a helpful tool in trying to determine when various organisms may have diverged from a common ancestor.
## Types
Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential.
Four types of cytochromes are distinguished by their prosthetic groups:
Type Prosthetic group
-------------- ---------------------------------------------------
Cytochrome a heme A
Cytochrome b heme B
Cytochrome c heme C (covalently bound heme b)
Cytochrome d heme D (Heme B with γ-spirolactone){{Cite journal
There is no \"cytochrome e,\" but cytochrome f, found in the cytochrome b~6~f complex of plants is a c-type cytochrome.
In mitochondria and chloroplasts, these cytochromes are often combined in electron transport and related metabolic pathways:
Cytochromes Combination
---------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*a* and *a~3~* Cytochrome c oxidase (\"Complex IV\") with electrons delivered to complex by soluble cytochrome c (hence the name)
*b* and *c~1~* Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase (\"Complex III\")
*b~6~* and *f* Plastoquinol---plastocyanin reductase
A distinct family of cytochromes is the cytochrome P450 family, so named for the characteristic Soret peak formed by absorbance of light at wavelengths near 450 nm when the heme iron is reduced (with sodium dithionite) and complexed to carbon monoxide. These enzymes are primarily involved in steroidogenesis and detoxification.
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Colette
|
**Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette** (`{{IPA|fr|sidɔni ɡabʁijɛl kɔlɛt|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 28 January 1873 -- 3 August 1954), known as **Colette** or **Colette Willy**, was a French author and woman of letters. She was also a mime, actress, and journalist. Colette is best known in the English-speaking world for her 1944 novella *Gigi*, which was the basis for the 1958 film and the 1973 stage production of the same name. Her short story collection *The Tendrils of the Vine* is also famous in France.
## Early life {#early_life}
Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette was born on 28 January 1873 in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye in the department of Yonne, Burgundy. Her father, Captain Jules-Joseph Colette (1829--1905) was a war hero. He was a Zouave of the Saint-Cyr military school, who had lost a leg at Melegnano in the Second Italian War of Independence. He was awarded a post as tax collector in the village of Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye where his children were born. His wife, Adèle Eugénie Sidonie, *née* Landoy (1835--1912) was nicknamed *Sido*. Colette\'s great-grandfather, Robert Landois, was a wealthy Martinican mulatto, who settled in Charleville in 1787. In an arranged first marriage to Jules Robineau Duclos, Colette\'s mother had two children: Juliette (1860--1908) and Achille (1863--1913). After she remarried Captain Colette, she had two other children: Leopold (1866--1940) and Sidonie-Gabrielle. Colette attended a public school from the ages of 6 to 17. The family was initially well off, but poor financial management substantially reduced their income.
## Career
In 1893, Colette married Henry Gauthier-Villars (1859--1931), an author and publisher 14 years her senior, who used the pen name \"Willy\". Her first four novels -- the four Claudine stories: *Claudine à l\'école* (1900), *Claudine à Paris* (1901), *Claudine en ménage* (1902), and *Claudine s\'en va* (1903) -- appeared under his name. (The four are published in English as *Claudine at School*, *Claudine in Paris*, *Claudine Married*, and *Claudine and Annie*.) The novels chart the coming of age and young adulthood of their titular heroine, Claudine, from an unconventional 15-year old in a Burgundian village to a doyenne of the literary salons of turn-of-the-century Paris. The story they tell is semi-autobiographical, although Claudine, unlike Colette, is motherless.
The marriage to Gauthier-Villars allowed Colette to devote her time to writing. She later said she would never have become a writer if it had not been for Willy. Fourteen years older than his wife and one of the most notorious libertines in Paris, he introduced his wife into avant-garde intellectual and artistic circles and encouraged her lesbian dalliances. And it was he who chose the titillating subject matter of the Claudine novels: \"the secondary myth of Sappho\... the girls\' school or convent ruled by a seductive female teacher.\" Willy \"locked her \[Colette\] in her room until she produced enough pages to suit him.\"
## Post divorce {#post_divorce}
Colette and Willy separated in 1906, although their divorce was not final until 1910. Colette had no access to the sizable earnings of the Claudine books -- the copyright belonged to Willy -- and until 1912 she conducted a stage career in music halls across France, sometimes playing Claudine in sketches from her own novels, earning barely enough to survive and often hungry and ill. To make ends meet, she turned more seriously to journalism in the 1910s. Around this time she also became an avid amateur photographer. This period of her life is recalled in *La Vagabonde* (1910), which deals with women\'s independence in a male society, a theme to which she would regularly return in future works. During these years she embarked on a series of relationships with other women, notably with Natalie Clifford Barney and with Mathilde de Morny, the Marquise de Belbeuf (\"Max\"), with whom she sometimes shared the stage. On 3 January 1907, an onstage kiss between Max and Colette in a pantomime entitled \"Rêve d\'Égypte\" caused a near-riot, and as a result, they were no longer able to live together openly, although their relationship continued for another five years.
In 1912, Colette married Henry de Jouvenel, the editor of *Le Matin*. A daughter, Colette de Jouvenel, nicknamed *Bel-Gazou*, was born to them in 1913.
## 1920s and 1930s {#s_and_1930s}
In 1920, Colette published *Chéri*, portraying love between an older woman and a much younger man. Chéri is the lover of Léa, a wealthy courtesan; Léa is devastated when Chéri marries a girl his own age and delighted when he returns to her, but after one final night together, she sends him away again.
Colette\'s marriage to Jouvenel ended in divorce in 1924, due partly to his infidelities and partly to her affair with her 16-year-old stepson, Bertrand de Jouvenel. In 1925, she met Maurice Goudeket, who became her final husband; the couple stayed together until her death.
Colette was by then an established writer (*The Vagabond* had received three votes for the prestigious *Prix Goncourt*). The decades of the 1920s and 1930s were her most productive and innovative period. Set mostly in Burgundy or Paris during the Belle Époque, her work focused on married life and sexuality. It was frequently quasi-autobiographical: *Chéri* (1920) and *Le Blé en Herbe* (1923) both deal with love between an aging woman and a very young man, a situation reflecting her relationship with Bertrand de Jouvenel and with her third husband, Goudeket, who was 16 years her junior. *La Naissance du Jour* (1928) is her explicit criticism of the conventional lives of women, expressed through a meditation on age and the renunciation of love by the character of her mother, Sido.
By this time Colette was frequently acclaimed as France\'s greatest woman writer. \"It\... has no plot, and yet tells of three lives all that should be known\", wrote Janet Flanner of *Sido* (1929). \"Once again, and at greater length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, humanities and perfect prose by those literary journals which years ago\... lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn.\"
During the 1920s she was associated with the Jewish-Algerian writer Elissa Rhaïs, who adopted a Muslim persona to market her novels.
## Last years, 1940--1954 {#last_years_19401954}
Colette was 67 years old when France was occupied by the Germans. She remained in Paris, in her apartment in the Palais-Royal. Her husband Maurice Goudeket, who was Jewish, was arrested by the Gestapo in December 1941, and although he was released after seven weeks through the intervention of the French wife of the German ambassador, Colette lived through the rest of the war years with the anxiety of a possible second arrest. During the Occupation she produced two volumes of memoirs, *Journal à Rebours* (1941) and *De ma Fenêtre* (1942); the two were issued in English in 1975 as *Looking Backwards*. She wrote lifestyle articles for several pro-Nazi newspapers. These, and her novel *Julie de Carneilhan* (1941), contain many anti-Semitic slurs.
In 1944, Colette published what became her most famous work, *Gigi*, which tells the story of the 16-year-old Gilberte (\"Gigi\") Alvar. Born into a family of demimondaines, Gigi is trained as a courtesan to captivate a wealthy lover but defies the tradition by marrying him instead. In 1949 it was made into a French film starring Danièle Delorme and Gaby Morlay, then in 1951 adapted for the stage with the then-unknown Audrey Hepburn (picked by Colette personally) in the title role. The 1958 Hollywood musical movie, starring Leslie Caron and Louis Jourdan, with a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and a score by Lerner and Frederick Loewe, won the Academy Award for Best Picture.
In the postwar years, Colette became a famous public figure. She had become crippled by arthritis and was cared for by Goudeket, who supervised the preparation of her *Œuvres Complètes* (1948--1950). She continued to write during those years and published *L\'Etoile Vesper* (1946) and *Le Fanal Bleu* (1949), in which she reflected on the problems of a writer whose inspiration is primarily autobiographical. She was nominated by Claude Farrère for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948.
## Journalism
Colette\'s first pieces of journalism (1895--1900) were written in collaboration with her husband, Gauthier-Villars---music reviews for *La Cocarde*, a daily founded by Maurice Barres and a series of pieces for La Fronde. Following her divorce from Gauthier-Villars in 1910, she wrote independently for a wide variety of publications, gaining considerable renown for her articles covering social trends, theater, fashion, and film, as well as crime reporting. In December 1910, Colette agreed to write a regular column in the Paris daily, Le Matin---at first under a pseudonym, then as \"Colette Willy.\" One of her editors was Henry de Jouvenel, whom she married in 1912. By 1912, Colette had taught herself to be a reporter: \"You have to see and not invent, you have to touch, not imagine .. because, when you see the sheets \[at a crime scene\] drenched in fresh blood, they are a color you could never invent.\" In 1914, Colette was named Le Matin\'s literary editor. Colette\'s separation from Jouvenel in 1923 forced her to sever ties with Le Matin. Over the next three decades her articles appeared in over two dozen publications, including Vogue, Le Figaro, and Paris-Soir. During the German Occupation of France, Colette continued contributing to daily and weekly publications, a number of them collaborationist and pro-Nazi, including Le Petit Parisien, which became pro-Vichy after January 1941, and La Gerbe, a pro-Nazi weekly. Though her articles were not political in nature, Colette was sharply criticized at the time for lending her prestige to these publications and implicitly accommodating herself to the Vichy regime. Her 26 November 1942 article, \"Ma Bourgogne Pauvre\" (\"My Poor Burgundy\"), has been singled out by some historians as tacitly accepting some ultra-nationalist goals that hardline Vichyist writers espoused. After 1945, her journalism was sporadic, and her final pieces were more personal essays than reported stories. Over the course of her writing career, Colette published over 1200 articles for newspapers, magazines, and journals.
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
Upon her death, on 3 August 1954, she was refused a religious funeral by the Catholic Church on account of her divorces, but given a state funeral, the first French woman of letters to be granted the honour, and interred in Père-Lachaise cemetery.
Colette was elected to the Belgian Royal Academy (1935), the Académie Goncourt (1945, and President in 1949), and a Chevalier (1920) and Grand Officer (1953) of the Légion d\'honneur.
Colette\'s numerous biographers have proposed widely differing interpretations of her life and work over the decades. Initially considered a limited if talented novelist (despite the outspoken admiration in her lifetime of figures such as André Gide and Henry de Montherlant), she has been increasingly recognised as an important voice in women\'s writing. Before Colette\'s death, Katherine Anne Porter wrote in *The New York Times* that Colette \"is the greatest living French writer of fiction; and that she was while Gide and Proust still lived.\"
Singer-songwriter Rosanne Cash paid tribute to the writer in the song, \"The Summer I Read Colette\", on her 1996 album *10 Song Demo*.
Truman Capote wrote an essay in 1970 about meeting her, called \"The White Rose\". It tells how, when she saw him admiring a paperweight on a table (the \"white rose\" of the title), she insisted he take it; Capote initially refused the gift, but "...when I protested that I couldn't accept as a present something she so clearly adored, \[she replied\] \'My dear, really there is no point in giving a gift unless one also treasures it oneself.\'"
*Womanhouse* (30 January -- 28 February 1972) was a feminist art installation and performance space organized by Judy Chicago and Miriam Schapiro, co-founders of the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) Feminist Art Program, and was the first public exhibition of art centered upon female empowerment. One of the rooms in it, Leah\'s Room by Karen LeCocq and Nancy Youdelman, was based on Colette's *Chéri*. Karen and Nancy borrowed an antique dressing table and rug, made lace curtains and covered the bed with satin and lace to create the effect of a boudoir. They filled the closet with old-looking clothes and veiled hats, and wallpapered the walls to add a feeling of nostalgia. LeCocq sat at the dressing table dressed in a nineteenth-century-style costume as Léa, studiously applying make-up over and over and then removing it, replicating the character's attempts to save her fading beauty.
\"Lucette Stranded on the Island\" by Julia Holter, from her 2015 album *Have You in My Wilderness*, is based on a minor character from Colette\'s short story *Chance Acquaintances*.
In the 1991 film *Becoming Colette*, Colette is played by the French actress Mathilda May. In the 2018 film *Colette*, the title character is played by Keira Knightley. Both films focus on Colette\'s life in her twenties, her marriage to her first husband, and the publication of her first novels under his name.
## Notable works {#notable_works}
- *Claudine à l\'école* (1900, translated as *Claudine at School*)
- *Claudine à Paris* (1901, translated as *Claudine in Paris*)
- *Claudine en ménage* (1902, translated as *Claudine Married*)
- *Claudine s\'en va* (1903, translated as *Claudine and Annie*)
- *Dialogues de bêtes* (1904)
- *La Retraite sentimentale* (1907)
- *Les Vrilles de la vigne* (1908)
- *La Vagabonde* (1910)
- *L\'Envers du music hall* (1913)
- *L\'Entrave* (1913, translated as *The Shackle*)
- *La Paix chez les bêtes* (1916)
- *L\'Enfant et les sortilèges* (1917, Ravel opera libretto)
- *Mitsou* (1919)
- *Chéri* (1920)
- *La Maison de Claudine* (1922, translated as *The House of Claudine*)
- *L\'Autre Femme* (1922, translated as *The Other Woman*)
- *Le Blé en herbe* (1923, translated as *Ripening Seed*)
- *La Fin de Chéri* (1926, translated as *The Last of Chéri* or *The End of Chéri*)
- *La Naissance du jour* (1928, translated as *Break of Day*)
- *Sido* (1929)
- *La Seconde* (1929, translated as *The Other One*)
- *Le Pur et l\'Impur* (1932, translated as *The Pure and the Impure*)
- *La Chatte* (1933)
- *Duo* (1934)
- *Julie de Carneilhan* (1941)
- *Le Képi* (1943)
- *Gigi* (1944)
- *Paris de ma fenêtre* (1944)
- *L\'Étoile Vesper* (1946)
- *Le Fanal Bleu* (1949, translated as *The Blue Lantern*)
- *Paradis terrestre*, with photographs by Izis Bidermanas (1953)
Source:
## Filmography
- *La Vagabonde*, directed by Solange Térac (France, 1932, based on the novel *The Vagabond*)
- *Claudine à l\'école*, directed by Serge de Poligny (France, 1937, based on the novel *Claudine at School*)
- *Gigi*, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1949, based on the novella *Gigi*)
- *Julie de Carneilhan*, directed by Jacques Manuel (France, 1950, based on the novel *Julie de Carneilhan*)
- *Minne (film)*, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1950, based on the novel *L\'Ingénue libertine*)
- *Chéri*, directed by Pierre Billon (France, 1950, based on the novel *Chéri*)
- *Le Blé en herbe*, directed by Claude Autant-Lara (France, 1954, based on the novel *Green Wheat*)
- *Mitsou*, directed by Jacqueline Audry (France, 1956, based on the novella *Mitsou*)
- *NBC Matinee Theater: The Vagabond* (1958, TV series episode, based on the novel *The Vagabond*)
- *Gigi*, directed by Vincente Minnelli (1958, based on the novella *Gigi*)
- *Chéri*, directed by François Chatel (France, 1962, TV film, based on the novel *Chéri*)
- *The Gentle Libertine or How Young Girls Grow Wise*, directed by Robert Kitts (UK, 1967, TV film, based on the novel *L\'Ingénue libertine*)
- *Away from It All: The Ripening Seed*, directed by Mischa Scorer (UK, 1973, TV series episode, based on the novel *Green Wheat*)
- *Chéri*, directed by Claude Whatham (UK, 1973, TV miniseries, based on the novel *Chéri*)
- *La Seconde*, directed by Hervé Bromberger (France, 1973, TV film, based on the novel *La Seconde*)
- *Claudine*, directed by Édouard Molinaro (France, 1978, TV miniseries, based on the *Claudine* novels)
- *La Naissance du jour*, directed by Jacques Demy (France, 1980, TV film, based on the novel *Break of Day*)
- *Emmenez-moi au théâtre: Chéri*, directed by Yves-André Hubert (France, 1984, TV series episode, based on the novel *Chéri*)
- *Gigi*, directed by Jeannette Hubert (France, 1987, TV film, based on the novella *Gigi*)
- *Julie de Carneilhan*, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel *Julie de Carneilhan*)
- *Le Blé en herbe*, directed by Serge Meynard (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel *Green Wheat*)
- *La Seconde*, directed by Christopher Frank (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel *La Seconde*)
- *Duo*, directed by Claude Santelli (France, 1990, TV film, based on the novel *Duo*)
- *Bella Vista*, directed by Alfredo Arias (France, 1992, TV film, based on the short story *Bella-Vista*)
- *Mademoiselle Gigi*, directed by Caroline Huppert (France, 2006, TV film, based on the novella *Gigi*)
- *Chéri*, directed by Stephen Frears (UK, 2009, based on the novel *Chéri*)
### Screenwriter
- 1934: *Lake of Ladies* (dir. Marc Allégret)
- 1935: *Divine* (dir. Max Ophüls)
### Films about Colette {#films_about_colette}
- *Colette*, directed by Yannick Bellon (France, 1952, short documentary)
- *Becoming Colette*, directed by Danny Huston (1991), with Mathilda May as Colette
- *Colette, une femme libre*, directed by Nadine Trintignant (France, 2004, TV film), with Marie Trintignant as Colette
- *Colette*, directed by Wash Westmoreland (2018), with Keira Knightley as Colette
- *Colette, l\'insoumise*, directed by Cécile Denjean (France, 2018, documentary)
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
6,941 |
Colin Kapp
|
**Derek Ivor Colin Kapp** (3 April 1928 -- 3 August 2007), Known as **Colin Kapp,** was a British science fiction author best known for his stories about the Unorthodox Engineers.
As an electronic engineer, he began his career with Mullard Electronics then specialised in electroplating techniques, eventually becoming a freelance consultant engineer.
He was born in Southwark, south London, 3 April 1928 to John L. F. Kapp and Annie M.A. (née Towner).
## Works
### Cageworld series {#cageworld_series}
1. *Search for the sun!* (1982) (also published as *Cageworld*)
2. *The Lost worlds of Cronus* (1982)
3. *The Tyrant of Hades* (1984)
4. *Star Search* (1984)
### Chaos series {#chaos_series}
- *The Patterns of Chaos* (1972)
- *The Chaos Weapon* (1977)
### Standalone novels {#standalone_novels}
- *The Dark Mind* (1964) (also published as *Transfinite Man*)
- *The Wizard of Anharitte* (1973)
- *The Survival Game* (1976)
- *Manalone* (1977)
- *The Ion War* (1978)
- *The Timewinders* (1980)
### Short stories {#short_stories}
#### Unorthodox Engineers {#unorthodox_engineers}
- \"The Railways Up on Cannis\" (1959)
- \"The Subways of Tazoo\" (1964)
- \"The Pen and the Dark\" (1966)
- \"Getaway from Getawehi\" (1969)
- \"The Black Hole of Negrav\" (1975)
Collected in *The Unorthodox Engineers* (1979)
#### Other stories {#other_stories}
- \"Breaking Point\" (1959)
- \"Survival Problem\" (1959)
- \"Lambda I\" (1962)
- \"The Night-Flame\" (1964)
- \"Hunger Over Sweet Waters\" (1965)
- \"Ambassador to Verdammt\" (1967)
- \"The Imagination Trap\" (1967)
- \"The Cloudbuilders\" (1968)
- \"[I Bring You Hands](https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v27n03_1968-10#page/n103/mode/2up)\" (1968)
- \"Gottlos\" (1969), notable for having (along with Keith Laumer\'s Bolo series) inspired Steve Jackson\'s classic game of 21st century tank warfare Ogre.
- \"The Teacher\" (1969)
- \"Letter from an Unknown Genius\" (1971)
- \"What the Thunder Said\" (1972)
- \"Which Way Do I Go For Jericho?\" (1972)
- \"The Old King\'s Answers\" (1973)
- \"Crimescan\" (1973)
- \"What The Thunder Said\" (1973)
- \"Mephisto and the Ion Explorer\" (1974)
- \"War of the Wastelife\" (1974)
- \"Cassius and the Mind-Jaunt\" (1975)
- \"Something in the City\" (1984)
- \"An Alternative to Salt\" (1986)
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
6,943 |
Cathode ray
|
thumb\|upright=1.2\|A beam of cathode rays in a vacuum tube bent into a circle by a magnetic field generated by a Helmholtz coil. Cathode rays are normally invisible; in this demonstration Teltron tube, enough gas has been left in the tube for the gas atoms to luminesce when struck by the fast-moving electrons.
**Cathode rays** are streams of electrons observed in discharge tubes. If an evacuated glass tube is equipped with two electrodes and a voltage is applied, glass behind the positive electrode is observed to glow, due to electrons emitted from the cathode (the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply). They were first observed in 1859 by German physicist Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf, and were named in 1876 by Eugen Goldstein *Kathodenstrahlen*, or cathode rays. In 1897, British physicist J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the *electron*. Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) use a focused beam of electrons deflected by electric or magnetic fields to render an image on a screen.
## Description
Cathode rays are so named because they are emitted by the negative electrode, or cathode, in a vacuum tube. To release electrons into the tube, they first must be detached from the atoms of the cathode. In the early experimental cold cathode vacuum tubes in which cathode rays were discovered, called Crookes tubes, this was done by using a high electrical potential of thousands of volts between the anode and the cathode to ionize the residual gas atoms in the tube. The positive ions were accelerated by the electric field toward the cathode, and when they collided with it they knocked electrons out of its surface; these were the cathode rays. Modern vacuum tubes use thermionic emission, in which the cathode is made of a thin wire filament which is heated by a separate electric current passing through it. The increased random heat motion of the filament knocks electrons out of the surface of the filament, into the evacuated space of the tube.
Since the electrons have a negative charge, they are repelled by the negative cathode and attracted to the positive anode. They travel in parallel lines through the empty tube. The voltage applied between the electrodes accelerates these low mass particles to high velocities. Cathode rays are invisible, but their presence was first detected in these Crookes tubes when they struck the glass wall of the tube, exciting the atoms of the glass and causing them to emit light, a glow called fluorescence. Researchers noticed that objects placed in the tube in front of the cathode could cast a shadow on the glowing wall, and realized that something must be traveling in straight lines from the cathode. After the electrons strike the back of the tube they make their way to the anode, then travel through the anode wire through the power supply and back through the cathode wire to the cathode, so cathode rays carry electric current through the tube.
The current in a beam of cathode rays through a vacuum tube can be controlled by passing it through a metal screen of wires (a grid) between cathode and anode, to which a small negative voltage is applied. The electric field of the wires deflects some of the electrons, preventing them from reaching the anode. The amount of current that gets through to the anode depends on the voltage on the grid. Thus, a small voltage on the grid can be made to control a much larger voltage on the anode. This is the principle used in vacuum tubes to amplify electrical signals. The triode vacuum tube developed between 1907 and 1914 was the first electronic device that could amplify, and is still used in some applications such as radio transmitters. High speed beams of cathode rays can also be steered and manipulated by electric fields created by additional metal plates in the tube to which voltage is applied, or magnetic fields created by coils of wire (electromagnets). These are used in cathode-ray tubes, found in televisions and computer monitors, and in electron microscopes.
` `[`File:Katódsugarak`](File:Katódsugarak)` mágneses mezőben(1).jpg|Crookes tube. The cathode (negative terminal) is on the right. The anode (positive terminal) is in the base of the tube at bottom. `\
` `[`File:Katódsugarak`](File:Katódsugarak)` mágneses mezőben(2).jpg|Cathode rays travel from the cathode at the rear of the tube, striking the glass front, making it glow green by ``fluorescence``. A metal cross in the tube casts a shadow, demonstrating that the rays travel in straight lines.`\
` `[`File:Katódsugarak`](File:Katódsugarak)` mágneses mezőben(3).jpg|A magnet creates a horizontal magnetic field through the neck of the tube, bending the rays up, so the green spot is higher.`\
` `[`File:Katódsugarak`](File:Katódsugarak)` mágneses mezőben(4).jpg|When the magnet is reversed, it bends the rays down, so the green spot is lower. The pink glow is caused by cathode rays striking residual gas atoms in the tube.`
## History
After the invention of the vacuum pump in 1654 by Otto von Guericke, physicists began to experiment with passing high voltage electricity through rarefied air. In 1705, it was noted that electrostatic generator sparks travel a longer distance through low pressure air than through atmospheric pressure air.
### Gas discharge tubes {#gas_discharge_tubes}
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Geissler tube, in daylight and lit by its own light thumb\|upright=1.4\|Glow discharge in a low-pressure tube caused by electric current.
In 1838, Michael Faraday applied a high voltage between two metal electrodes at either end of a glass tube that had been partially evacuated of air, and noticed a strange light arc with its beginning at the cathode (negative electrode) and its end at the anode (positive electrode). In 1857, German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler sucked even more air out with an improved pump, to a pressure of around 10^−3^ atm and found that, instead of an arc, a glow filled the tube. The voltage applied between the two electrodes of the tubes, generated by an induction coil, was anywhere between a few kilovolts and 100 kV. These were called Geissler tubes, similar to today\'s neon signs.
The explanation of these effects was that the high voltage accelerated free electrons and electrically charged atoms (ions) naturally present in the air of the tube. At low pressure, there was enough space between the gas atoms that the electrons could accelerate to high enough speeds that when they struck an atom they knocked electrons off of it, creating more positive ions and free electrons, which went on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction, known as a glow discharge. The positive ions were attracted to the cathode and when they struck it knocked more electrons out of it, which were attracted toward the anode. Thus the ionized air was electrically conductive and an electric current flowed through the tube.
Geissler tubes had enough air in them that the electrons could only travel a tiny distance before colliding with an atom. The electrons in these tubes moved in a slow diffusion process, never gaining much speed, so these tubes didn\'t produce cathode rays. Instead, they produced a colorful glow discharge (as in a modern neon light), caused when the electrons struck gas atoms, exciting their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. The electrons released this energy as light. This process is called fluorescence.
### Cathode rays {#cathode_rays}
By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10^−6^ atm. These were called Crookes tubes. Faraday had been the first to notice a dark space just in front of the cathode, where there was no luminescence. This came to be called the \"cathode dark space\", \"Faraday dark space\" or \"Crookes dark space\". Crookes found that as he pumped more air out of the tubes, the Faraday dark space spread down the tube from the cathode toward the anode, until the tube was totally dark. But at the anode (positive) end of the tube, the glass of the tube itself began to glow.
What was happening was that as more air was pumped from the tube, the electrons knocked out of the cathode when positive ions struck it could travel farther, on average, before they struck a gas atom. By the time the tube was dark, most of the electrons could travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode end of the tube without a collision. With no obstructions, these low mass particles were accelerated to high velocities by the voltage between the electrodes. These were the cathode rays.
When they reached the anode end of the tube, they were traveling so fast that, although they were attracted to it, they often flew past the anode and struck the back wall of the tube. When they struck atoms in the glass wall, they excited their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. When the electrons returned to their original energy level, they released the energy as light, causing the glass to fluoresce, usually a greenish or bluish color. Later researchers painted the inside back wall with fluorescent chemicals such as zinc sulfide, to make the glow more visible.
Cathode rays themselves are invisible, but this accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube in front of the cathode, such as the anode, cast sharp-edged shadows on the glowing back wall. In 1869, German physicist Johann Hittorf was first to realize that something must be traveling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadows. Eugen Goldstein named them *cathode rays* (German *Kathodenstrahlen*).
### Discovery of the electron {#discovery_of_the_electron}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|J. J, Thomson\'s electric deflection tube, in which he showed that a beam of cathode rays was bent by an electric field like matter particles. The cathode is on R. The electron beam is accelerated passing through the cylindrical high voltage anode (*center*), bent by a voltage on the deflection plates (*center L*), and strikes the back wall of the tube causing a luminous glow. At this time, atoms were the smallest particles known, and were believed to be indivisible. What carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many historic experiments were done with Crookes tubes to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories. Crookes and Arthur Schuster believed they were particles of \"radiant matter,\" that is, electrically charged atoms. German scientists Eilhard Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz and Goldstein believed they were \"aether waves\", some new form of electromagnetic radiation, and were separate from what carried the electric current through the tube.
The debate was resolved in 1897 when J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first *subatomic* particle to be discovered, which he originally called \"*corpuscle*\" but was later named *electron*, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical with particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge of the atom.
Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Philipp Lenard also contributed a great deal to cathode-ray theory, winning the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and their properties.
### Vacuum tubes {#vacuum_tubes}
The gas ionization (or cold cathode) method of producing cathode rays used in Crookes tubes was unreliable, because it depended on the pressure of the residual air in the tube. Over time, the air was absorbed by the walls of the tube, and it stopped working.
A more reliable and controllable method of producing cathode rays was investigated by Hittorf and Goldstein, and rediscovered by Thomas Edison in 1880. A cathode made of a wire filament heated red hot by a separate current passing through it would release electrons into the tube by a process called thermionic emission. The first true electronic vacuum tubes, invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, used this hot cathode technique, and they superseded Crookes tubes. These tubes didn\'t need gas in them to work, so they were evacuated to a lower pressure, around 10^−9^ atm (10^−4^ Pa). The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as krytrons.
In 1906, Lee De Forest found that a small voltage on a grid of metal wires between the cathode and anode could control a current in a beam of cathode rays passing through a vacuum tube. His invention, called the triode, was the first device that could amplify electric signals, and revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of *electronics*. Vacuum tubes made radio and television broadcasting possible, as well as radar, talking movies, audio recording, and long-distance telephone service, and were the foundation of consumer electronic devices until the 1960s, when the transistor brought the era of vacuum tubes to a close.
Cathode rays are now usually called electron beams. The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in these early tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, particularly in the invention of the cathode-ray tube (CRT) by Ferdinand Braun in 1897, which was used in television sets and oscilloscopes. Today, electron beams are employed in sophisticated devices such as electron microscopes, electron beam lithography and particle accelerators.
## Properties of cathode rays and the experiments that revealed them {#properties_of_cathode_rays_and_the_experiments_that_revealed_them}
During the last quarter of the 19th century dozens of historic experiments were conducted to try to find out what cathode rays were. There were two theories: British scientists Crookes and Cromwell Varley believed they were particles of \'radiant matter\', that is, electrically charged atoms. German researchers E. Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz, and Eugen Goldstein believed they were \'aether vibrations\', some new form of electromagnetic waves, and were separate from what carried the current through the tube. The debate continued until J. J. Thomson measured cathode ray's mass, proving they were a previously unknown negatively charged particle in an atom, the first subatomic particle, which he called a \'corpuscle\' but was later renamed the \'electron\'.
### Straight line motion {#straight_line_motion}
Julius Plücker in 1869 built a tube with an anode shaped like a Maltese Cross facing the cathode. It was hinged, so it could fold down against the floor of the tube. When the tube was turned on, the cathode rays cast a sharp cross-shaped shadow on the fluorescence on the back face of the tube, showing that the rays moved in straight lines. This fluorescence was used as an argument that cathode rays were electromagnetic waves, since the only thing known to cause fluorescence at the time was ultraviolet light. After a while the fluorescence would get \'tired\' and the glow would decrease. If the cross was folded down out of the path of the rays, it no longer cast a shadow, and the previously shadowed area would fluoresce more strongly than the area around it.
### Perpendicular emission {#perpendicular_emission}
thumb\|upright=0.4\|Crookes tube with concave cathode Eugen Goldstein in 1876 found that cathode rays were always emitted perpendicular to the cathode\'s surface. If the cathode was a flat plate, the rays were shot out in straight lines perpendicular to the plane of the plate. This was evidence that they were particles, because a luminous object, like a red hot metal plate, emits light in all directions, while a charged particle will be repelled by the cathode in a perpendicular direction. Cathode rays heat matter which they strike. If the electrode was made in the form of a concave spherical dish, the cathode rays would be focused to a spot in front of the dish. This could be used to heat samples to a high temperature. `{{breakafterimages}}`{=mediawiki}
### Electrostatic deflection {#electrostatic_deflection}
Cathode rays path can be deflected by an electric field. Heinrich Hertz built a tube with a second pair of metal plates to either side of the cathode ray beam, a crude CRT. If the cathode rays were charged particles, their path should be bent by the electric field created when a voltage was applied to the plates, causing the spot of light where the rays hit to move sideways. He did not find any bending, but it was later determined that his tube was insufficiently evacuated, causing accumulations of surface charge which masked the electric field. Later Arthur Schuster repeated the experiment with a higher vacuum. He found that the rays were attracted toward a positively charged plate and repelled by a negative one, bending the beam. This was evidence they were negatively charged, and therefore not electromagnetic waves. `{{breakafterimages}}`{=mediawiki}
### Magnetic deflection {#magnetic_deflection}
thumb\|Crookes magnetic deflection tube The rays path can be deflected by a magnetic field. Crookes put a magnet across the neck of the tube, so that the North pole was on one side of the beam and the South pole was on the other, and the beam travelled through the magnetic field between them. The beam was bent down, perpendicular to the magnetic field. To reveal the path of the beam, Crookes invented a tube *(see pictures)* with a cardboard screen with a phosphor coating down the length of the tube, at a slight angle so the electrons would strike the phosphor along its length, making a glowing line on the screen. The line could be seen to bend up or down in a transverse magnetic field. This effect (now called the Lorentz force) was similar to the behavior of electric currents in an electric motor and showed that the cathode rays obeyed Faraday\'s law of induction like currents in wires. Both electric and magnetic deflection were evidence for the particle theory, because electric and magnetic fields have no effect on a beam of light waves in vacuum.
### Paddlewheel
thumb\|Crookes\'s paddlewheel tube, from his 1879 paper *On Radiant Matter* Crookes put a tiny vaned turbine or paddlewheel in the path of the cathode rays, and found that it rotated when the rays hit it. The paddlewheel turned in a direction away from the cathode side of the tube, suggesting that the force of the cathode rays striking the paddles was causing the rotation. Crookes concluded at the time that this showed that cathode rays had momentum, so the rays were likely matter particles. However, later it was concluded that the paddle wheel turned not due to the momentum of the particles (or electrons) hitting the paddle wheel but due to the radiometric effect. When the rays hit the paddle surface they heated it, and the heat caused the gas next to it to expand, pushing the paddle. This was proven in 1903 by J. J. Thomson who calculated that the momentum of the electrons hitting the paddle wheel would only be sufficient to turn the wheel one revolution per minute. All this experiment really showed was that cathode rays were able to heat surfaces.
### Negative electric charge {#negative_electric_charge}
Jean-Baptiste Perrin wanted to determine whether the cathode rays actually carried negative charge, or whether they just accompanied the charge carriers, as the Germans thought. In 1895 he constructed a tube with a \'catcher\', a closed aluminum cylinder with a small hole in the end facing the cathode, to collect the cathode rays. The catcher was attached to an electroscope to measure its charge. The electroscope showed a negative charge, proving that cathode rays really carry negative electricity.
### Anode rays {#anode_rays}
thumb\|upright=0.75\|Special tube with perforated cathode, producing anode rays *(top, pink)* Goldstein found in 1886 that if the cathode is made with small holes in it, streams of a faint luminous glow will be seen issuing from the holes on the back side of the cathode, facing away from the anode. It was found that in an electric field these anode rays bend in the opposite direction from cathode rays, toward a negatively charged plate, indicating that they carry a positive charge. These were the positive ions which were attracted to the cathode, and created the cathode rays. They were named *canal rays* (*Kanalstrahlen*) by Goldstein.
### Spectral shift {#spectral_shift}
Eugen Goldstein thought he had figured out a method of measuring the speed of cathode rays. If the glow discharge seen in the gas of Crookes tubes was produced by the moving cathode rays, the light radiated from them in the direction they were moving, down the tube, would be shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect. This could be detected with a spectroscope because the emission line spectrum would be shifted. He built a tube shaped like an \"L\", with a spectroscope pointed through the glass of the elbow down one of the arms. He measured the spectrum of the glow when the spectroscope was pointed toward the cathode end, then switched the power supply connections so the cathode became the anode and the electrons were moving in the other direction, and again observed the spectrum looking for a shift. He did not find one, which he calculated meant that the rays were traveling very slowly. It was later recognized that the glow in Crookes tubes is emitted from gas atoms hit by the electrons, not the electrons themselves. Since the atoms are thousands of times more massive than the electrons, they move much slower, accounting for the lack of Doppler shift.
### Lenard window {#lenard_window}
thumb\|Lenard window tube Philipp Lenard wanted to see if cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. See diagram. He built a tube with a \"window\" *(W)* in the glass envelope made of aluminum foil just thick enough to hold the atmospheric pressure out (later called a \"Lenard window\") facing the cathode *(C)* so the cathode rays would hit it. He found that something did come through. Holding a fluorescent screen up to the window caused it to fluoresce, even though no light reached it. A photographic plate held up to it would be darkened, even though it was not exposed to light. The effect had a very short range of about 2.5 cm. He measured the ability of cathode rays to penetrate sheets of material, and found they could penetrate much farther than moving atoms could. Since atoms were the smallest particles known at the time, this was first taken as evidence that cathode rays were waves. Later it was realized that electrons were much smaller than atoms, accounting for their greater penetration ability. Lenard was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 for his work.
### Wave-particle duality {#wave_particle_duality}
Louis de Broglie later (1924) suggested in his doctoral dissertation that electrons are like photons and can act as waves. The wave-like behaviour of cathode rays was later directly demonstrated using reflection from a nickel surface by Davisson and Germer, and transmission through celluloid thin films and later metal films by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid in 1927. (Alexander Reid, who was Thomson\'s graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned.)
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Cathode
|
A **cathode** is the electrode from which a conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device such as a lead-acid battery. This definition can be recalled by using the mnemonic *CCD* for *Cathode Current Departs*. Conventional current describes the direction in which positive charges move. Electrons, which are the carriers of current in most electrical systems, have a negative electrical charge, so the movement of electrons is *opposite* to that of the conventional current flow: this means that electrons flow *into* the device\'s cathode from the external circuit. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a + (plus) is the cathode.
The electrode through which conventional current flows the other way, into the device, is termed an anode.
## Charge flow {#charge_flow}
Conventional current flows from cathode to anode outside the cell or device (with electrons moving in the opposite direction), regardless of the cell or device type and operating mode.
Cathode polarity with respect to the anode can be positive or negative depending on how the device is being operated. Inside a device or a cell, positively charged cations always move towards the cathode and negatively charged anions move towards the anode, although cathode polarity depends on the device type, and can even vary according to the operating mode. Whether the cathode is negatively polarized (such as recharging a battery) or positively polarized (such as a battery in use), the cathode will draw electrons into it from outside, as well as attract positively charged cations from inside.
A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where conventional current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this \"uphill\" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving into the battery which constitutes positive current flowing outwards. For example, the Daniell galvanic cell\'s copper electrode is the positive terminal and the cathode.
A battery that is recharging or an electrolytic cell performing electrolysis has its cathode as the negative terminal, from which current exits the device and returns to the external generator as charge enters the battery/ cell. For example, reversing the current direction in a Daniell galvanic cell converts it into an electrolytic cell where the copper electrode is the positive terminal and also the anode.
In a diode, the cathode is the negative terminal at the pointed end of the arrow symbol, where current flows out of the device. Note: electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows \"most easily\"), even for types such as Zener diodes or solar cells where the current of interest is the reverse current. In vacuum tubes (including cathode-ray tubes) it is the negative terminal where electrons enter the device from the external circuit and proceed into the tube\'s near-vacuum, constituting a positive current flowing out of the device.
## Etymology
The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek κάθοδος (*kathodos*), \'descent\' or \'way down\', by William Whewell, who had been consulted by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the \"decomposing body\" (electrolyte) in a direction \"from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move\", the cathode is where the current leaves the electrolyte, on the West side: \"*kata* downwards, *\'odos* a way; the way which the sun sets\".
The use of \'West\' to mean the \'out\' direction (actually \'out\' → \'West\' → \'sunset\' → \'down\', i.e. \'out of view\') may appear unnecessarily contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term \"exode\" (the doorway where the current exits). His motivation for changing it to something meaning \'the West electrode\' (other candidates had been \"westode\", \"occiode\" and \"dysiode\") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth\'s magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth\'s. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the West electrode would not have been the \'way out\' any more. Therefore, \"exode\" would have become inappropriate, whereas \"cathode\" meaning \'West electrode\' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the cathode\'s function any more, but more importantly because, as we now know, the Earth\'s magnetic field direction on which the \"cathode\" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the \"exode\" term was based has no reason to change in the future.
Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember, and more durably technically correct (although historically false), etymology has been suggested: cathode, from the Greek *kathodos*, \'way down\', \'the way (down) into the cell (or other device) for electrons\'.
## In chemistry {#in_chemistry}
In chemistry, a **cathode** is the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs. The cathode can be negative like when the cell is electrolytic (where electrical energy provided to the cell is being used for decomposing chemical compounds); or positive as when the cell is galvanic (where chemical reactions are used for generating electrical energy). The cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations which flow to it from the electrolyte (even if the cell is galvanic, i.e., when the cathode is positive and therefore would be expected to repel the positively charged cations; this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems in a galvanic cell).
The **cathodic current**, in electrochemistry, is the flow of electrons from the cathode interface to a species in solution. The **anodic current** is the flow of electrons into the anode from a species in solution.
### Electrolytic cell {#electrolytic_cell}
In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell. Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions. When discussing the relative reducing power of two redox agents, the couple for generating the more reducing species is said to be more \"cathodic\" with respect to the more easily reduced reagent.
### Galvanic cell {#galvanic_cell}
In a galvanic cell, the cathode is where the positive pole is connected to allow the circuit to be completed: as the anode of the galvanic cell gives off electrons, they return from the circuit into the cell through the cathode.
### Electroplating metal cathode (electrolysis) {#electroplating_metal_cathode_electrolysis}
When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution, they form a pure metal surface on the cathode. Items to be plated with pure metal are attached to and become part of the cathode in the electrolytic solution.
## In electronics {#in_electronics}
### Vacuum tubes {#vacuum_tubes}
In a vacuum tube or electronic vacuum system, the cathode is usually a metal surface with an oxide coating that much improves electron emission, heated by a filament, which emits free electrons into the evacuated space. In some cases the bare filament acts as the cathode. Since the electrons are attracted to the positive nuclei of the metal atoms, they normally stay inside the metal and require energy to leave it; this is called the *work function* of the metal. Cathodes are induced to emit electrons by several mechanisms:
- *Thermionic emission*: The cathode can be heated. The increased thermal motion of the metal atoms \"knocks\" electrons out of the surface, an effect called thermionic emission. This technique is used in most vacuum tubes.
- *Field electron emission*: A strong electric field can be applied to the surface by placing an electrode with a high positive voltage near the cathode. The positively charged electrode attracts the electrons, causing some electrons to leave the cathode\'s surface. This process is used in cold cathodes in some electron microscopes, and in microelectronics fabrication,
- *Secondary emission*: An electron, atom or molecule colliding with the surface of the cathode with enough energy can knock electrons out of the surface. These electrons are called *secondary electrons*. This mechanism is used in gas-discharge lamps such as neon lamps.
- *Photoelectric emission*: Electrons can also be emitted from the electrodes of certain metals when light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency falls on it. This effect is called photoelectric emission, and the electrons produced are called *photoelectrons*. This effect is used in phototubes and image intensifier tubes.
Cathodes can be divided into two types:
#### Hot cathode {#hot_cathode}
A hot cathode is a cathode that is heated by a filament to produce electrons by thermionic emission. The filament is a thin wire of a refractory metal like tungsten heated red-hot by an electric current passing through it. Before the advent of transistors in the 1960s, virtually all electronic equipment used hot-cathode vacuum tubes. Today hot cathodes are used in vacuum tubes in radio transmitters and microwave ovens, to produce the electron beams in older cathode-ray tube (CRT) type televisions and computer monitors, in x-ray generators, electron microscopes, and fluorescent tubes.
There are two types of hot cathodes:
- **Directly heated cathode**: In this type, the filament itself is the cathode and emits the electrons directly. Directly heated cathodes were used in the first vacuum tubes, but today they are only used in fluorescent tubes, some large transmitting vacuum tubes, and all X-ray tubes.
- **Indirectly heated cathode**: In this type, the filament is not the cathode but rather heats the cathode which then emits electrons. Indirectly heated cathodes are used in most devices today. For example, in most vacuum tubes the cathode is a nickel tube with the filament inside it, and the heat from the filament causes the outside surface of the tube to emit electrons. The filament of an indirectly heated cathode is usually called the *heater*. The main reason for using an indirectly heated cathode is to isolate the rest of the vacuum tube from the electric potential across the filament. Many vacuum tubes use alternating current to heat the filament. In a tube in which the filament itself was the cathode, the alternating electric field from the filament surface would affect the movement of the electrons and introduce hum into the tube output. It also allows the filaments in all the tubes in an electronic device to be tied together and supplied from the same current source, even though the cathodes they heat may be at different potentials.
In order to improve electron emission, cathodes are treated with chemicals, usually compounds of metals with a low work function. Treated cathodes require less surface area, lower temperatures and less power to supply the same cathode current. The untreated tungsten filaments used in early tubes (called \"bright emitters\") had to be heated to 1400 °C, white-hot, to produce sufficient thermionic emission for use, while modern coated cathodes produce far more electrons at a given temperature so they only have to be heated to 425 -- There are two main types of treated cathodes:
thumb\|upright=0.5\|Cold cathode *(lefthand electrode)* in neon lamp
- Coated cathode -- In these the cathode is covered with a coating of alkali metal oxides, often barium and strontium oxide. These are used in low-power tubes.
- Thoriated tungsten -- In high-power tubes, ion bombardment can destroy the coating on a coated cathode. In these tubes a directly heated cathode consisting of a filament made of tungsten incorporating a small amount of thorium is used. The layer of thorium on the surface which reduces the work function of the cathode is continually replenished as it is lost by diffusion of thorium from the interior of the metal.
#### Cold cathode {#cold_cathode}
This is a cathode that is not heated by a filament. They may emit electrons by field electron emission, and in gas-filled tubes by secondary emission. Some examples are electrodes in neon lights, cold-cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) used as backlights in laptops, thyratron tubes, and Crookes tubes. They do not necessarily operate at room temperature; in some devices the cathode is heated by the electron current flowing through it to a temperature at which thermionic emission occurs. For example, in some fluorescent tubes a momentary high voltage is applied to the electrodes to start the current through the tube; after starting the electrodes are heated enough by the current to keep emitting electrons to sustain the discharge.
Cold cathodes may also emit electrons by photoelectric emission. These are often called *photocathodes* and are used in phototubes used in scientific instruments and image intensifier tubes used in night vision goggles.
### Diodes
In a semiconductor diode, the cathode is the N--doped layer of the p--n junction with a high density of free electrons due to doping, and an equal density of fixed positive charges, which are the dopants that have been thermally ionized. In the anode, the converse applies: It features a high density of free \"holes\" and consequently fixed negative dopants which have captured an electron (hence the origin of the holes).
When P and N-doped layers are created adjacent to each other, diffusion ensures that electrons flow from high to low density areas: That is, from the N to the P side. They leave behind the fixed positively charged dopants near the junction. Similarly, holes diffuse from P to N leaving behind fixed negative ionised dopants near the junction. These layers of fixed positive and negative charges are collectively known as the depletion layer because they are depleted of free electrons and holes. The depletion layer at the junction is at the origin of the diode\'s rectifying properties. This is due to the resulting internal field and corresponding potential barrier which inhibit current flow in reverse applied bias which increases the internal depletion layer field. Conversely, they allow it in forwards applied bias where the applied bias reduces the built in potential barrier.
Electrons which diffuse from the cathode into the P-doped layer, or anode, become what are termed \"minority carriers\" and tend to recombine there with the majority carriers, which are holes, on a timescale characteristic of the material which is the p-type minority carrier lifetime. Similarly, holes diffusing into the N-doped layer become minority carriers and tend to recombine with electrons. In equilibrium, with no applied bias, thermally assisted diffusion of electrons and holes in opposite directions across the depletion layer ensure a zero net current with electrons flowing from cathode to anode and recombining, and holes flowing from anode to cathode across the junction or depletion layer and recombining.
Like a typical diode, there is a fixed anode and cathode in a Zener diode, but it will conduct current in the reverse direction (electrons flow from anode to cathode) if its breakdown voltage or \"Zener voltage\" is exceeded.
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Chrominance
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**Chrominance** (*chroma* or *C* for short) is the signal used in video systems to convey the color information of the picture (see YUV color model), separately from the accompanying luma signal (or Y\' for short). Chrominance is usually represented as two color-difference components: U = B′ − Y′ (blue − luma) and V = R′ − Y′ (red − luma). Each of these different components may have scale factors and offsets applied to it, as specified by the applicable video standard.
In composite video signals, the U and V signals modulate a color subcarrier signal, and the result is referred to as the chrominance signal; the phase and amplitude of this modulated chrominance signal correspond approximately to the hue and saturation of the color. In digital-video and still-image color spaces such as Y′CbCr, the luma and chrominance components are digital sample values.
Separating RGB color signals into luma and chrominance allows the bandwidth of each to be determined separately. Typically, the chrominance bandwidth is reduced in analog composite video by reducing the bandwidth of a modulated color subcarrier, and in digital systems by chroma subsampling.
## History
The idea of transmitting a color television signal with distinct luma and chrominance components originated with Georges Valensi, who patented the idea in 1938. Valensi\'s patent application described:
> The use of two channels, one transmitting the predominating color (signal T), and the other the mean brilliance (signal t) output from a single television transmitter to be received not only by color television receivers provided with the necessary more expensive equipment, but also by the ordinary type of television receiver which is more numerous and less expensive and which reproduces the pictures in black and white only.
Previous schemes for color television systems, which were incompatible with existing monochrome receivers, transmitted RGB signals in various ways.
## Television standards {#television_standards}
In analog television, chrominance is encoded into a video signal using a subcarrier frequency. Depending on the video standard, the chrominance subcarrier may be either quadrature-amplitude-modulated (NTSC and PAL) or frequency-modulated (SECAM).
In the PAL system, the color subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier, while in the NTSC system it is 3.58 MHz above the video carrier. The NTSC and PAL standards are the most commonly used, although there are other video standards that employ different subcarrier frequencies. For example, PAL-M (Brazil) uses a 3.58 MHz subcarrier, and SECAM uses two different frequencies, 4.250 MHz and 4.40625 MHz above the video carrier.
The presence of chrominance in a video signal is indicated by a color burst signal transmitted on the back porch, just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were visible on a television screen, it would appear as a vertical strip of a very dark olive color. In NTSC and PAL, hue is represented by a phase shift of the chrominance signal relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM (R′ − Y′) and (B′ − Y′) signals are transmitted alternately and phase does not matter.
Chrominance is represented by the U-V color plane in PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the I-Q color plane in NTSC.
## Digital systems {#digital_systems}
Digital video and digital still photography systems sometimes use a luma/chroma decomposition for improved compression. For example, when an ordinary RGB digital image is compressed via the JPEG standard, the RGB color space is first converted (by a rotation matrix) to a YCbCr color space, because the three components in that space have less correlation redundancy and because the chrominance components can then be subsampled by a factor of 2 or 4 to further compress the image. On decompression, the Y′CbCr space is rotated back to RGB.
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Campus
|
A **campus** traditionally refers to the land and buildings of a college or university. This will often include libraries, lecture halls, student centers and, for residential universities, residence halls and dining halls.
By extension, a **corporate campus** is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a company, particularly in the technology sector. Examples include Bell Labs, the Googleplex and Apple Park.
## Etymology
Campus comes from the *campus*, meaning \"field\", and was first used in the academic sense at Princeton University in 1774. At Princeton, the word referred to a large open space on the college grounds; similarly at the University of South Carolina it was used by 1826 to describe the open square (of around 10 acres) between the college buildings. By the end of the 19th century, the term was used widely at US colleges to refer to the grounds of the college, but it was not until the 20th century that it expanded to include the buildings as well.
## History
The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students and teachers lived and worked together in a cloistered environment. The notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system.
The campus evolved from the cloistered model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. Early colonial colleges were all built in proprietary styles, with some contained in single buildings, such as the campus of Princeton University or arranged in a version of the cloister reflecting American values, such as Harvard\'s. Both the campus designs and the architecture of colleges throughout the country have evolved in response to trends in the broader world, with most representing several different contemporary and historical styles and arrangements.
In 1922, a lecture by Patrick Abercrombie at the British Town Planning Institute contrasted the American campus to the style of Oxbridge colleges, saying: \"generally with us the park-like garden and trees are to one side of the college buildings, in contrast with the formally enclosed quad with its clipt grass. In the Campus method the departments of the university are scattered about a park and are actually among the trees.\" However, he did also note that Trinity College Dublin had \"what is called elsewhere a Campus\" on its 28 acre site in central Dublin, and that William Wilkins had \"attempt\[ed\] an English Campus\" on the 20 acre site of Downing College, Cambridge.
The first true campus universities in Britain were not established until the late 1940s, with the University of Reading moving to its Whiteknights campus in 1947, University College Swansea (now Swansea University) moving to its Singleton Park campus in 1948 and the University College of North Staffordshire (now the University of Keele) being established on the Keele Hall estate in 1949.
## Uses
### Office buildings {#office_buildings}
In the early 1990s the term began to be used to describe a company\'s office building complex, most notably when Apple\'s Infinite Loop campus was first built, which at the time was exclusively for research and development. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington, is another example of this usage, although it was built in the 1980s, before the term was applied to company property. In the 21st century, hospitals and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their respective facilities.
### Universities
The word *campus* has also been applied to European universities, although some such institutions (in particular, \"ancient\" universities such as Bologna, Padua, Oxford and Cambridge) are characterized by ownership of individual buildings in university town-like urban settings rather than sprawling park-like lawns in which buildings are placed.
## World Heritage campuses {#world_heritage_campuses}
A number of university campuses or parts of campuses have been recognised as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO for their outstanding universal value. These include:
- Botanical Garden, University of Padua, Italy -- the world\'s oldest botanical garden (inscribed 1997)
- Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico (inscribed 2007)
- Durham Castle and Cathedral, UK -- including University College, Durham (Durham Castle) and the historic centre of Durham University around Palace Green (inscribed 1986; modified 2008)
- Medina of Fez, Morocco -- including the University of al-Qarawiyyin (inscribed 1981)
- Monticello and the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, USA -- including the Rotunda and the historic centre of the university around the Lawn (inscribed 1987; modified 2015)
- University City of Caracas, Venezuela -- the main campus of the Central University of Venezuela (inscribed 2000)
- University of Alcalá de Henares, Spain -- the world\'s first planned university city (inscribed 1998)
- University of Coimbra, Portugal (inscribed 2013; modified 2019)
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Chalcedonian Definition
|
The **Chalcedonian Definition** (also called the **Chalcedonian Creed** or the **Definition of Chalcedon**) is the declaration of the dyophysitism of Christ\'s nature, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451. Chalcedon was an early centre of Christianity located in Asia Minor. The council was the fourth of the ecumenical councils that are accepted by Chalcedonian churches which include the Catholic and Orthodox churches.
It was the first council not to be recognised by any Oriental Orthodox church; for this reason these churches may be classified as Non-Chalcedonian.
## Context
The Council of Chalcedon was summoned to consider the Christological question in light of the \"one-nature\" view of Christ proposed by Eutyches, archimandrite at Constantinople, which prevailed at the Second Council of Ephesus in 449, sometimes referred to as the \"Robber Synod\".
The Council first solemnly ratified the Nicene Creed adopted in 325 and that creed as amended by the First Council of Constantinople in 381. It also confirmed the authority of two synodical letters of Cyril of Alexandria and the letter of Pope Leo I to Flavian of Constantinople.
## Content
The full text of the definition reaffirms the decisions of the Council of Ephesus, the pre-eminence of the Creed of Nicaea (325) and the further definitions of the Council of Constantinople (381).
In one of the translations into English, the key section, emphasizing the double nature of Christ (human and divine), runs: `{{Blockquote|Following, then, the holy Fathers, we all unanimously teach that our Lord Jesus Christ is to us One and the same Son, the Self-same Perfect in Godhead, the Self-same Perfect in Manhood; ''truly God and truly Man''; the Self-same of a rational soul and body; co-essential with the Father according to the Godhead, the Self-same co-essential with us according to the Manhood; like us in all things, sin apart; before the ages begotten of the Father as to the Godhead, but in the last days, the Self-same, for us and for our salvation (born) of Mary the Virgin [[Theotokos]] as to the Manhood; One and the Same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten; acknowledged in Two Natures unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; the difference of the Natures being in no way removed because of the Union, but rather the properties of each Nature being preserved, and (both) concurring into One Person and One Hypostasis; not as though He was parted or divided into Two Persons, but One and the Self-same Son and Only-begotten God, Word, Lord, Jesus Christ; even as from the beginning the prophets have taught concerning Him, and as the Lord Jesus Christ Himself hath taught us, and as the Symbol of the Fathers hath handed down to us.|source={{harvnb|Bindley|1899|p=297}} }}`{=mediawiki}
The Definition implicitly addressed a number of popular heretical beliefs. The reference to \"co-essential with the Father\" was directed at Arianism; \"co-essential with us\" is directed at Apollinarianism; \"Two Natures unconfusedly, unchangeably\" refutes Eutychianism; and \"indivisibly, inseparably\" and \"Theotokos\" are against Nestorianism.
## Oriental Orthodox dissent {#oriental_orthodox_dissent}
The Chalcedonian Definition was written amid controversy between the Western and Eastern churches over the meaning of the Incarnation (see Christology). The Western church readily accepted the creed, but some Eastern churches did not. Political disturbances prevented the Armenian bishops from attending. Even though Chalcedon reaffirmed the Third Council\'s condemnation of Nestorius, the Non-Chalcedonians always suspected that the Chalcedonian Definition tended towards Nestorianism. This was in part because of the restoration of a number of bishops deposed at the Second Council of Ephesus, bishops who had previously indicated what appeared to be support of Nestorian positions.
The Coptic Church of Alexandria dissented, holding to Cyril of Alexandria\'s preferred formula for the oneness of Christ\'s nature in the incarnation of God the Word as \"out of two natures\". Cyril\'s language is not consistent and he may have countenanced the view that it is possible to contemplate in theory two natures after the incarnation, but the Church of Alexandria felt that the Definition should have stated that Christ be acknowledged \"out of two natures\" rather than \"in two natures\".
The definition defines that Christ is \"acknowledged in two natures\", which \"come together into one person and one hypostasis\". The formal definition of \"two natures\" in Christ was understood by the critics of the council at the time, and is understood by many historians and theologians today, to side with western and Antiochene Christology and to diverge from the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, who always stressed that Christ is \"one\". However, a modern analysis of the sources of the creed (by A. de Halleux, in *Revue Theologique de Louvain* 7, 1976) and a reading of the acts, or proceedings, of the council show that the bishops considered Cyril the great authority and that even the language of \"two natures\" derives from him.
This miaphysite position, historically characterised by Chalcedonian followers as \"monophysitism\", though this is denied by the dissenters, formed the basis for the distinction of the Coptic Church of Egypt and Ethiopia and the \"Jacobite\" churches of Syria, and the Armenian Apostolic Church (see Oriental Orthodoxy) from other churches.
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Car Talk
|
***Car Talk*** is a metonym for the humorous work of \"Click and Clack, the Tappet Brothers\", Tom and Ray Magliozzi, on automobile repair. Originally, *Car Talk* was a radio show that ran on National Public Radio (NPR) from 1977 until October 2012, when the Magliozzi brothers retired. Since their retirement, the oeuvre now includes a website and a podcast of reruns that is currently hosted by Apple Podcasts, NPR Podcasts, and Stitcher. The *Car Talk* radio show was honored with a Peabody Award in 1992, and the Magliozzis were both inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 2014 and the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2018.
## Premise
*Car Talk* was presented in the form of a call-in radio show: listeners called in with questions related to motor vehicle maintenance and repair. Most of the advice sought was diagnostic, with callers describing symptoms and demonstrating sounds of an ailing vehicle while the Magliozzis made an attempt to identify the malfunction over the telephone and give advice on how to fix it. While the hosts peppered their call-in sessions with jokes directed at both the caller and at themselves, the Magliozzis were usually able to arrive at a diagnosis. However, when they were stumped, they attempted anyway with an answer they claimed was \"unencumbered by the thought process\", the official motto of the show.
Edited reruns are carried on XM Satellite Radio (now Sirius XM) via both the Public Radio and NPR Now channels.
The *Car Talk* theme music is \"Dawggy Mountain Breakdown\" by bluegrass artist David Grisman.
### Call-in procedure {#call_in_procedure}
Throughout the program, listeners were encouraged to dial the toll-free telephone number, 1-888-CAR-TALK (1-888-227-8255), which connected to a 24-hour answering service. Although the approximately 2,000 queries received each week were screened by the *Car Talk* staff, the questions were unknown to the Magliozzis in advance as \"that would entail researching the right answer, which is what? \... Work.\"
### Features
The show originally consisted of two segments with a break in between but was changed to three segments. After the shift to the three-segment format, it became a running joke to refer to the last segment as \"the third half\" of the program.
The show opened with a short comedy segment, typically jokes sent in by listeners, followed by eight call-in sessions. The hosts ran a contest called the \"Puzzler\", in which a riddle, sometimes car-related, was presented. The answer to the previous week\'s \"Puzzler\" was given at the beginning of the \"second half\" of the show, and a new \"Puzzler\" was given at the start of the \"third half\". The hosts gave instructions to listeners to write answers addressed to \"Puzzler Tower\" on some non-existent or expensive object, such as a \"\$26 bill\" or an advanced DSLR camera. This gag initially started as suggestions that the answers be written \"on the back of a \$20 bill\". A running gag concerned Tom\'s inability to remember the previous week\'s \"Puzzler\" without heavy prompting from Ray. During a tribute show following Tom\'s death in 2014 due to complications of Alzheimer\'s disease, Ray joked, \"I guess he wasn\'t joking about not being able to remember the puzzler all those years.\" For each puzzler, one correct answer was chosen at random, with the winner receiving a \$26 gift certificate to the *Car Talk* store, referred to as the \"Shameless Commerce Division\". It was originally \$25, but was increased for inflation after a few years. Originally, the winner received a specific item from the store, but it soon changed to a gift certificate to allow the winner to choose the item they wanted (though Tom often made an item suggestion).
A recurring feature was \"Stump the Chumps,\" in which the hosts revisited a caller from a previous show to determine the accuracy and the effect, if any, of their advice. A similar feature began in May 2001, \"Where Are They Now, Tommy?\" It began with a comical musical theme with a sputtering, backfiring car engine and a horn as a backdrop. Tom then announced who the previous caller was, followed by a short replay of the essence of the previous call, preceded and followed by harp music often used in other audiovisual media to indicate recalling and returning from a dream. The hosts then greeted the previous caller, confirmed that they had not spoken since their previous appearance and asked them if there had been any influences on the answer they were about to relate, such as arcane bribes by the NPR staff. The repair story was then discussed, followed by a fanfare and applause if the Tappet Brothers\' diagnosis was correct, or a wah-wah-wah music piece mixed with a car starter operated by a weak battery (an engine which wouldn\'t start) if the diagnosis was wrong. The hosts then thanked the caller for their return appearance.
The brothers also had an official Animal-Vehicle Biologist and Wildlife Guru named Kieran Lindsey. She answered questions like \"How do I remove a snake from my car?\" and offered advice on how those living in cities and suburbs could reconnect with wildlife. They also would sometimes rely on Harvard University professors Wolfgang Rueckner and Jim E. Davis for questions concerning physics and chemistry, respectively.
There were numerous appearances from NPR personalities, including Bob Edwards, Susan Stamberg, Scott Simon, Ray Suarez, Will Shortz, Sylvia Poggioli, and commentator and author Daniel Pinkwater. On one occasion, the show featured Martha Stewart as an in-studio guest, whom the Magliozzis twice during the segment referred to as \"Margaret\". Celebrities and public figures were featured as \"callers\" as well, including Geena Davis, Ashley Judd, Morley Safer, Gordon Elliott, former Major League Baseball pitcher Bill Lee, journalist Farhad Manjoo, and astronaut John M. Grunsfeld.
#### Space program calls {#space_program_calls}
Astronaut and engineer John Grunsfeld called into the show during Space Shuttle mission STS-81 in January 1997, in which *Atlantis* docked to the Mir space station. In this call he complained about the performance of his serial-numbered, Rockwell-manufactured \"government van\". To wit, it would run very loud and rough for about two minutes, quieter and smoother for another six and a half, and then the engine would stop with a jolt. He went on to state that the brakes of the vehicle, when applied, would glow red-hot, and that the vehicle\'s odometer displayed \"about 60 million miles\". This created some consternation for the hosts, until they noticed the audio of Grunsfeld\'s voice, being relayed from Mir via TDRS satellite, sounded similar to that of Tom Hanks in the then-recent film Apollo 13, after which they realized the call was from space and the government van in question was, in fact, the Space Shuttle.
In addition to the on-orbit call, the Brothers once received a call asking advice on winterizing an electric car. When they asked what kind of car, the caller stated it was a \"kit car\", a \$400 million \"kit car\". It was a joke call from NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory concerning the preparation of the Mars *Opportunity* rover for the oncoming Martian winter, during which temperatures drop to several hundred degrees below freezing.
Click and Clack have also been featured in editorial cartoons, including one where a befuddled NASA engineer called them to ask how to fix the Space Shuttle.
### Humor
Humor and wisecracking pervaded the program. Tom and Ray are known for their self-deprecating humor, often joking about the supposedly poor quality of their advice and the show in general. They also commented at the end of each show: \"Well, it\'s happened again---you\'ve wasted another perfectly good hour listening to *Car Talk*.\"
The phrase \"our fair city\" was introduced during a puzzler segment on the radio show. Ray presented a puzzler involving a well-dressed man who referred to a city as \"your fair city.\" Tom found the phrase amusing and began using it humorously to refer to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the show was based. This playful reference quickly became a running joke on the show, with the hosts frequently referring to Cambridge as \"our fair city\" in subsequent episodes. In another episode Ray mentioned Cambridge, Massachusetts, at which point Tom reverently interjected with a tone of civic pride, \"Our fair city\". Ray invariably mocked {{\"\'}}Cambridge, MA\', the United States Postal Service\'s two-letter abbreviation for \'Massachusetts{{\'\"}}, by pronouncing the \"MA\" as a word.. This also became a running gag.
Preceding each break in the show, one of the hosts led up to the network identification with a humorous take on a disgusted reaction of some usually famous person to hearing that identification. The full line went along the pattern of, for example, \"And even though Roger Clemens stabs his radio with a syringe whenever he hears *us* say it, this is NPR: National Public Radio\" (later just \"\... this is NPR\").
At one point in the show, often after the break, Ray usually stated that: \"Support for this show is provided by,\" followed by an absurd fundraiser.
The ending credits of the show started with thanks to the colorfully nicknamed actual staffers: producer Doug \"the subway fugitive, not a slave to fashion, bongo boy frogman\" Berman; \"John \'Bugsy\' Lawlor, just back from the \...\" every week a different eating event with rhyming foodstuff names; David \"Calves of Belleville\" Greene; Catherine \"Frau Blücher\" Fenollosa, whose name caused a horse to neigh and gallop (an allusion to a running gag in the movie *Young Frankenstein*); and Carly \"High Voltage\" Nix, among others. Following the real staff was a lengthy list of pun-filled fictional staffers and sponsors such as statistician Marge Innovera (\"margin of error\"), customer care representative Haywood Jabuzoff (\"Hey, would ya buzz off\"), meteorologist Claudio Vernight (\"cloudy overnight\"), optometric firm C. F. Eye Care (\"see if I care\"), Russian chauffeur Picov Andropov (\"pick up and drop off\"), Leo Tolstoy biographer Warren Peace (\"War and Peace\"), hygiene officer and chief of the Tokyo office Oteka Shawa (\"oh, take a shower\"), Swedish snowboard instructor Soren Derkeister (\"sore in the keister\"), law firm Dewey, Cheetham & Howe (\"Do we cheat \'em? And how!\"), Greek tailor Euripides Eumenades (\"You rip-a these, you mend-a these\"), cloakroom attendant Mahatma Coate (\"My hat, my coat\"), seat cushion tester Mike Easter (my keister) and many, many others, usually concluding with Erasmus B. Dragon (\"Her ass must be draggin{{\'\"}}), whose job title varied, but who was often said to be head of the show\'s working mothers\' support group. They sometimes advised that \"our chief counsel from the law firm of Dewey, Cheetham, & Howe is Hugh Louis Dewey, known to a group of people in Harvard Square as Huey Louie Dewey.\" (Huey, Louie, and Dewey were the juvenile nephews being raised by Donald Duck in *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories*.) Guest accommodations were provided by The Horseshoe Road Inn (\"the horse you rode in\").
At the end of the show, Ray warns the audience, \"Don\'t drive like my brother!\" to which Tom replies, \"And don\'t drive like *my* brother!\" The original tag line was \"Don\'t drive like a knucklehead!\" There were variations such as, \"Don\'t drive like my brother \...\" \"And don\'t drive like his brother!\" and \"Don\'t drive like my sister \...\" \"And don\'t drive like *my* sister!\" The tagline was heard in the Pixar film *Cars*, in which Tom and Ray voiced anthropomorphized vehicles (Rusty and Dusty Rust-eze, respectively a 1963 Dodge Dart and 1963 Dodge A100 van, as Lightning McQueen\'s racing sponsors) with personalities similar to their own on-air personae. Tom notoriously once owned a \"convertible, green with large areas of rust!\" Dodge Dart, known jokingly on the program by the faux-elegant name \"Dartre\".
## History
In 1977, radio station WBUR-FM in Boston scheduled a panel of local car mechanics to discuss car repairs on one of its programs, but only Tom Magliozzi showed up. He did so well that he was asked to return as a guest, and he invited his younger brother Ray (who was actually more of a car repair expert) to join him. The brothers were soon asked to host their own radio show on WBUR, which they continued to do every week. In 1986, NPR decided to distribute their show nationally.
In 1989, the brothers started a newspaper column *Click and Clack Talk Cars* which, like the radio show, mixed serious advice with humor. King Features distributes the column. Ray Magliozzi continues to write the column, retitled *Car Talk*, after his brother\'s death in 2014, knowing he would have wanted the advice and humor to continue.
In 1992, *Car Talk* won a Peabody Award, saying \"Each week, master mechanics Tom and Ray Magliozzi provide useful information about preserving and protecting our cars. But the real core of this program is what it tells us about human mechanics \... The insight and laughter provided by Messrs. Magliozzi, in conjunction with their producer Doug Berman, provide a weekly mental tune-up for a vast and ever-growing public radio audience.\"
In 2005, Tom and Ray Magliozzi founded the Car Talk Vehicle Donation Program, \"as a way to give back to the stations that were our friends and partners for decades --- and whose programs we listen to every day.\" Since the Car Talk Vehicle Donation Program was founded, over 40,000 vehicles have been donated to support local NPR stations and programs, with over \$40 million donated. Approximately 70% of the proceeds generated go directly toward funding local NPR affiliates and programs.
As of 2012, it had 3.3 million listeners each week, on about 660 stations. On June 8, 2012, the brothers announced that they would no longer broadcast new episodes as of October. Executive producer Doug Berman said the best material from 25 years of past shows would be used to put together \"repurposed\" shows for NPR to broadcast. Berman estimated the archives contain enough for eight years\' worth of material before anything would have to be repeated. Ray Magliozzi, however, would occasionally record new taglines and sponsor announcements that were aired at the end of the show.
The show was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 2014.
Ray Magliozzi hosted a special *Car Talk* memorial episode for his brother Tom after he died in November 2014.
The *Best of Car Talk* episodes ended their weekly broadcast on NPR on September 30, 2017, although past episodes would continue availability online and via podcasts. 120 of the 400 stations intended to continue airing the show. NPR announced one option for the time slot would be their new news-talk program *It\'s Been a Minute*.
On June 11, 2021, it was announced that radio distribution of *Car Talk* would officially end on October 1, 2021, and that NPR would begin distribution of a twice-weekly podcast that will be 35--40 minutes in length and include early versions of every show, in sequential order.
## Hosts
The Magliozzis were long-time auto mechanics. Ray Magliozzi has a Bachelor of Science degree in humanities and science from MIT, while Tom had a Bachelor of Science degree in economics from MIT, an MBA from Northeastern University, and a DBA from the Boston University School of Management.
The Magliozzis operated a do-it-yourself garage together in the 1970s which became more of a conventional repair shop in the 1980s. Ray continued to have a hand in the day-to-day operations of the shop for years, while his brother Tom semi-retired, often joking on *Car Talk* about his distaste for doing \"actual work\". The show\'s offices were located near their shop at the corner of JFK Street and Brattle Street in Harvard Square, marked as \"Dewey, Cheetham & Howe\", the imaginary law firm to which they referred on-air. DC&H doubled as the business name of Tappet Brothers Associates, the corporation established to manage the business end of *Car Talk*. Initially a joke, the company was incorporated after the show expanded from a single station to national syndication.
The two were commencement speakers at MIT in 1999.
Executive producer Doug Berman said in 2012, \"The guys are culturally right up there with Mark Twain and the Marx Brothers. They will stand the test of time. People will still be enjoying them years from now. They\'re that good.\"
Tom Magliozzi died on November 3, 2014, at age 77, due to complications from Alzheimer\'s disease.
## Adaptations
The show was the inspiration for the short-lived *The George Wendt Show*, which briefly aired on CBS in the 1994--1995 season as a mid-season replacement.
In July 2007, PBS announced that it had green-lit an animated adaptation of *Car Talk*, to air on prime-time in 2008. The show, titled *Click and Clack\'s As the Wrench Turns*, is based on the adventures of the fictional \"Click and Clack\" brothers\' garage at \"Car Talk Plaza\". The ten episodes aired in July and August 2008.
*Car Talk: The Musical!!!* was written and directed by Wesley Savick, and composed by Michael Wartofsky. The adaptation was presented by Suffolk University, and opened on March 31, 2011, at the Modern Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts. The play was not officially endorsed by the Magliozzis, but they participated in the production, lending their voices to a central puppet character named \"The Wizard of Cahs\".
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Chuck-a-luck
|
**Chuck-a-luck**, also known as **birdcage**, or **sweat rag**, is a game of chance played with three dice. It is derived from grand hazard and both can be considered a variant of sic bo, which is a popular casino game, although chuck-a-luck is more of a carnival game than a true casino game. The game is sometimes used as a fundraiser for charity.
## Rules
Chuck-a-luck is played with three standard six-sided, numbered dice that are kept in a device shaped somewhat like an hourglass which resembles a wire-frame bird cage and pivots about its centre. The dealer rotates the cage end over end, with the dice landing on the bottom.
Wagers are placed based on possible combinations that can appear on the three dice. The possible wagers are usually fewer than the wagers that are possible in sic bo and, in that sense, chuck-a-luck can be considered to be a simpler game. In the simplest variant, bettors place stakes on a board with six numbered spaces, labelled 1 through 6, inclusive. They receive a 1:1 payout if the number bet on appears once, a 2:1 payout if the number appears twice, and a 3:1 payout if the number is rolled all 3 times. In this respect, the basic game is identical to Crown and Anchor, but with numbered dice instead of symbols.
Additional wagers that are commonly seen, and their associated odds, are set out in the table below.
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Type | Wager | Typical payout | Actual odds | House edge |
+================+====================================================================================+=================+===================================+============================================================+
| Single Die Bet | A specific number will appear | 1 die matches:\ | \ | {{#expr:100\*(1-2\*75/216-3\*15/216-11\*1/216) round 2}}%\ |
| | | 1 to 1 | ({{#expr:100\*75/216 round 2}}%) | (10:1) |
| | | | | |
| | | | | {{#expr:100\*(1-2\*75/216-3\*15/216-4\*1/216) round 2}}%\ |
| | | | | (3:1) |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | 2 dice match:\ | \ | |
| | | 2 to 1 | ({{#expr:100\*15/216 round 2}}%) | |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | 3 dice match:\ | \ | |
| | | 10 to 1 | ({{#expr:100\*1/216 round 2}}%) | |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Any Triple | Any of the triples (all three dice show the same number) will appear | 30 to 1 | \ | {{#expr:100\*(1-31\*6/216) round 2}}% |
| | | | ({{#expr:100\*6/216 round 2}}%) | |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Big | The total score will be 11 (sometimes 12) or higher with the exception of a triple | 1 to 1 | \ | {{#expr:100\*(1-2\*105/216) round 2}}%\ |
| | | | ({{#expr:100\*105/216 round 2}}%) | (≥11) |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Small | The total score will be 10 (sometimes 9) or lower with the exception of a triple | 1 to 1 | \ | {{#expr:100\*(1-2\*105/216) round 2}}%\ |
| | | | ({{#expr:100\*105/216 round 2}}%) | (≤10) |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Field | The total score will be outside the range of 8 to 12 (inclusive) | 1 to 1 | \ | {{#expr:100\*(1-2\*91/216) round 2}}%\ |
| | | | ({{#expr:100\*91/216 round 2}}%) | (\<8 & \>12) |
+----------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
Notes
### House advantage or edge {#house_advantage_or_edge}
Chuck-a-luck is a game of chance. On average, the players are expected to lose more than they win. The casino\'s advantage (house advantage or house edge) is greater than most other casino games and can be much greater for certain wagers. According to John Scarne, \"habitual gamblers stay away from Chuck-a-Luck because they know how little chance they have against such a high \[house edge\]. They call Chuck-a-Luck \'the champ chump\'s game.{{\'\"}}
For the single die bet, there are 216 (6 × 6 × 6) possible outcomes for a throw of three dice. For a specific number:
- there are 75 possible outcomes where only one die will match the number;
- there are 15 possible outcomes where two dice will match; and
- there is one possible outcome where all three dice will match; and so
- there are 125 possible outcomes where no die will match the number.
At payouts of 1 to 1, 2 to 1 and 10 to 1 respectively for each of these types of outcome, the expected loss as a percentage of the stake wagered is:
1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 3 + (1/216) × 11) = 4.6%
At more disadvantageous payouts of 1 to 1, 2 to 1 and 3 to 1, the expected loss as a percentage of the stake wagered is:
1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 3 + (1/216) × 4) = 7.9%
If the payouts are adjusted to 1 to 1, 3 to 1 and 5 to 1 respectively, the expected loss as a percentage is:
1 - ((75/216) × 2 + (15/216) × 4 + (1/216) × 6) = 0%
Commercially organised gambling games almost always have a house advantage which acts as a fee for the privilege of being allowed to play the game, so the last scenario would represent a payout system used for a home game, where players take turns being the role of banker/casino.
## Variants
- As noted previously, the single-die wager of chuck-a-luck is essentially identical to Crown and Anchor, the traditional Vietnamese game *Bau cua ca cop*, and the Chinese dice game Hoo Hey How, each of which use six-sided dice with symbols instead of pips.
- A version of the Big Six wheel is loosely based on chuck-a-luck, with selected combinations of three dice appearing in 54 slots on a spinning wheel. Because of the distribution of the combinations, the house advantage or edge for this wheel is greater than for chuck-a-luck.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
There is a reference to chuck-a-luck in the Abbott and Costello film *Hold That Ghost*.
In Fritz Lang\'s 1952 film, *Rancho Notorious*, chuck-a-luck is the name of the ranch run by Altar Keane (played by Marlene Dietrich) where outlaws hide from the law. Chuck-a-luck is featured in the lyrics to the theme song and in some plot points.
The game is played by Lazar in the James Bond movie *The Man with the Golden Gun*.
The game is played by Freddie Rumsen in *Mad Men* season 2 episode 9, \"Six-Month Leave\".
In *Dragonfly in Amber* the character Claire Randall describes the activity inside of an inn as having several soldiers playing chuck-a-luck on the floor along with a dog sleeping by the fire and smelling strongly of hops.
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Chipmunk
|
**Chipmunks** are small, striped rodents of subtribe **Tamiina**. Chipmunks are found in North America, with the exception of the Siberian chipmunk which is found primarily in Asia.
## Taxonomy and systematics {#taxonomy_and_systematics}
Chipmunks are classified as four genera: *Tamias*, of which the eastern chipmunk (*T. striatus*) is the only living member; *Eutamias*, of which the Siberian chipmunk (*E. sibiricus*) is the only living member; *Nototamias*, which consists of three extinct species, and *Neotamias*, which includes the 23 remaining, mostly western North American, species. These classifications were treated as subgenera due to the chipmunks\' morphological similarities. As a result, most taxonomies over the twentieth century have placed the chipmunks into a single genus. Joseph C. Moore reclassified chipmunks to form a subtribe Tamiina in a 1959 study, and this classification has been supported by studies of mitochondrial DNA.
The common name originally may have been spelled \"chitmunk\", from the native Odawa (Ottawa) word *jidmoonh*, meaning \"red squirrel\" (*cf.* Ojibwe *ᐊᒋᑕᒨ* *ajidamoo*). The earliest form cited in the *Oxford English Dictionary* is \"chipmonk\", from 1842. Other early forms include \"chipmuck\" and \"chipminck\", and in the 1830s they were also referred to as \"chip squirrels\", probably in reference to the sound they make. In the mid-19th century, John James Audubon and his sons included a lithograph of the chipmunk in their *Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America*, calling it the \"chipping squirrel \[or\] hackee\". Chipmunks have also been referred to as \"ground squirrels\" (although the name \"ground squirrel\" may refer to other squirrels, such as those of the genus *Spermophilus*).
## Diet
Chipmunks have an omnivorous diet primarily consisting of seeds, nuts and other fruits, and buds. They also commonly eat grass, shoots, and many other forms of plant matter, as well as fungi, insects and other arthropods, small frogs, worms, and bird eggs. They will also occasionally eat newly hatched baby birds. Around humans, chipmunks can eat cultivated grains and vegetables, and other plants from farms and gardens, so they are sometimes considered pests. Chipmunks mostly forage on the ground, but they climb trees to obtain nuts such as hazelnuts and acorns. At the beginning of autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile nonperishable foods for winter. They mostly cache their foods in a larder in their burrows and remain in their nests until spring, unlike some other species which make multiple small caches of food. Cheek pouches allow chipmunks to carry food items to their burrows for either storage or consumption.
## Ecology and life history {#ecology_and_life_history}
Eastern chipmunks, the largest of the chipmunks, mate in early spring and again in early summer, producing litters of four or five young twice each year. Western chipmunks breed only once a year. The young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks.
These small mammals fulfill several important functions in forest ecosystems. Their activities harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in seedling establishment. They consume many different kinds of fungi, including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees, and are a vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean sporocarps (truffles) in some regions.
Chipmunks construct extensive burrows which can be more than 3.5 m in length with several well-concealed entrances. The sleeping quarters are kept clear of shells, and feces are stored in refuse tunnels.
The eastern chipmunk hibernates in the winter, while western chipmunks do not, relying on the stores in their burrows.
Chipmunks play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds but are also opportunistic predators themselves, particularly with regard to bird eggs and nestlings, as in the case of eastern chipmunks and mountain bluebirds (*Siala currucoides*).
Chipmunks typically live about three years, although some have been observed living to nine years in captivity.
Chipmunks are diurnal. In captivity, they are said to sleep for an average of about 15 hours a day. It is thought that mammals which can sleep in hiding, such as rodents and bats, tend to sleep longer than those that must remain on alert.
## Genera
Genus *Eutamias*
- Siberian chipmunk, *Eutamias sibiricus*
Genus *Tamias*
- Eastern chipmunk, *Tamias striatus*
- *Tamias aristus* †
Genus *Neotamias*
- Allen\'s chipmunk, *Neotamias senex*
- Alpine chipmunk, *Neotamias alpinus*
- Buller\'s chipmunk, *Neotamias bulleri*
- California chipmunk, *Neotamias obscurus*
- Cliff chipmunk, *Neotamias dorsalis*
- Colorado chipmunk, *Neotamias quadrivittatus*
- Durango chipmunk, *Neotamias durangae*
- Gray-collared chipmunk, *Neotamias cinereicollis*
- Gray-footed chipmunk, *Neotamias canipes*
- Hopi chipmunk, *Neotamias rufus*
- Least chipmunk, *Neotamias minimus*
- Lodgepole chipmunk, *Neotamias speciosus*
- Long-eared chipmunk, *Neotamias quadrimaculatus*
- Merriam\'s chipmunk, *Neotamias merriami*
- Palmer\'s chipmunk, *Neotamias palmeri*
- Panamint chipmunk, *Neotamias panamintinus*
- Red-tailed chipmunk, *Neotamias ruficaudus*
- Siskiyou chipmunk, *Neotamias siskiyou*
- Sonoma chipmunk, *Neotamias sonomae*
- Townsend\'s chipmunk, *Neotamias townsendii*
- Uinta chipmunk, *Neotamias umbrinus*
- Yellow-cheeked chipmunk, *Neotamias ochrogenys*
- Yellow-pine chipmunk, *Neotamias amoenus*
Genus *Nototamias* †
- *Nototamias ateles* †
- *Nototamias hulberti* †
- *Nototamias quadratus* †
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- Alvin and the Chipmunks, an animated virtual band
- Chip \'n\' Dale, cartoon Disney chipmunks
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Computer music
|
**Computer music** is the application of computing technology in music composition, to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with algorithmic composition programs. It includes the theory and application of new and existing computer software technologies and basic aspects of music, such as sound synthesis, digital signal processing, sound design, sonic diffusion, acoustics, electrical engineering, and psychoacoustics. The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origins of electronic music, and the first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.
## History
Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between music and mathematics, a relationship that has been noted since the Ancient Greeks described the \"harmony of the spheres\".
Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed CSIRAC) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people *speculated* about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises, but there is no evidence that they did it.
The world\'s first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed. In 1951 it publicly played the \"Colonel Bogey March\" of which only the reconstruction exists. However, the CSIR Mark 1 played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice, as Max Mathews did, which is current computer-music practice.
The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark 1, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, \"Baa, Baa, Black Sheep\", and \"In the Mood\"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud.
Two further major 1950s developments were the origins of digital sound synthesis by computer, and of algorithmic composition programs beyond rote playback. Amongst other pioneers, the musical chemists Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson worked on a series of algorithmic composition experiments from 1956 to 1959, manifested in the 1957 premiere of the *Illiac Suite* for string quartet. Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential MUSIC I program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in *Science*. The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was James Tenney, who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews\' MUSIC III system, beginning with *Analog #1 (Noise Study)* (1961). After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer Jean-Claude Risset, who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed *Computer Suite from Little Boy* (1968).
Early computer-music programs typically did not run in real time, although the first experiments on CSIRAC and the Ferranti Mark 1 did operate in real time. From the late 1950s, with increasingly sophisticated programming, programs would run for hours or days, on multi million-dollar computers, to generate a few minutes of music. One way around this was to use a \'hybrid system\' of digital control of an analog synthesiser and early examples of this were Max Mathews\' GROOVE system (1969) and also MUSYS by Peter Zinovieff (1969).
Until now partial use has been exploited for musical research into the substance and form of sound (convincing examples are those of Hiller and Isaacson in Urbana, Illinois, US; Iannis Xenakis in Paris and Pietro Grossi in Florence, Italy).
In May 1967 the first experiments in computer music in Italy were carried out by the *S 2F M studio* in Florence in collaboration with *General Electric Information Systems* Italy. *Olivetti-General Electric GE 115* (Olivetti S.p.A.) is used by Grossi as a *performer*: three programmes were prepared for these experiments. The programmes were written by Ferruccio Zulian and used by Pietro Grossi for playing Bach, Paganini, and Webern works and for studying new sound structures.
John Chowning\'s work on FM synthesis from the 1960s to the 1970s allowed much more efficient digital synthesis, eventually leading to the development of the affordable FM synthesis-based Yamaha DX7 digital synthesizer, released in 1983.
> Interesting sounds must have a fluidity and changeability that allows them to remain fresh to the ear. In computer music this subtle ingredient is bought at a high computational cost, both in terms of the number of items requiring detail in a score and in the amount of interpretive work the instruments must produce to realize this detail in sound.
### In Japan {#in_japan}
In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when Keio University professor Sekine and Toshiba engineer Hayashi experimented with the TOSBAC computer. This resulted in a piece entitled *TOSBAC Suite*, influenced by the *Illiac Suite*. Later Japanese computer music compositions include a piece by Kenjiro Ezaki presented during Osaka Expo \'70 and \"Panoramic Sonore\" (1974) by music critic Akimichi Takeda. Ezaki also published an article called \"Contemporary Music and Computers\" in 1970. Since then, Japanese research in computer music has largely been carried out for commercial purposes in popular music, though some of the more serious Japanese musicians used large computer systems such as the *Fairlight* in the 1970s.
In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, including systems like the Roland MC-8 Microcomposer, where a microprocessor-based system controls an analog synthesizer, released in 1978. In addition to the Yamaha DX7, the advent of inexpensive digital chips and microcomputers opened the door to real-time generation of computer music. In the 1980s, Japanese personal computers such as the NEC PC-88 came installed with FM synthesis sound chips and featured audio programming languages such as Music Macro Language (MML) and MIDI interfaces, which were most often used to produce video game music, or chiptunes. By the early 1990s, the performance of microprocessor-based computers reached the point that real-time generation of computer music using more general programs and algorithms became possible.
## Advances
Advances in computing power and software for manipulation of digital media have dramatically affected the way computer music is generated and performed. Current-generation micro-computers are powerful enough to perform very sophisticated audio synthesis using a wide variety of algorithms and approaches. Computer music systems and approaches are now ubiquitous, and so firmly embedded in the process of creating music that we hardly give them a second thought: computer-based synthesizers, digital mixers, and effects units have become so commonplace that use of digital rather than analog technology to create and record music is the norm, rather than the exception.
## Research
There is considerable activity in the field of computer music as researchers continue to pursue new and interesting computer-based synthesis, composition, and performance approaches. Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the CCRMA (Center of Computer Research in Music and Acoustic, Stanford, USA), ICMA (International Computer Music Association), C4DM (Centre for Digital Music), IRCAM, GRAME, SEAMUS (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), CEC (Canadian Electroacoustic Community), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world.
### Music composed and performed by computers {#music_composed_and_performed_by_computers}
Later, composers such as Gottfried Michael Koenig and Iannis Xenakis had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced algorithmic composition programs which were a generalization of his own serial composition practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis\' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig\'s software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht in the 1970s. In the 2000s, Andranik Tangian developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for rhythmic canons and rhythmic fugues, which were then \"manually\" worked out into harmonic compositions *Eine kleine Mathmusik I* and *Eine kleine Mathmusik II* performed by computer; for scores and recordings see.
### Computer-generated scores for performance by human players {#computer_generated_scores_for_performance_by_human_players}
Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as Mozart. A present exponent of this technique is David Cope, whose computer programs analyses works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. Cope\'s best-known program is Emily Howell.
Melomics, a research project from the University of Málaga (Spain), developed a computer composition cluster named Iamus, which composes complex, multi-instrument pieces for editing and performance. Since its inception, Iamus has composed a full album in 2012, also named *Iamus*, which *New Scientist* described as \"the first major work composed by a computer and performed by a full orchestra\". The group has also developed an API for developers to utilize the technology, and makes its music available on its website.
### `{{anchor|Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition}}`{=mediawiki}Computer-aided algorithmic composition {#computer_aided_algorithmic_composition}
Computer-aided algorithmic composition (CAAC, pronounced \"sea-ack\") is the implementation and use of algorithmic composition techniques in software. This label is derived from the combination of two labels, each too vague for continued use. The label *computer-aided composition* lacks the specificity of using generative algorithms. Music produced with notation or sequencing software could easily be considered computer-aided composition. The label *algorithmic composition* is likewise too broad, particularly in that it does not specify the use of a computer. The term computer-aided, rather than computer-assisted, is used in the same manner as computer-aided design.
## Machine improvisation {#machine_improvisation}
Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create improvisation on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses machine learning and pattern matching algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations \"in the style\" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic re-injection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use algorithmic composition to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples.
### Statistical style modeling {#statistical_style_modeling}
Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson\'s *Illiac Suite for String Quartet* (1957) and Xenakis\' uses of Markov chains and stochastic processes. Modern methods include the use of lossless data compression for incremental parsing, prediction suffix tree, string searching and more. Style mixing is possible by blending models derived from several musical sources, with the first style mixing done by S. Dubnov in a piece NTrope Suite using Jensen-Shannon joint source model. Later the use of factor oracle algorithm (basically a *factor oracle* is a finite state automaton constructed in linear time and space in an incremental fashion) was adopted for music by Assayag and Dubnov and became the basis for several systems that use stylistic re-injection.
### Implementations
The first implementation of statistical style modeling was the LZify method in Open Music, followed by the Continuator system that implemented interactive machine improvisation that interpreted the LZ incremental parsing in terms of Markov models and used it for real time style modeling developed by François Pachet at Sony CSL Paris in 2002. Matlab implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation can be found as part of Computer Audition toolbox. There is also an NTCC implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation.
OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses OpenMusic and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and Shlomo Dubnov and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (a.k.a. the *OMax Brothers*) in the Ircam Music Representations group. One of the problems in modeling audio signals with factor oracle is the symbolization of features from continuous values to a discrete alphabet. This problem was solved in the Variable Markov Oracle (VMO) available as python implementation, using an information rate criteria for finding the optimal or most informative representation.
### Use of artificial intelligence {#use_of_artificial_intelligence}
The use of artificial intelligence to generate new melodies, cover pre-existing music, and clone artists\' voices, is a recent phenomenon that has been reported to disrupt the music industry.
## Live coding {#live_coding}
Live coding (sometimes known as \'interactive programming\', \'on-the-fly programming\', \'just in time programming\') is the name given to the process of writing software in real time as part of a performance. Recently it has been explored as a more rigorous alternative to laptop musicians who, live coders often feel, lack the charisma and pizzazz of musicians performing live.
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Concept
|
A **concept** is an abstract idea that serves as a foundation for more concrete principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied within such disciplines as linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging interdisciplinary approach, cognitive science.
In contemporary philosophy, three understandings of a concept prevail:
- mental representations, such that a concept is an entity that exists in the mind (a mental object)
- abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)
- Fregean senses, abstract objects rather than a mental object or a mental state
Concepts are classified into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed \"superordinate\" and lower levels termed \"subordinate\". Additionally, there is the \"basic\" or \"middle\" level at which people will most readily categorize a concept. For example, a basic-level concept would be \"chair\", with its superordinate, \"furniture\", and its subordinate, \"easy chair\".
Concepts may be exact or inexact. When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of *tree*, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking. A concept is instantiated (reified) by all of its actual or potential instances, whether these are things in the real world or other ideas.
Concepts are studied as components of human cognition in the cognitive science disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, where an ongoing debate asks whether all cognition must occur through concepts. Concepts are regularly formalized in mathematics, computer science, databases and artificial intelligence. Examples of specific high-level conceptual classes in these fields include classes, schema or categories. In informal use, the word *concept* can refer to any idea.
## Ontology of concepts {#ontology_of_concepts}
A central question in the study of concepts is the question of what they *are*. Philosophers construe this question as one about the ontology of concepts---what kind of things they are. The ontology of concepts determines the answer to other questions, such as how to integrate concepts into a wider theory of the mind, what functions are allowed or disallowed by a concept\'s ontology, etc. There are two main views of the ontology of concepts: (1) Concepts are abstract objects, and (2) concepts are mental representations.
### Concepts as mental representations {#concepts_as_mental_representations}
#### The psychological view of concepts {#the_psychological_view_of_concepts}
Within the framework of the representational theory of mind, the structural position of concepts can be understood as follows: Concepts serve as the building blocks of what are called *mental representations* (colloquially understood as *ideas in the mind*). Mental representations, in turn, are the building blocks of what are called *propositional attitudes* (colloquially understood as the stances or perspectives we take towards ideas, be it \"believing\", \"doubting\", \"wondering\", \"accepting\", etc.). And these propositional attitudes, in turn, are the building blocks of our understanding of thoughts that populate everyday life, as well as folk psychology. In this way, we have an analysis that ties our common everyday understanding of thoughts down to the scientific and philosophical understanding of concepts.
#### The physicalist view of concepts {#the_physicalist_view_of_concepts}
In a physicalist theory of mind, a concept is a mental representation, which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world. This is to say that it is literally a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives. Concepts do not encompass all mental representations, but are merely a subset of them. The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes such as categorization, memory, decision making, learning, and inference.
Concepts are thought to be stored in long term cortical memory, in contrast to episodic memory of the particular objects and events which they abstract, which are stored in hippocampus. Evidence for this separation comes from hippocampal damaged patients such as patient HM. The abstraction from the day\'s hippocampal events and objects into cortical concepts is often considered to be the computation underlying (some stages of) sleep and dreaming. Many people (beginning with Aristotle) report memories of dreams which appear to mix the day\'s events with analogous or related historical concepts and memories, and suggest that they were being sorted or organized into more abstract concepts. (\"Sort\" is itself another word for concept, and \"sorting\" thus means to organize into concepts.)
### Concepts as abstract objects {#concepts_as_abstract_objects}
The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human\'s mind rather than some mental representations.
There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language. However, it is necessary at least to begin by understanding that the concept \"dog\" is philosophically distinct from the things in the world grouped by this concept---or the reference class or extension. Concepts that can be equated to a single word are called \"lexical concepts\".
The study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science.
In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent a natural object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal, a stone, etc. It may also name an artificial (man-made) object like a chair, computer, house, etc. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness, etc., are also symbolized by concepts. A concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing. For example, the word \"moon\" (a concept) is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only *represents* that celestial object. Concepts are created (named) to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.
#### *A priori* concepts and *a posteriori* concepts {#a_priori_concepts_and_a_posteriori_concepts}
Kant maintained the view that human minds possess not only empirical or *a posteriori* concepts, but also pure or *a priori* concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things *in general*, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are twelve categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an *a priori* concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an *a posteriori* concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. He held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction \"a posteriori concepts\" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an *a posteriori* concept is a general representation (*Vorstellung*) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic §1, Note 1)
A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical *a posteriori* concepts are created. `{{Blockquote|The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are:
# ''comparison'', i.e., the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness;
# ''reflection'', i.e., the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally
# ''abstraction'' or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ ...
In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree.|Logic, §6}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Embodied content {#embodied_content}
In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or *recollections*, in Plato\'s term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation.
#### Realist universal concepts {#realist_universal_concepts}
Platonist views of the mind construe concepts as abstract objects. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato\'s ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts.
#### Sense and reference {#sense_and_reference}
Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status.
#### Concepts in calculus {#concepts_in_calculus}
According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his *The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development*, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.
## Notable theories on the structure of concepts {#notable_theories_on_the_structure_of_concepts}
### Classical theory {#classical_theory}
The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle), and was prominently held until the 1970s. The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure. Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition. Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both *necessary* and jointly *sufficient* for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A set of features is considered sufficient if having all the parts required by the definition entails membership in the class. For example, the classic example *bachelor* is said to be defined by *unmarried* and *man*. An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to the features in the definition. Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the *law of the excluded middle*, which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out.
The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use the structure of a concept to determine its referent class. In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy---concept analysis. Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept. For example, Shoemaker\'s classic \"Time Without Change\" explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change is usually taken as a definition of time.
#### Arguments against the classical theory {#arguments_against_the_classical_theory}
Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory, it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments summarized as follows:
- It seems that there simply are no definitions---especially those based in sensory primitive concepts.
- It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don\'t know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail.
- Quine\'s argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions.
- Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership.
- Experiments and research showed that assumptions of well defined concepts and categories might not be correct. Researcher Hampton asked participants to differentiate whether items were in different categories. Hampton did not conclude that items were either clear and absolute members or non-members. Instead, Hampton found that some items were barely considered category members and others that were barely non-members. For example, participants considered sinks as barely members of kitchen utensil category, while sponges were considered barely non-members, with much disagreement among participants of the study. If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept.
- Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. See below.
- Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions.
### Prototype theory {#prototype_theory}
Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Brent Berlin, Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as *family resemblances*. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like \'vegetable\' or \'furniture\' as more or less typical of that class. It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item\'s membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member---the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of the brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe.
The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov\'s experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for \"cup\" is.
Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category. This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not. This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as \"is /i/ or /o/ a better vowel?\" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases.
### Theory-theory {#theory_theory}
Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts\' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don\'t in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people\'s theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people\'s theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, \"theory\" means an individual\'s mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as a sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal.
## Methodology of conceptualisation {#methodology_of_conceptualisation}
Regarding conceptualisation, the conventional approach, influenced by Giovanni Sartori, treats concepts as precise categories with defined attributes. It uses a \"ladder of abstraction\" to adjust a concept\'s generality for clear classification and analytical rigour. In contrast, interpretive approaches view concepts as fluid products of language and social context. These methods analyse how language and a researcher\'s own positionality shape conceptual meaning in practice.
Methodological debates in the social sciences have been addressing how researchers should refine concepts that are misaligned with empirical reality. Emerging methodologies tried to bridge the above-mentioned traditions. For instance, Knott and Alejandro developed a structured four-step process to guide researchers through reconceptualisation when an existing concept is misaligned with their observations. Their approach integrates the conventional need for clarity with a reflexive attention to context to give concepts greater analytical leverage. Specifically, the process involves mapping the attributes of the original concept against the nuances of the empirical case to pinpoint misalignments and systematically build a revised concept.
## Ideasthesia
According to the theory of ideasthesia (or \"sensing concepts\"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness. Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception.
There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols.
## Etymology
The term \"concept\" is traced back to 1554--60 (Latin *conceptum* -- \"something conceived\").
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Cimabue
|
**Giovanni Cimabue** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|tʃ|iː|m|ə|ˈ|b|uː|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|CHEE|mə|BOO|ay}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|tʃimaˈbuːe|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{c.|1240}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1302), also known as **Cenni di Pepo** or **Cenni di Pepi**, was an Italian painter and designer of mosaics from Florence.
Although heavily influenced by Byzantine models, Cimabue is generally regarded as one of the first great Italian painters to break from the Italo-Byzantine style. Compared with the norms of medieval art, his works have more lifelike figural proportions and a more sophisticated use of shading to suggest volume. According to Italian painter and historian Giorgio Vasari, Cimabue was the teacher of Giotto, the first great artist of the Italian Proto-Renaissance. However, many scholars today tend to discount Vasari\'s claim by citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise.
## Life
Little is known about Cimabue\'s early life. One source that recounts his career is Vasari\'s *Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects*, but its accuracy is uncertain.
He was born in Florence and died in Pisa. Hayden Maginnis speculates that he could have trained in Florence under masters who were culturally connected to Byzantine art. The art historian Pietro Toesca attributed the *Crucifixion* in the church of San Domenico in Arezzo to Cimabue, dating around 1270, making it the earliest known attributed work that departs from the Byzantine style. Cimabue\'s Christ is bent, and the clothes have the golden striations that were introduced by Coppo di Marcovaldo.
Around 1272, Cimabue is documented as being present in Rome, and a little later he made another *Crucifix* for the Florentine church of Santa Croce. Now restored, having been damaged by the 1966 Arno River flood, the work was larger and more advanced than the one in Arezzo, with traces of naturalism perhaps inspired by the works of Nicola Pisano.
According to Vasari, Cimabue, while travelling from Florence to Vespignano, came upon the 10-year-old Giotto (c. 1277) drawing his sheep with a rough rock upon a smooth stone. He asked if Giotto would like to come and stay with him, which the child accepted with his father\'s permission. Vasari elaborates that during Giotto\'s apprenticeship, he allegedly painted a fly on the nose of a portrait Cimabue was working on; the teacher attempted to sweep the fly away several times before he understood his pupil\'s prank. Many scholars now discount Vasari\'s claim that he took Giotto as his pupil, citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise.
Around 1280, Cimabue painted the *Maestà*, originally displayed in the church of San Francesco at Pisa, but now at the Louvre. This work established a style that was followed subsequently by numerous artists, including Duccio di Buoninsegna in his *Rucellai Madonna* (in the past, wrongly attributed to Cimabue) as well as Giotto. Other works from the period, which were said to have heavily influenced Giotto, include a *Flagellation* (Frick Collection), mosaics for the Baptistery of Florence (now largely restored), the *Maestà* at the Santa Maria dei Servi in Bologna and the *Madonna* in the Pinacoteca of Castelfiorentino. A workshop painting, perhaps assignable to a slightly later period, is the *Maestà with Saints Francis and Dominic* now in the Uffizi.
During the pontificate of Pope Nicholas IV, the first Franciscan pope, Cimabue worked in Assisi. At Assisi, in the transept of the Lower Basilica of San Francesco, he created a fresco named *Madonna with Child Enthroned, Four Angels and St Francis*. The left portion of this fresco is lost, but it may have shown St Anthony of Padua (the authorship of the painting has been recently disputed for technical and stylistic reasons). Cimabue was subsequently commissioned to decorate the apse and the transept of the Upper Basilica of Assisi, in the same period of time that Roman artists were decorating the nave. The cycle he created there comprises scenes from the Gospels, the lives of the Virgin Mary, St Peter and St Paul. The paintings are now in poor condition because of oxidation of the brighter colours that were used by the artist.
The *Maestà of Santa Trinita*, dated to c. 1290--1300, which was originally painted for the church of Santa Trinita in Florence, is now in the Uffizi Gallery. The softer expression of the characters suggests that it was influenced by Giotto, who was by then already active as a painter.
Cimabue spent the last period of his life, 1301 to 1302, in Pisa. There, he was commissioned to finish a mosaic of Christ Enthroned, originally begun by Maestro Francesco, in the apse of the city\'s cathedral. Cimabue was to create the part of the mosaic depicting St John the Evangelist, which remains the sole surviving work documented as being by the artist. Cimabue died around 1302. `{{Gallery
|File:Pisa - Duomo di Pisa - 2023-09-29 14-36-41 001.jpeg|The mosaic in its architectural context
|File:Cimabue 001.jpg|The figure of Saint John, the only documented work by Cimabue
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Character
According to Vasari, quoting a contemporary of Cimabue, \"Cimabue of Florence was a painter who lived during the author\'s own time, a nobler man than anyone knew but he was as a result so haughty and proud that if someone pointed out to him any mistake or defect in his work, or if he had noted any himself \... he would immediately destroy the work, no matter how precious it might be.\"
The nickname Cimabue translates as \"bull-head\" but also possibly as \"one who crushes the views of others\", from the Italian verb *cimare*, meaning \"to top\", \"to shear\", and \"to blunt\". The conclusion for the second meaning is drawn from similar commentaries on Dante, who was also known \"for being contemptuous of criticism\".
## Legacy
History has long regarded Cimabue as the last of an era that was overshadowed by the Italian Renaissance. As early as 1543, Vasari wrote of Cimabue, \"Cimabue was, in one sense, the principal cause of the renewal of painting,\" with the qualification that, \"Giotto truly eclipsed Cimabue\'s fame just as a great light eclipses a much smaller one.\"
## In Dante\'s *Divine Comedy* {#in_dantes_divine_comedy}
In Canto XI of his *Purgatorio*, Dante laments the quick loss of public interest in Cimabue in the face of Giotto\'s revolution in art. Cimabue himself does not appear in *Purgatorio*, but is mentioned by Oderisi, who is also repenting for his pride. The artist serves to represent the fleeting nature of fame in contrast with the Enduring God.
> O vanity of human powers, how briefly lasts the crowning green of glory, unless an age of darkness follows! In painting Cimabue thought he held the field but now it\'s Giotto has the cry, so that the other\'s fame is dimmed.
## Market
On 27 October 2019, *The Mocking of Christ*, was sold for €24m (£20m; \$26.6m), a price the auctioneers described as a new world record for a medieval painting. The picture had been located in the kitchen of a home in northern France, and its owner had been unaware of its value.
## List of works {#list_of_works}
Around a dozen works are securely attributed to Cimabue, with several less secure attributions. None are signed or dated.
- Crucifixes
- Crucifix (Cimabue, Santa Croce), c. 1265, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence
- Crucifix (Cimabue, Arezzo), c. 1267--1271, Basilica of San Domenico, Arezzo
- Frescos c. 1277--1280 in the Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, Assisi
- *Nativity and Betrothal of the Virgin*
- Choir, central vault, right transept
- Three surviving panels (of eight) from the *Diptych of devotion*, c.1280
- *The Mocking of Christ*, Musée du Louvre, Paris
- *Virgin and Child with Two Angels*, National Gallery, London
- *The Flagellation of Christ*, Frick Collection, New York
- Maestà or Virgin and Child Enthroned
- *Maestà,* c. 1280, Pisa, now Louvre
- *Maestà of Santa Maria dei Servi,* 1280--1285, Basilica di Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna
- *Gualino Madonna,* 1280--1283, Galleria Sabauda, Turin
- ?: *Madonna di Castelfiorentino,* c. 1283--1284, Museo di Santa Verdiana, Castelfiorentino
- *Santa Trinita Maestà,* c. 1290--1300, Santa Trinita, Florence, now Uffizi, Florence
- Mosaic ceiling at Florence Baptistery, c. 1300
- Mosaic of *Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John*, Pisa Cathedral, 1301--1302
## Gallery
<File:CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo> taken by Senet. April 20, 2010-Perspective correction, crop and blackframe with GIMP by Paolo Villa 2019.jpg\|*Crucifix* (c. 1267--1271), San Domenico, Arezzo <File:La> Vierge et l\'Enfant en majesté entourés de six anges - Cimabue - Musée du Louvre Peintures INV 254 ; MR 159.jpg\|*Maestà* (c. 1280), Louvre, Paris <File:Cimabue> Diptych Overview FR.svg\|Hypothetical reconstruction of the Diptych <File:Cimabue>, The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Two Angels.jpg\|*Virgin and Child with Two Angels* (c. 1280), National Gallery, London <File:Cimabue> Christ Mocked.jpg\|*The Mocking of Christ (Cimabue)* (c. 1280), sold at auction for €24m in 2019 <File:Cimabue> - Flagellation.jpg\|*The Flagellation of Christ* (c. 1280), Frick Collection, New York <File:Santa> Maria dei Servi, bo, interno, maestà di cimabue 01.JPG\|Attributed to Cimabue, *Maestà* (c. 1280--1285), Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna <File:Cimabue> madonna castefliorentino.jpg\|*Castelfiorentino Madonna* (c. 1283--1284), Museo di Santa Verdiana, Castelfiorentino <File:Cerchia> di cimabue o artista senese, ultima cena di new orleans 01.jpg\|*The Last Supper* <File:Cimabue> - Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels (detail) - WGA04921.jpg\|*Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels* (detail) <File:Cimabue> 037.jpg\|*Maestà of Santa Trinita*, (detail) *Prophet* <File:Cimabue> - Crucifix (detail) - WGA04929.jpg\|Detail of the *Santa Croce Crucifix* showing Apostle John <File:Cimabue> 001.jpg\|Detail of mosaic *Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John* showing St. John the Evangelist
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Culture of Canada
|
The **culture of Canada** embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada\'s history, its culture has been influenced firstly by its indigenous cultures, and later by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada\'s immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada\'s population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language (in English-speaking Canada), significant media penetration, and geographic proximity.
Canada is often characterized as being \"very progressive, diverse, and multicultural\". Canada\'s federal government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canada\'s culture draws from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Canadian policies---such as abortion, euthanasia, same-sex marriage, and cannabis; an emphasis on cultural diversity; significant immigration; abolishing capital punishment; publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation; efforts to eliminate poverty; and strict gun control are social indicators of the country\'s political and cultural values. Canadians view the country\'s institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the national park system, and the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms* as integral to their national identity.
The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
## Cultural components {#cultural_components}
### History
#### Influences
For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by indigenous peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use. Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name \"Canada\" itself derives from the St. Lawrence Huron-Iroquoian word \"Kanata\" meaning \"village\" or \"settlement\". The name of Canada\'s capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term \"adawe\" meaning \"to trade\".
In the 17th-century, French colonials settled New France in Acadia, in the present-day Maritimes, and in *Canada*, along the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario. These regions were under French control from 1534 to 1763. However, the British conquered Acadia in 1710 and conquered *Canada* in 1760. The British were able to deport most of the Acadians, but they were unable to deport the Canadiens of *Canada* because they severely outnumbered the British forces. The British therefore had to make deals with Canadiens and hope they would one day become assimilated. The American Revolution, from 1775 to 1783, provoked the migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies to the newly conquered British lands, which brought American influences to Canada for the first time. Following the War of 1812, many Scottish and English people settled in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Many Irish people fleeing the Great Famine also arrived between 1845 and 1852.
The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism; however, in 1917 and 1944, conscription crises highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority. Canada, until the 1940s, was often described as \"binational\", with the 2 components being the cultural, linguistic and political identities of English Canadians and of French Canadians.
Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and *Chinese Immigration Act*) that had favoured British, American and other European immigrants (such as Dutch, German, Italian, Polish, Swedish and Ukrainian) were amended during the 1960s, resulting in an influx of people of many different ethnicities. By the end of the 20th century, immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican, Filipino, Lebanese, Pakistani and Haitian. By the 21st century Canada had thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller numbers. `{{As of|2006}}`{=mediawiki}, 16.2% of the population self-identify as a visible minority.
#### Development of popular culture {#development_of_popular_culture}
upright=1.2\|thumb\|\"Ye Gude Olde Days\" from *Hockey: Canada\'s Royal Winter Game*, 1899\|alt=Cartoon drawing of hockey game and people falling through the ice Themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian culture. Modern Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time period of westward expansion and nation building. Contributing factors include Canada\'s unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period including ice hockey and embracement of the summer indigenous game of lacrosse.
By the 19th century, Canadians came to believe themselves possessed of a unique \"northern character,\" due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and sports that reflected this, such as snowshoeing and cross-country skiing, were asserted as characteristically Canadian. During this period, the churches tried to influence leisure activities by preaching against drinking, and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities. In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song. Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment.
By the 1930s, radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional teams. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage and the propagation of national myths. Outside the sports and music arena, Canadians expressed a national character of being hard working, peaceful, orderly and polite.
### Political culture {#political_culture}
#### Cultural legislation {#cultural_legislation}
French Canada\'s early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act 1774, which allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith. The *Constitution Act, 1867* was thought to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States. The compromises reached during this time between the English- and French-speaking Fathers of Confederation set Canada on a path to bilingualism which in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity. The English and French languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full official status since 1969. Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 (BNA Act) guarantees that both languages may be used in the Parliament of Canada. Canada adopted its *first Official Languages Act* in 1969, giving English and French equal status in the government of Canada. Doing so makes them \"official\" languages, having preferred status in law over all other languages used in Canada.
Prior to the advent of the *Canadian Bill of Rights* in 1960 and its successor the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms* in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights and this issue was typically of limited concern to the courts. Canada since the 1960s has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people. Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government and is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in *Egan v. Canada* that sexual orientation should be \"read in\" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians. Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, the *Civil Marriage Act* (Bill C-38) became law, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories.
#### Contemporary politics {#contemporary_politics}
Canadian governments at the federal level have a tradition of liberalism, and govern with a moderate, centrist political ideology. Canada\'s egalitarian approach to governance emphasizing social justice and multiculturalism, is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics that has wide public and political support. Peace, order, and good government are constitutional goals of the Canadian government.
Canada has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties, the centre-left Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right Conservative Party of Canada. The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale, with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their influence over the political process by representation at the federal level.
#### Nationalism and protectionism {#nationalism_and_protectionism}
In general, Canadian nationalists are concerned about the protection of Canadian sovereignty and loyalty to the Canadian State, placing them in the civic nationalist category. It has likewise often been suggested that anti-Americanism plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist ideologies. A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists. Alternatively Quebecois nationalism and support for maintaining French Canadian culture many of whom were supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement during the late-20th century.
Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to promote Canadian cultural production. Sharing a large border, a common language (for the majority), and being exposed to massive diffusions of American media makes it difficult for Canada to preserve its own culture versus being assimilated to American culture. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the United States--Mexico--Canada Agreement (USMCA).
#### Foreign relations {#foreign_relations}
The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States. Canada\'s foreign policy of peacekeeping, peace enforcement, peacemaking, and peacebuilding has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions since the end of World War II.
Canada\'s central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid-1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the \"common good\" of all nations. Canada has since been engaged with the United Nations, NATO and the European Union (EU) in promoting its middle power status into an active role in world affairs.
Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, in Afghanistan and Libya. The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti.
### Values
Canadian values are the perceived commonly shared ethical and human values of Canadians. Canadians generally value freedom and individuality, often making personal decisions based on family interests rather than collective Canadian identity. Tolerance and sensitivity hold significant importance in Canada\'s multicultural society, as does politeness and fairness Canadians typically tend to embrace liberal views on social and political issues. A majority of Canadians shared the values of human rights, respect for the law and gender equality. Universal access to publicly funded health services \"is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country.\"
The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold Canadian values, but use generalities to specify them. Historian Ian MacKay argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of \"Rebels, Reds, and Radicals\", and allied leftist political elements, \"egalitarianism, social equality, and peace\... are now often simply referred to\...as \'Canadian values.\'\"
thumb\|upright=1.5\|A copy of the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity. The 15th Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau wrote in his *Memoirs* that:`{{blockquote|Canada itself could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.<ref name="Trudeau1993">{{cite book|author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau|title=Memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqsJbzlwtwsC|year=1993|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-8588-8|pages= 322–323}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Numerous scholars, beginning in the 1940s with American sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset; have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries, especially the United States. However, there are critics who say that such a task is practically impossible.
Denis Stairs a professor of political Science at Dalhousie University; links the concept of Canadian values with nationalism. \[Canadians typically\]\...believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values -- *Canadian* values -- and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous.
### Identity
Canada\'s large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another and relatively open immigration policy have led to an extremely diverse society. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny.
Canada has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation or a single national myth. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a French Canadian culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture. However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, a cultural mosaic---a collection of several regional, and ethnic subcultures.
As Professor Alan Cairns noted about the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*, \"the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity\"\'. Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his *Memoirs (1993)* that \"Canada itself\" could now be defined as a \"society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom\", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.
Political philosopher Charles Blattberg suggests that Canada is a \"multinational country\"; as all Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds.
Journalist and author Richard Gwyn has suggested that \"tolerance\" has replaced \"loyalty\" as the touchstone of Canadian identity. Journalist and professor Andrew Cohen wrote in 2007: `{{Blockquote |The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as the [[Bigfoot|Sasquatch]] and [[Ogopogo]]. It has animated—and frustrated—generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers, and the National Film Board ... Canada resists easy definition.<ref name="Cohen2008zxc">{{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Cohen|title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glcBcaMC6doC&pg=PA3|year= 2008|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2286-9|pages=3–}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Canada\'s 15th prime minister Pierre Trudeau in regards to uniformity stated:
In 2015, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau defined the country as the world\'s first postnational state: \"There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada\".
The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and the British Empire, resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the imperial power; and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the United States. Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values.
In 2013, nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were for Canadian history (70%), the armed forces (64%), the health care system (64%), and the Constitution (63%). However, pride in Canada's political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.
#### Inter-provincial interactions {#inter_provincial_interactions}
Western alienation is the notion that the western provinces have historically been alienated, and in extreme cases excluded, from mainstream Canadian political affairs in favour of Eastern Canada or more specifically the central provinces. Western alienation claims that these latter two are politically represented, and economically favoured, more significantly than the former, which has given rise to the sentiment of alienation among many western Canadians. Likewise; the Quebec sovereignty movement that lead to the Québécois nation and the province of Quebec being recognized as a \"distinct society\" within Canada, highlights the sharp divisions between the Anglo and Francophone population.
Though more than half of Canadians live in just two provinces (Ontario and Quebec), each province is largely self-contained due to provincial economic self-sufficiency. Only 15 percent of Canadians live in a different province from where they were born, and only 10 percent go to another province for university. Canada has always been like this, and stands in sharp contrast to the United States\' internal mobility which is much higher. For example 30 percent live in a different state from where they were born, and 30 percent go away for university. Scott Gilmore in *Maclean\'s* argues that \"Canada is a nation of strangers\", in the sense that for most individuals, the rest of Canada outside their province is little-known. Another factor is the cost of internal travel. Intra-Canadian airfares are high---it is cheaper and more common to visit the United States than to visit another province. Gilmore argues that the mutual isolation makes it difficult to muster national responses to major national issues.
### Humour
Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions in Canadian humour in both English and French. While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians\' shared history and geopolitical situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a \"typical\" Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series. Other trends include outright absurdity, and political and cultural satire. Irony, parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary characteristics of Canadian humour.
The beginnings of Canadian national radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the debut of *The Happy Gang*, a long-running weekly variety show that was regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes. Canadian television comedy begins with Wayne and Shuster, a sketch comedy duo who performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act to radio in 1946 before moving on to television. *Second City Television*, otherwise known as *SCTV*, *Royal Canadian Air Farce*, *This Hour Has 22 Minutes*, *The Kids in the Hall*, *Trailer Park Boys*, *Corner Gas* and more recently *Schitt\'s Creek* are regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development of Canadian humour. Canadian comedians have had great success in the film industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world.
Humber College in Toronto and the École nationale de l\'humour in Montreal offer post-secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance. Montreal is also home to the bilingual (English and French) Just for Laughs festival and to the Just for Laughs Museum, a bilingual, international museum of comedy. Canada has a national television channel, The Comedy Network, devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and showcases, most notable, The Second City branch in Toronto (originally housed at The Old Fire Hall) and the Yuk Yuk\'s national chain. The Canadian Comedy Awards were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.
## Symbols
Predominant symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian horse. Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades to Canadianize them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United Kingdom. Other prominent symbols include the sports of hockey and lacrosse, the Canada goose, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk; material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine have also been defined as uniquely Canadian. Symbols of the Canadian monarchy continue to be featured in, for example, the Arms of Canada, the armed forces, and the prefix His Majesty\'s Canadian Ship. The designation *Royal* remains for institutions as varied as the Royal Canadian Armed Forces, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet.
## Arts
### Visual arts {#visual_arts}
Indigenous artists were producing art in the territory that is now called Canada for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the peoples that produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories that extended across the current national boundaries between Canada and the United States. The majority of indigenous artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads. Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory, muskox horn and caribou antler and soapstone carvings by the Inuit artists. These carvings show objects and activities from the daily life, myths and legends of the Inuit. Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.
The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid-19th century, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch-born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the *habitants* (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted pictures of indigenous life in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of painting, inspired by the works of the legendary landscape painter Tom Thomson. All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian wilderness.
Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles in British Columbia. Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne, the painters Jean-Paul Riopelle, Harold Town and Charles Carson and multi-media artist Michael Snow. The abstract art group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada. Government support has played a vital role in their development enabling visual exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country.
### Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. Canada\'s early literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada\'s position in the world, for example the poetry of Bliss Carman or the memoirs of Susanna Moodie and Catherine Parr Traill. These themes, and Canada\'s literary history, inform the writing of successive generations of Canadian authors, from Leonard Cohen to Margaret Atwood.
By the mid-20th century, Canadian writers were exploring national themes for Canadian readers. Authors were trying to find a distinctly Canadian voice, rather than merely emulating British or American writers. Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature. The question of national identity recurs as a theme in much of Canada\'s literature, from Hugh MacLennan\'s *Two Solitudes* (1945) to Alistair MacLeod\'s *No Great Mischief* (1999). Canadian literature is often categorized by region or province; by the socio-cultural origins of the author (for example, Acadians, indigenous peoples, LGBT, and Irish Canadians); and by literary period, such as \"Canadian postmoderns\" or \"Canadian Poets Between the Wars\".
Canadian authors have accumulated numerous international awards. In 1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize for *The English Patient*. Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for *The Blind Assassin* and Yann Martel won it in 2002 for the *Life of Pi*. Carol Shields\'s *The Stone Diaries* won the Governor General\'s Awards in Canada in 1993, the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994 National Book Critics Circle Award. In 2013, Alice Munro was the first Canadian to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her work as \"master of the modern short story\". Munro is also a recipient of the Man Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, and three-time winner of Canada\'s Governor General\'s Award for fiction.
### Theatre
Canada has had a thriving stage theatre scene since the late 1800s. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, and the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation. Canada also hosts one of the largest fringe festivals, the Edmonton International Fringe Festival.
Canada\'s largest cities host a variety of modern and historical venues. The Toronto Theatre District is Canada\'s largest, as well as being the third largest English-speaking theatre district in the world. In addition to original Canadian works, shows from the West End and Broadway frequently tour in Toronto. Toronto\'s Theatre District includes the venerable Roy Thomson Hall; the Princess of Wales Theatre; the Tim Sims Playhouse; The Second City; the Canon Theatre; the Panasonic Theatre; the Royal Alexandra Theatre; historic Massey Hall; and the city\'s new opera house, the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts. Toronto\'s Theatre District also includes the Theatre Museum Canada.
Montreal\'s theatre district (\"Quartier des Spectacles\") is the scene of performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts a lively anglophone theatre scene, such as the Centaur Theatre. Large French theatres in the city include Théâtre Saint-Denis and Théâtre du Nouveau Monde.
Vancouver is host to, among others, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, the Arts Club Theatre Company, Carousel Theatre, Bard on the Beach, Theatre Under the Stars and Studio 58.
Calgary is home to Theatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre; Alberta Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; the Calgary Animated Objects Society; and One Yellow Rabbit, a touring company.
There are three major theatre venues in Ottawa; the Ottawa Little Theatre, originally called the Ottawa Drama League at its inception in 1913, is the longest-running community theatre company in Ottawa. Since 1969, Ottawa has been the home of the National Arts Centre, a major performing-arts venue that houses four stages and is home to the National Arts Centre Orchestra, the Ottawa Symphony Orchestra and Opera Lyra Ottawa. Established in 1975, the Great Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the production of Canadian plays at a local level.
### Television
Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, is the home of a variety of locally produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The success of French-language domestic television in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart. In recent years nationalism has been used to prompt products on television. The *I Am Canadian* campaign by Molson beer, most notably the commercial featuring Joe Canadian, infused domestically brewed beer and nationalism.
Canada\'s television industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as Hollywood North. The American TV series *Queer as Folk* was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as *The X-Files*, *Stargate SG-1*, *Highlander: The Series*, the new *Battlestar Galactica*, *My Babysitter\'s a Vampire*, *Smallville*, and *The Outer Limits* all filmed in Vancouver.
The CRTC\'s Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster\'s transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. These regulations also apply to US cable television channels such as MTV and the Discovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while showing primarily BBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output.
### Film
A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians.
Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known films and actors. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of some works, such as auteurs Atom Egoyan (*The Sweet Hereafter*, 1997) and David Cronenberg (*The Fly*, *Naked Lunch*, *A History of Violence*) and the *avant-garde* work of Michael Snow and Jack Chambers. Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as Denys Arcand and Denis Villeneuve, while First Nations cinema includes the likes of *Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner*. At the 76th Academy Awards, Arcand\'s *The Barbarian Invasions* became Canada\'s first film to win the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
The National Film Board of Canada is a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world\'. Canada has produced many popular documentaries such as *The Corporation*, *Nanook of the North*, *Final Offer*, and *Canada: A People\'s History*. The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from which the Oscars race begins.
### Music
The music of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have shaped the country. Indigenous, the French, and the British have all made historical contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The country has produced its own composers, musicians and ensembles since the mid-1600s. From the 17th century onward, Canada has developed a music infrastructure that includes church halls; chamber halls; conservatories; academies; performing arts centres; record companies; radio stations, and television music-video channels. The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. Canadian rock has had a considerable impact on the development of modern popular music and the development of the most popular subgenres.
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest known song, \"The Bold Canadian\", was written in 1812. The national anthem of Canada, \"O Canada\" adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before English lyrics were written in 1906.
Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada\'s music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in a ceremony during the summer of 1970.
## Media
Canada\'s media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized. The *Broadcasting Act* declares \"the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada\". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output---particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines---is often overshadowed by imports from the United States and the United Kingdom. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a \"handful of corporations\". The largest of these corporations is the country\'s national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.
## Sports
Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many contests that Canadians value, the most common are ice hockey, box lacrosse, Canadian football, basketball, soccer, curling and ringette. All but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada.
Ice hockey, referred to as simply \"hockey\", is Canada\'s most prevalent winter sport, its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful sport in international competition. It is Canada\'s official national winter sport. Lacrosse, a sport with indigenous origins, is Canada\'s oldest and official summer sport. Canadian football is Canada\'s second most popular spectator sport, and the Canadian Football League\'s annual championship, the Grey Cup, is the country\'s largest annual sports event.
While other sports have a larger spectator base, association football, known in Canada as *soccer* in both English and French, has the most registered players of any team sport in Canada, and is the most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada -- with a trio of teams in North America\'s top pro league, Major League Soccer -- and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon, disc golf, water sports, and several forms of wrestling.
As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed greater success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics, although significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both team and individual sports. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada\'s Sports Hall of Fame, while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada\'s top athlete by a panel of journalists. There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada.
## Cuisine
Canadian cuisine varies widely depending on the region. The former Canadian prime minister Joe Clark has been paraphrased to have noted: \"Canada has a cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord.\" While there are considerable overlaps between Canadian food and the rest of the cuisine in North America, many unique dishes (or versions of certain dishes) are found and available only in the country. Common contenders for the Canadian national food include poutine and butter tarts. Other popular Canadian made foods include indigenous fried bread bannock, French tourtière, Kraft Dinner, ketchup chips, date squares, nanaimo bars, back bacon, the caesar cocktail and many many more. The Canadian province of Quebec is the birthplace and world\'s largest producer of maple syrup, The Montreal-style bagel and Montreal-style smoked meat are both food items originally developed by Jewish communities living in Quebec
The three earliest cuisines of Canada have First Nations, English, and French roots. The indigenous population of Canada often have their own traditional cuisine. The cuisines of English Canada are closely related to British and American cuisine. Finally, the traditional cuisines of French Canada have evolved from 16th-century French cuisine because of the tough conditions of colonial life and the winter provisions of Coureur des bois. With subsequent waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th century from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, and then from Asia, Africa and Caribbean, the regional cuisines were subsequently affected.
## Public opinion data {#public_opinion_data}
A 2022 web survey by the Association for Canadian Studies found that an absolute majority of respondents in all provinces except Alberta disagreed with the statement that \"there is only one Canadian culture\". Most respondents didn\'t choose what music to listen to based on whether or not the artist was Canadian. While half of Quebeckers and more than one third of respondents in the rest of Canada agreed that \"I worry about preserving my culture\" at the same time 60% of respondents agreed that \"If a Canadian artist is good enough, they will become discovered without the need for specific Canadian content rules\". Forty-six percent of respondents had no favourite Canadian musical artist. Rock, pop, and country music were the most popular genres of music, with above twenty percent fan bases in all age categories, but with hip-hop also appealing to more than twenty percent in the youngest cohort (18--35 years old). Film genre preferences were largely as the same across age categories, with comedies and action films the most popular, except that only one percent of older people (\>55 years old) were fans of animated movies compared to eleven percent in young adults, while older adults showed a strong preference for dramas compared to younger people. Three out of four respondents could not name a single Canadian visual artist, living or dead.
## Outside views {#outside_views}
In a 2002 interview with the *Globe and Mail*, Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims, described Canada as \"the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe\", citing it as \"a model for the world\". A 2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in the world. 28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as either having a positive or negative worldwide influence. Canada\'s overall influence rating topped the list with 54 per cent of respondents rating it mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw Canada ranked the second most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany) in 2013 and 2014.
The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian culture, due to the countries\' partially shared heritage and the relatively large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada. For example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or her American counterpart. Canada and the United States are often inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious child of the British Crown, forged in the fires of violent revolution; Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more relaxed national demeanour.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,011 |
Control engineering
|
**Control engineering**, also known as **control systems engineering** and, in some European countries, **automation engineering**, is an engineering discipline that deals with control systems, applying control theory to design equipment and systems with desired behaviors in control environments. The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering at many institutions around the world.
The practice uses sensors and detectors to measure the output performance of the process being controlled; these measurements are used to provide corrective feedback helping to achieve the desired performance. Systems designed to perform without requiring human input are called automatic control systems (such as cruise control for regulating the speed of a car). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of a diverse range of systems.
## Overview
Modern day control engineering is a relatively new field of study that gained significant attention during the 20th century with the advancement of technology. It can be broadly defined or classified as practical application of control theory. Control engineering plays an essential role in a wide range of control systems, from simple household washing machines to high-performance fighter aircraft. It seeks to understand physical systems, using mathematical modelling, in terms of inputs, outputs and various components with different behaviors; to use control system design tools to develop controllers for those systems; and to implement controllers in physical systems employing available technology. A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial or biological, and its mathematical modelling, analysis and controller design uses control theory in one or many of the time, frequency and complex-s domains, depending on the nature of the design problem.
Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanical systems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical, many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering.
Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be used to implement control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles.
In most cases, control engineers utilize feedback when designing control systems. This is often accomplished using a proportional--integral--derivative controller **(**PID controller) system. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle\'s speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system, which adjusts the motor\'s torque accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is achieved.
Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of sensors.
## History
Automatic control systems were first developed over two thousand years ago. The first feedback control device on record is thought to be the ancient Ktesibios\'s water clock in Alexandria, Egypt, around the third century BCE. It kept time by regulating the water level in a vessel and, therefore, the water flow from that vessel. `{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=22}}`{=mediawiki} This certainly was a successful device as water clocks of similar design were still being made in Baghdad when the Mongols captured the city in 1258 CE. A variety of automatic devices have been used over the centuries to accomplish useful tasks or simply just to entertain. The latter includes the automata, popular in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, featuring dancing figures that would repeat the same task over and over again; these automata are examples of open-loop control. Milestones among feedback, or \"closed-loop\" automatic control devices, include the temperature regulator of a furnace attributed to Drebbel, circa 1620, and the centrifugal flyball governor used for regulating the speed of steam engines by James Watt`{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=22}}`{=mediawiki} in 1788.
In his 1868 paper \"On Governors\", James Clerk Maxwell was able to explain instabilities exhibited by the flyball governor using differential equations to describe the control system. This demonstrated the importance and usefulness of mathematical models and methods in understanding complex phenomena, and it signaled the beginning of mathematical control and systems theory. Elements of control theory had appeared earlier but not as dramatically and convincingly as in Maxwell\'s analysis.
Control theory made significant strides over the next century. New mathematical techniques, as well as advances in electronic and computer technologies, made it possible to control significantly more complex dynamical systems than the original flyball governor could stabilize. New mathematical techniques included developments in optimal control in the 1950s and 1960s followed by progress in stochastic, robust, adaptive, nonlinear control methods in the 1970s and 1980s. Applications of control methodology have helped to make possible space travel and communication satellites, safer and more efficient aircraft, cleaner automobile engines, and cleaner and more efficient chemical processes.
Before it emerged as a unique discipline, control engineering was practiced as a part of mechanical engineering and control theory was studied as a part of electrical engineering since electrical circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. In the first control relationships, a current output was represented by a voltage control input. However, not having adequate technology to implement electrical control systems, designers were left with the option of less efficient and slow responding mechanical systems. A very effective mechanical controller that is still widely used in some hydro plants is the governor. Later on, previous to modern power electronics, process control systems for industrial applications were devised by mechanical engineers using pneumatic and hydraulic control devices, many of which are still in use today.
### Mathematical modelling {#mathematical_modelling}
David Quinn Mayne, (1930--2024) was among the early developers of a rigorous mathematical method for analysing Model predictive control algorithms (MPC). It is currently used in tens of thousands of applications and is a core part of the advanced control technology by hundreds of process control producers. MPC\'s major strength is its capacity to deal with nonlinearities and hard constraints in a simple and intuitive fashion. His work underpins a class of algorithms that are probably correct, heuristically explainable, and yield control system designs which meet practically important objectives.
## Control systems {#control_systems}
## Control theory {#control_theory}
## Education
At many universities around the world, control engineering courses are taught primarily in electrical engineering and mechanical engineering, but some courses can be instructed in mechatronics engineering, and aerospace engineering. In others, control engineering is connected to computer science, as most control techniques today are implemented through computers, often as embedded systems (as in the automotive field). The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program and employs many of the same principles in control engineering. Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived. However, specialised control engineering departments do exist, for example, in Italy there are several master in Automation & Robotics that are fully specialised in Control engineering or the Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering at the University of Sheffield or the Department of Robotics and Control Engineering at the United States Naval Academy and the Department of Control and Automation Engineering at the Istanbul Technical University.
Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behavior. Students of control engineering may start with a linear control system course dealing with the time and complex-s domain, which requires a thorough background in elementary mathematics and Laplace transform, called classical control theory. In linear control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control and nonlinear control courses require Z transformation and algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education.
## Careers
A control engineer\'s career starts with a bachelor\'s degree and can continue through the college process. Control engineer degrees are typically paired with an electrical or mechanical engineering degree, but can also be paired with a degree in chemical engineering. According to a *Control Engineering* survey, most of the people who answered were control engineers in various forms of their own career.
There are not very many careers that are classified as \"control engineer\", most of them are specific careers that have a small semblance to the overarching career of control engineering. A majority of the control engineers that took the survey in 2019 are system or product designers, or even control or instrument engineers. Most of the jobs involve process engineering or production or even maintenance, they are some variation of control engineering.
Because of this, there are many job opportunities in aerospace companies, manufacturing companies, automobile companies, power companies, chemical companies, petroleum companies, and government agencies. Some places that hire Control Engineers include companies such as Rockwell Automation, NASA, Ford, Phillips 66, Eastman, and Goodrich. Control Engineers can possibly earn \$66k annually from Lockheed Martin Corp. They can also earn up to \$96k annually from General Motors Corporation. Process Control Engineers, typically found in Refineries and Specialty Chemical plants, can earn upwards of \$90k annually.
In India, control System Engineering is provided at different levels with a diploma, graduation and postgraduation. These programs require the candidate to have chosen physics, chemistry and mathematics for their secondary schooling or relevant bachelor\'s degree for postgraduate studies.
## Recent advancement {#recent_advancement}
Originally, control engineering was all about continuous systems. Development of computer control tools posed a requirement of discrete control system engineering because the communications between the computer-based digital controller and the physical system are governed by a computer clock.`{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=23}}`{=mediawiki} The equivalent to Laplace transform in the discrete domain is the Z-transform. Today, many of the control systems are computer controlled and they consist of both digital and analog components.
Therefore, at the design stage either:
- Digital components are mapped into the continuous domain and the design is carried out in the continuous domain, or
- Analog components are mapped into discrete domain and design is carried out there.
The first of these two methods is more commonly encountered in practice because many industrial systems have many continuous systems components, including mechanical, fluid, biological and analog electrical components, with a few digital controllers.
Similarly, the design technique has progressed from paper-and-ruler based manual design to computer-aided design and now to computer-automated design or CAD which has been made possible by evolutionary computation. CAD can be applied not just to tuning a predefined control scheme, but also to controller structure optimisation, system identification and invention of novel control systems, based purely upon a performance requirement, independent of any specific control scheme.
Resilient control systems extend the traditional focus of addressing only planned disturbances to frameworks and attempt to address multiple types of unexpected disturbance; in particular, adapting and transforming behaviors of the control system in response to malicious actors, abnormal failure modes, undesirable human action, etc.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,019 |
Jean Siméon Chardin
|
**Jean Siméon Chardin** (`{{IPA|fr|ʒɑ̃ simeɔ̃ ʃaʁdɛ̃|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; November 2, 1699 -- December 6, 1779) was an 18th-century French painter. He is considered a master of still life, and is also noted for his genre paintings which depict kitchen maids, children, and domestic activities. Carefully balanced composition, soft diffusion of light, and granular impasto characterize his work.
## Life
Chardin was born in Paris, the son of a cabinetmaker, and rarely left the city. He lived on the Left Bank near Saint-Sulpice until 1757, when Louis XV granted him a studio and living quarters in the Louvre.
Chardin entered into a marriage contract with Marguerite Saintard in 1723, whom he did not marry until 1731. He served apprenticeships with the history painters Pierre-Jacques Cazes and Noël-Nicolas Coypel, and in 1724 became a master in the Académie de Saint-Luc.
According to one nineteenth-century writer, at a time when it was hard for unknown painters to come to the attention of the Royal Academy, he first found notice by displaying a painting at the \"small Corpus Christi\" (held eight days after the regular one) on the Place Dauphine (by the Pont Neuf). Van Loo, passing by in 1720, bought it and later assisted the young painter.
Upon presentation of *The Ray* and *The Buffet* in 1728, he was admitted to the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture. The following year he ceded his position in the Académie de Saint-Luc. He made a modest living by \"produc\[ing\] paintings in the various genres at whatever price his customers chose to pay him\", and by such work as the restoration of the frescoes at the Galerie François I at Fontainebleau in 1731. In November 1731 his son Jean-Pierre was baptized, and a daughter, Marguerite-Agnès, was baptized in 1733. In 1735 his wife Marguerite died, and within two years Marguerite-Agnès had died as well.
Beginning in 1737 Chardin exhibited regularly at the Salon. He would prove to be a \"dedicated academician\", regularly attending meetings for fifty years, and functioning successively as counsellor, treasurer, and secretary, overseeing in 1761 the installation of Salon exhibitions.
Chardin\'s work gained popularity through reproductive engravings of his genre paintings (made by artists such as François-Bernard Lépicié and P.-L. Sugurue), which brought Chardin income in the form of \"what would now be called royalties\". In 1744 he entered his second marriage, this time to Françoise-Marguerite Pouget. The union brought a substantial improvement in Chardin\'s financial circumstances. In 1745 a daughter, Angélique-Françoise, was born, but she died in 1746.
In 1752 Chardin was granted a pension of 500 livres by Louis XV. In 1756 Chardin returned to the subject of the still life. At the Salon of 1759 he exhibited nine paintings; it was the first Salon to be commented upon by Denis Diderot, who would prove to be a great admirer and public champion of Chardin\'s work. Beginning in 1761, his responsibilities on behalf of the Salon, simultaneously arranging the exhibitions and acting as treasurer, resulted in a diminution of productivity in painting, and the showing of \'replicas\' of previous works. In 1763 his services to the Académie were acknowledged with an extra 200 livres in pension. In 1765 he was unanimously elected associate member of the Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts of Rouen, but there is no evidence that he left Paris to accept the honor. By 1770 Chardin was the \'Premier peintre du roi\', and his pension of 1,400 livres was the highest in the academy. In the 1770s his eyesight weakened and he took to painting in pastels, a medium in which he executed portraits of his wife and himself (see *Self-portrait* at top right). His works in pastels are now highly valued.
In 1772 Chardin\'s son, also a painter, drowned in Venice, a probable suicide. The artist\'s last known oil painting was dated 1776; his final Salon participation was in 1779, and featured several pastel studies. Gravely ill by November of that year, he died in Paris on December 6, at the age of 80.
## Work
Chardin worked very slowly and painted only slightly more than 200 pictures (about four a year) in total.
Chardin\'s work had little in common with the Rococo painting that dominated French art in the 18th century. At a time when history painting was considered the supreme classification for public art, Chardin\'s subjects of choice were viewed as minor categories. He favored simple yet beautifully textured still lifes, and sensitively handled domestic interiors and genre paintings. Simple, even stark, paintings of common household items (*Still Life with a Smoker\'s Box*) and an uncanny ability to portray children\'s innocence in an unsentimental manner (*Boy with a Top* \[right\]) nevertheless found an appreciative audience in his time, and account for his timeless appeal.
Largely self-taught, Chardin was greatly influenced by the realism and subject matter of the 17th-century Low Country masters. Despite his unconventional portrayal of the ascendant bourgeoisie, early support came from patrons in the French aristocracy, including Louis XV. Though his popularity rested initially on paintings of animals and fruit, by the 1730s he introduced kitchen utensils into his work (*The Copper Cistern*, c. 1735, Louvre). Soon figures populated his scenes as well, supposedly in response to a portrait painter who challenged him to take up the genre. *Woman Sealing a Letter* (ca. 1733), which may have been his first attempt, was followed by half-length compositions of children saying grace, as in *Le Bénédicité*, and kitchen maids in moments of reflection. These humble scenes deal with simple, everyday activities, yet they also have functioned as a source of documentary information about a level of French society not hitherto considered a worthy subject for painting. The pictures are noteworthy for their formal structure and pictorial harmony. Chardin said about painting, \"Who said one paints with colors? One *employs* colors, but one paints with *feeling*.\"
A child playing was a favourite subject of Chardin. He depicted an adolescent building a house of cards on at least four occasions. The version at Waddesdon Manor is the most elaborate. Scenes such as these derived from 17th-century Netherlandish vanitas works, which bore messages about the transitory nature of human life and the worthlessness of material ambitions, but Chardin\'s also display a delight in the ephemeral phases of childhood for their own sake.
Chardin frequently painted replicas of his compositions---especially his genre paintings, nearly all of which exist in multiple versions which in many cases are virtually indistinguishable. Beginning with *The Governess* (1739, in the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa), Chardin shifted his attention from working-class subjects to slightly more spacious scenes of bourgeois life. Chardin\'s extant paintings, which number about 200, are in many major museums, including the Louvre.
## Influence
Chardin\'s influence on the art of the modern era was wide-ranging and has been well-documented. Édouard Manet\'s half-length *Boy Blowing Bubbles* and the still lifes of Paul Cézanne are equally indebted to their predecessor. He was one of Henri Matisse\'s most admired painters; as an art student Matisse made copies of four Chardin paintings in the Louvre. Chaïm Soutine\'s still lifes looked to Chardin for inspiration, as did the paintings of Georges Braque, and later, Giorgio Morandi. In 1999 Lucian Freud painted and etched several copies after *The Young Schoolmistress* (National Gallery, London).
Marcel Proust, in the chapter \"How to open your eyes?\" from *In Search of Lost Time* (*À la recherche du temps perdu*), describes a melancholic young man sitting at his simple breakfast table. The only comfort he finds is in the imaginary ideas of beauty depicted in the great masterpieces of the Louvre, materializing fancy palaces, rich princes, and the like. The author tells the young man to follow him to another section of the Louvre where the pictures of Chardin are. There he would see the beauty in still life at home and in everyday activities like peeling turnips.
## Gallery
<File:Jean-Baptiste> Siméon Chardin - Lapin mort et attirail de chasse.jpg\|*Dead Rabbit and Hunting Gear* (ca. 1727), oil on canvas., 81 x 65 cm., Louvre <File:Jean-Baptiste> Siméon Chardin 007.jpg\|*The Ray* (1727), oil on canvas, 114.5 x 146 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg\|*Glass Flask and Fruit* (ca. 1728), oil on canvas, 55.7 x 46 cm., Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe <File:Kitchen> utensils (1729).jpg\|*Kitchen Utensils and Three Herrings or Whitings* (1729), oil on canvas, Clark Art Institute <File:Cooking> pots (1729).jpg\|*Cooking Pots and Ladle with a White Cloth* (1729), oil on canvas, 15 3/8 x 12 1/8 in. (39.1 x 30.8 cm), Clark Art Institute <File:Chardin> - Les attributs des Sciences.jpg\|*The Attributes of Exploration* (1731), oil on canvas, 141 x 219 cm., Musée Jacquemart-André <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - Sealing the Letter - WGA04745.jpg\|*Sealing the Letter* (1733), oil on canvas, 146 x 147 cm., Schloss Charlottenburg <File:Soap> Bubbles 1733-5 Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin.jpg\|*Soap Bubbles* (ca.1733-1734), oil on canvas, 93 x 74.6 cm., National Gallery of Art <File:Jean> Baptiste Simeon - The Drawing Lesson.jpg\|*The Drawing Lesson* (ca. 1734), oil on canvas, 41 × 47 cm., Tokyo Fuji Art Museum <File:Le> Jeune Dessinateur.jpg\|*The Draftsman* (1737), oil on canvas, 80 x 65 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 017.jpg\|*Woman Cleaning Turnips* (ca. 1738), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., Alte Pinakothek <File:Chardin> - The Return from the Market, 1738.jpg\|*The Return from the Market* (1738--39), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., Louvre <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - La Gouvernante (The Governess) - WGA04762.jpg\|*The Governess* (1739), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., National Gallery of Canada <File:Chardin>, Jean Siméon - Godefroy, Auguste Gabriel - Museu de Arte de São Paulo - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Portrait of Auguste Gabriel Godefroy* (1741), oil on canvas, 64.5 x 76.5 cm., São Paulo Museum of Art <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - The Prayer before Meal - WGA04770.jpg\|*Saying Grace* (1744), oil on canvas, 50 x 38 cm., Hermitage Museum <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin, The Attentive Nurse, 1747, NGA 41649.jpg\|*The Attentive Nurse* (1747), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., National Gallery of Art <File:Chardin>, Jean-Siméon - The Good Education - Google Art Project.jpg\|*The Good Education* (ca. 1753), oil on canvas, 43 x 47.3 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, Houston <File:Chardin> - LES DEBRIS D\'UN DEJEUNER, 1763 vers (cropped).jpg\|*The Preparations of a Lunch* (1756), oil on canvas, 38 × 46 cm., Musée des Beaux-Arts de Carcassonne <File:Chardin> - Wildenstein 1969, 297.png\|*A Basket of Wild Strawberries* (ca, 1760), oil on canvas, 38 x 46 cm., private collection <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - \'La Brioche\' (Cake) - WGA04779.jpg\|*La Brioche* (1763), oil on canvas, 47 x 56 cm., Louvre <File:Chardin> - Basket of Plums, 1765.jpg\|*Basket of Plums* (1765), oil on canvas, 32.4 x 41.9 cm., Chrysler Museum of Art <File:Chardin>, Jean-Baptiste Siméon - Still Life with Attributes of the Arts - 1766.jpg\|*Still Life with Attributes of the Arts* (1766), oil on canvas, 112 x 140.5 cm., Hermitage Museum <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine - WGA04783.jpg\|*Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine* (1768), oil on canvas, 32 x 39 cm., Louvre <File:Jean-Siméon> Chardin (French - Still Life with Fish, Vegetables, Gougères, Pots, and Cruets on a Table - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Still Life with Fish and Vegetables* (1769), oil on canvas, 68.6 x 58.4 cm., J. Paul Getty Museum
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Crookes radiometer
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The **Crookes radiometer** (also known as a **light mill**) consists of an airtight glass bulb containing a partial vacuum, with a set of vanes which are mounted on a spindle inside. The vanes rotate when exposed to light, with faster rotation for more intense light, providing a quantitative measurement of electromagnetic radiation intensity.
The reason for the rotation was a cause of much scientific debate in the ten years following the invention of the device, but in 1879 the currently accepted explanation for the rotation was published. Today the device is mainly used in physics education as a demonstration of a heat engine run by light energy.
It was invented in 1873 by the chemist Sir William Crookes as the by-product of some chemical research. In the course of very accurate quantitative chemical work, he was weighing samples in a partially evacuated chamber to reduce the effect of air currents, and noticed the weighings were disturbed when sunlight shone on the balance. Investigating this effect, he created the device named after him.
It is still manufactured and sold as an educational aid or for curiosity.
## General description {#general_description}
The radiometer is made from a glass bulb from which much of the air has been removed to form a partial vacuum. Inside the bulb, on a low-friction spindle, is a rotor with several (usually four) vertical lightweight vanes spaced equally around the axis. The vanes are polished or white on one side and black on the other.
When exposed to sunlight, artificial light, or infrared radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing.
Cooling the outside of the radiometer rapidly causes rotation in the opposite direction.
### Effect observations {#effect_observations}
The effect begins to be observed at partial vacuum pressures of several hundred pascals (or several torrs), reaches a peak at around 1 Pa and has disappeared by the time the vacuum reaches 1e-4 Pa (see explanations note 1). At these very high vacuums the effect of photon radiation pressure on the vanes can be observed in very sensitive apparatus (see Nichols radiometer), but this is insufficient to cause rotation.
### Origin of the name {#origin_of_the_name}
The prefix \"radio-\" in the title originates from the combining form of Latin *radius*, a ray: here it refers to electromagnetic radiation. A Crookes radiometer, consistent with the suffix \"-meter\" in its title, can provide a quantitative measurement of electromagnetic radiation intensity. This can be done, for example, by visual means (e.g., a spinning slotted disk, which functions as a simple stroboscope) without interfering with the measurement itself.
## Thermodynamic explanation {#thermodynamic_explanation}
### Movement with absorption {#movement_with_absorption}
When a radiant energy source is directed at a Crookes radiometer, the radiometer becomes a heat engine. The operation of a heat engine is based on a difference in temperature that is converted to a mechanical output. In this case, the black side of the vane becomes hotter than the other side, as radiant energy from a light source warms the black side by absorption faster than the silver or white side. The internal air molecules are heated up when they touch the black side of the vane. The warmer side of the vane is subjected to a force which moves it forward.
The internal temperature rises as the black vanes impart heat to the air molecules, but the molecules are cooled again when they touch the bulb\'s glass surface, which is at ambient temperature. This heat loss through the glass keeps the internal bulb temperature steady with the result that the two sides of the vanes develop a temperature difference. The white or silver side of the vanes are slightly warmer than the internal air temperature but cooler than the black side, as some heat conducts through the vane from the black side. The two sides of each vane must be thermally insulated to some degree so that the polished or white side does not immediately reach the temperature of the black side. If the vanes are made of metal, then the black or white paint can be the insulation. The glass stays much closer to ambient temperature than the temperature reached by the black side of the vanes. The external air helps conduct heat away from the glass.
The air pressure inside the bulb needs to strike a balance between too low and too high. A strong vacuum inside the bulb does not permit motion, because there are not enough air molecules to cause the air currents that propel the vanes and transfer heat to the outside before both sides of each vane reach thermal equilibrium by heat conduction through the vane material. High inside pressure inhibits motion because the temperature differences are not enough to push the vanes through the higher concentration of air: there is too much air resistance for \"eddy currents\" to occur, and any slight air movement caused by the temperature difference is damped by the higher pressure before the currents can \"wrap around\" to the other side.
### Movement with radiation {#movement_with_radiation}
When the radiometer is heated in the absence of a light source, it turns in the forward direction (i.e. black sides trailing). If a person\'s hands are placed around the glass without touching it, the vanes will turn slowly or not at all, but if the glass is touched to warm it quickly, they will turn more noticeably. Directly heated glass gives off enough infrared radiation to turn the vanes, but glass blocks much of the far-infrared radiation from a source of warmth not in contact with it. However, near-infrared and visible light more easily penetrate the glass.
If the glass is cooled quickly in the absence of a strong light source by putting ice on the glass or placing it in the freezer with the door almost closed, it turns backwards (i.e. the silver sides trail). This demonstrates radiation from the black sides of the vanes rather than absorption. The wheel turns backwards because the net exchange of heat between the black sides and the environment initially cools the black sides faster than the white sides. Upon reaching equilibrium, typically after a minute or two, reverse rotation ceases. This contrasts with sunlight, with which forward rotation can be maintained all day.
## Explanations for the force on the vanes {#explanations_for_the_force_on_the_vanes}
Over the years, there have been many attempts to explain how a Crookes radiometer works:
### Incorrect theories {#incorrect_theories}
Crookes incorrectly suggested that the force was due to the pressure of light. This theory was originally supported by James Clerk Maxwell, who had predicted this force. This explanation is still often seen in leaflets packaged with the device. The first experiment to test this theory was done by Arthur Schuster in 1876, who observed that there was a force on the glass bulb of the Crookes radiometer that was in the opposite direction to the rotation of the vanes. This showed that the force turning the vanes was generated inside the radiometer. If light pressure were the cause of the rotation, then the better the vacuum in the bulb, the less air resistance to movement, and the faster the vanes should spin. In 1901, with a better vacuum pump, Pyotr Lebedev showed that in fact, the radiometer only works when there is low-pressure gas in the bulb, and the vanes stay motionless in a hard vacuum. Finally, if light pressure were the motive force, the radiometer would spin in the opposite direction, as the photons on the shiny side being reflected would deposit more momentum than on the black side, where the photons are absorbed. This results from conservation of momentum -- the momentum of the reflected photon exiting on the light side must be matched by a reaction on the vane that reflected it. The actual pressure exerted by light is far too small to move these vanes, but can be measured with devices such as the Nichols radiometer. It is in fact possible to make the radiometer spin in the opposite direction by either heating it or putting it in a cold environment (like a freezer) in absence of light, when black sides become cooler than the white ones due to the thermal radiation.
Another incorrect theory was that the heat on the dark side was causing the material to outgas, which pushed the radiometer around. This was later effectively disproved by both Schuster\'s experiments (1876) and Lebedev\'s (1901)
### Partially correct theory {#partially_correct_theory}
A partial explanation is that gas molecules hitting the warmer side of the vane will pick up some of the heat, bouncing off the vane with increased speed. Giving the molecule this extra boost effectively means that a minute pressure is exerted on the vane. The imbalance of this effect between the warmer black side and the cooler silver side means the net pressure on the vane is equivalent to a push on the black side and as a result the vanes spin round with the black side trailing. The problem with this idea is that while the faster moving molecules produce more force, they also do a better job of stopping other molecules from reaching the vane, so the net force on the vane should be the same. The greater temperature causes a decrease in local density which results in the same force on both sides. Years after this explanation was dismissed, Albert Einstein showed that the two pressures do not cancel out exactly at the edges of the vanes because of the temperature difference there. The force predicted by Einstein would be enough to move the vanes, but not fast enough.
### Currently accepted theory {#currently_accepted_theory}
The currently accepted theory was formulated by Osborne Reynolds, who theorized that thermal transpiration was the cause of the motion. Reynolds found that if a porous plate is kept hotter on one side than the other, the interactions between gas molecules and the plates are such that gas will flow through from the cooler to the hotter side. The vanes of a typical Crookes radiometer are not porous, but the space past their edges behaves like the pores in Reynolds\'s plate. As gas moves from the cooler to the hotter side, the pressure on the hotter side increases. When the plate is fixed, the pressure on the hotter side increases until the ratio of pressures between the sides equals the square root of the ratio of absolute temperatures. Because the plates in a radiometer are not fixed, the pressure difference from cooler to hotter side causes the vane to move. The cooler (white) side moves forward, pushed by the higher pressure behind it. From a molecular point of view, the vane moves due to the tangential force of the rarefied gas colliding differently with the edges of the vane between the hot and cold sides.
The Reynolds paper went unpublished for a while because it was refereed by Maxwell, who then published a paper of his own, which contained a critique of the mathematics in Reynolds\'s unpublished paper. Maxwell died that year and the Royal Society refused to publish Reynolds\'s critique of Maxwell\'s rebuttal to Reynolds\'s unpublished paper, as it was felt that this would be an inappropriate argument when one of the people involved had already died.
## All-black light mill {#all_black_light_mill}
To rotate, a light mill does not have to be coated with different colors across each vane. In 2009, researchers at the University of Texas, Austin created a monocolored light mill which has four curved vanes; each vane forms a convex and a concave surface. The light mill is uniformly coated by gold nanocrystals, which are a strong light absorber. Upon exposure, due to geometric effect, the convex side of the vane receives more photon energy than the concave side does, and subsequently the gas molecules receive more heat from the convex side than from the concave side. At rough vacuum, this asymmetric heating effect generates a net gas movement across each vane, from the concave side to the convex side, as shown by the researchers\' direct simulation Monte Carlo modeling. The gas movement causes the light mill to rotate with the concave side moving forward, due to Newton\'s third law. This monocolored design promotes the fabrication of micrometer- or nanometer-scaled light mills, as it is difficult to pattern materials of distinct optical properties within a very narrow, three-dimensional space.
## Horizontal vane light mill {#horizontal_vane_light_mill}
The thermal creep from the hot side of a vane to the cold side has been demonstrated in a mill with horizontal vanes that have a two-tone surface with a black half and a white half. This design is called a Hettner radiometer. This radiometer\'s angular speed was found to be limited by the behavior of the drag force due to the gas in the vessel more than by the behavior of the thermal creep force. This design does not experience the Einstein effect because the faces are parallel to the temperature gradient.
## Nanoscale light mill {#nanoscale_light_mill}
In 2010 researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, succeeded in building a nanoscale light mill that works on an entirely different principle to the Crookes radiometer. A gold light mill, only 100 nanometers in diameter, was built and illuminated by laser light that had been tuned. The possibility of doing this had been suggested by the Princeton physicist Richard Beth in 1936. The torque was greatly enhanced by the resonant coupling of the incident light to plasmonic waves in the gold structure.
## Practical applications {#practical_applications}
The radiometric effect has not been often used for practical applications. Marcel Bétrisey made in 2001 two different clocks (Le Chronolithe and Conti) powered by the light. Their pendulums had bulb lamps located outside the glass dôme and pointing against 4 mica vanes. One meter pendulum gives one second, two lamps placed in either side light up alternately, thus "pushing" the 4 kilos pendulum each time. As there was vacuum inside, its accuracy was of the order of 2 seconds per month.
Radiometers are now commonly sold worldwide as a novelty ornament; needing no batteries, but only light to get the vanes to turn. They come in various forms, such as the one pictured, and are often used in science museums to illustrate \"radiation pressure\" -- a scientific principle that they do not in fact demonstrate.
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Cold Chisel
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**Cold Chisel** are an Australian pub rock band, which formed in Adelaide in 1973 by mainstay members Ian Moss on guitar and vocals, Steve Prestwich on drums, Les Kaczmarek on bass and Don Walker on piano and keyboards. They were soon joined by Jimmy Barnes on lead vocals and, in 1975, Phil Small became their bass guitarist. The group disbanded in late 1983 but subsequently re-formed several times. Musicologist Ian McFarlane wrote that they became \"one of Australia\'s best-loved groups\" as well as \"one of the best live bands\", fusing \"a combination of rockabilly, hard rock and rough-house soul\'n\'blues that was defiantly Australian in outlook.\"
Eight of their studio albums have reached the Australian top five, *Breakfast at Sweethearts* (February 1979), *East* (June 1980), *Circus Animals* (March 1982, No. 1), *Twentieth Century* (April 1984, No. 1), *The Last Wave of Summer* (October 1998, No. 1), *No Plans* (April 2012), *The Perfect Crime* (October 2015) and *Blood Moon* (December 2019, No. 1). They have achieved six number-one albums on the ARIA Charts, the latest being their 2024 compilation *50 Years -- The Best Of*. Their top-10 singles are \"Cheap Wine\" (1980), \"Forever Now\" (1982), \"Hands Out of My Pocket\" (1994) and \"The Things I Love in You\" (1998).
At the ARIA Music Awards of 1993 they were inducted into the Hall of Fame. In 2001 Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) listed their single \"Khe Sanh\" (May 1978) at No. 8 of the all-time best Australian songs. *Circus Animals* was listed at No. 4 in the book *100 Best Australian Albums* (October 2010), while *East* appeared at No. 53. They won The Ted Albert Award for Outstanding Services to Australian Music at the APRA Music Awards of 2016. Cold Chisel\'s popularity is almost entirely confined to Australia and New Zealand, with their songs and musicianship highlighting working class life. Their early bass guitarist (1973--75), Les Kaczmarek, died in December 2008; Steve Prestwich died of a brain tumour in January 2011.
## History
### 1973--1978: Beginnings
Cold Chisel originally formed as **Orange** in Adelaide in 1973 as a heavy metal band with Ted Broniecki on keyboards, Les Kaczmarek on bass guitar, Ian Moss on guitar and vocals, Steve Prestwich on drums and Don Walker on piano. Their early material included cover versions of Free and Deep Purple material. Broniecki left by September 1973 and seventeen-year-old singer Jimmy Barnes -- called Jim Barnes during their initial career -- joined in December.
The group changed its name several times, often for every live performance, before choosing "Cold Chisel" after an early Don Walker song of that title, and that name stuck. Barnes\' relationship with the others was volatile: he often came to blows with Prestwich and left the band several times. During these periods Moss would handle vocals until Barnes returned. Walker emerged as the group\'s primary songwriter and spent 1974 in Armidale, completing his studies in quantum mechanics. Barnes\' older brother, John Swan, was a member of Cold Chisel around this time, providing backing vocals and percussion. After several violent incidents, including beating up a roadie, he was fired. In mid-1975 Barnes left to join Fraternity as Bon Scott\'s replacement on lead vocals, alongside Swan on drums and vocals.
Kaczmarek left Cold Chisel during 1975 and was replaced by Phil Small on bass guitar. In November of that year, without Barnes, they recorded their early demos.
In May 1976 Cold Chisel relocated to Melbourne, but \"frustrated by their lack of progress,\" they moved on to Sydney in early 1977. In May 1977, Barnes told his fellow members that he would leave again. From July he joined Feather for a few weeks, on co-lead vocals with Swan -- they were a Sydney-based hard rock group, which had evolved from Blackfeather. A farewell performance for Cold Chisel, with Barnes aboard, went so well that the singer changed his mind and returned. In the following month the Warner Music Group signed the group.
### 1978--1979: *Cold Chisel* and *Breakfast at Sweethearts* {#cold_chisel_and_breakfast_at_sweethearts}
In the early months of 1978 Cold Chisel recorded their self-titled debut album with their manager and producer, Peter Walker (ex-Bakery). All tracks were written by Don Walker, except \"Juliet\", where Barnes composed its melody and Walker the lyrics. *Cold Chisel* was released in April and included guest studio musicians: Dave Blight on harmonica (who became a regular on-stage guest) and saxophonists Joe Camilleri and Wilbur Wilde (from Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons). Australian musicologist Ian McFarlane described how, \"\[it\] failed to capture the band\'s renowned live firepower, despite the presence of such crowd favourites as \'Khe Sanh\', \'Home and Broken Hearted\' and \'One Long Day\'.\" It reached the top 40 on the Kent Music Report and was certified gold.
In May 1978, \"Khe Sanh\" was released as their debut single but it was declared too offensive for commercial radio due to the sexual implication of the lyrics, e.g. \"Their legs were often open/But their minds were always closed.\" However, it was played regularly on Sydney youth radio station Double J, which was not subject to the restrictions as it was part of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). Another ABC program, *Countdown*{{\'}}s producers asked them to change the lyric but they refused. Despite such setbacks, \"Khe Sanh\" reached No. 41 on the Kent Music Report singles chart. It became Cold Chisel\'s signature tune and was popular among their fans. They later remixed the track, with re-recorded vocals, for inclusion on the international version of their third album, *East* (June 1980).
The band\'s next release was a live five-track extended play, *You\'re Thirteen, You\'re Beautiful, and You\'re Mine*, in November 1978. McFarlane observed, \"It captured the band in its favoured element, fired by raucous versions of Walker\'s \'Merry-Go-Round\' and Chip Taylor\'s \'Wild Thing\'.\" It was recorded at the Regent Theatre, Sydney in 1977, when they had Midnight Oil as one of the support acts. Australian writer Ed Nimmervoll described a typical performance by Cold Chisel: \"Everybody was talking about them anyway, drawn by the songs, and Jim Barnes\' presence on stage, crouched, sweating, as he roared his vocals into the microphone at the top of his lungs.\" The EP peaked at No. 35 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart.
\"Merry Go Round\" was re-recorded for their second studio album, *Breakfast at Sweethearts* (February 1979). This was recorded between July 1978 and January 1979 with producer Richard Batchens, who had previously worked with Richard Clapton, Sherbet and Blackfeather. Batchens smoothed out the band\'s rough edges and attempted to give their songs a sophisticated sound. With regards to this approach, the band were unsatisfied with the finished product. It peaked at No. 4 and was the top-selling album in Australia by a locally based artist for that year; it was certified platinum. The majority of its tracks were written by Walker, with Barnes and Walker on the lead single, \"Goodbye (Astrid, Goodbye)\" (September 1978), and Moss contributed to \"Dresden\". \"Goodbye (Astrid, Goodbye)\" became a live favourite, and was covered by U2 during Australian tours in the 1980s.
### 1979-1980: *East*
Cold Chisel had gained national chart success and increased popularity of their fans without significant commercial radio airplay. The members developed reputations for wild behaviour, particularly Barnes, who claimed to have had sex with over 1000 women and who consumed more than a bottle of vodka each night while performing. In late 1979, severing their relationship with Batchens, Cold Chisel chose Mark Opitz to produce the next single, \"Choirgirl\" (November). It is a Walker composition dealing with a young woman\'s experience with abortion. Despite the subject matter it reached No. 14.
\"Choirgirl\" paved the way for the group\'s third studio album, *East* (June 1980), with Opitz producing. Recorded over two months in early 1980, *East*, reached No. 2 and is the second highest selling album by an Australian artist for that year. *The Australian Women\'s Weekly*{{\'}}s Gregg Flynn noticed, \"\[they are\] one of the few Australian bands in which each member is capable of writing hit songs.\" Despite the continued dominance of Walker, the other members contributed more tracks to their play list, and this was their first album to have songs written by each one. McFarlane described it as, \"a confident, fully realised work of tremendous scope.\" Nimmervoll explained how, \"This time everything fell into place, the sound, the songs, the playing\... *East* was a triumph. \[The group\] were now the undisputed No. 1 rock band in Australia.\"
The album varied from straight-ahead rock tracks \"Standing on the Outside\" and \"My Turn to Cry\" to rockabilly-flavoured work-outs (\"Rising Sun\", written about Barnes\' relationship with his then-girlfriend Jane Mahoney) and pop-laced love songs (\"My Baby\" by Phil Small, featuring Joe Camilleri on saxophone) to a poignant piano ballad about prison life, \"Four Walls\". The cover art showed Barnes reclined in a bathtub wearing a kamikaze bandanna in a room littered with junk and was inspired by Jacques-Louis David\'s 1793 painting *The Death of Marat*. The Ian Moss-penned \"Never Before\" was chosen as the first song to air on the ABC\'s youth radio station, Triple J, when it switched to the FM band that year. Supporting the release of *East*, Cold Chisel embarked on the Youth in Asia Tour from May 1980, which took its name from a lyric in \"Star Hotel\".
In late 1980, the Aboriginal rock reggae band No Fixed Address supported the band on its Summer Offensive tour to the east coast, with the final concert on 20 December at the University of Adelaide.
### 1981-1982: *Swingshift* to *Circus Animals* {#swingshift_to_circus_animals}
The Youth in Asia Tour performances were used for Cold Chisel\'s double live album, *Swingshift* (March 1981). Nimmervoll declared, \"\[the group\] rammed what they were all about with \[this album\].\" In March 1981 the band won seven categories: Best Australian Album, Most Outstanding Achievement, Best Recorded Song Writer, Best Australian Producer, Best Australian Record Cover Design, Most Popular Group and Most Popular Record, at the *Countdown*/*TV Week* pop music awards for 1980. They attended the ceremony at the Sydney Entertainment Centre and were due to perform: however, as a protest against a TV magazine\'s involvement, they refused to accept any trophy and finished the night with \"My Turn to Cry\". After one verse and chorus, they smashed up the set and left the stage.
*Swingshift* debuted at No 1, which demonstrated their status as the highest-selling local act. With a slightly different track listing, *East* was issued in the United States and they undertook their first US tour in mid-1981. Ahead of the tour they had issued \"My Baby\" for the North America market and it reached the top 40 on *Billboard*{{\'}}s chart, Mainstream Rock. They were generally popular as a live act there, but the US branch of their label did little to promote the album. According to Barnes\' biographer, Toby Creswell, at one point they were ushered into an office to listen to the US master tape to find it had substantial hiss and other ambient noise, which made it almost unable to be released. Nevertheless, the album reached the lower region of the *Billboard* 200 in July. The group were booed off stage after a lacklustre performance in Dayton, Ohio in May 1981 opening for Ted Nugent. Other support slots they took were for Cheap Trick, Joe Walsh, Heart and the Marshall Tucker Band. European audiences were more accepting of the Australian band and they developed a fan base in Germany.
In August 1981 Cold Chisel began work on a fourth studio album, *Circus Animals* (March 1982), again with Opitz producing. To launch the album, the band performed under a circus tent at Wentworth Park in Sydney and toured heavily once more, including a show in Darwin that attracted more than 10 percent of the city\'s population. It peaked at No. 1 in both Australia and on the Official New Zealand Music Chart. In October 2010 it was listed at No. 4 in the book *100 Best Australian Albums* by music journalists Creswell, Craig Mathieson and John O\'Donnell.
Its lead single, \"You Got Nothing I Want\" (November 1981), is an aggressive Barnes-penned hard rock track, which attacked the US industry for its handling of the band on their recent tour. The song caused problems for Barnes when he later attempted to break into the US market as a solo performer; senior music executives there continued to hold it against him. Like its predecessor, *Circus Animals* contained songs of contrasting styles, with harder-edged tracks like \"Bow River\" and \"Hound Dog\" beside more expansive ballads such as the next two singles, \"Forever Now\" (March 1982) and \"When the War Is Over\" (August), both written by Prestwich. \"Forever Now\" is their highest-charting single in two Australasian markets: No. 4 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart and No. 2 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart.
\"When the War Is Over\" is the most-covered Cold Chisel track -- Uriah Heep included a version on their 1989 album, *Raging Silence*; John Farnham recorded it while he and Prestwich were members of Little River Band in the mid-1980s and again for his 1988 solo album, *Age of Reason*. The song was also a No. 1 hit for former *Australian Idol* contestant Cosima De Vito in 2004 and was performed by Bobby Flynn during that show\'s 2006 season. \"Forever Now\" was covered, as a country waltz, by Australian band the Reels.
### 1983: Break-up {#break_up}
Success outside Australasia continued to elude Cold Chisel and friction occurred between the members. According to McFarlane, \"\[the\] failed attempts to break into the American market represented a major blow\... \[their\] earthy, high-energy rock was overlooked.\" In early 1983 they toured Germany but the shows went so badly that in the middle of the tour Walker up-ended his keyboard and stormed off stage during one show. After returning to Australia, Prestwich was fired and replaced by Ray Arnott, formerly of the 1970s progressive rockers Spectrum and country rockers the Dingoes.
After this, Barnes requested a large advance from management. Now married with a young child, reckless spending had left him almost broke. His request was refused as there was a standing arrangement that any advance to one band member had to be paid to all the others. After a meeting on 17 August during which Barnes quit the band it was decided that the group would split up. A farewell concert series, The Last Stand, was planned and a final studio album, *Twentieth Century* (February 1984), was recorded. Prestwich returned for that tour, which began in October. Before the last four scheduled shows in Sydney, Barnes lost his voice and those dates were postponed to mid-December. The band\'s final performances were at the Sydney Entertainment Centre from 12 to 15 December 1983 -- ten years since their first live appearance as Cold Chisel in Adelaide -- and the group then disbanded. The Sydney shows formed the basis of a concert film, *The Last Stand* (July 1984), which became the biggest-selling cinema-released concert documentary by an Australian band to that time. Other recordings from the tour were used on a live album, *The Barking Spiders Live: 1983* (1984); the title is a reference to the pseudonym the group occasionally used when playing warm-up shows before tours. Some were also used as B-sides for a three-CD singles package, *Three Big XXX Hits*, issued ahead of the release of their 1994 compilation album, *Teenage Love*.
During breaks in the tour, *Twentieth Century* was recorded. It was a fragmentary process, spread across various studios and sessions as the individual members often refused to work together -- both Arnott (on ten tracks) and Prestwich (on three tracks) are recorded as drummers. The album reached No. 1 and provided the singles \"Saturday Night\" (March 1984) and \"Flame Trees\" (August), both of which remain radio staples. \"Flame Trees\", co-written by Prestwich and Walker, took its title from the BBC series *The Flame Trees of Thika*, although it was lyrically inspired by Walker\'s hometown of Grafton. Barnes later recorded an acoustic version for his 1993 solo album, *Flesh and Wood*, and it was also covered by Sarah Blasko in 2006.
### 1984-1996: Aftermath and ARIA Hall of Fame {#aftermath_and_aria_hall_of_fame}
Barnes launched his solo career in January 1984, which has provided nine Australian number-one studio albums and an array of hit singles, including \"Too Much Ain\'t Enough Love\", which peaked at No. 1. He has recorded with INXS, Tina Turner, Joe Cocker and John Farnham to become one of the country\'s most popular male rock singers. Prestwich joined Little River Band in 1984 and appeared on the albums *Playing to Win* and *No Reins*, before departing in 1986 to join Farnham\'s touring band. Moss, Small and Walker took extended breaks from music.
Small maintained a low profile as a member in a variety of minor groups Pound, the Earls of Duke and the Outsiders. Walker formed Catfish in 1988, ostensibly a solo band with a variable membership, which included Moss, Charlie Owen and Dave Blight at times. Catfish\'s recordings during this phase attracted little commercial success. During 1988 and 1989 Walker wrote several tracks for Moss including the singles \"Tucker\'s Daughter\" (November 1988) and \"Telephone Booth\" (June 1989), which appeared on Moss\' debut solo album, *Matchbook* (August 1989). Both the album and \"Tucker\'s Daughter\" peaked at No. 1. Moss won five trophies at the ARIA Music Awards of 1990. His other solo albums met with less chart or award success.
Throughout the 1980s and most of the 1990s, Cold Chisel were courted to re-form but refused, at one point reportedly turning down a \$5 million offer to play a sole show in each of the major Australian state capitals. Moss and Walker often collaborated on projects; neither worked with Barnes until Walker wrote \"Stone Cold\" for the singer\'s sixth studio album, *Heat* (October 1993). The pair recorded an acoustic version for *Flesh and Wood* (December). Thanks primarily to continued radio airplay and Barnes\' solo success, Cold Chisel\'s legacy remained solidly intact. By the early 1990s the group had surpassed 3 million album sales, most sold since 1983. The 1991 compilation album, *Chisel*, was re-issued and re-packaged several times, once with the long-deleted 1978 EP as a bonus disc and a second time in 2001 as a double album. The *Last Stand* soundtrack album was finally released in 1992. In 1994 a complete album of previously unreleased demo and rare live recordings, *Teenage Love*, was released, which provided three singles.
### 1997--2010: Reunited
Cold Chisel reunited in October 1997, with the line-up of Barnes, Moss, Prestwich, Small and Walker. They recorded their sixth studio album, *The Last Wave of Summer* (October 1998), from February to July with the band members co-producing. They supported it with a national tour. The album debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. In 2003 they re-grouped for the Ringside Tour and in 2005 again to perform at a benefit for the victims of the Boxing Day tsunami at the Myer Music Bowl in Melbourne. Founding bass guitarist, Les Kaczmarek, died of liver failure on 5 December 2008, aged 53. Walker described him as \"a wonderful and beguiling man in every respect.\"
On 10 September 2009 Cold Chisel announced they would re-form for a one-off performance at the Sydney 500 V8 Supercars event on 5 December. The band performed at Stadium Australia to the largest crowd of its career, with more than 45,000 fans in attendance. They played a single live show in 2010: at the Deniliquin ute muster in October. In December Moss confirmed that Cold Chisel were working on new material for an album.
### 2011--2019: Death of Steve Prestwich & *The Perfect Crime* {#death_of_steve_prestwich_the_perfect_crime}
In January 2011 Steve Prestwich was diagnosed with a brain tumour; he underwent surgery on 14 January but never regained consciousness and died two days later, aged 56. All six of Cold Chisel\'s studio albums were re-released in digital and CD formats in mid-2011. Three digital-only albums were released -- *Never Before*, *Besides* and *Covered* -- as well as a new compilation album, *The Best of Cold Chisel: All for You*, which peaked at No. 2 on the ARIA Charts. The thirty-date Light the Nitro Tour was announced in July along with the news that former Divinyls and Catfish drummer Charley Drayton had replaced Prestwich. Most shows on the tour sold out within days and new dates were later announced for early 2012.
*No Plans*, their seventh studio album, was released in April 2012, with Kevin Shirley producing, which peaked at No. 2. *The Australian*{{\'}}s Stephen Fitzpatrick rated it as four-and-a-half out of five and found its lead track, \"All for You\", \"speaks of redemption; of a man\'s ability to make something of himself through love.\" The track \"I Got Things to Do\" was written and sung by Prestwich, which Fitzpatrick described as \"the bittersweet finale\", a song that had \"a vocal track the other band members did not know existed until after \[Prestwich\'s\] death.\" Midway through 2012 they embarked on a short UK tour and played with Soundgarden and Mars Volta at Hard Rock Calling at London\'s Hyde Park.
The group\'s eighth studio album, *The Perfect Crime*, appeared in October 2015, again with Shirley producing, which peaked at No. 2. Martin Boulton of *The Sydney Morning Herald* rated it at four out of five stars and explained that the album does what Cold Chisel always does: \"work incredibly hard, not take any shortcuts and play the hell out of the songs.\" The album, Boulton writes, \"delves further back to their rock\'n\'roll roots with chief songwriter \[Walker\] carving up the keys, guitarist \[Moss\] both gritty and sublime and the \[Small/Drayton\] engine room firing on every cylinder. Barnes\' voice sounds worn, wonderful and better than ever.\"
The band\'s latest album, *Blood Moon*, was released in December 2019. The album debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Album Chart, the band\'s fifth to reach the top. Half of the songs had lyrics written by Barnes and music by Walker, a new combination for Cold Chisel, with Barnes noting his increased confidence after writing two autobiographies.
### 2024: 50th Anniversary Tour {#th_anniversary_tour}
On 29 May 2024, Cold Chisel announced \'The 50th Anniversary Tour\', beginning in Armidale on 5 October 2024 and ending in the band\'s hometown of Adelaide on 17 November 2024. However, Jimmy Barnes\' wife Jane subsequently posted on X.com that further tour dates including New Zealand would be announced later.
## Musical style and lyrical themes {#musical_style_and_lyrical_themes}
McFarlane described Cold Chisel\'s early career in his *Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop* (1999): \"after ten years on the road, \[they\] called it a day. Not that the band split up for want of success; by that stage \[they\] had built up a reputation previously uncharted in Australian rock history. By virtue of the profound effect the band\'s music had on the many thousands of fans who witnessed its awesome power, Cold Chisel remains one of Australia\'s best-loved groups. As one of the best live bands of its day, \[they\] fused a combination of rockabilly, hard rock and rough-house soul\'n\'blues that was defiantly Australian in outlook.\" *The Canberra Times*{{\'}} Luis Feliu, in July 1978, observed, \"This is not just another Australian rock band, no mediocrity here, and their honest, hard-working approach looks like paying off.\" He further wrote, \"the range of styles tackled and done convincingly, from hard rock to blues, boogie, rhythm and blues, is where the appeal lies.\"
Influences from blues and early rock n\' roll was broadly apparent, fostered by the love of those styles by Moss, Barnes and Walker. Small and Prestwich contributed strong pop sensibilities. This allowed volatile rock songs like \"You Got Nothing I Want\" and \"Merry-Go-Round\" to stand beside thoughtful ballads like \"Choirgirl\", pop-flavoured love songs like \"My Baby\" and caustic political statements like \"Star Hotel\", an attack on the late-1970s government of Malcolm Fraser, inspired by the Star Hotel riot in Newcastle.
The songs were not overtly political but rather observations of everyday life within Australian society and culture, in which the members with their various backgrounds (Moss was from Alice Springs, Walker grew up in rural New South Wales, Barnes and Prestwich were working-class immigrants from the UK) were quite well able to provide.
Cold Chisel\'s songs were about distinctly Australian experiences, a factor often cited as a major reason for the band\'s lack of international appeal. \"Saturday Night\" and \"Breakfast at Sweethearts\" were observations of the urban experience of Sydney\'s Kings Cross district where Walker lived for many years. \"Misfits\", which featured on the B-side to \"My Baby\", was about homeless kids in the suburbs surrounding Sydney. Songs like \"Shipping Steel\" and \"Standing on The Outside\" were working-class anthems and many others featured characters trapped in mundane, everyday existences, yearning for the good times of the past (\"Flame Trees\") or for something better from life (\"Bow River\").
## Recognition
At the ARIA Music Awards of 1993 they were inducted into the Hall of Fame. While repackages and compilations accounted for much of these sales, 1994\'s *Teenage Love* provided two of its singles, which were top-ten hits. When the group finally re-formed in 1998 the resultant album was also a major hit and the follow-up tour sold out almost immediately. In 2001 Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) listed their single \"Khe Sanh\" (May 1978) at No. 8 of the all-time best Australian songs.
Cold Chisel were one of the first Australian acts to have become the subject of a major tribute album. In 2007, *Standing on the Outside: The Songs of Cold Chisel* was released, featuring a collection of the band\'s songs as performed by artists including The Living End, Evermore, Something for Kate, Pete Murray, Katie Noonan, You Am I, Paul Kelly, Alex Lloyd, Thirsty Merc and Ben Lee, many of whom were children when Cold Chisel first disbanded and some, like the members of Evermore, had not even been born. *Circus Animals* was listed at No. 4 in the book *100 Best Australian Albums* (October 2010), while *East* appeared at No. 53. They won The Ted Albert Award for Outstanding Services to Australian Music at the APRA Music Awards of 2016.
In March 2021, a previously unnamed lane off Burnett Street (off Currie Street) in the Adelaide central business district, near where the band had its first residency in the 1970s, was officially named Cold Chisel Lane. On one of its walls, there is a 50 m mural by Adelaide artist James Dodd, inspired by the band.
## Members
**Current members**
- Ian Moss -- guitars, backing and lead vocals (1973--1984, 1997--1999, 2003, 2009--present)
- Don Walker -- keyboards, backing vocals (1973--1984, 1997--1999, 2003, 2009--present)
- Jimmy Barnes -- lead and backing vocals, occasional guitar (1973--1975, 1976--1977, 1978--1984, 1997--1999, 2003, 2009--present)
- Phil Small -- bass guitar, backing vocals (1975--1984, 1997--1999, 2003, 2009--present)
- Charley Drayton -- drums, percussion, backing vocals, acoustic guitar (2011--present)
**Current touring musicians**
- Dave Blight -- harmonica
- Andy Bickers -- saxophone
- Juanita Tippins -- backing vocals
- Eliza Jane Barnes -- backing vocals
- Bek Jensen -- backing vocals
**Former members**
- Steve Prestwich -- drums, percussion, backing and lead vocals, acoustic guitar (1973--1983, 1983, 1997--1999, 2003, 2009--2011; his death)
- Ted Broniecki -- keyboards (1973)
- Les Kaczmarek -- bass guitar (1973--1975; died 2008)
- John Swan -- percussion, backing vocals (1975)
- Ray Arnott -- drums (1983)
**Former touring musicians**
- Billy Rogers -- saxophone
- Jimmy Sloggett -- saxophone
- Renée Geyer -- backing vocals (died 2023)
- Venetta Fields -- backing vocals
- Megan Williams -- backing vocals (died 2000)
- Peter Walker -- acoustic guitar
- Joe Camilleri -- saxophone
- Wilbur Wilde -- saxophone
### Timeline
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`bar:Steve from:09/01/1983 till:12/15/1983 color:drums`\
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`bar:Steve from:09/10/2009 till:01/16/2011 color:drums`\
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`bar:Charley from:07/01/2011 till:end color:drums`\
`bar:Charley from:07/01/2011 till:end color:bvocals width:3`
}}
## Discography
- *Cold Chisel* (1978)
- *Breakfast at Sweethearts* (1979)
- *East* (1980)
- *Circus Animals* (1982)
- *Twentieth Century* (1984)
- *The Last Wave of Summer* (1998)
- *No Plans* (2012)
- *The Perfect Crime* (2015)
- *Blood Moon* (2019)
## Awards and nominations {#awards_and_nominations}
### APRA Awards {#apra_awards}
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), \"honouring composers and songwriters\". They commenced in 1982. `{{awards table}}`{=mediawiki} ! `{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 2012 \| \"All for You\" (Don Walker) \| Song of the Year \| `{{shortlisted}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| 2016 \|\| \"Lost\" (Don Walker, Wes Carr) \|\| Song of the Year \|\| `{{shortlisted}}`{=mediawiki} \|\| \|- \| rowspan=\"2\"\| 2021 \|\|rowspan=\"2\"\| \"Getting the Band Back Together\" (Don Walker) \|\| Most Performed Rock Work \|\| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|\| \|- \| Song of the Year \| `{{shortlisted}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
### ARIA Music Awards {#aria_music_awards}
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Cold Chisel was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1993.
\|- \| 1992 \| *Chisel* \| Highest Selling Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 1993 \| Cold Chisel \| ARIA Hall of Fame \| `{{yes2|inductee}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| rowspan=\"2\" \| 1999 \| rowspan=\"2\" \| *The Last Wave of Summer* \| Best Rock Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Highest Selling Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| rowspan=\"3\" \| 2012 \| rowspan=\"2\" \| *No Plans* \| Best Rock Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Best Group \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Light The Nitro Tour \| Best Australian Live Act \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| rowspan=\"3\" \| 2020 \| *Blood Moon* \| Best Rock Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Kevin Shirley for *Blood Moon* by Cold Chisel \| Producer of the Year \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Blood Moon Tour \| Best Australian Live Act \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
### Helpmann Awards {#helpmann_awards}
The Helpmann Awards is an awards show, celebrating live entertainment and performing arts in Australia, presented by industry group *Live Performance Australia* since 2001.
! `{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 2012 \| *Light the Nitro Tour* \| Best Australian Contemporary Concert \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
### South Australian Music Awards {#south_australian_music_awards}
The South Australian Music Awards are annual awards that exist to recognise, promote and celebrate excellence in the South Australian contemporary music industry. They commenced in 2012. The South Australian Music Hall of Fame celebrates the careers of successful music industry personalities. `{{awards table}}`{=mediawiki} ! `{{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 2016 \| Cold Chisel \| Hall of Fame \| `{{yes2|inductee}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
### TV Week / Countdown Awards {#tv_week_countdown_awards}
*Countdown* was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine *TV Week*. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards.
\|- \| rowspan=\"3\" \|1979 \| rowspan=\"2\" \| *Breakfast at Sweethearts* \| Best Australian Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Best Australian Record Cover Design \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Don Walker for \"Choirgirl\" by Cold Chisel \| Best Recorded Songwriter \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| rowspan=\"8\" \|1980 \| rowspan=\"3\" \| *East* \| Best Australian Album \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Best Australian Record Cover Design \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Most Popular Australia Album \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| rowspan=\"2\" \| Cold Chisel \| Most Outstanding Achievement \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Most Popular Group \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Jimmy Barnes (Cold Chisel) \| Most Popular Male Performer \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Don Walker by Cold Chisel \| Best Recorded Songwriter \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| Mark Opitz for *East* by Cold Chisel \| Best Australian Producer \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 1981 \| themselves \| Most Consistent Live Act \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \|1982 \| *Circus Animals* \| Best Australian Album \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| 1984 \| \"Saturday Night\" \| Best Video \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \|- `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,030 |
Code coverage
|
In software engineering, **code coverage**, also called **test coverage**, is a percentage measure of the degree to which the source code of a program is executed when a particular test suite is run. A program with high code coverage has more of its source code executed during testing, which suggests it has a lower chance of containing undetected software bugs compared to a program with low code coverage. Many different metrics can be used to calculate test coverage. Some of the most basic are the percentage of program subroutines and the percentage of program statements called during execution of the test suite.
Code coverage was among the first methods invented for systematic software testing. The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in *Communications of the ACM*, in 1963.
## Coverage criteria {#coverage_criteria}
To measure what percentage of code has been executed by a test suite, one or more *coverage criteria* are used. These are usually defined as rules or requirements, which a test suite must satisfy.
### Basic coverage criteria {#basic_coverage_criteria}
There are a number of coverage criteria, but the main ones are:
- **Function coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each function (or subroutine) in the program been called?
- **Statement coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each statement in the program been executed?
- **Edge coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has every edge in the control-flow graph been executed?
- **Branch coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each branch (also called the DD-path) of each control structure (such as in *if* and *case* statements) been executed? For example, given an *if* statement, have both the *true* and *false* branches been executed? (This is a subset of edge coverage**.**)
- **Condition coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each Boolean sub-expression evaluated both to true and false? (Also called predicate coverage.)
For example, consider the following C function:
``` cpp
int foo (int x, int y)
{
int z = 0;
if ((x > 0) && (y > 0))
{
z = x;
}
return z;
}
```
Assume this function is a part of some bigger program and this program was run with some test suite.
- *Function coverage* will be satisfied if, during this execution, the function `foo` was called at least once.
- *Statement coverage* for this function will be satisfied if it was called for example as `foo(1,1)`, because in this case, every line in the function would be executed---including `z = x;`.
- *Branch coverage* will be satisfied by tests calling `foo(1,1)` and `foo(0,1)` because, in the first case, both `if` conditions are met and `z = x;` is executed, while in the second case, the first condition, `(x>0)`, is not satisfied, which prevents the execution of `z = x;`.
- *Condition coverage* will be satisfied with tests that call `foo(1,0)`, `foo(0,1)`, and `foo(1,1)`. These are necessary because in the first case, `(x>0)` is evaluated to `true`, while in the second, it is evaluated to `false`. At the same time, the first case makes `(y>0)` `false`, the second case does not evaluate `(y>0)` (because of the lazy-evaluation of the Boolean operator), the third case makes it `true`.
In programming languages that do not perform short-circuit evaluation, condition coverage does not necessarily imply branch coverage. For example, consider the following Pascal code fragment:
``` pascal
if a and b then
```
Condition coverage can be satisfied by two tests:
- `a=true`, `b=false`
- `a=false`, `b=true`
However, this set of tests does not satisfy branch coverage since neither case will meet the `if` condition.
Fault injection may be necessary to ensure that all conditions and branches of exception-handling code have adequate coverage during testing.
### Modified condition/decision coverage {#modified_conditiondecision_coverage}
A combination of function coverage and branch coverage is sometimes also called **decision coverage**. This criterion requires that every point of entry and exit in the program has been invoked at least once, and every decision in the program has taken on all possible outcomes at least once. In this context, the decision is a Boolean expression comprising conditions and zero or more Boolean operators. This definition is not the same as branch coverage, however, the term *decision coverage* is sometimes used as a synonym for it.
**Condition/decision coverage** requires that both decision and condition coverage be satisfied. However, for safety-critical applications (such as avionics software) it is often required that **modified condition/decision coverage (MC/DC)** be satisfied. This criterion extends condition/decision criteria with requirements that each condition should affect the decision outcome independently.
For example, consider the following code:
``` pascal
if (a or b) and c then
```
The condition/decision criteria will be satisfied by the following set of tests:
a b c
------- ------- -------
true true true
false false false
However, the above tests set will not satisfy modified condition/decision coverage, since in the first test, the value of \'b\' and in the second test the value of \'c\' would not influence the output. So, the following test set is needed to satisfy MC/DC:
a b c
----------- ----------- -----------
false true **false**
false **true** **true**
**false** **false** true
**true** false **true**
### Multiple condition coverage {#multiple_condition_coverage}
This criterion requires that all combinations of conditions inside each decision are tested. For example, the code fragment from the previous section will require eight tests:
a b c
------- ------- -------
false false false
false false true
false true false
false true true
true false false
true false true
true true false
true true true
### Parameter value coverage {#parameter_value_coverage}
**Parameter value coverage** (PVC) requires that in a method taking parameters, all the common values for such parameters be considered. The idea is that all common possible values for a parameter are tested. For example, common values for a string are: 1) null, 2) empty, 3) whitespace (space, tabs, newline), 4) valid string, 5) invalid string, 6) single-byte string, 7) double-byte string. It may also be appropriate to use very long strings. Failure to test each possible parameter value may result in a bug. Testing only one of these could result in 100% code coverage as each line is covered, but as only one of seven options are tested, there is only 14.2% PVC.
### Other coverage criteria {#other_coverage_criteria}
There are further coverage criteria, which are used less often:
- **Linear Code Sequence and Jump (LCSAJ) coverage** a.k.a. **JJ-Path coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} has every LCSAJ/JJ-path been executed?
- **Path coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible route through a given part of the code been executed?
- **Entry/exit coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible call and return of the function been executed?
- **Loop coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible loop been executed zero times, once, and more than once?
- **State coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has each state in a finite-state machine been reached and explored?
- **Data-flow coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has each variable definition and its usage been reached and explored?
Safety-critical or dependable applications are often required to demonstrate 100% of some form of test coverage. For example, the ECSS-E-ST-40C standard demands 100% statement and decision coverage for two out of four different criticality levels; for the other ones, target coverage values are up to negotiation between supplier and customer. However, setting specific target values - and, in particular, 100% - has been criticized by practitioners for various reasons (cf.) Martin Fowler writes: \"I would be suspicious of anything like 100% - it would smell of someone writing tests to make the coverage numbers happy, but not thinking about what they are doing\".
Some of the coverage criteria above are connected. For instance, path coverage implies decision, statement and entry/exit coverage. Decision coverage implies statement coverage, because every statement is part of a branch.
Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible. Any module with a succession of $n$ decisions in it can have up to $2^n$ paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths. Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed. However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the halting problem). Basis path testing is for instance a method of achieving complete branch coverage without achieving complete path coverage.
Methods for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve \"basis path\" coverage the tester must cover all the path classes.`{{clarify|date=July 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
## In practice {#in_practice}
The target software is built with special options or libraries and run under a controlled environment, to map every executed function to the function points in the source code. This allows testing parts of the target software that are rarely or never accessed under normal conditions, and helps reassure that the most important conditions (function points) have been tested. The resulting output is then analyzed to see what areas of code have not been exercised and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other test coverage methods, the aim is to develop a rigorous, yet manageable, set of regression tests.
In implementing test coverage policies within a software development environment, one must consider the following:
- What are coverage requirements for the end product certification and if so what level of test coverage is required? The typical level of rigor progression is as follows: Statement, Branch/Decision, Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC), LCSAJ (Linear Code Sequence and Jump)
- Will coverage be measured against tests that verify requirements levied on the system under test (DO-178B)?
- Is the object code generated directly traceable to source code statements? Certain certifications, (i.e. DO-178B Level A) require coverage at the assembly level if this is not the case: \"Then, additional verification should be performed on the object code to establish the correctness of such generated code sequences\" (DO-178B) para-6.4.4.2.
Software authors can look at test coverage results to devise additional tests and input or configuration sets to increase the coverage over vital functions. Two common forms of test coverage are statement (or line) coverage and branch (or edge) coverage. Line coverage reports on the execution footprint of testing in terms of which lines of code were executed to complete the test. Edge coverage reports which branches or code decision points were executed to complete the test. They both report a coverage metric, measured as a percentage. The meaning of this depends on what form(s) of coverage have been used, as 67% branch coverage is more comprehensive than 67% statement coverage.
Generally, test coverage tools incur computation and logging in addition to the actual program thereby slowing down the application, so typically this analysis is not done in production. As one might expect, there are classes of software that cannot be feasibly subjected to these coverage tests, though a degree of coverage mapping can be approximated through analysis rather than direct testing.
There are also some sorts of defects which are affected by such tools. In particular, some race conditions or similar real time sensitive operations can be masked when run under test environments; though conversely, some of these defects may become easier to find as a result of the additional overhead of the testing code.
Most professional software developers use C1 and C2 coverage. C1 stands for statement coverage and C2 for branch or condition coverage. With a combination of C1 and C2, it is possible to cover most statements in a code base. Statement coverage would also cover function coverage with entry and exit, loop, path, state flow, control flow and data flow coverage. With these methods, it is possible to achieve nearly 100% code coverage in most software projects.
### Notable code coverage tools {#notable_code_coverage_tools}
#### Hardware manufacturers {#hardware_manufacturers}
- Aldec
- Mentor Graphics
- Silvaco
- Synopsys
#### Software
- LDRA Testbed
- Parasoft
##### C / C++ {#c_c}
- Cantata++
- Gcov
- Insure++
- LDRA Testbed
- Tcov
- Testwell CTC++
- Trucov
- Squish (Froglogic)
##### C# .NET {#c_.net}
- DevPartner Studio
- JetBrains
- NCover
##### Java
- Clover
- DevPartner Java
- EMMA
- Jtest
- LDRA Testbed
##### PHP
- PHPUnit, also need Xdebug to make coverage reports
## Usage in industry {#usage_in_industry}
Test coverage is one consideration in the safety certification of avionics equipment. The guidelines by which avionics gear is certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is documented in DO-178B and DO-178C.
Test coverage is also a requirement in part 6 of the automotive safety standard ISO 26262 *Road Vehicles - Functional Safety*.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,033 |
Caitlin Clarke
|
**Caitlin Clarke** (born **Katherine Anne Clarke**; May 3, 1952 -- September 9, 2004) was an American actress best known for her roles as Valerian in the 1981 fantasy film *Dragonslayer* and Charlotte Cardoza in the 1998--1999 Broadway musical *Titanic*.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Clarke was born in Pittsburgh, the oldest of five sisters, the youngest of whom is Victoria Clarke. Her family moved to Sewickley when she was ten.
Clarke received her B.A. in theater arts from Mount Holyoke College in 1974 and her M.F.A. from the Yale School of Drama in 1978. During her final year at Yale, Clarke performed with the Yale Repertory Theater in such plays as *Tales from the Vienna Woods*.
## Career
Clarke starred in the 1981 fantasy film *Dragonslayer*.
After appearing in three Broadway plays in 1985, Clarke moved to Los Angeles for several years as a film and television actress.
In 1986, she appeared in the film *Crocodile Dundee* as Simone, a friendly prostitute. That same year, Clarke appeared in the television series *The Equalizer* as Jessie Moore, the mother of Laura, played by nine year-old Melissa Joan Hart, who asks McCall for protection from an abusive ex-husband in \"Torn.\"
She returned to theater in the early 1990s, and to Broadway as Charlotte Cardoza in *Titanic*.
From 1997 to 2000, Clarke had a reoccurring role on *Law & Order* as Defense Attorney Linda Walsh.
## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death}
Clarke was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2000. She returned to Pittsburgh to teach theater at the University of Pittsburgh and at the Pittsburgh Musical Theater\'s Rauh Conservatory as well as to perform in Pittsburgh theatre until her death on September 9, 2004.
## Stage
### Broadway
- 1983 -- *Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap*
- 1985 -- *The Marriage of Figaro*
- 1985 -- *Arms and the Man*
- 1985 -- *Strange Interlude*
- 1998 -- *Titanic: A New Musical*
### Off-Broadway {#off_broadway}
- 1979 -- *Othello*
- 1981 -- *No End of Blame*
- 1983 -- *Summer*
- 1984 -- *Total Eclipse*
- 1984 -- *Quartermaine\'s Terms*
- 1984 -- *Thin Ice*
- 1994 -- *Three Birds Alighting On A Field*
- 1994 -- *Unexpected Tenderness*
### Regional
- 1978 -- *Tales from the Vienna Woods* (New Haven)
- 1979 -- *The Winter\'s Tale* (Washington)
- 1980 -- *Bal* (Chicago)
- 1981 -- *Plenty* (Chicago)
- 1982 -- *Summer Vacation Madness* (Minneapolis)
- 1984 -- *As You Like It* (San Diego)
- 1984 -- *Not Quite Jerusalem* (New Haven)
- 1989 -- *Our Country\'s Good* (Los Angeles)
- 1991 -- *The Queen And The Rebels* (Baltimore)
- 1996 -- *Mrs. Warren\'s Profession* (New Haven)
- 1997 -- *Indiscretions* (Dallas)
- 1997 -- *The Glass Menagerie* (Portland, Maine)
- 1999 -- *Griller* (Baltimore)
- 2000 -- *Who\'s Afraid of Virginia Woolf* (Rochester, NY)
- 2002 -- *The Gigli Concert* (Pittsburgh)
- 2002 -- *Aristocrats* (Pittsburgh)
## Filmography
### Film
- 1981 *Dragonslayer* as Valerian
- 1986 *Crocodile Dundee* as Simone
- 1988 *Kenny* (*The Kid Brother*) as Sharon
- 1989 *The Big Picture* as Sharon
- 1989 *Penn & Teller Get Killed* as Carlotta / Officer McNamara
- 1994 *Blown Away* as Officer Rita
- 1997 *Cost of Living* as Annie
- 1997 *A Cure For Serpents* (Short) as Mother
- 1999 *Joe the King* as Pat
- 2001 *Never Again* as Allison (final film role)
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------------ ------------------------- ------------------------------ --------------------------
1986 *The Equalizer* Jessie Moore Episode: \"Torn\"
1987 *Moonlighting* Elaine Johnson 2 episodes
1987 *Once a Hero* Emma Greely / Emma Greeley 3 episodes
1986 *Mayflower Madam* Virginia TV movie
1990 *Matlock* Sandra Townsend Episode: \"The Witness\"
1991 *Love, Lies and Murder* Sandra Eden TV movie
1991 *Northern Exposure* Irene Rondenet Episode: \"Only You\"
1996 *The Stepford Husbands* Lisa TV movie
1997--2000 *Law & Order* Defense Attorney Linda Walsh
2000 *Sex And The City* Uptight Woman 1 episode
: Caitlin Clarke television credits
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,042 |
Joint cracking
|
**Joint cracking** is the manipulation of joints to produce a sound and related \"popping\" sensation. It is sometimes performed by physical therapists, chiropractors, and osteopaths pursuing a variety of outcomes.
The cracking mechanism and the resulting sound is caused by dissolved gas (nitrogen gas) cavitation bubbles suddenly collapsing inside the joints. This happens when the joint cavity is stretched beyond its normal size. The pressure inside the joint cavity drops and the dissolved gas suddenly comes out of solution and takes gaseous form which makes a distinct popping noise. To be able to crack the same knuckle again requires waiting about 20 minutes before the bubbles dissolve back into the synovial fluid and will be able to form again.
It is possible for voluntary joint cracking by an individual to be considered as part of the obsessive--compulsive disorders spectrum.
## Causes
For many decades, the physical mechanism that causes the cracking sound as a result of bending, twisting, or compressing joints was uncertain. Suggested causes included:
- Cavitation within the joint---small cavities of partial vacuum form in the synovial fluid and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound.
- Rapid stretching of ligaments.
- Intra-articular (within-joint) adhesions being broken.
- Formation of bubbles of joint air as the joint is expanded.
There were several hypotheses to explain the cracking of joints. Synovial fluid cavitation has some evidence to support it. When a spinal manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low-pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution, making a bubble, or cavity (tribonucleation), which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a \"clicking\" sound. The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the \"refractory period\", during which the joint cannot be \"re-cracked\", which lasts about 20 minutes, while the gases are slowly reabsorbed into the synovial fluid. There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate.
In 2015, research showed that bubbles remained in the fluid after cracking, suggesting that the cracking sound was produced when the bubble within the joint was formed, not when it collapsed. In 2018, a team in France created a mathematical simulation of what happens in a joint just before it cracks. The team concluded that the sound is caused by bubbles\' collapse, and bubbles observed in the fluid are the result of a partial collapse. Due to the theoretical basis and lack of physical experimentation, the scientific community is still not fully convinced of this conclusion.
The snapping of tendons or scar tissue over a prominence (as in snapping hip syndrome) can also generate a loud snapping or popping sound.
## Relation to arthritis {#relation_to_arthritis}
The common old wives\' tale that cracking one\'s knuckles causes arthritis is without scientific evidence. A study published in 2011 examined the hand radiographs of 215 people (aged 50 to 89). It compared the joints of those who regularly cracked their knuckles to those who did not. The study concluded that knuckle-cracking did not cause hand osteoarthritis, no matter how many years or how often a person cracked their knuckles. This early study has been criticized for not taking into consideration the possibility of confounding factors, such as whether the ability to crack one\'s knuckles is associated with impaired hand functioning rather than being a cause of it.
The medical doctor Donald Unger cracked the knuckles of his left hand every day for more than sixty years, but he did not crack the knuckles of his right hand. No arthritis or other ailments formed in either hand, and for this, he was awarded 2009\'s satirical Ig Nobel Prize in Medicine.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,043 |
Chemical formula
|
-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-H \| data2 = Structural formula for butane }}
A **chemical formula** is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and *plus* (+) and *minus* (−) signs. These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a chemical name since it does not contain any words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulae can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, and are generally more limited in power than chemical names and structural formulae.
The simplest types of chemical formulae are called *empirical formulae*, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical *proportions* of atoms of each type. **Molecular formulae** indicate the simple numbers of each type of atom in a molecule, with no information on structure. For example, the empirical formula for glucose is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki} (twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon and oxygen), while its molecular formula is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} (12 hydrogen atoms, six carbon and oxygen atoms).
Sometimes a chemical formula is complicated by being written as a condensed formula (or condensed molecular formula, occasionally called a \"semi-structural formula\"), which conveys additional information about the particular ways in which the atoms are chemically bonded together, either in covalent bonds, ionic bonds, or various combinations of these types. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension. An example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is `{{chem2|CH3\sCH2\sOH}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|CH3CH2OH}}`{=mediawiki}. However, even a condensed chemical formula is necessarily limited in its ability to show complex bonding relationships between atoms, especially atoms that have bonds to four or more different substituents.
Since a chemical formula must be expressed as a single line of chemical element symbols, it often cannot be as informative as a true structural formula, which is a graphical representation of the spatial relationship between atoms in chemical compounds (see for example the figure for butane structural and chemical formulae, at right). For reasons of structural complexity, a single condensed chemical formula (or semi-structural formula) may correspond to different molecules, known as isomers. For example, glucose shares its molecular formula `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} with a number of other sugars, including fructose, galactose and mannose. Linear equivalent chemical *names* exist that can and do specify uniquely any complex structural formula (see chemical nomenclature), but such names must use many terms (words), rather than the simple element symbols, numbers, and simple typographical symbols that define a chemical formula.
Chemical formulae may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. While, as noted, chemical formulae do not have the full power of structural formulae to show chemical relationships between atoms, they are sufficient to keep track of numbers of atoms and numbers of electrical charges in chemical reactions, thus balancing chemical equations so that these equations can be used in chemical problems involving conservation of atoms, and conservation of electric charge.
## Overview
A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol and indicates the proportionate number of atoms of each element. In empirical formulae, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, by ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these ratio numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the empirical formula of ethanol may be written `{{chem2|C2H6O}}`{=mediawiki} because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulae. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of `{{chem2|CB_{''n''} }}`{=mediawiki} is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5.
When the chemical compound of the formula consists of simple molecules, chemical formulae often employ ways to suggest the structure of the molecule. These types of formulae are variously known as *molecular formulae* and *condensed formulae*. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the molecular formula for glucose is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} rather than the glucose empirical formula, which is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki}. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulae lack needed structural information, and are ambiguous.
For simple molecules, a condensed (or semi-structural) formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the condensed chemical formula `{{chem2|CH3CH2OH}}`{=mediawiki}, and dimethyl ether by the condensed formula `{{chem2|CH3OCH3}}`{=mediawiki}. These two molecules have the same empirical and molecular formulae (`{{chem2|C2H6O}}`{=mediawiki}), but may be differentiated by the condensed formulae shown, which are sufficient to represent the full structure of these simple organic compounds.
Condensed chemical formulae may also be used to represent ionic compounds that do not exist as discrete molecules, but nonetheless do contain covalently bound clusters within them. These polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bound together and have an overall ionic charge, such as the sulfate `{{chem2|[SO4]^{2-} }}`{=mediawiki} ion. Each polyatomic ion in a compound is written individually in order to illustrate the separate groupings. For example, the compound dichlorine hexoxide has an empirical formula `{{chem2|ClO3}}`{=mediawiki}, and molecular formula `{{chem2|Cl2O6}}`{=mediawiki}, but in liquid or solid forms, this compound is more correctly shown by an ionic condensed formula `{{chem2|[ClO2]+[ClO4]-}}`{=mediawiki}, which illustrates that this compound consists of `{{chem2|[ClO2]+}}`{=mediawiki} ions and `{{chem2|[ClO4]-}}`{=mediawiki} ions. In such cases, the condensed formula only need be complex enough to show at least one of each ionic species.
Chemical formulae as described here are distinct from the far more complex chemical systematic names that are used in various systems of chemical nomenclature. For example, one systematic name for glucose is (2*R*,3*S*,4*R*,5*R*)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal. This name, interpreted by the rules behind it, fully specifies glucose\'s structural formula, but the name is not a chemical formula as usually understood, and uses terms and words not used in chemical formulae. Such names, unlike basic formulae, may be able to represent full structural formulae without graphs.
## Types
### Empirical formula {#empirical_formula}
In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in the compound. Empirical formulae are the standard for ionic compounds, such as `{{chem2|CaCl2}}`{=mediawiki}, and for macromolecules, such as `{{chem2|SiO2}}`{=mediawiki}. An empirical formula makes no reference to isomerism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The term *empirical* refers to the process of elemental analysis, a technique of analytical chemistry used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.
For example, hexane has a molecular formula of `{{chem2|C6H14}}`{=mediawiki}, and (for one of its isomers, n-hexane) a structural formula `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki}, implying that it has a chain structure of 6 carbon atoms, and 14 hydrogen atoms. However, the empirical formula for hexane is `{{chem2|C3H7}}`{=mediawiki}. Likewise the empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide, `{{chem2|H2O2}}`{=mediawiki}, is simply `{{chem2|HO}}`{=mediawiki}, expressing the 1:1 ratio of component elements. Formaldehyde and acetic acid have the same empirical formula, `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki}. This is also the molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms.
Like the other formula types detailed below, an empirical formula shows the number of elements in a molecule, and determines whether it is a binary compound, ternary compound, quaternary compound, or has even more elements.
### Molecular formula {#molecular_formula}
-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-H \|align=right\|width=180 \|caption=*n*-Butane structural formula\
Molecular formula: `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}\
Condensed formula: `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki} }}
Molecular formulae simply indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule of a molecular substance. They are the same as empirical formulae for molecules that only have one atom of a particular type, but otherwise may have larger numbers. An example of the difference is the empirical formula for glucose, which is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki} (*ratio* 1:2:1), while its molecular formula is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} (*number of atoms* 6:12:6). For water, both formulae are `{{chem2|H2O}}`{=mediawiki}. A molecular formula provides more information about a molecule than its empirical formula, but is more difficult to establish.
### Structural formula {#structural_formula}
In addition to indicating the number of atoms of each elementa molecule, a structural formula indicates how the atoms are organized, and shows (or implies) the chemical bonds between the atoms. There are multiple types of structural formulas focused on different aspects of the molecular structure.
The two diagrams show two molecules which are structural isomers of each other, since they both have the same molecular formula `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}, but they have different structural formulas as shown.
### Condensed formula {#condensed_formula}
The connectivity of a molecule often has a strong influence on its physical and chemical properties and behavior. Two molecules composed of the same numbers of the same types of atoms (i.e. a pair of isomers) might have completely different chemical and/or physical properties if the atoms are connected differently or in different positions. In such cases, a structural formula is useful, as it illustrates which atoms are bonded to which other ones. From the connectivity, it is often possible to deduce the approximate shape of the molecule.
A condensed (or semi-structural) formula may represent the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in a simple chemical substance, though it does not necessarily specify isomers or complex structures. For example, ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, with each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as `{{chem2|CH3CH3}}`{=mediawiki}. In ethylene there is a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only has two hydrogens), therefore the chemical formula may be written: `{{chem2|CH2CH2}}`{=mediawiki}, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is implicit because carbon has a valence of four. However, a more explicit method is to write `{{chem2|H2C\dCH2}}`{=mediawiki} or less commonly `{{chem2|H2C::CH2}}`{=mediawiki}. The two lines (or two pairs of dots) indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.
A triple bond may be expressed with three lines (`{{chem2|HC\tCH}}`{=mediawiki}) or three pairs of dots (`{{chem2|HC:::CH}}`{=mediawiki}), and if there may be ambiguity, a single line or pair of dots may be used to indicate a single bond.
Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed by enclosing the repeated group in round brackets. For example, isobutane may be written `{{chem2|(CH3)3CH}}`{=mediawiki}. This condensed structural formula implies a different connectivity from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms in the same proportions (isomers). The formula `{{chem2|(CH3)3CH}}`{=mediawiki} implies a central carbon atom connected to one hydrogen atom and three methyl groups (`{{chem2|CH3}}`{=mediawiki}). The same number of atoms of each element (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}) may be used to make a straight chain molecule, *n*-butane: `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Chemical names in answer to limitations of chemical formulae {#chemical_names_in_answer_to_limitations_of_chemical_formulae}
The alkene called but-2-ene has two isomers, which the chemical formula `{{chem2|CH3CH\dCHCH3}}`{=mediawiki} does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (*cis* or *Z*) or on the opposite sides from each other (*trans* or *E*).
As noted above, in order to represent the full structural formulae of many complex organic and inorganic compounds, chemical nomenclature may be needed which goes well beyond the available resources used above in simple condensed formulae. See IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry and IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005 for examples. In addition, linear naming systems such as International Chemical Identifier (InChI) allow a computer to construct a structural formula, and simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES) allows a more human-readable ASCII input. However, all these nomenclature systems go beyond the standards of chemical formulae, and technically are chemical naming systems, not formula systems.
### Polymers in condensed formulae {#polymers_in_condensed_formulae}
For polymers in condensed chemical formulae, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a hydrocarbon molecule that is described as `{{chem2|CH3(CH2)50CH3}}`{=mediawiki}, is a molecule with fifty repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter *n* may be used to indicate this formula: `{{chem2|CH3(CH2)_{''n''}CH3}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Ions in condensed formulae {#ions_in_condensed_formulae}
For ions, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example, `{{chem2|Na+}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{chem2|Cu(2+)}}`{=mediawiki}. The total charge on a charged molecule or a polyatomic ion may also be shown in this way, such as for hydronium, `{{chem2|H3O+}}`{=mediawiki}, or sulfate, `{{chem2|SO4(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}. Here + and − are used in place of +1 and −1, respectively.
For more complex ions, brackets \[ \] are often used to enclose the ionic formula, as in `{{chem2|[B12H12](2-)}}`{=mediawiki}, which is found in compounds such as caesium dodecaborate, `{{chem2|Cs2[B12H12]}}`{=mediawiki}. Parentheses ( ) can be nested inside brackets to indicate a repeating unit, as in Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride, `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6](3+)Cl3-}}`{=mediawiki}. Here, `{{chem2|(NH3)6}}`{=mediawiki} indicates that the ion contains six ammine groups (`{{chem2|NH3}}`{=mediawiki}) bonded to cobalt, and \[ \] encloses the entire formula of the ion with charge +3. `{{Elucidate|date=November 2012}}`{=mediawiki}
This is strictly optional; a chemical formula is valid with or without ionization information, and Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride may be written as `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6](3+)Cl3-}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6]Cl3}}`{=mediawiki}. Brackets, like parentheses, behave in chemistry as they do in mathematics, grouping terms together`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}they are not specifically employed only for ionization states. In the latter case here, the parentheses indicate 6 groups all of the same shape, bonded to another group of size 1 (the cobalt atom), and then the entire bundle, as a group, is bonded to 3 chlorine atoms. In the former case, it is clearer that the bond connecting the chlorines is ionic, rather than covalent.
## Isotopes
Although isotopes are more relevant to nuclear chemistry or stable isotope chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a prefixed superscript in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is `{{chem2|[^{32}PO4]^{3-} }}`{=mediawiki}. Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include the molecule `{{chem2|^{18}O^{16}O}}`{=mediawiki}.
A left-hand subscript is sometimes used redundantly to indicate the atomic number. For example, `{{chem2|_{8}O2}}`{=mediawiki} for dioxygen, and `{{ComplexNuclide|O|16|q=2}}`{=mediawiki} for the most abundant isotopic species of dioxygen. This is convenient when writing equations for nuclear reactions, in order to show the balance of charge more clearly.
## Trapped atoms {#trapped_atoms}
*Main article: Endohedral fullerene* The @ symbol (at sign) indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. For example, a buckminsterfullerene (`{{chem2|C60}}`{=mediawiki}) with an atom (M) would simply be represented as `{{chem2|MC60}}`{=mediawiki} regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted `{{chem2|M@C60}}`{=mediawiki} if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is `{{chem2|[As@Ni12As20](3-)}}`{=mediawiki}, an ion in which one arsenic (As) atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms.
This notation was proposed in 1991 with the discovery of fullerene cages (endohedral fullerenes), which can trap atoms such as La to form, for example, `{{chem2|La@C60}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|La@C82}}`{=mediawiki}. The choice of the symbol has been explained by the authors as being concise, readily printed and transmitted electronically (the at sign is included in ASCII, which most modern character encoding schemes are based on), and the visual aspects suggesting the structure of an endohedral fullerene.
## Non-stoichiometric chemical formulae {#non_stoichiometric_chemical_formulae}
Chemical formulae most often use integers for each element. However, there is a class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in `{{chem2|Fe0.95O}}`{=mediawiki}, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in `{{chem2|Fe_{1–''x''}O}}`{=mediawiki}, where *x* is normally much less than 1.
## General forms for organic compounds {#general_forms_for_organic_compounds}
A chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called a *general formula*. It generates a homologous series of chemical formulae. For example, alcohols may be represented by the formula `{{chem2|C_{''n''}H_{2''n'' + 1}OH}}`{=mediawiki} (*n* ≥ 1), giving the homologs methanol, ethanol, propanol for 1 ≤ *n* ≤ 3.
## Hill system {#hill_system}
The **Hill system** (or Hill notation) is a system of writing empirical chemical formulae, molecular chemical formulae and components of a condensed formula such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order of the chemical symbols. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically.
By sorting formulae according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier elements or numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later element or number---like sorting text strings into lexicographical order---it is possible to collate chemical formulae into what is known as Hill system order.
The Hill system was first published by Edwin A. Hill of the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1900. It is the most commonly used system in chemical databases and printed indexes to sort lists of compounds.
A list of formulae in Hill system order is arranged alphabetically, as above, with single-letter elements coming before two-letter symbols when the symbols begin with the same letter (so \"B\" comes before \"Be\", which comes before \"Br\").
The following example formulae are written using the Hill system, and listed in Hill order:
- BrClH~2~Si
- BrI
- CCl~4~
- CH~3~I
- C~2~H~5~Br
- H~2~O~4~S
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Civil defense
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**Civil defense** or **civil protection** is an effort to protect the citizens of a state (generally non-combatants) from human-made and natural disasters. It uses the principles of emergency management: prevention, mitigation, preparation, response, or emergency evacuation and recovery. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of war and aerial bombardment grew. Civil-defense structures became widespread after authorities recognised the threats posed by nuclear weapons.
Since the end of the Cold War, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from responding to military attack to dealing with emergencies and disasters in general. The new concept is characterised by a number of terms, each of which has its own specific shade of meaning, such as *crisis management*, *emergency management*, *emergency preparedness*, *contingency planning*, *civil contingency*, *civil aid* and *civil protection*.
Some countries treat civil defense as a key part of defense in general. For example, total defence refers to the commitment of a wide range of national resources to defense, including the protection of all aspects of civilian life.
## History
### Origins
#### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
The advent of civil defense was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the First World War. The bombing of the United Kingdom began on 19 January 1915 when German zeppelins dropped bombs on the Great Yarmouth area, killing six people. German bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after the Gotha bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each ton of bombs dropped; this figure was then used as a basis for predictions.
After the war, attention was turned toward civil defense in the event of war, and the Air Raid Precautions Committee (ARP) was established in 1924 to investigate ways for ensuring the protection of civilians from the danger of air-raids.
The Committee produced figures estimating that in London there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. These rates were thought conservative. It was believed that there would be \"total chaos and panic\" and hysterical neurosis as the people of London would try to flee the city. To control the population harsh measures were proposed: bringing London under almost military control, and physically cordoning off the city with 120,000 troops to force people back to work. A different government department proposed setting up camps for refugees for a few days before sending them back to London.
A special government department, the Civil Defence Service, was established by the Home Office in 1935. Its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen (initially the Auxiliary Fire Service (AFS) and latterly the National Fire Service (NFS)), fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD; nearly 2,400 died from enemy action.
The organization of civil defense was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training. Each local civil defense service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for local reconnaissance and reporting, and leadership, organization, guidance and control of the general public. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centers, and other welfare facilities.
Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off gas, electricity and water supplies, and repair or pull down unsteady buildings. Medical services, including First Aid Parties, provided on the spot medical assistance.
The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by \'Report and Control\' teams. A local headquarters would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and decontamination teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding boroughs.
Fire Guards were responsible for a designated area/building and required to monitor the fall of incendiary bombs and pass on news of any fires that had broken out to the NFS. They could deal with an individual magnesium alloy (\"Elektron\") incendiary bomb by dousing it with buckets of sand or water or by smothering. Additionally, \'Gas Decontamination Teams\' kitted out with gas-tight and waterproof protective clothing were to deal with any gas attacks. They were trained to decontaminate buildings, roads, rail and other material that had been contaminated by liquid or jelly gases.
Little progress was made over the issue of air-raid shelters, because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks. In February 1936 the Home Secretary appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. During the Munich crisis, local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After the crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. They also decided to issue the Anderson shelter free to poorer households and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements.
During the Second World War, the ARP was responsible for the issuing of gas masks, pre-fabricated air-raid shelters (such as Anderson shelters, as well as Morrison shelters), the upkeep of local public shelters, and the maintenance of the blackout. The ARP also helped rescue people after air raids and other attacks, and some women became ARP Ambulance Attendants whose job was to help administer first aid to casualties, search for survivors, and in many grim instances, help recover bodies, sometimes those of their own colleagues.
As the war progressed, the military effectiveness of Germany\'s aerial bombardment was very limited. Thanks to the Luftwaffe\'s shifting aims, the strength of British air defenses, the use of early warning radar in combination with the Royal Observer Corps, and the life-saving actions of local civil defense units, the aerial \"Blitz\" during the Battle of Britain failed to break the morale of the British people, destroy the Royal Air Force or significantly hinder British industrial production. Despite a significant investment in civil and military defense, British civilian losses during the Blitz were higher than in most strategic bombing campaigns throughout the war. For example, there were 14,000-20,000 UK civilian fatalities during the Battle of Britain, a relatively high number considering that the Luftwaffe dropped only an estimated 30,000 tons of ordinance during the battle. Granted, this resulting 0.47-0.67 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped was lower than the earlier 121 casualties per ton prediction. However, in comparison, Allied strategic bombing of Germany during the war proved slightly less lethal than what was observed in the UK,`{{dubious|date=April 2024}}`{=mediawiki} with an estimated 400,000-600,000 German civilian fatalities for approximately 1.35 million tons of bombs dropped on Germany, an estimated resulting rate therefore of 0.30-0.44 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped.
#### United States {#united_states}
In the United States, the Office of Civilian Defense was established in May 1941 to coordinate civilian defense efforts. It coordinated with the Department of the Army and established similar groups to the British ARP. One of these groups that still exists today is the Civil Air Patrol, which was originally created as a civilian auxiliary to the Army. The CAP was created on December 1, 1941, with the main civil defense mission of search and rescue. The CAP also sank two Axis submarines and provided aerial reconnaissance for Allied and neutral merchant ships. In 1946, the Civil Air Patrol was barred from combat by Public Law 79-476. The CAP then received its current mission: search and rescue for downed aircraft. When the Air Force was created, in 1947, the Civil Air Patrol became the auxiliary of the Air Force.
The Coast Guard Auxiliary performs a similar role in support of the U.S. Coast Guard. Like the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast Guard Auxiliary was established in the run up to World War II. Auxiliarists were sometimes armed during the war, and extensively participated in port security operations. After the war, the Auxiliary shifted its focus to promoting boating safety and assisting the Coast Guard in performing search and rescue and marine safety and environmental protection.
In the United States a federal civil defense program existed under Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, as amended, from 1951 to 1994. That statutory scheme was made so-called all-hazards by Public Law 103--160 in 1993 and largely repealed by Public Law 103--337 in 1994. Parts now appear in Title VI of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 100-107 \[1988 as amended\]. The term EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS was largely codified by that repeal and amendment. See 42 USC Sections 5101 and following.
### Post--World War II {#postworld_war_ii}
In most of the states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, such as the United States, the United Kingdom and West Germany, as well as the Soviet Bloc, and especially in the neutral countries, such as Switzerland and in Sweden during the 1950s and 1960s, many civil defense practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a nuclear war, which seemed quite likely at that time.
In the **United Kingdom**, the Civil Defence Service was disbanded in 1945, followed by the ARP in 1946. With the onset of the growing tensions between East and West, the service was revived in 1949 as the Civil Defence Corps. As a civilian volunteer organization, it was tasked to take control in the aftermath of a major national emergency, principally envisaged as being a Cold War nuclear attack. Although under the authority of the Home Office, with a centralized administrative establishment, the corps was administered locally by Corps Authorities. In general every county was a Corps Authority, as were most county boroughs in England and Wales and large burghs in Scotland.
Each division was divided into several sections, including the Headquarters, Intelligence and Operations, Scientific and Reconnaissance, Warden & Rescue, Ambulance and First Aid and Welfare.
In 1954 Coventry City Council caused international controversy when it announced plans to disband its Civil Defence committee because the councillors had decided that hydrogen bombs meant that there could be no recovery from a nuclear attack. The British government opposed such a move and held a provocative Civil Defence exercise on the streets of Coventry which Labour council members protested against. The government also decided to implement its own committee at the city\'s cost until the council reinstituted its committee.
In the **United States**, the sheer power of nuclear weapons and the perceived likelihood of such an attack precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, previously considered an important and commonsense step, became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the Cold War. In 1950, the National Security Resources Board created a 162-page document outlining a model civil defense structure for the U.S. Called the \"Blue Book\" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization for the next 40 years.
Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the Cold War civil defense effort was the educational effort made or promoted by the government. In *Duck and Cover*, Bert the Turtle advocated that children \"duck and cover\" when they \"see the flash.\" Booklets such as *Survival Under Atomic Attack*, *Fallout Protection* and *Nuclear War Survival Skills* were also commonplace. The transcribed radio program Stars for Defense combined hit music with civil defense advice. Government institutes created public service announcements including children\'s songs and distributed them to radio stations to educate the public in case of nuclear attack. The US President Kennedy (1961--63) launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. In 1951, CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) was established. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station.
In a once classified US war game analysis, looking at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in the late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education. At the time, however, the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was regarded as less effective in cost-benefit analysis than a ballistic missile defense (Nike Zeus) system, and as the Soviet adversary was increasing their nuclear stockpile, the efficacy of both would follow a diminishing returns trend.
Contrary to the largely noncommittal approach taken in NATO, with its stops and starts in civil defense depending on the whims of each newly elected government, the military strategy in the comparatively more ideologically consistent USSR held that, amongst other things, a winnable nuclear war was possible. To this effect the Soviets planned to minimize, as far as possible, the effects of nuclear weapon strikes on its territory, and therefore spent considerably more thought on civil defense preparations than in U.S., with defense plans that have been assessed to be far more effective than those in the U.S.
Soviet Civil Defense Troops played the main role in the massive disaster relief operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident. Defense Troop reservists were officially mobilized (as in a case of war) from throughout the USSR to join the Chernobyl task force and formed on the basis of the Kyiv Civil Defense Brigade. The task force performed some high-risk tasks including, with the failure of their robotic machinery, the manual removal of highly-radioactive debris. Many of their personnel were later decorated with medals for their work at containing the release of radiation into the environment, with a number`{{quantify|date=August 2015}}`{=mediawiki} of the 56 deaths from the accident being Civil defense troops.
In Western countries, strong civil defense policies were never properly implemented, because it was fundamentally at odds with the doctrine of \"mutual assured destruction\" (MAD) by making provisions for survivors.`{{dubious|date=December 2013}}`{=mediawiki} It was also considered that a full-fledged total defense would have not been worth the very large expense. For whatever reason, the public saw efforts at civil defense as fundamentally ineffective against the powerful destructive forces of nuclear weapons, and therefore a waste of time and money, although detailed scientific research programs did underlie the much-mocked government civil defense pamphlets of the 1950s and 1960s.
The Civil Defence Corps was stood down in Great Britain in 1968 due to the financial crisis of the mid-1960s. Its neighbors, however, remained committed to Civil Defence, namely the Isle of Man Civil Defence Corps and Civil Defence Ireland (Ireland).
In the United States, the various civil defense agencies were replaced with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in 1979. In 2002 this became part of the Department of Homeland Security. The focus was shifted from nuclear war to an \"all-hazards\" approach of comprehensive emergency management. Natural disasters and the emergence of new threats such as terrorism have caused attention to be focused away from traditional civil defense and into new forms of civil protection such as emergency management and homeland security.
### Today
Many countries maintain a national Civil Defence Corps, usually having a wide brief for assisting in large scale civil emergencies such as flood, earthquake, invasion, or civil disorder.
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of homeland security and all-hazards emergency management.
In Europe, the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of the N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In the U.S., 2006 saw the retirement of the old triangle logo, to be replaced with a stylised *EM* (for emergency management). A reference to the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle\'s head in the FEMA seal. The name and logo continue to be used by Hawaii State Civil Defense and Guam Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense.
The term \"civil protection\" is currently widely used within the European Union to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the non-combat population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. For example, the EU\'s humanitarian aid policy director on the Ebola Crisis, Florika Fink-Hooijer, said that civil protection requires \"not just more resources, but first and foremost better governance of the resources that are available including better synergies between humanitarian aid and civil protection\". In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term \"crisis-management\" emphasizes the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the population.
In Australia, civil defense is the responsibility of the volunteer-based State Emergency Service. In most former Soviet countries civil defense is the responsibility of governmental ministries, such as Russia\'s Ministry of Emergency Situations.
## Importance
Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to human capital theory in economics, a country\'s population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. According to psychology, it is important for people to feel as though they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this.
In the United States, the federal civil defense program was authorized by statute and ran from 1951 to 1994. Originally authorized by Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, it was repealed by Public Law 93--337 in 1994. Small portions of that statutory scheme were incorporated into the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Public Law 100--707) which partly superseded in part, partly amended, and partly supplemented the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-288). In the portions of the civil defense statute incorporated into the Stafford Act, the primary modification was to use the term \"Emergency Preparedness\" wherever the term \"Civil Defence\" had previously appeared in the statutory language.
An important concept initiated by President Jimmy Carter was the so-called \"Crisis Relocation Program\" administered as part of the federal civil defense program. That effort largely lapsed under President Ronald Reagan, who discontinued the Carter initiative because of opposition from areas potentially hosting the relocated population.
## Threat assessment {#threat_assessment}
Threats to civilians and civilian life include NBC (Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical warfare) and others, like the more modern term CBRN (Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear). Threat assessment involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.
Conventional: Refers to conventional explosives. A blast shelter designed to protect only from radiation and fallout would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. See also fallout shelter.\
Nuclear: Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear attack is Switzerland. Almost every building in Switzerland has an *abri* (shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fall-out. Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear-raid sirens in every village.\
Dirty bomb: A \"radiologically enhanced weapon\", or \"dirty bomb\", uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard hazmat techniques.\
Biological: The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.\
Chemical: Various chemical agents are a threat, such as nerve gas (VX, Sarin, and so on.).
## Stages
### Mitigation
Mitigation is the process of actively preventing war or the release of nuclear weapons. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, nuclear disarmament and more military responses such as a National Missile Defense and air defense artillery. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy, intelligence gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the interstate highway system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas.
### Preparation
Preparation consists of building blast shelters and pre-positioning information, supplies, and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities for the same purpose located near major railheads such as the ones in Denton, Texas and Mount Weather, Virginia.
Other measures would include continual government inventories of grain silos, the Strategic National Stockpile, the uncapping of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, the dispersal of lorry-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile de-contamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) and DMORT-WMD, and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.
On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles, which are only an internal hazard.
To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the preparedness of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster
- To establish a framework for effective and rapid cooperation between different civil protection services when mutual assistance is needed (police, fire service, healthcare service, public utility provider, voluntary agencies)
- To set up and implement training programs for intervention and coordination teams as well as assessment experts including joint courses and exchange systems
- To enhance the coherence of actions undertaken at international level in the field of civil protection, especially in the context of cooperation
Preparing also includes sharing information:
- To contribute to informing the public, in view of increasing citizens\' level of self-protection
- To collect and disseminate validated emergency information
- To pool information on national civil protection capabilities, military and medical resources
- To ensure efficient information sharing between the different authorities
### Response
Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter fallout shelters and protect assets.
Staffing a response is always full of problems in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized military units, especially civil affairs, Military Police, Judge Advocates and combat engineers.
However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in World War II showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organised teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services.
In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the Los Angeles Fire Department to cope with civil emergencies such as earthquakes. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by community emergency response teams, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers \"certified disaster service workers\" who complete such training.
### Recovery
Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate \"crisis\" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.
Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a \"tourist ferry\" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load.
## Civil defense organizations {#civil_defense_organizations}
Civil Defense is also the name of a number of organizations around the world dedicated to protecting civilians from military attacks, as well as to providing rescue services after natural and human-made disasters alike.
Worldwide protection is managed by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
In a few countries such as Jordan and Singapore (see Singapore Civil Defence Force), civil defense is essentially the same organization `{{clarify|date=February 2013}}`{=mediawiki} as the fire brigade. In most countries, however, civil defense is a government-managed, volunteer-staffed organization, separate from the fire brigade and the ambulance service.
As the threat of Cold War eased, a number of such civil defense organizations have been disbanded or mothballed (as in the case of the Royal Observer Corps in the United Kingdom and the United States civil defense), while others have changed their focuses into providing rescue services after natural disasters (as for the State Emergency Service in Australian states). However, the ideals of Civil Defense `{{clarify|date=February 2013}}`{=mediawiki} have been brought back in the United States under FEMA\'s Citizen Corps and Community Emergency Response Team (CERT).
In the United Kingdom Civil Defence work is carried out by Emergency Responders under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, with assistance from voluntary groups such as RAYNET, Search and Rescue Teams and 4x4 Response. In Ireland, the Civil Defence is still very much an active organization and is occasionally called upon for its Auxiliary Fire Service and ambulance/rescue services when emergencies such as flash flooding occur and require additional manpower. The organization has units of trained firemen and medical responders based in key areas around the country.
### By country {#by_country}
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Chymotrypsin
|
**Chymotrypsin** (`{{EC number|3.4.21.1}}`{=mediawiki}, chymotrypsins A and B, alpha-chymar ophth, avazyme, chymar, chymotest, enzeon, quimar, quimotrase, alpha-chymar, alpha-chymotrypsin A, alpha-chymotrypsin) is a digestive enzyme component of pancreatic juice acting in the duodenum, where it performs proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins and polypeptides. Chymotrypsin preferentially cleaves peptide amide bonds where the side chain of the amino acid N-terminal to the scissile amide bond (the P~1~ position) is a large hydrophobic amino acid (tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine). These amino acids contain an aromatic ring in their side chain that fits into a hydrophobic pocket (the S~1~ position) of the enzyme. It is activated in the presence of trypsin. The hydrophobic and shape complementarity between the peptide substrate P~1~ side chain and the enzyme S~1~ binding cavity accounts for the substrate specificity of this enzyme. Chymotrypsin also hydrolyzes other amide bonds in peptides at slower rates, particularly those containing leucine at the P~1~ position.
Structurally, it is the archetypal structure for its superfamily, the PA clan of proteases.
## Activation
Chymotrypsin is synthesized in the pancreas. Its precursor is chymotrypsinogen. Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen by cleaving peptidic bonds in positions Arg15 -- Ile16 and produces π-chymotrypsin. In turn, aminic group (-NH3^+^) of the Ile16 residue interacts with the side chain of Asp194, producing the \"oxyanion hole\" and the hydrophobic \"S1 pocket\". Moreover, chymotrypsin induces its own activation by cleaving in positions 14--15, 146--147, and 148--149, producing α-chymotrypsin (which is more active and stable than π-chymotrypsin). The resulting molecule is a three-polypeptide molecule interconnected via disulfide bonds.
## Mechanism of action and kinetics {#mechanism_of_action_and_kinetics}
`{{See also|Catalytic triad}}`{=mediawiki} *In vivo*, chymotrypsin is a proteolytic enzyme (serine protease) acting in the digestive systems of many organisms. It facilitates the cleavage of peptide bonds by a hydrolysis reaction, which despite being thermodynamically favorable, occurs extremely slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The main substrates of chymotrypsin are peptide bonds in which the amino acid N-terminal to the bond is a tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, or leucine. Like many proteases, chymotrypsin also hydrolyses amide bonds *in vitro*, a virtue that enabled the use of substrate analogs such as N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine p-nitrophenyl amide for enzyme assays.
Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds by attacking the unreactive carbonyl group with a powerful nucleophile, the serine 195 residue located in the active site of the enzyme, which briefly becomes covalently bonded to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate intermediate. Along with histidine 57 and aspartic acid 102, this serine residue constitutes the catalytic triad of the active site. These findings rely on inhibition assays and the study of the kinetics of cleavage of the aforementioned substrate, exploiting the fact that the enzyme-substrate intermediate *p*-nitrophenolate has a yellow colour, enabling measurement of its concentration by measuring light absorbance at 410 nm.
Chymotrypsin catalysis of the hydrolysis of a protein substrate (in red) is performed in two steps. First, the nucleophilicity of Ser-195 is enhanced by general-base catalysis in which the proton of the serine hydroxyl group is transferred to the imidazole moiety of His-57 during its attack on the electron-deficient carbonyl carbon of the protein-substrate main chain (k1 step). This occurs via the concerted action of the three-amino-acid residues in the catalytic triad. The buildup of negative charge on the resultant tetrahedral intermediate is stabilized in the enzyme\'s active site\'s oxyanion hole, by formation of two hydrogen bonds to adjacent main-chain amide-hydrogens.
The His-57 imidazolium moiety formed in the k1 step is a general acid catalyst for the k-1 reaction. However, evidence for similar general-acid catalysis of the k2 reaction (Tet2) has been controverted; apparently water provides a proton to the amine leaving group.
Breakdown of Tet1 (via k3) generates an acyl enzyme, which is hydrolyzed with His-57 acting as a general base (kH2O) in formation of a tetrahedral intermediate, that breaks down to regenerate the serine hydroxyl moiety, as well as the protein fragment with the newly formed carboxyl terminus.
## Uses
### Medical uses {#medical_uses}
Chymotrypsin has been used during cataract surgery. It was marketed under the brand name Zolyse.
## Isozymes
------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- ---------------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- ------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------- ------------------ --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- --------------------- -------- ----------------------- ------------------ ------- --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- -------------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------- -------------- -------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------- --------------------- ---------------- --------- -------------- -----------------------------
{{infobox protein Name = Chymotrypsinogen B1 caption = image = width = 150 px HGNCid = 2521 Symbol = CTRB1 AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 1504 OMIM = 118890 RefSeq = NM_001906 UniProt = P17538 PDB = MEROPS = S01.152 ECnumber = 3.4.21.1 Chromosome = 16 Arm = q Band = 23.1 LocusSupplementaryData = }} {{infobox protein Name = Chymotrypsinogen B2 caption = image = width = HGNCid = 2522 Symbol = CTRB2 AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 440387 OMIM = RefSeq = NM_001025200 UniProt = Q6GPI1 PDB = ECnumber = 3.4.21.1 Chromosome = 16 Arm = q Band = 22.3 LocusSupplementaryData = }} {{infobox protein Chymotrypsin C (caldecrin)\]\] caption = image = width = HGNCid = 2523 CTRC\]\] AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 11330 OMIM = 601405 RefSeq = NM_007272 UniProt = Q99895 MEROPS = S01.157 PDB = ECnumber = 3.4.21.2 Chromosome = 1 Arm = p Band = 36.21 LocusSupplementaryData = }}
------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- ---------------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- ------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------- ------------------ --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- --------------------- -------- ----------------------- ------------------ ------- --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- -------------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------- -------------- -------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------- --------------------- ---------------- --------- -------------- -----------------------------
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Catapult
|
A **catapult** is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile at a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants -- particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden release of stored potential energy to propel its payload. Most convert tension or torsion energy that was more slowly and manually built up within the device before release, via springs, bows, twisted rope, elastic, or any of numerous other materials and mechanisms which allow the catapult to launch a projectile such as rocks, cannon balls, or debris.
During wars in the ancient times, the catapult was usually known to be the strongest heavy weaponry. In modern times the term can apply to devices ranging from a simple hand-held implement (also called a \"slingshot\") to a mechanism for launching aircraft from a ship.
The earliest catapults date to at least the 7th century BC, with King Uzziah of Judah recorded as equipping the walls of Jerusalem with machines that shot \"great stones\". Catapults are mentioned in Yajurveda under the name \"Jyah\" in chapter 30, verse 7.`{{failed verification |Reference to "Jyah" or catapults not found at this location or elsewhere in this text|date=June 2024}}`{=mediawiki} In the 5th century BC the mangonel appeared in ancient China, a type of traction trebuchet and catapult. Early uses were also attributed to Ajatashatru of Magadha in his 5th century BC war against the Licchavis. Greek catapults were invented in the early 4th century BC, being attested by Diodorus Siculus as part of the equipment of a Greek army in 399 BC, and subsequently used at the siege of Motya in 397 BC.
## Etymology
The word \'catapult\' comes from the Latin \'catapulta\', which in turn comes from the Greek *καταπέλτης* (*katapeltēs*), itself from κατά (*kata*), \"downwards\" and πάλλω (*pallō*), \"to toss, to hurl\". Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks and in ancient India where they were used by the Magadhan King Ajatashatru around the early to mid 5th century BC.
## Greek and Roman catapults {#greek_and_roman_catapults}
The catapult and crossbow in Greece are closely intertwined. Primitive catapults were essentially \"the product of relatively straightforward attempts to increase the range and penetrating power of missiles by strengthening the bow which propelled them\". The historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), described the invention of a mechanical arrow-firing catapult (*katapeltikon*) by a Greek task force in 399 BC. The weapon was soon after employed against Motya (397 BC), a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily. Diodorus is assumed to have drawn his description from the highly rated history of Philistus, a contemporary of the events then. The introduction of crossbows however, can be dated further back: according to the inventor Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), who referred to the now lost works of the 3rd-century BC engineer Ctesibius, this weapon was inspired by an earlier foot-held crossbow, called the *gastraphetes*, which could store more energy than the Greek bows. A detailed description of the *gastraphetes*, or the \"belly-bow\",`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki} along with a watercolor drawing, is found in Heron\'s technical treatise *Belopoeica*.
A third Greek author, Biton (fl. 2nd century BC), whose reliability has been positively reevaluated by recent scholarship, described two advanced forms of the *gastraphetes*, which he credits to Zopyros, an engineer from southern Italy. Zopyrus has been plausibly equated with a Pythagorean of that name who seems to have flourished in the late 5th century BC. He probably designed his bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Milet between 421 BC and 401 BC. The bows of these machines already featured a winched pull back system and could apparently throw two missiles at once.
Philo of Byzantium provides probably the most detailed account on the establishment of a theory of belopoietics (*belos* = \"projectile\"; *poietike* = \"(art) of making\") circa 200 BC. The central principle to this theory was that \"all parts of a catapult, including the weight or length of the projectile, were proportional to the size of the torsion springs\". This kind of innovation is indicative of the increasing rate at which geometry and physics were being assimilated into military enterprises.`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
From the mid-4th century BC onwards, evidence of the Greek use of arrow-shooting machines becomes more dense and varied: arrow firing machines (*katapaltai*) are briefly mentioned by Aeneas Tacticus in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC. An extant inscription from the Athenian arsenal, dated between 338 and 326 BC, lists a number of stored catapults with shooting bolts of varying size and springs of sinews. The later entry is particularly noteworthy as it constitutes the first clear evidence for the switch to torsion catapults, which are more powerful than the more-flexible crossbows and which came to dominate Greek and Roman artillery design thereafter. This move to torsion springs was likely spurred by the engineers of Philip II of Macedonia.`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki} Another Athenian inventory from 330 to 329 BC includes catapult bolts with heads and flights. As the use of catapults became more commonplace, so did the training required to operate them. Many Greek children were instructed in catapult usage, as evidenced by \"a 3rd Century B.C. inscription from the island of Ceos in the Cyclades \[regulating\] catapult shooting competitions for the young\". Arrow firing machines in action are reported from Philip II\'s siege of Perinth (Thrace) in 340 BC. At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers with shuttered windows in the top, which could have been used to house anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in Aigosthena. Projectiles included both arrows and (later) stones that were sometimes lit on fire.`{{clarify|stones lit on fire?|date=October 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Onomarchus of Phocis first used catapults on the battlefield against Philip II of Macedon. Philip\'s son, Alexander the Great, was the next commander in recorded history to make such use of catapults on the battlefield as well as to use them during sieges.
The Romans started to use catapults as arms for their wars against Syracuse, Macedon, Sparta and Aetolia (3rd and 2nd centuries BC). The Roman machine known as an arcuballista was similar to a large crossbow. Later the Romans used ballista catapults on their warships.
## Other ancient catapults {#other_ancient_catapults}
In chronological order:
- 19th century BC, Egypt, walls of the fortress of Buhen appear to contain platforms for siege weapons.
- c.750 BC, Judah, King Uzziah is documented as having overseen the construction of machines to \"shoot great stones\".
- between 484 and 468 BC, India, Ajatashatru is recorded in Jaina texts as having used catapults in his campaign against the Licchavis.
- between 500 and 300 BC, China, recorded use of mangonels. They were probably used by the Mohists as early as the 4th century BC, descriptions of which can be found in the *Mojing* (compiled in the 4th century BC). In Chapter 14 of the *Mojing*, the mangonel is described hurling hollowed out logs filled with burning charcoal at enemy troops. The mangonel was carried westward by the Avars and appeared next in the eastern Mediterranean by the late 6th century AD, where it replaced torsion powered siege engines such as the ballista and onager due to its simpler design and faster rate of fire. The Byzantines adopted the mangonel possibly as early as 587, the Persians in the early 7th century, and the Arabs in the second half of the 7th century. The Franks and Saxons adopted the weapon in the 8th century.
## Medieval catapults {#medieval_catapults}
Castles and fortified walled cities were common during this period and catapults were used as siege weapons against them. As well as their use in attempts to breach walls, incendiary missiles, or diseased carcasses or garbage could be catapulted over the walls.
Defensive techniques in the Middle Ages progressed to a point that rendered catapults largely ineffective. The Viking siege of Paris (AD 885--6) \"saw the employment by both sides of virtually every instrument of siege craft known to the classical world, including a variety of catapults\", to little effect, resulting in failure.
The most widely used catapults throughout the Middle Ages were as follows:
Ballista: Ballistae were similar to giant crossbows and were designed to work through torsion. The projectiles were large arrows or darts made from wood with an iron tip. These arrows were then shot \"along a flat trajectory\" at a target. Ballistae were accurate, but lacked firepower compared with that of a mangonel or trebuchet. Because of their immobility, most ballistae were constructed on site following a siege assessment by the commanding military officer.
:
Springald: The springald\'s design resembles that of the ballista, being a crossbow powered by tension. The springald\'s frame was more compact, allowing for use inside tighter confines, such as the inside of a castle or tower, but compromising its power.
:
Mangonel: This machine was designed to throw heavy projectiles from a \"bowl-shaped bucket at the end of its arm\". Mangonels were mostly used for "firing various missiles at fortresses, castles, and cities," with a range of up to 1,300 ft. These missiles included anything from stones to excrement to rotting carcasses. Mangonels were relatively simple to construct, and eventually wheels were added to increase mobility.
:
Onager: Mangonels are also sometimes referred to as Onagers. Onager catapults initially launched projectiles from a sling, which was later changed to a \"bowl-shaped bucket\". The word *Onager* is derived from the Greek word *onagros* for \"wild ass\", referring to the \"kicking motion and force\" that were recreated in the Mangonel\'s design. Historical records regarding onagers are scarce. The most detailed account of Mangonel use is from \"Eric Marsden\'s translation of a text written by Ammianus Marcellius in the 4th Century AD\" describing its construction and combat usage.
:
Trebuchet: Trebuchets were probably the most powerful catapult employed in the Middle Ages. The most commonly used ammunition were stones, but \"darts and sharp wooden poles\" could be substituted if necessary. The most effective kind of ammunition though involved fire, such as \"firebrands, and deadly Greek Fire\". Trebuchets came in two different designs: Traction, which were powered by people, or Counterpoise, where the people were replaced with \"a weight on the short end\". The most famous historical account of trebuchet use dates back to the siege of Stirling Castle in 1304, when the army of Edward I constructed a giant trebuchet known as Warwolf, which then proceeded to \"level a section of \[castle\] wall, successfully concluding the siege\".
:
Couillard: A simplified trebuchet, where the trebuchet\'s single counterweight is split, swinging on either side of a central support post.
:
Leonardo da Vinci\'s catapult: Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve the efficiency and range of earlier designs. His design incorporated a large wooden leaf spring as an accumulator to power the catapult. Both ends of the bow are connected by a rope, similar to the design of a bow and arrow. The leaf spring was not used to pull the catapult armature directly, rather the rope was wound around a drum. The catapult armature was attached to this drum which would be turned until enough potential energy was stored in the deformation of the spring. The drum would then be disengaged from the winding mechanism, and the catapult arm would snap around. Though no records exist of this design being built during Leonardo\'s lifetime, contemporary enthusiasts have reconstructed it.
## Modern use {#modern_use}
### Military
The last large scale military use of catapults was during the trench warfare of World War I. During the early stages of the war, catapults were used to throw hand grenades across no man\'s land into enemy trenches. They were eventually replaced by small mortars.
The SPBG (Silent Projector of Bottles and Grenades) was a Soviet proposal for an anti-tank weapon that launched grenades from a spring-loaded shuttle up to 100 m.
Special variants called aircraft catapults are used to launch planes from land bases and sea carriers when the takeoff runway is too short for a powered takeoff or simply impractical to extend. Ships also use them to launch torpedoes and deploy bombs against submarines.`{{dubious|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
In 2024, during the Gaza war, a trebuchet created by private initiative of an IDF reserve unit was used to throw firebrands over the border into Lebanon, in order to set on fire the undergrowth which offered camouflage to Hezbollah fighters.
### Toys, sports, entertainment {#toys_sports_entertainment}
In the 1840s, the invention of vulcanized rubber allowed the making of small hand-held catapults, either improvised from Y-shaped sticks or manufactured for sale; both were popular with children and teenagers. These devices were also known as slingshots in the United States.
Small catapults, referred to as \"traps\", are still widely used to launch clay targets into the air in the sport of clay pigeon shooting.
In the 1990s and early 2000s, a powerful catapult, a trebuchet, was used by thrill-seekers first on private property and in 2001--2002 at Middlemoor Water Park, Somerset, England, to experience being catapulted through the air for 100 ft. The practice has been discontinued due to a fatality at the Water Park. There had been an injury when the trebuchet was in use on private property. Injury and death occurred when those two participants failed to land onto the safety net. The operators of the trebuchet were tried, but found not guilty of manslaughter, though the jury noted that the fatality might have been avoided had the operators \"imposed stricter safety measures.\" Human cannonball circus acts use a catapult launch mechanism, rather than gunpowder, and are risky ventures for the human cannonballs.
Early launched roller coasters used a catapult system powered by a diesel engine or a dropped weight to acquire their momentum, such as Shuttle Loop installations between 1977 and 1978. The catapult system for roller coasters has been replaced by flywheels and later linear motors.
*Pumpkin chunking* is another widely popularized use, in which people compete to see who can launch a pumpkin the farthest by mechanical means (although the world record is held by a pneumatic air cannon).
### Smuggling
In January 2011, a homemade catapult was discovered that was used to smuggle cannabis into the United States from Mexico. The machine was found 20 ft from the border fence with 4.4 lb bales of cannabis ready to launch.
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History of the Cook Islands
|
The **Cook Islands** are named after Captain James Cook, who visited the islands in 1773 and 1777, although Spanish navigator Alvaro de Mendaña was the first European to reach the islands in 1595. The Cook Islands became aligned to the United Kingdom in 1890, largely because of the fear of British residents that France might occupy the islands as it already had Tahiti.
By 1900, the islands were annexed as British territory. In 1901, the islands were included within the boundaries of the Colony of New Zealand.
The Cook Islands contain 15 islands in the group spread over a vast area in the South Pacific. The majority of islands are low coral atolls in the Northern Group, with Rarotonga, a volcanic island in the Southern Group, as the main administration and government centre. The main Cook Islands language is Rarotongan Māori. There are some variations in dialect in the \'outer\' islands.
## Early settlers of the Cooks {#early_settlers_of_the_cooks}
It is thought that the Cook Islands may have been settled between the years 900-1200 CE. Early settlements suggest that the settlers migrated from Tahiti, to the northeast of the Cooks. The Cook Islands continue to hold important connections with Tahiti, and this is generally found in the two countries\' culture, tradition and language. It is also thought that the early settlers were true Tahitians, who landed in Rarotonga (Takitumu district). There are notable historic epics of great warriors who travel between the two nations for a wide variety of reasons. The purpose of these missions is still unclear but recent research indicates that large to small groups often fled their island due to local wars being forced upon them. For each group to travel and to survive, they would normally rely on a warrior to lead them. Outstanding warriors are still mentioned in the countries\' traditions and stories.
These arrivals are evidenced by an older road in Toi, the *Ara Metua*, which runs around most of Rarotonga, and is believed to be at least 1200 years old. This 29 km long, paved road is a considerable achievement of ancient engineering, possibly unsurpassed elsewhere in Polynesia. The islands of Manihiki and Rakahanga trace their origins to the arrival of Toa Nui, a warrior from the Puaikura tribe of Rarotonga, and Tepaeru, a high-ranking woman from the Takitumu or Te-Au-O-Tonga tribes of Rarotonga. Tongareva was settled by an ancestor from Rakahanga called Mahuta and an Aitutaki Ariki & Chief Taruia, and possibly a group from Tahiti. The remainder of the northern islands, Pukapuka (Te Ulu O Te Watu) was probably settled by expeditions from Samoa.
## Early European contact {#early_european_contact}
Spanish ships visited the islands in the 16th century; the first written record of contact between Europeans and the native inhabitants of the Cook Islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka by Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña in 1595, who called it *San Bernardo* (Saint Bernard). Portuguese-Spaniard Pedro Fernández de Quirós made the first recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on Rakahanga in 1606, calling it *Gente Hermosa* (Beautiful People).
British navigator Captain James Cook arrived in 1773 and 1777. Cook named the islands the \'Hervey Islands\' to honour a British Lord of the Admiralty. Half a century later, the Russian Baltic German Admiral Adam Johann von Krusenstern published the *Atlas de l\'Ocean Pacifique*, in which he renamed the islands the Cook Islands to honour Cook. Captain Cook navigated and mapped much of the group. Surprisingly, Cook never sighted the largest island, Rarotonga, and the only island that he personally set foot on was the tiny, uninhabited Palmerston Atoll.
The first recorded landing by Europeans on Rarotonga was in 1814 by the *Cumberland*; trouble broke out between the sailors and the Islanders and many were killed on both sides.
The islands saw no more Europeans until missionaries arrived from England in 1821. Christianity quickly took hold in the culture and remains the predominant religion today.
In 1823, Captain John Dibbs of the colonial barque *Endeavour* made the first official sighting of the island Rarotonga. The *Endeavour* was transporting Rev. John Williams on a missionary voyage to the islands.
Brutal Peruvian slave traders, known as blackbirders, took a terrible toll on the islands of the Northern Group in 1862 and 1863. At first, the traders may have genuinely operated as labour recruiters, but they quickly turned to subterfuge and outright kidnapping to round up their human cargo. The Cook Islands was not the only island group visited by the traders, but Penrhyn Atoll was their first port of call and it has been estimated that three-quarters of the population was taken to Callao, Peru. Rakahanga and Pukapuka also suffered tremendous losses.
## British protectorate {#british_protectorate}
The Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888, due largely to community fears that France might occupy the territory as it had Tahiti. On 6 September 1900, the leading islanders presented a petition asking that the islands (including Niue \"if possible\") should be annexed as British territory. On 8--9 October 1900, seven instruments of cession of Rarotonga and other islands were signed by their chiefs and people, and a British proclamation issued at the same time accepted the cessions, the islands being declared parts of Her Britannic Majesty\'s dominions. These instruments did not include Aitutaki. It appears that, though the inhabitants regarded themselves as British subjects, the Crown\'s title was uncertain, and the island was formally annexed by Proclamation dated 9 October 1900. The islands were included within the boundaries of the Colony of New Zealand in 1901 by Order in Council under the Colonial Boundaries Act, 1895 of the United Kingdom. The boundary change became effective on 11 June 1901, and the Cook Islands have had a formal relationship with New Zealand since that time.
## Recent history {#recent_history}
In 1962 New Zealand asked the Cook Islands legislature to vote on four options for the future: independence, self-government, integration into New Zealand, or integration into a larger Polynesian federation. The legislature decided upon self-government. Following elections in 1965, the Cook Islands transitioned to become a self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand. This arrangement left the Cook Islands politically independent, but officially remaining under New Zealand sovereignty. This political transition was approved by the United Nations. Despite this status change, the islands remained financially dependent on New Zealand, and New Zealand believed that a failure of the free association agreement would lead to integration rather than full independence.
New Zealand is tasked with overseeing the country\'s foreign relations and defense. The Cook Islands, Niue, and New Zealand (with its territories: Tokelau and the Ross Dependency) make up the Realm of New Zealand.
After achieving autonomy in 1965, the Cook Islands elected Albert Henry of the Cook Islands Party as their first Prime Minister. He led the country until 1978 when he was accused of vote-rigging. He was succeeded by Tom Davis of the Democratic Party.
On 11 June 1980, the United States signed a treaty with the Cook Islands specifying the maritime border between the Cook Islands and American Samoa and also relinquishing the US claim to the islands of Penrhyn, Pukapuka, Manihiki, and Rakahanga. In 1990, the Cook Islands signed a treaty with France which delimited the maritime boundary between the Cook Islands and French Polynesia.
On June 13, 2008, a small majority of members of the House of Ariki attempted a coup, claiming to dissolve the elected government and to take control of the country\'s leadership. \"Basically we are dissolving the leadership, the prime minister and the deputy prime minister and the ministers,\" chief Makea Vakatini Joseph Ariki explained. The *Cook Islands Herald* suggested that the *ariki* were attempting thereby to regain some of their traditional prestige or *mana*. Prime Minister Jim Marurai described the take-over move as \"ill-founded and nonsensical\". By June 23, the situation appeared to have normalised, with members of the House of Ariki accepting to return to their regular duties.
## Gallery
<File:Rarotonga> Island Council 1923-1925.jpg\|`{{center|Rarotonga Island Council (1923–1925)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Flag> of Rarotonga 1888-1893.svg\|`{{center|The Kingdom of Rarotonga flag (1888–1893)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Rarotongan> monarchs with Seddon 1900.jpg\|`{{center|Ngamaru Rongotini Ariki, Mrs Seddon, [[Makea Takau Ariki]], [[Richard Seddon|Mr Seddon]] (1900)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Makeapalace.jpg>\|`{{center|Queen Makea's Palace & Makea's Summer Cottage (1908)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Arikiraro.jpg>\|`{{center|[[Pa Maretu Ariki]], [[Makea Takau Ariki]], [[Charles H. Mills]], [[Tinomana Mereana Ariki]] (1903)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Ngamaru.jpg>\|`{{center|Prince Ngamaru the Ariki of Atiu (1885)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Makea> Karika Tavaki with Ngati Karaka elders.jpg\|`{{center|Makea Karika Tavake Ariki and elders of the Karika tribe, Rarotonga (1888–1910)}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Makeapori.jpg>\|`{{center|[[Makea Pori Ariki]], Chief of Te-au-o-{{sic|hide=y|tonga}}, Rarotonga (1837)}}`{=mediawiki}
## Timeline
**900** - first People arrive to the islands
**1595** --- Spaniard Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira is the first European to sight the islands.
**1606** --- Portuguese-Spaniard Pedro Fernández de Quirós makes the first recorded European landing in the islands when he sets foot on Rakahanga.
**1773** --- Captain James Cook explores the islands and names them the Hervey Islands. Fifty years later they are renamed in his honour by Russian Admiral Adam Johann von Krusenstern.
**1821** --- English and Tahitian missionaries land in Aitutaki, become the first non-Polynesian settlers.
**1823** --- English missionary John Williams lands in Rarotonga, converting Makea Pori Ariki to Christianity.
**1858** --- The Cook Islands become united as a state, the Kingdom of Rarotonga.
**1862** --- Peruvian slave traders take a terrible toll on the islands of Penrhyn, Rakahanga and Pukapuka in 1862 and 1863.
**1888** --- Cook Islands are proclaimed a British protectorate and a single federal parliament is established.
**1900** --- The Cook Islands are ceded to the United Kingdom as British territory, except for Aitutaki which was annexed by the United Kingdom at the same time.
**1901** --- The boundaries of the Colony of New Zealand are extended by the United Kingdom to include the Cook Islands.
**1924** --- The All Black *Invincibles* stop in Rarotonga on their way to the United Kingdom and play a friendly match against a scratch Rarotongan team.
**1946** --- Legislative Council is established. For the first time since 1912, the territory has direct representation.
**1957** --- Legislative Council is reorganized as the Legislative Assembly.
**1965** --- The Cook Islands become a self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand. Albert Henry, leader of the Cook Islands Party, is elected as the territory\'s first prime minister.
**1974** --- Albert Henry is knighted by Queen Elizabeth II
**1979** --- Sir Albert Henry is found guilty of electoral fraud and stripped of his premiership and his knighthood. Tom Davis becomes Premier.
**1980** --- Cook Islands -- United States Maritime Boundary Treaty establishes the Cook Islands -- American Samoa boundary
**1981** --- Constitution is amended. Legislative Assembly is renamed Parliament, which grows from 22 to 24 seats, and the parliamentary term is extended from four to five years. Tom Davis is knighted.
**1984** --- The country\'s first coalition government, between Sir Thomas and Geoffrey Henry, is signed in the lead up to hosting regional Mini Games in 1985. Shifting coalitions saw ten years of political instability. At one stage, all but two MPs were in government.
**1985** --- Rarotonga Treaty is opened for signing in the Cook Islands, creating a nuclear-free zone in the South Pacific.
**1986** --- In January 1986, following the rift between New Zealand and the US in respect of the ANZUS security arrangements Prime Minister Tom Davis declared the Cook Islands a neutral country, because he considered that New Zealand (which has control over the islands\' defence and foreign policy) was no longer in a position to defend the islands. The proclamation of neutrality meant that the Cook Islands would not enter into a military relationship with any foreign power, and, in particular, would prohibit visits by US warships. Visits by US naval vessels were allowed to resume by Henry\'s Government.
**1990** --- Cook Islands -- France Maritime Delimitation Agreement establishes the Cook Islands--French Polynesia boundary
**1991** --- The Cook Islands signed a treaty of friendship and co-operation with France, covering economic development, trade and surveillance of the islands\' EEZ. The establishment of closer relations with France was widely regarded as an expression of the Cook Islands\' Government\'s dissatisfaction with existing arrangements with New Zealand which was no longer in a position to defend the Cook Islands.
**1995** --- The French Government resumed its programme of nuclear-weapons testing at Mururoa Atoll in September 1995 upsetting the Cook Islands. New Prime Minister Geoffrey Henry was fiercely critical of the decision and dispatched a *vaka* (traditional voyaging canoe) with a crew of Cook Islands\' traditional warriors to protest near the test site. The tests were concluded in January 1996 and a moratorium was placed on future testing by the French government.
**1997** --- Full diplomatic relations established with the People\'s Republic of China.
**1997** --- In November, Cyclone Martin in Manihiki kills at least six people; 80% of buildings are damaged and the black pearl industry suffered severe losses.
**1999** --- A second era of political instability begins, starting with five different coalitions in less than nine months, and at least as many since then.
**2000** --- Full diplomatic relations concluded with France.
**2002** --- Prime Minister Terepai Maoate is ousted from government following second vote of no-confidence in his leadership.
**2004** --- Prime Minister Robert Woonton visits China; Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao grants \$16 million in development aid.
**2006** --- Parliamentary elections held. The Democratic Party keeps majority of seats in parliament, but is unable to command a majority for confidence, forcing a coalition with breakaway MPs who left, then rejoined the \"Demos\".
**2008** --- Pacific Island nations imposed a series of measures aimed at halting overfishing.
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7,069 |
Geography of the Cook Islands
|
The Cook Islands can be divided into two groups: the Southern Cook Islands and the Northern Cook Islands. The country is located in Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand.
From December through to March, the Cook Islands are in the path of tropical cyclones, the most notable of which were cyclones Martin (1997) and Percy (2005). Two terrestrial ecoregions lie within the islands\' territory: the Central Polynesian tropical moist forests and the Cook Islands tropical moist forests.
## Islands and reefs {#islands_and_reefs}
### Southern Cook Islands {#southern_cook_islands}
- Aitutaki
- Atiu
- Mangaia
- Manuae
- Mauke
- Mitiaro
- Palmerston Island
- Rarotonga (capital)
- Takutea
### Northern Cook Islands {#northern_cook_islands}
- Manihiki
- Nassau
- Penrhyn atoll
- Pukapuka
- Rakahanga
- Suwarrow
### Table
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Island\ | Island | Area\ | Population | Density |
| Group | | (km^2^) | | |
+==========+==========================+=========+============+=========+
| Northern | Penrhyn | 10 | 226 | 22.6 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Rakahanga | 4 | 80 | 20.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Manihiki | 5 | 213 | 42.6 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Pukapuka | 1 | 444 | 444.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Tema Reef (submerged) | 0 | 0 | -- |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Nassau | 1 | 78 | 78.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Northern | Suwarrow | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Palmerston | 2 | 58 | 28.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Aitutaki | 18 | 1,928 | 107.1 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Manuae | 6 | 0 | 0.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Takutea | 1 | 0 | 0.0 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Mitiaro | 22 | 155 | 7.1 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Atiu | 27 | 437 | 16.2 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Mauke | 18 | 297 | 16.5 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Winslow Reef (submerged) | 0 | 0 | -- |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Rarotonga | 67 | 13,044 | 194.7 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Southern | Mangaia | 52 | 499 | 9.6 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
| Total | Total | 237 | 17,459 | 73.7 |
+----------+--------------------------+---------+------------+---------+
Note: The table is ordered from north to south. Population figures from the 2016 census.
## Statistics
Area:
:\* Total: 236 km2
:\* Land: 236 km^2^
:\* Water: 0 km^2^
Area - comparative:
: 1.3 times the size of Washington, DC
Coastline:
:
Maritime claims:
:\* Territorial sea: 12 nmi
:\* Continental shelf: 200 nmi or to the edge of the continental margin
:\* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi
Climate:
: Tropical; moderated by trade winds; a dry season from April to November and a more humid season from December to March
Terrain:
: Low coral atolls in north; volcanic, hilly islands in south
Elevation extremes:
:\* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
:\* Highest point: Te Manga 652 m
Natural resources:
: coconuts
: fresh water
Land use:
:\* Arable land: 4.17%
:\* Permanent crops: 4.17%
:\* Other: 91.67% (2012 est.)
:
Natural hazards:
: Typhoons (November to March)
: Tsunamis (Year-round)
Time Zone:
: UTC -10 (GMT -10)
Largest Island:
: Rarotonga
Environment - international agreements
:\* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
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7,070 |
Demographics of the Cook Islands
|
Demographic features of the population of the Cook Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population
A census is carried out every five years in the Cook Islands. The last census was carried out in 2021 and the next census will be carried out in 2026.
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------- -------- -------- ---------
Total 8 520 8 914 17 434 100
0--4 710 644 1 354 7.77
5--9 768 733 1 501 8.61
10--14 745 696 1 441 8.27
15--19 664 711 1 375 7.89
20--24 569 656 1 225 7.03
25--29 541 612 1 153 6.61
30--34 482 595 1 077 6.18
35--39 483 533 1 016 5.83
40--44 520 601 1 121 6.43
45--49 599 625 1 224 7.02
50--54 642 623 1 265 7.26
55--59 521 522 1 043 5.98
60--64 405 429 834 4.78
65--69 363 333 696 3.99
70--74 234 248 482 2.76
75--79 159 194 353 2.02
80+ 115 159 274 1.57
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 2 223 2 073 4 296 24.64
15--64 5 426 5 907 11 333 65.01
65+ 871 934 1 805 10.35
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Year | Population | Live births | Deaths | Natural increase | Crude birth rate | Crude death rate | Rate of natural increase | TFR\ |
| | | | | | | | | `{{clarify|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} |
+======+============+=============+========+==================+==================+==================+==========================+=============================================+
| 2001 | 18,027 | 315 | 88 | 227 | 21.0 | | | 2.9 |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2002 | | 279 | 97 | 182 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2003 | | 294 | 92 | 202 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2004 | 15,169 | 297 | 99 | 198 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2005 | | 275 | 91 | 184 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2006 | 19,342 | 279 | 85 | 194 | 19.1 | 6.5 | 12.6 | 2.5 |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2007 | | 296 | 84 | 212 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2008 | | 261 | 56 | 205 | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2009 | | 255 | 67 | 188 | 12.6 | 3.2 | 9.4 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2010 | | 286 | 92 | 194 | 12.1 | 3.9 | 8.2 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2011 | 19,300 | 262 | 72 | 190 | 17.8 | 4.9 | 12.9 | 2.6 |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2012 | 19,500 | 259 | 104 | 155 | 18.1 | 7.3 | 10.8 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2013 | 18,600 | 256 | 115 | 141 | 18.2 | 8.2 | 10.0 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2014 | 18,600 | 204 | 113 | 91 | 15.0 | 8.3 | 6.7 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2015 | 18,400 | 205 | 102 | 103 | 15.5 | 7.7 | 7.8 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2016 | 19,300 | 242 | 87 | 155 | 20.5 | 7.4 | 13.1 | 2.5 |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2017 | 19,500 | 222 | 93 | 129 | 14.2 | 6.0 | 8.3 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2018 | 20,200 | 232 | 121 | 111 | 14.6 | 7.6 | 7.0 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2019 | 20,200 | 225 | 105 | 120 | 13.1 | 6.1 | 7.0 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2020 | 16,500 | 248 | 125 | 123 | 13.9 | 7.0 | 6.9 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2021 | 18,200 | 202 | 122 | 80 | 11.6 | 7.0 | 4.6 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2022 | 20,500 | 233 | 117 | 116 | 13.2 | 6.6 | 6.6 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2023 | 21,600 | 212 | 165 | 47 | 12.6 | 9.8 | 2.8 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 2024 | 24,500 | 201 | 132 | 69 | 11.6 | 7.6 | 4.0 | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+------+------------+-------------+--------+------------------+------------------+------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
: Births and deaths
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
The indigenous Polynesian people of the Cook Islands are known as Cook Islands Māori. These include speakers of Cook Islands Māori language, closely related to Tahitian and New Zealand Māori, who form the majority of the population and inhabit the southern islands including Rarotonga; and also the people of Pukapuka, who speak a language more closely related to Samoan. Cook Islanders of non-indigenous descent include other Pacific Island peoples, Papa\'a (Europeans), and those of Asian descent.
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| Ethnic group | Population | | Percent\ |
| | | | of total |
+=============================+============+============+===========+
| 2006 | 2016 | | |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| **Cook Islands Māori** | **14,938** | **11,575** | **78.20** |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| **Part Cook Islands Māori** | **1,045** | **1,128** | **7.62** |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| **Other** | **1,349** | **2,099** | **14.18** |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
| Cook Islands, Total | 17,332 | 14,802 | 100 |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+-----------+
## Religion
The Cook Islands are majority-Protestant, with almost half the population being members of the Reformed Cook Islands Christian Church. Other Protestant denominations include Seventh-day Adventists, Assemblies of God and the Apostolic Church (the latter two being Pentecostal denominations). The largest non-Protestant denomination are Roman Catholics, followed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Non-Christian faiths including Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam have small followings primarily by non-indigenous inhabitants.
## Languages
- - English (official) 86.4%
- Cook Islands Maori (Rarotongan) (official) 76.2%
- Other 8.3%
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7,073 |
Telecommunications in the Cook Islands
|
Like most countries and territories in Oceania, telecommunications in the Cook Islands is limited by its isolation and low population, with only one major television broadcasting station and six radio stations. However, most residents have a main line or mobile phone. Its telecommunications are mainly provided by Telecom Cook Islands, who is currently working with O3b Networks, Ltd. for faster Internet connection.
In February 2015 the former owner of Telecom Cook Islands Ltd., Spark New Zealand, sold its 60% interest for approximately NZD 23 million (US\$17.3 million) to Teleraro Limited.
## Telephone
In July 2012, there were about 7,500 main line telephones, which covers about 98% of the country\'s population. There were approximately 7,800 mobile phones in 2009. Telecom Cook Islands, owned by Spark New Zealand, is the islands\' main telephone system and offers international direct dialling, Internet, email, fax, and Telex. The individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and very high frequency and high frequency radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fibre-optic cable. For international communication, they rely on the satellite earth station Intelsat.
In 2003, the largest island of Rarotonga started using a GSM/GPRS mobile data service system with GSM 900 by 2013 3G UMTS 900 was introduce covering 98% of Rarotonga with HSPA+. In March 2017 4G+ launch in Rarotonga with LTE700 (B28A) and LTE1800 (B3).
Mobile service covers Aitutaki GSM/GPRS mobile data service system in GSM 900 from 2006 to 2013 while in 2014 3G UMTS 900 was introduce with HSPA+ stand system. In March 2017 4G+ also launch in Aitutaki with LTE700 (B28A). The rest of the Outer Islands (Pa Enua) mobile was well establish in 2007 with mobile coverage at GSM 900 from Mangaia 3 villages (Oneroa, Ivirua, Tamarua), Atiu, Mauke, Mitiaro, Palmerston in the Southern Group (Pa Enua Tonga) and the Northern Group (Pa Enua Tokerau) Nassau, Pukapuka, Rakahanga, Manihiki 2 Village (Tukao, Tauhunu) and Penrhyn 2 villages (Omoka Tetautua).
The Cook Islands uses the country calling code +682.
## Broadcasting
There are six radio stations in the Cook Islands, with one reaching all islands. `{{As of|1997}}`{=mediawiki} there were 14,000 radios.
Cook Islands Television broadcasts from Rarotonga, providing a mix of local news and overseas-sourced programs. `{{as of|1997}}`{=mediawiki} there were 4,000 television sets.
## Internet infrastructure and connectivity {#internet_infrastructure_and_connectivity}
### History
The internet was first setup in the Cook Islands in 1995 by Casinos of the South Pacific (also the first iGaming license in the country). Donald Wright and his nephew Darren Wright set up a 256K connection in Telecom Cook Islands facilities, connected to Telecom New Zealand. The Cook Islands are one of the birthplaces of the iGaming industry.
There were 6,000 Internet users in 2009 and 3,562 Internet hosts as of 2012. The country code top-level domain for the Cook Islands is .ck.
In June 2010, Telecom Cook Islands partnered with O3b Networks, Ltd. to provide faster Internet connection to the Cook Islands. On 25 June 2013 the O3b satellite constellation was launched from an Arianespace Soyuz ST-B rocket in French Guiana. The medium Earth orbit satellite orbits at 8062 km and uses the K~a~ band. It has a latency of about 100 milliseconds because it is much closer to Earth than standard geostationary satellites, whose latencies can be over 600 milliseconds. Although the initial launch consisted of 4 satellites, as many as 20 may be launched eventually to serve various areas with little or no optical fibre service, the first of which is the Cook Islands.
In December 2015, Alcatel-Lucent and Bluesky Pacific Group announced that they would build the Moana Cable system connecting New Zealand to Hawaii with a single fibre pair branching off to the Cook Islands. The Moana Cable is expected to be completed in 2018.
## Digital transformation {#digital_transformation}
### The challenges {#the_challenges}
As a small island digital state (SIDS) the Cook Islands faces a unique set of challenges in digital transformation. One being that they are heavily reliant on international support and cooperation to develop and fund its ICT improvement projects.
#### Supplier monopoly, connectivity, physical infrastructure and access {#supplier_monopoly_connectivity_physical_infrastructure_and_access}
Until 2019,Telecom Cook Islands (TCI) was the sole provider for internet, mobile and fixed telephone communications for the country. Internet was provided via satellite which was costly to the government with an unreliable connection especially to the outer islands. The passing of the Competition and Regulatory Authority (CRA) Act [2019](https://lpr.adb.org/resource/competition-and-regulatory-authority-act-2019-cook-islands) and the Telecommunications Act [2019](https://cook-islands.tradeportal.org/Regulations/Details?lawId=162&l=en) provided the opportunity for new competitors to join the market. It also provides for subsidising the provision of telecommunications to areas or customer groups which cannot reasonably be served on a commercial basis.
#### Funding
The passing of the CRA and Telecommunications acts, paved the way for the Cook Islands Government to establish the state owned enterprise, Avaroa Cable Limited [(ACL)](https://www.avaroacable.com/). This was made possible through the funding from New Zealand Aid Programme and the Asian Development Bank.
A member of the United Nations (UN) the Cook Islands is influenced by convention initiatives like the UN\'s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG\'s). By using digital transformation as a platform to achieve this the Cook Islands is able to access international funding to support its digital transformation initiatives.
#### Knowledge
During research and development phases, the Cook Islands was able to tap into the knowledge and expertise through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) including their digital readiness assessment tool and then subsequently their [digital transformation framework.](https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-11/%5Bconcept%20note%5D%20digital%20transformation%20framework.pdf)
### Digital transformation initiatives {#digital_transformation_initiatives}
#### Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable {#manatua_one_polynesia_fibre_cable}
In July 2020 the Cook Islands were connected to the Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable, which links the Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa and Tahiti. The cable has landing points at Rarotonga and Aitutaki. Then in September 2020 Avaroa Cable Limited and Vodafone Cook Islands signed a partnership for use of the Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable, making Avaroa Cable Limited the first company to be awarded a telecommunications licence under the new Cook Islands Competition and Regulatory Authority Act 2019.
#### [Upgrade to the National ITC Network](https://www.aiscorp.co.nz/news/cook-island-government-press-release) {#upgrade_to_the_national_itc_network}
In December 2021, the contract was awarded to Wellington-based IT company [Aiscorp](https://www.aiscorp.co.nz/) for the upgrade of the Cook Islands government network infrastructure. This project is ongoing and has lasting impact, benefits for the government, and the people of the Cook Island as they work towards the centralised system being available to all of government. Individual Government agencies and state-owned enterprises are continuing with development and implementation of digital plans
#### [National ICT policy 2023-27](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/National-ICT-Policy-2023.pdf) {#national_ict_policy_2023_27}
With facilitation support from the Asian Development Bank the latest version of the Cook Islands National ICT policy was launched.
#### [Digital access to Cook Islands Legislation](https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/pressroom/nz/b/nz-news/posts/lexisnexis-and-cook-islands-government-promote-digital-access-to-cook-islands-legislation?srsltid=AfmBOooY4oUk7dBa66tb6-F3-RMz4uUv3KCKmiCfYeKBRaFfrWvpBT4z) {#digital_access_to_cook_islands_legislation}
From 24 June 2024, in a partnership with LexisNexis a global leader in legal publishing, the Cook Islands government have launched a new website. [Laws Of The Cook Islands - Te Au Ture O Te Kuki Airani](https://cookislandslaws.gov.ck/#/) with features including a comprehensive legal database, user-friendly interface and regular updates. With the aim of increasing transparency
#### [National strategy Launch](https://www.undp.org/samoa/stories/cook-islands-digital-journey-boosted-launch-first-national-digital-strategy) {#national_strategy_launch}
After years of research, analysis, development and financial support from international bodies such as the United Nations (UN), New Zealand Agency for International Development (NZAID) and Asian Development Bank (ADB) as contributors, the Cook Islands celebrated a key milestone in its digital transformation journey in February 2024, with the launch of its first ever [National Digital Strategy 2024 to 2030](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/CI-National-Digital-Strategy-v10.pdf).\'
The vision for the Cook Islands is \'A digitally empowered and inclusive Cook Islands, where technology enhances all lives, fosters innovation, drives economic growth and prosperity, improves social services, and protects our unique culture and environment -- while building a shared identity for our island home.'
#### [Cyber security policy 2024](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Cook-Islands-Cyber-Security-Policy-2024.pdf) {#cyber_security_policy_2024}
With the successive rollout of the above initiatives the Cook Islands needed to ensure that set clear foundations for tackling online harm and cybercrime, securing the information and data held by its government and respective agencies, ensuring the safety of its people and protection of its critical national infrastructure. This consideration has resulted in the development of its first cyber security policy.
#### [Online visa and permit application system](https://asypx.mfai.gov.ck/#/home) {#online_visa_and_permit_application_system}
On Monday 6 January 2025, T [he Ministry of Foreign Affairs and an Immigration (MFAI) announced](https://mfai.gov.ck/news-updates/mfai-launches-new-online-visa-and-permit-application-system) that the new online visa and permit application was now live. Developed in conjunction with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) this platform allows the thousands that visit each year a more efficient and effective service.
\-\-\--\[1\] (Vodafone Cook Islands and Avaroa Cable sign Manatua Cable Deal, 2020)
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7,118 |
Churnsike Lodge
|
**Churnsike Lodge** is an early Victorian hunting lodge situated in the parish of Greystead, west Northumberland, England. Constructed in 1850 by the Charlton family, descendants of the noted Border Reivers family of the English Middle March, the lodge formed part of the extensive Hesleyside estate, located some 10 miles from Hesleyside Hall itself.
Consisting of the main house, stable block, hunting-dog kennels and gamekeepers bothy, when the property was acquired by the Chesters Estate in 1887 the \'Cairnsyke\' estate consisted of several thousand acres of moorland, much of which was managed to support shooting of the formerly populous black grouse. Although much of this land has now reverted to fellside or has been otherwise managed as part of the commercial timber plantations of Kielder Forest, areas of heather moorland persist, dotted with remnants of the shooting butts. It is with reference to these fells that the 1887 sale catalogue described the estate as being the \"Finest grouse moor in the Kingdom\".
Historically, the Lodge was home to the Irthing Head and Kielder hounds, regionally renowned and headed by the locally famed fox hunter William Dodd. Dodd, and his hounds, are repeatedly referenced in the traditional Northumbrian ballads of James Armstrong\'s \'Wanny Blossoms\'.
Having fallen into ruin by the 1980s, the property fell into the care of the Forestry Commission and was slated for demolition, as many properties in the area were, until being privately purchased. The former gamekeepers bothy now serves as a holiday-home.
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7,122 |
Crannog
|
`{{wikt | crannog}}`{=mediawiki} A **crannog** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|æ|n|ə|ɡ}}`{=mediawiki}; *crannóg* `{{IPA|ga|ˈkɾˠan̪ˠoːɡ|}}`{=mediawiki}; *crannag* `{{IPA|gd|ˈkʰɾan̪ˠak|}}`{=mediawiki}) is typically a partially or entirely artificial island, usually constructed in lakes, bogs and estuarine waters of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps, which were built on shores and not inundated until later, crannogs were built in the water, thus forming artificial islands.
Humans have inhabited crannogs over five millennia, from the European Neolithic Period to as late as the 17th/early-18th centuries. In Scotland there is no convincing evidence in the archaeological record of their use in the Early or Middle Bronze Age or in the Norse period. The radiocarbon dating obtained from key sites such as Oakbank and Redcastle indicates at a 95.4 per cent confidence level that they date to the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age. The date ranges fall *after* around 800 BC and so could be considered Late Bronze Age by only the narrowest of margins.
Some crannogs apparently involved free-standing wooden structures, as at Loch Tay, although more commonly they are composed of brush, stone or timber mounds that can be revetted with timber piles. In areas such as the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, timber was unavailable from the Neolithic era onwards. As a result, crannogs made completely of stone and supporting drystone architecture are common there.
## Etymology and uncertain meanings {#etymology_and_uncertain_meanings}
The Irish word *crannóg* derives from Old Irish *crannóc*, which referred to a wooden structure or vessel, stemming from *crann*, which means \"tree\", suffixed with \"-óg\" which is a diminutive ending ultimately borrowed from Welsh. The suffix *-óg* is sometimes misunderstood by non-native Irish-speakers as *óg*, which is a separate word that means \"young\". This misunderstanding leads to a folk etymology whereby *crannóg* is misanalysed as *crann óg*, which is pronounced differently and means \"a young tree\". The modern sense of the term first appears sometime around the 12th century; its popularity spread in the medieval period along with the terms *isle*, *ylle*, *inis*, *eilean* or *oileán*.
There is some confusion on what the term *crannog* originally referred to, as the structure atop the island or the island itself. The additional meanings of Irish *crannóg* can be variously related as \'structure/piece of wood\', including \'crow\'s nest\', \'pulpit\', or \'driver\'s box on a coach\'; \'vessel/box/chest\' more generally; and \'wooden pin\'. The Scottish Gaelic form is *crannag* and has the additional meanings of \'pulpit\' and \'churn\'. Thus, there is no real consensus on what the term *crannog* actually implies, although the modern adoption in the English language broadly refers to a partially or completely artificial islet that saw use from the prehistoric to the Post-Medieval period in Ireland and Scotland.
## Location
Crannogs are widespread in Ireland, with an estimated 1,200 examples, while Scotland has 389 sites officially listed as such. The actual number in Scotland varies considerably depending on definition---between about 350 and 500, due to the use of the term \"island dun\" for well over one hundred Hebridean examples---a distinction that has created a divide between mainland Scottish crannog and Hebridean islet settlement studies. Previously unknown crannogs in Scotland and Ireland are still being found as underwater surveys continue to investigate loch beds for completely submerged examples.
The largest concentrations of crannogs in Ireland are found in the Drumlin Belt of the Midlands, North and Northwest. In Scotland, crannogs are mostly found on the western coast, with high concentrations in Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway. In reality, the Western Isles contain the highest density of lake-settlements in Scotland, yet they are recognised under varying terms besides \"crannog\". One lone Welsh example exists at Llangorse Lake, probably a product of Irish influence.
In Ireland, crannogs were most prevalent in Connacht and Ulster; where they were built on bogs and small lakes such as Lough Conn and Lough Gara, while being less frequent on larger lakes such as Lough Erne, or rivers such as the Shannon. Today, crannogs typically appear as small, circular islets, often 8-25 m in diameter, covered in dense vegetation due to their inaccessibility to grazing livestock. Reconstructed Irish crannógs are located at Craggaunowen, County Clare, in the Irish National Heritage Park, County Wexford and at Castle Espie, County Down. In Scotland there are reconstructions at the \"Scottish Crannog Centre\" at Loch Tay, Perthshire; this centre offers guided tours and hands-on activities, including wool-spinning, wood-turning and making fire, holds events to celebrate wild cooking and crafts, and hosts yearly Midsummer, Lughnasadh and Samhain festivals.
## Types and problems with definition {#types_and_problems_with_definition}
Crannogs took on many different forms and methods of construction based on what was available in the immediate landscape. The classic image of a prehistoric crannog stems from both post-medieval illustrations and highly influential excavations, such as Milton Loch in Scotland by C. M. Piggot after World War II. The Milton Loch interpretation is of a small islet surrounded or defined at its edges by timber piles and a gangway, topped by a typical Iron Age roundhouse.
The choice of a small islet as a home may seem odd today, yet waterways were the main channels for both communication and travel until the 19th century in much of Ireland and, especially, Highland Scotland. Crannogs are traditionally interpreted as simple prehistorical farmsteads. They are also interpreted as boltholes in times of danger, as status symbols with limited access, and as inherited locations of power that imply a sense of legitimacy and ancestry towards ownership of the surrounding landscape.
A strict definition of a crannog, which has long been debated, requires the use of timber. Sites in the Western Isles do not satisfy this criterion, although their inhabitants shared the common habit of living on water. If not classed as \"true\" crannogs, small occupied islets (often at least partially artificial in nature) may be referred to as \"island duns\". Rather confusingly, 22 islet-based sites are classified as \"proper\" crannogs due to differing interpretations of inspectors or excavators who drew up field reports.
Hebridean island dwellings or crannogs were commonly built on both natural and artificial islets, usually reached by a stone causeway. The visible structural remains are traditionally interpreted as duns or, in more recent terminology, as \"Atlantic roundhouses\". This terminology has recently become popular when describing the entire range of robust, drystone structures that existed in later prehistoric Atlantic Scotland.
The majority of crannog excavations were, by modern standards, poorly conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by early antiquarians, or were purely accidental finds as lochs were drained during the improvements to increase usable farmland or pasture. In some early digs, labourers hauled away tons of materials, with little regard to anything that was not of immediate economic value. Conversely, the vast majority of early attempts at proper excavation failed to accurately measure or record stratigraphy, thereby failing to provide a secure context for artefact finds. Thus only extremely limited interpretations are possible. Preservation and conservation techniques for waterlogged materials such as logboats or structural material were all but non-existent, and a number of extremely important finds were destroyed as a result; in some instances, they were even dried out for firewood.
From about 1900 to the late 1940s there was very little crannog excavation in Scotland, while some important and highly influential contributions were made in Ireland. In contrast, relatively few crannogs have been excavated since the Second World War. This number has steadily grown, especially since the early 1980s, and may soon surpass prewar totals. The overwhelming majority of crannogs show multiple phases of occupation and re-use, often extending over centuries. Thus the re-occupiers may have viewed crannogs as a legacy that was alive in local tradition and memory.
Crannog reoccupation is important and significant, especially in the many instances of crannogs built near natural islets, which were often completely unused. This long chronology of use has been verified by both radiocarbon dating and more precisely by dendrochronology.
Interpretations of crannog function have not been static; instead they appear to have changed in both the archaeological and historic records. Rather than the simple domestic residences of prehistory, the medieval crannogs were increasingly seen as strongholds of the upper class or regional political players, such as the Gaelic chieftains of the O\'Boylans and McMahons in County Monaghan and the Kingdom of Airgíalla, until the 17th century. In Scotland, the medieval and post-medieval use of crannogs is also documented into the early 18th century. Whether this increase in status is real, or just a by-product of increasingly complex material assemblages, remains to be convincingly validated.
## History
The earliest-known constructed crannog is the completely artificial Neolithic islet of Eilean Dòmhnuill, Loch Olabhat on North Uist in Scotland. Eilean Domhnuill has produced radiocarbon dates ranging from 3650 to 2500 BC. Irish crannogs appear in middle Bronze Age layers at Ballinderry (1200--600 BC). Recent radiocarbon dating of worked timber found in Loch Bhorghastail on the Isle of Lewis has produced evidence of crannogs as old as 3380--3630 BC. Prior to the Bronze Age, the existence of artificial island settlement in Ireland is not as clear. While lakeside settlements are evident in Ireland from 4500 BC, these settlements are not crannogs, as they were not intended to be islands. Despite having a lengthy chronology, their use was not at all consistent or unchanging.
Crannog construction and occupation was at its peak in Scotland from about 800 BC to AD 200. Not surprisingly, crannogs have useful defensive properties, although there appears to be more significance to prehistoric use than simple defense, as very few weapons or evidence for destruction appear in excavations of prehistoric crannogs. In Ireland, crannogs were at their zenith during the Early Historic period, when they were the homes and retreats of kings, lords, prosperous farmers and, occasionally, socially marginalised groups, such as monastic hermits or metalsmiths who could work in isolation. Despite scholarly concepts supporting a strict Early Historic evolution, Irish excavations are increasingly uncovering examples that date from the \"missing\" Iron Age in Ireland.
## Construction
The construction techniques for a crannog (prehistoric or otherwise) are as varied as the multitude of finished forms that make up the archaeological record. Island settlement in Scotland and Ireland is manifest through the entire range of possibilities ranging from entirely natural, small islets to completely artificial islets, therefore definitions remain contentious. For crannogs in the strict sense, typically the construction effort began on a shallow reef or rise in the lochbed.
When timber was available, many crannogs were surrounded by a circle of wooden piles, with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure that helped to retain the main mound and prevent erosion. The piles could also be joined by mortise and tenon, or large holes cut to carefully accept specially shaped timbers designed to interlock and provide structural rigidity. On other examples, interior surfaces were built up with any mixture of clay, peat, stone, timber or brush -- whatever was available. In some instances, more than one structure was built on crannogs.
In other types of crannogs, builders and occupants added large stones to the waterline of small natural islets, extending and enlarging them over successive phases of renewal. Larger crannogs could be occupied by extended families or communal groups, and access was either by logboats or coracles. Evidence for timber or stone causeways exists on a large number of crannogs. The causeways may have been slightly submerged; this has been interpreted as a device to make access difficult but may also be a result of loch level fluctuations over the ensuing centuries or millennia. Organic remains are often found in excellent condition on these water-logged sites. The bones of cattle, deer, and swine have been found in excavated crannogs, while remains of wooden utensils and even dairy products have been completely preserved for several millennia.
### Fire and reconstruction {#fire_and_reconstruction}
In June 2021, the Loch Tay Crannog was seriously damaged in a fire but funding was given to repair the structure, and conserve the museum materials retained. The UNESCO Chair in Refugee Integration through Languages and the Arts, Alison Phipps of Glasgow University and African artist Tawona Sithole considered its future and its impact as a symbol of common human history and \'potent ways of healing\' including restarting the creative weaving with Soay sheep wool in \'a thousand touches\'.
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Calendar date
|
A **calendar date** is a reference to a particular day, represented within a calendar system, enabling a specific day to be unambiguously identified. Simple math can be performed between dates; commonly, the number of days between two dates may be calculated, e.g., \"25 `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\" is ten days after \"15 `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\". The date of a particular event depends on the time zone used to record it. For example, the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. local Hawaiian time (HST) on 7 December 1941 is recorded equally as having happened on 8 December at 3:18 a.m. Japan Standard Time (JST).
A particular day may be assigned a different nominal date according to the calendar used. The de facto standard for recording dates worldwide is the Gregorian calendar, the world\'s most widely used civil calendar. Many cultures use religious calendars such as the Gregorian (Western Christendom, AD), the Julian calendar (Eastern Christendom, AD), Hebrew calendar (Judaism, AM), the Hijri calendars (Islam, AH), or any other of the many calendars used around the world. Regnal calendars (that record a date in terms of years since the beginning of the monarch\'s reign) are also used in some places, for particular purposes.
In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the (numbered) *day of the month*, the *month*, and the (numbered) *year*. There may also be additional parts, such as the *day of the week*. Years are counted from a particular starting point called the *epoch*, with *era* referring to the span of time since that epoch. A date without the year may also be referred to as a *date* or *calendar date* (such as \"`{{CURRENTDAY}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki}\" rather than \"`{{CURRENTDAY}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\"). As such, it is either shorthand for the current year, or else it defines the day of an annual event such as a birthday on 31 May or Christmas on 25 December.
## Date format {#date_format}
thumb\|center\|upright=3.2\|`{{legend|#0860a6|Day-Month-Year}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#feb930|Year-Month-Day}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#fd489d|Month-Day-Year}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#0860a6|#feb930|DMY and YMD|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#0860a6|#fd489d|DMY and MDY|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#fd489d|#feb930|MDY and YMD|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#353535|MDY, DMY, and YMD}}`{=mediawiki}
There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components. These variations use the sample date of 31 May 2006: (e.g. 31/05/2006, 05/31/2006, 2006/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31/05/2006, 31-05-2006), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/2006 vs. 31/05/2006), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.2006 vs. 31.05.06), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31.V.2006 vs. 31 May 2006).
### Gregorian, day--month--year (DMY) {#gregorian_daymonthyear_dmy}
This little-endian sequence is used by a majority of the world and is the preferred form by the United Nations when writing the full date format in official documents. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as \"the Nth day of \[month\] in the year of our Lord \[year\]\" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant. The following examples use the date of 9 November 2006. (With the years 2000--2009, care must be taken to ensure that two digit years do not intend to be 1900--1909 or other similar years.) The dots have a function of ordinal dot.
- \"9 November 2006\" or \"9. November 2006\" (the latter is common in German-speaking regions)
- 9/11/2006 or 09/11/2006
- 09.11.2006 or 9.11.2006
- 9\. 11. 2006
- 9-11-2006 or 09-11-2006
- 09-Nov-2006
- 09Nov06 -- Used, including in the U.S., where space needs to be saved by skipping punctuation (often seen on the dateline of Internet news articles).
- \[The\] 9th \[of\] November 2006 -- \'The\' and \'of\' are often spoken but generally omitted in all but the most formal writing such as legal documents.
- 09/Nov/2006 -- used in the Common Log Format
- Thursday, 9 November 2006
- 9/xi/06, 9.xi.06, 9-xi.06, 9/xi-06, 9.XI.2006, 9. XI. 2006 or 9 XI 2006 (using the Roman numeral for the month) -- In the past, this was a common and typical way of distinguishing day from month and was widely used in many countries, but recently this practice has been affected by the general retreat from the use of Roman numerals. This is usually confined to handwriting only and is not put into any form of print. It is associated with a number of schools and universities. It has also been used by the Vatican as an alternative to using months named after Roman deities. It is used on Canadian postmarks as a bilingual form of the month. It was also commonly used in the Soviet Union, in both handwriting and print.
- 9 November 2006 CE or 9 November 2006 AD
### Gregorian, year--month--day (YMD) {#gregorian_yearmonthday_ymd}
In this format, the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e. the year before the month before the day. It is consistent with the big-endianness of the Hindu--Arabic numeral system, which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude. That is, using this format textual orderings and chronological orderings are identical. This form is standard in East Asia, Iran, Lithuania, Hungary, and Sweden; and some other countries to a limited extent.
Examples for the 9th of November 2003:
- 2003-11-09: the standard Internet date/time format, a profile of the international standard ISO 8601, orders the components of a date like this, and additionally uses leading zeros, for example, 1996-05-01, to be easily read and sorted by computers. It is used with UTC in RFC 3339. This format is also favored in certain Asian countries, mainly East Asian countries, as well as in some European countries. The big-endian convention is also frequently used in Canada, but all three conventions are used there (both endians and the American MMDDYYYY format are allowed on Canadian bank cheques provided that the layout of the cheque makes it clear which style is to be used).
- 2003 November 9
- 2003Nov9 or 2003Nov09
- 2003-Nov-9 or 2003-Nov-09
- 2003-Nov-9, Sunday
- 2003\. `{{sic|hide=y|no|vember}}`{=mediawiki} 9. -- The official format in Hungary, point after year and day, month name with small initial. Following shorter formats also can be used: 2003. `{{sic|hide=y|nov}}`{=mediawiki}. 9., 2003. 11. 9., 2003. XI. 9.
- 2003.11.9 using dots and no leading zeros, common in China.
- 2003.11.09
- 2003/11/09 using slashes and leading zeros, common in Japan on the Internet.
- 2003/11/9
- 03/11/09
- 20031109 : the \"basic format\" profile of ISO 8601, an 8-digit number providing monotonic date codes, common in computing and increasingly used in dated computer file names. It is used in the standard iCalendar file format defined in RFC 5545. A big advantage of the ISO 8601 \"basic format\" is that a simple textual sort is equivalent to a sort by date.
It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 2003 November 9, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.
### Gregorian, month--day--year (MDY) {#gregorian_monthdayyear_mdy}
This sequence is used primarily in the Philippines and the United States. It is also used to varying extents in Canada (though never in Quebec). This date format was commonly used alongside the little-endian form in the United Kingdom until the mid-20th century and can be found in both defunct and modern print media such as the *London Gazette* and *The Times*, respectively. This format was also commonly used by several English-language print media in many former British colonies and also one of two formats commonly used in India during British Raj era until the mid-20th century.
- Thursday, November 9, 2006
- November 9, 2006
- Nov 9, 2006
- Nov-9-2006
- Nov-09-2006
- 11/9/2006 or 11/09/2006
- 11-09-2006 or 11-9-2006
- 11.09.2006 or 11.9.2006
- 11.09.06
- 11/09/06
Modern style guides recommend avoiding the use of the ordinal (e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 2024), and that format is not included in ISO standards. The ordinal was common in the past and is still sometimes used (\[the\] 4th \[of\] July or July 4th).
### Gregorian, year--day--month (YDM) {#gregorian_yeardaymonth_ydm}
This date format is used in Kazakhstan, Latvia, Nepal, and Turkmenistan. According to the official rules of documenting dates by governmental authorities, the long date format in Kazakh is written in the year--day--month order, e.g. 2006 5 April (*2006 жылғы 05 сәуір*). However, both Latvia and Kazakhstan use the day-month-year format (DD.MM.YYYY or DD/MM/YYYY) for all-numeric dates.
### Standards
There are several standards that specify date formats:
- ISO 8601 *Data elements and interchange formats -- Information interchange -- Representation of dates and times* specifies *YYYY-MM-DD* (the separators are optional, but only hyphens are allowed to be used), where all values are fixed length numeric, but also allows *YYYY-DDD*, where *DDD* is the ordinal number of the day within the year, e.g. 2001--365.
- RFC 3339 *Date and Time on the Internet: Timestamps* specifies *YYYY-MM-DD*, i.e. a particular subset of the options allowed by ISO 8601.
- RFC 5322 *Internet Message Format* specifies *day month year* where *day* is one or two digits, *month* is a three letter month abbreviation, and *year* is four digits.
### Difficulties
Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits, with no context. For example, \"07/08/06\" could refer to either 7 August 2006 or July 8, 2006 (or 1906, or the sixth year of any century), or 2007 August 6.
The date format of YYYY-MM-DD in ISO 8601, as well as other international standards, have been adopted for many applications for reasons including reducing transnational ambiguity and simplifying machine processing.
An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as extremely problematic, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.`{{bsn|reason=It is not clear at what point the piece is copied from elsewhere, so find the original -- possibly by Arthur David Olson at the tz nih archive.|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
When transitioning from one calendar or date notation to another, a format that includes both styles may be developed; for example Old Style and New Style dates in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.
## Advantages for ordering in sequence {#advantages_for_ordering_in_sequence}
One of the advantages of using the ISO 8601 date format is that the lexicographical order (ASCIIbetical) of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone. Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right collation. For example:
`2003-02-28 (28 February 2003) sorts before`\
`2006-03-01 (1 March 2006) which sorts before`\
`2015-01-30 (30 January 2015)`
The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this. Sorting other date representations involves some parsing of the date strings. This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.
ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human-readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. All modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files\' names.
## Specialized usage {#specialized_usage}
### Day and year only {#day_and_year_only}
The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, known to them as the \"Julian date format\", which indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, \"11 December 1999\" can be written in some contexts as \"1999345\" or \"99345\", for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used in US military logistics since it simplifies the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to South Korea. If the engine is sent on 06104 (Friday, 14 April 2006), it should arrive on 06139 (Friday, 19 May). Outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service, this format is usually referred to as \"ordinal date\", rather than \"Julian date\".
Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems). Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, \"January 17\" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month-day format. OS/390 or its successor, z/OS, display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations.
UNIX time stores time as a number in seconds since the beginning of the UNIX Epoch (1970-01-01).
Another \"ordinal\" date system (\"ordinal\" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this \"logistics\" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists. The astronomers describe their system as also being a \"Julian date\" system.
### Week number used {#week_number_used}
Companies in Europe often use year, week number, and day for planning purposes. So, for example, an event in a project can happen on `{{code|w43}}`{=mediawiki} (week 43) or `{{code|w43-1}}`{=mediawiki} (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on `{{code|w0643}}`{=mediawiki} (the year 2006, week 43; i.e., Monday 23 October`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}Sunday 29 October 2006).
An ISO week-numbering year has 52 or 53 full weeks. That is 364 or 371 days instead of the conventional Gregorian year of 365 or 366 days. These 53 week years occur on all years that have Thursday as 1 January and on leap years that start on Wednesday the 1 January. The extra week is sometimes referred to as a \'leap week\', although ISO 8601 does not use this term.
### Expressing dates in spoken English {#expressing_dates_in_spoken_english}
In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as *7 December 1941* (or *7th December 1941*) and spoken as \"the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one\" (exceedingly common usage of \"the\" and \"of\"), with the occasional usage of *December 7, 1941* (\"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.
In Canada and the United States, the usual written form is *December 7, 1941*, spoken as \"December seventh, nineteen forty-one\" or colloquially \"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\". Ordinal numerals, however, are not always used when writing and pronouncing dates, and \"December seven, nineteen forty-one\" is also an accepted pronunciation of the date written *December 7, 1941*. A notable exception to this rule is the Fourth of July (U.S. Independence Day).
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Cist
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`{{wikt | cist}}`{=mediawiki}
In archeology, a **cist** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|s|t}}`{=mediawiki}; also **kist** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|s|t}}`{=mediawiki}; ultimately from *κίστη*; cognate to *chest*) or **cist grave** is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. In some ways, it is similar to the deeper shaft tomb. Examples occur across Europe and in the Middle East. A cist may have formerly been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or a long barrow. Several cists are sometimes found close together within the same cairn or barrow. Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual.
This old word is preserved in the Nordic languages as *italic= yes* in Swedish and *italic= yes* in Danish and Norwegian, where it is the word for a funerary coffin. In English the term is related to *cistern* and to *chest*.
## Regional examples {#regional_examples}
England
- Teffont Evias, England
Estonia
- Jõelähtme (Rebala) stone-cist graves, Harju County
Guatemala
- Mundo Perdido, Tikal, Petén Department
Ireland
- Knockmaree Dolmen, Phoenix Park, Dublin
Israel
- Tel Kabri (Area A), Upper Galilee
Latvia
- Batariņi
Scotland
- Balblair cist, Beauly, Inverness
- Dunan Aula, Craignish, Argyll and Bute
- Holm Mains Farm, Inverness
- Nether Mill, Kilbirnie, North Ayrshire
Sri Lanka
- Ibbankatuwa Megalithic Stones
- Udaranchamadama
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Center (group theory)
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*Pandoc failed*: ```
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Charles Evers
|
**James Charles Evers** (September 11, 1922`{{spnd}}`{=mediawiki}July 22, 2020) was an American civil rights activist, businessman, radio personality, and politician. Evers was known for his role in the civil rights movement along with his younger brother Medgar Evers. After serving in World War II, Evers began his career as a disc jockey at WHOC in Philadelphia, Mississippi. In 1954, he was made the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) State Voter Registration chairman. After his brother\'s assassination in 1963, Evers took over his position as field director of the NAACP in Mississippi. In this role, he organized and led many demonstrations for the rights of African Americans.
In 1969, Evers was named \"Man of the Year\" by the NAACP. On June 3, 1969, Evers was elected in Fayette, Mississippi, as the first African-American mayor of a biracial town in Mississippi since the Reconstruction era, following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which enforced constitutional rights for citizens.
At the time of Evers\'s election as mayor, the town of Fayette had a population of 1,600 of which 75% was African-American and almost 25% white; the white officers on the Fayette city police \"resigned rather than work under a black administration,\" according to the Associated Press. Evers told reporters \"I guess we will just have to operate with an all-black police department for the present. But I am still looking for some whites to join us in helping Fayette grow.\" Evers then outlawed the carrying of firearms within city limits.
He ran for governor in 1971 and the United States Senate in 1978, both times as an independent candidate. In 1989, Evers was defeated for re-election after serving sixteen years as mayor. In his later life, he became a Republican, endorsing Ronald Reagan in 1980, and more recently Donald Trump in 2016. This diversity in party affiliations throughout his life was reflected in his fostering of friendships with people from a variety of backgrounds, as well as his advising of politicians from across the political spectrum. After his political career ended, he returned to radio and hosted his own show, *Let\'s Talk*. In 2017, Evers was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame for his contributions to the music industry.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Charles Evers was born in Decatur, Mississippi, on September 11, 1922, to James Evers, a laborer, and Jesse Wright Evers, a maid. He was the eldest of four children; Medgar Evers was his younger brother. He attended segregated public schools, which were typically underfunded in Mississippi following the exclusion of African Americans from the political system by disenfranchisement after 1890. Evers graduated from Alcorn State University in Lorman, Mississippi.
## Career
### Business activities {#business_activities}
During World War II, Charles and Medgar Evers both served in the United States Army. Charles fell in love with a Philippine woman while stationed overseas. He could not marry her and bring her home to Mississippi because the state\'s constitution prohibited interracial marriages.
During the war he established a brothel in Quezon City which catered to American servicemen. After serving a year of reserve duty following the Korean War, he settled in Philadelphia, Mississippi. In 1949, he began working as a disc jockey at WHOC, making him the first black disc jockey in the state. By the early 1950s, he was managing a hotel, cab company, and burial insurance business in the town. He had a cafe in Philadelphia and influenced over two hundred black citizens to pay their poll tax. Forced to leave due to local white hostility in 1956, he moved to Chicago. Low on money, he began working as a meatpacker in stockyards during the day and as an attendant for the men\'s restroom at the Conrad Hilton Hotel at nights. He also began pimping and ran a numbers game, taking \$500 a week from the latter. He gained enough money to purchase several bars, bootlegged liquor, and sold jukeboxes.
### Civil rights activism {#civil_rights_activism}
In Mississippi about 1951, brothers Charles and Medgar Evers grew interested in African freedom movements. They were interested in Jomo Kenyatta and the rise of the Kikuyu tribal resistance to colonialism in Kenya, known as the Mau Mau uprising as it moved to open violence. Along with his brother, Charles became active in the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL), a civil rights organization that promoted self-help and business ownership. He also helped his brother with black voter registration drives. Between 1952 and 1955, Evers often spoke at the RCNL\'s annual conferences in Mound Bayou, a town founded by freedmen, on such issues as voting rights. His brother Medgar continued to be involved in civil rights, becoming field secretary and head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Mississippi. While working in Chicago he sent money to him, not specifying the source.
On June 12, 1963, Byron De La Beckwith, a member of a Ku Klux Klan chapter, fatally shot Evers\'s brother, Medgar, in Mississippi as he arrived home from work. Medgar died at the hospital in Jackson. Charles learned of his brother\'s death several hours later and flew to Jackson the following morning. Deeply upset by the assassination, he heavily involved himself in the planning of his brother\'s funeral. He decided to relocate to Mississippi to carry on his brother\'s work. Journalist Jason Berry, who later worked for Charles, said, \"I think he wanted to be a better person. I think Medgar\'s death was a cathartic experience.\" A decade after his death, Evers and blues musician B.B. King created the Medgar Evers Homecoming Festival, an annual three-day event held the first week of June in Mississippi.
Over the opposition of more establishment figures in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) such as Roy Wilkins, Evers took over his brother\'s post as head of the NAACP in Mississippi. Wilkins never managed a friendly relationship with Evers, and Medgar\'s widow, Myrlie, also disapproved of Charles\' replacing him. A staunch believer in racial integration, he distrusted what he viewed as the militancy and separatism of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, a black-dominated breakaway of the segregationist Mississippi Democratic Party. In 1965 he launched a series of successful black boycotts in southwestern Mississippi which partnered with the Natchez Deacons for Defense and Justice, which won concessions from the Natchez authorities and ratified his unconventional boycott methods. Often accompanied by a group of 65 male followers, he would pressure local blacks in small towns to avoid stores under boycott and directly challenge white business leaders. He also led a voter registration campaign. He coordinated his efforts from the small town of Fayette in Jefferson County. Fayette was a small, economically depressed town of about 2,500 people. About three-fourths of the population was black, and they had long been socially and economically subordinate to the white minority. Evers moved the NAACP\'s Mississippi field office from Jackson to Fayette to take advantage of the potential of the black majority and achieve political influence in Jefferson and two adjacent counties. He explained, \"My feeling is that Negroes gotta control somewhere in America, and we\'ve dropped anchor in these counties. We are going to control these three counties in the next ten years. There is no question about it.\"
With his voter registration drives having made Fayette\'s number of black registered voters double the size of the white electorate, Evers helped elect a black man to the local school board in 1966. He also established the Medgar Evers Community Center at the outskirts of town, which served as a center for registration efforts, grocery store, restaurant, and dance hall. By early 1968 he had established a network of local NAACP branches in the region. The president of each branch served as Evers\' deputies, and he attended all of their meetings. That year he made a bid for the open seat of the 3rd congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives, facing six white opponents in the Democratic primary. Though low on funds, he led in the primary with a plurality of the votes. The Mississippi Legislature responded by passing a law mandating a runoff primary in the event of no absolute majority in the initial contest, which Evers lost. He also supported Robert F. Kennedy\'s 1968 presidential campaign, serving as co-director of his Mississippi campaign organization, and was with Kennedy in Los Angeles when he was assassinated.
### Mayor of Fayette {#mayor_of_fayette}
In May 1969, Evers ran for the office of Mayor of Fayette and defeated white incumbent R. J. Allen, 386 votes to 255. This made him the first black mayor of a biracial Mississippi town (unlike the all-black Mound Bayou) since Reconstruction. Evers\' election as mayor had great symbolic significance statewide and attracted national attention. The NAACP named Evers their 1969 Man of the Year. Evers popularized the slogan, \"Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor.\" The local white community was bitter about his victory, but he became intensively popular among Mississippi\'s blacks. To celebrate his victory, he hosted an inaugural ball in Natchez, which was widely attended by black Mississippians, reporters from around the country, and prominent national liberals including Ramsey Clark, Ted Sorensen, Whitney Young, Julian Bond, Shirley MacLaine, and Paul O\'Dwyer. The white-dominated school board refused to let Evers swear-in on property under their jurisdiction, so he took his oath of office in a parking lot.
Evers appointed a black police force and several black staff members. He also benefitted from an influx of young, white liberal volunteers who wanted to assist a civil rights leader. Many ended up leaving after growing disillusioned with Evers\' pursuit of personal financial success and domineering leadership style. Evers sought to make Fayette an upstanding community and a symbolic refuge for black people. Repulsed by the behavior of poor blacks in the town, he ordered the police force to enforce a 25-mile per hour speed limit on local roads, banned cursing in public, and cracked down on truancy. He also prohibited the carrying of firearms in town but kept a gun on himself. He quickly responded to concerns from poor blacks while making white businessmen wait outside of his office. Rhetorically, he would vacillate between messages of racial conciliation and statements of hostility.
Fayette\'s white population remained bitter about Evers\' victory. Many avoided the city hall where they used to socialize and *The Fayette Chronicle* regularly criticized him. He argued with the county board of supervisors over his plan to erect busts of his brother, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Kennedys on the courthouse square. He told the press, \"They\'re cooperating because they haven\'t blown my head off. This is Mississippi.\" In September 1969, a Klansman drove into Fayette with a collection of weapons, intending to assassinate Evers. A white resident tipped off the mayor and the Klansman was arrested. The Klansman defended his motives by saying, \"I am a Mississippi white man\".
Evers\' moralistic style began to create discontent; in early 1970, most of Fayette\'s police department resigned, saying the mayor had treated them \"like dogs\". Evers complained that local blacks were \"jealous\" of him. As the judge in the municipal court, he personally issued fines for infractions such as cursing in public. He regularly ignored the input of the town board of aldermen, and town employee Charles Ramberg reported that he said he would fire municipal workers who would not vote for him. During Evers\' tenure, Fayette benefitted from several federal grants, and ITT Inc. built an assembly plant in the town, but the region\'s economy largely remained depressed. By 1981, Jefferson County had the highest unemployment rate in the state.
Whites\' perception that Evers was venal and self-interested persisted and began to spread among the black community. This problem ballooned when in 1974 the Internal Revenue Service arranged for him to be indicted for tax evasion by failing to report \$156,000 in income he garnered in the late 1960s. Prosecutors further accused him of depositing town funds in a personal bank account. His attorney told the court that Evers had indeed concealed the income, but argued that the charge was invalid since this had been done before the late 1960s, as the indictment specified. The case resulted in a mistrial, but Evers\' reputation permanently suffered. In the late 1970s he used a \$5,300 federal grant to renovate a building he owned which he leased to a federal day care program, and used some of the employees for personal business.
Evers served many terms as mayor of Fayette. Admired by some, he alienated others with his inflexible stands on various issues. Evers did not like to share or delegate power. Evers lost the Democratic primary for mayor in 1981 to Kennie Middleton. Four years later, Evers defeated Middleton in the primaries and won back the office of mayor. In 1989, Evers lost the nomination once again to political rival Kennie Middleton. In his response to the defeat, Evers accepted, said he was tired, and that: \"Twenty years is enough. I\'m tired of being out front. Let someone else be out front.\"
### 1971 gubernatorial campaign {#gubernatorial_campaign}
Evers began mulling the possibility of a campaign for the office of governor in 1969. He decided to enter the 1971 gubernatorial election as an independent, kicking off his campaign with a rally in Decatur. He later explained his reason for launching the bid, saying, \"I ran for governor because if someone doesn\'t start running, there will never be a black man or a black woman governor of the state of Mississippi.\" He endorsed white segregationist Jimmy Swan in the Democratic primary, reasoning that if Swan won the nomination, moderate whites would be more inclined to vote for himself in the general election. He campaigned on a platform of reduced taxes---particularly for lower property taxes on the elderly, improved healthcare, and legalizing gambling along the Gulf Coast. Low on money, his candidacy was largely funded by the sale of campaign buttons and copies of his recently published autobiography. His campaign staff was largely young and inexperienced and lacked organization.
Evers\' rallies drew large crowds of blacks. *The Clarion-Ledger*, a leading Mississippian conservative newspaper, largely ignored his campaign. To gain attention, he unexpectedly gatecrashed the annual Fisherman\'s Rodeo in Pascagoula and stopped and spoke to people on the streets of Jackson during their morning commute. Police departments in rural towns were often horrified by the arrival of his campaign caravan. A total of 269 other black candidates were running for office in Mississippi that year, and many of them complained that Evers was self-absorbed and hoarding resources, despite his slim chances of winning. Evers did little to support them.
In the general election, Evers faced Democratic nominee Bill Waller and independent segregationist Thomas Pickens Brady. Waller and Evers were personally acquainted with one another, as Waller had prosecuted Beckwith for the murder of Medgar. Despite the fears of public observers, the campaign was largely devoid of overt racist appeals and Evers and Waller avoided negative tactics. Though about 40 percent of the Mississippi electorate in 1971 was black, Evers only secured about 22 percent of the total vote; Waller won with 601,222 votes to Evers\' 172,762 and Brady\'s 6,653. The night of the election, Evers shook the hands of Waller supporters in Jackson and then went to a local television station where his opponent was delivering a victory speech. Learning that Evers had arrived, Waller\'s nervous aides hurried the governor-elect to his car. Evers approached the car shortly before its departure and told Waller, \"I just wanted to congratulate you.\" Waller replied, \"Whaddya say, Charlie?\" and his wife leaned over and shook Evers\' hand.
### Later political career {#later_political_career}
In 1978, Evers ran as an independent for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Democrat James Eastland. He finished in third place behind his opponents, Democrat Maurice Dantin and Republican Thad Cochran. He received 24 percent of the vote, likely siphoning off African-American votes that would have otherwise gone to Dantin. Cochran won the election with a plurality of 45 percent of the vote. With the shift in white voters moving into the Republican Party in the state (and the rest of the South), Cochran was continuously re-elected to his Senate seat. After his failed Senate race, Evers briefly switched political parties and became a Republican.
In 1983, Evers ran as an independent for governor of Mississippi but lost to the Democrat Bill Allain. Republican Leon Bramlett of Clarksdale, also known as a college All-American football player, finished second with 39 percent of the vote.
Evers endorsed Ronald Reagan for President of the United States during the 1980 United States presidential election. Evers later attracted controversy for his support of judicial nominee Charles W. Pickering, a Republican, who was nominated by President George H. W. Bush for a seat on the U.S. Court of Appeals. Evers criticized the NAACP and other organizations for opposing Pickering, as he said the candidate had a record of supporting the civil rights movement in Mississippi.
Evers befriended a range of people from sharecroppers to presidents. He was an informal adviser to politicians as diverse as Lyndon B. Johnson, George C. Wallace, Ronald Reagan and Robert F. Kennedy. Evers severely criticized such national leaders as Roy Wilkins, Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown and Louis Farrakhan over various issues.
Evers was a member of the Republican Party for 30 years when he spoke warmly of the 2008 election of Barack Obama as the first black President of the United States. During the 2016 presidential election, Evers supported Donald Trump\'s presidential campaign.
### Books
Evers wrote two autobiographies or memoirs: *Evers* (1971), written with Grace Halsell and self-published; and *Have No Fear,* written with Andrew Szanton and published by John Wiley & Sons (1997).
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Evers was briefly married to Christine Evers until their marriage ended in annulment. In 1951, Evers married Nannie L. Magee, with whom he had four daughters. The couple divorced in June 1974. Evers lived in Brandon, Mississippi, and served as station manager of WMPR 90.1 FM in Jackson.
On July 22, 2020, Evers died in Brandon at age 97.
## Media portrayal {#media_portrayal}
Evers was portrayed by Bill Cobbs in the 1996 film *Ghosts of Mississippi* (1996).
## Honors
- 1969: Evers was named \"Man of the Year\" by the NAACP.
- 2012: Evers was honored with a marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail in Fayette.
- 2025: Evers was honored with a Freedom Trail Marker in Fayette.
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Chambered cairn
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A **chambered cairn** is a burial monument, usually constructed during the Neolithic, consisting of a sizeable (usually stone) chamber around and over which a cairn of stones was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also passage-graves. They are found throughout Britain and Ireland, with the largest number in Scotland.
Typically, the chamber is larger than a cist, and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either excarnated bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community\'s \"graveyard\".
## Scotland
### Background
During the early Neolithic (4000--3300 BC) architectural forms are highly regionalised with timber and earth monuments predominating in the east and stone-chambered cairns in the west. During the later Neolithic (3300--2500 BC) massive circular enclosures and the use of grooved ware and Unstan ware pottery emerge. Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns; they are found in various different types described below. Along with the excavations of settlements such as Skara Brae, Links of Noltland, Barnhouse, Rinyo and Balfarg and the complex site at Ness of Brodgar these cairns provide important clues to the character of civilization in Scotland in the Neolithic. However the increasing use of cropmarks to identify Neolithic sites in lowland areas has tended to diminish the relative prominence of these cairns.
In the early phases bones of numerous bodies are often found together and it has been argued that this suggests that in death at least, the status of individuals was played down. During the late Neolithic henge sites were constructed and single burials began to become more commonplace; by the Bronze Age it is possible that even where chambered cairns were still being built they had become the burial places of prominent individuals rather than of communities as a whole.
### Clyde-Carlingford court cairns {#clyde_carlingford_court_cairns}
The Clyde or Clyde-Carlingford type are principally found in northern and western Ireland and southwestern Scotland. They first were identified as a separate group in the Firth of Clyde region, hence the name. Over 100 have been identified in Scotland alone. Lacking a significant passage, they are a form of gallery grave. The burial chamber is normally located at one end of a rectangular or trapezoidal cairn, while a roofless, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance provided access from the outside (although the entrance itself was often blocked), and gives this type of chambered cairn its alternate name of court tomb or court cairn. These forecourts are typically fronted by large stones and it is thought the area in front of the cairn was used for public rituals of some kind. The chambers were created from large stones set on end, roofed with large flat stones and often sub-divided by slabs into small compartments. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland.
Examples include Cairn Holy I and Cairn Holy II near Newton Stewart, a cairn at Port Charlotte, Islay, which dates to 3900--4000 BC, and Monamore, or Meallach\'s Grave, Arran, which may date from the early fifth millennium BC. Excavations at the Mid Gleniron cairns near Cairnholy revealed a multi-period construction which shed light on the development of this class of chambered cairn.
### Orkney-Cromarty {#orkney_cromarty}
The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. The design is of dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments or stalls. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on Orkney. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate \'forecourts\' protruding from each end, creating what look like small amphitheatres. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland Europe, as they are similar to designs found in France and Spain.
Examples include Midhowe on Rousay, and both the Unstan Chambered Cairn and Wideford Hill chambered cairn from the Orkney Mainland, both of which date from the mid 4th millennium BC and were probably in use over long periods of time. When the latter was excavated in 1884, grave goods were found that gave their name to Unstan ware pottery. Blackhammer cairn on Rousay is another example dating from the 3rd millennium BC.
The Grey Cairns of Camster in Caithness are examples of this type from mainland Scotland. The Tomb of the Eagles on South Ronaldsay is a stalled cairn that shows some similarities with the later Maeshowe type. It was in use for 800 years or more and numerous bird bones were found here, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle.
### Maeshowe
The Maeshowe group, named after the famous Orkney monument, is among the most elaborate. They appear relatively late and only in Orkney and it is not clear why the use of cairns continued in the north when their construction had largely ceased elsewhere in Scotland. They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed. The central chambers are tall and steep-sided and have corbelled roofing faced with high quality stone. In addition to Maeshowe itself, which was constructed c. 2700 BC, there are various other examples from the Orkney Mainland. These include Quanterness chambered cairn (3250 BC) in which the remains of 157 individuals were found when excavated in the 1970s, Cuween Hill near Finstown which was found to contain the bones of men, dogs and oxen and Wideford Hill chambered cairn, which dates from 2000 BC.
Examples from elsewhere in Orkney are the Vinquoy chambered cairn, and the Huntersquoy chambered cairn, both found on the north end of the island of Eday and Quoyness on Sanday constructed about 2900 BC and which is surrounded by an arc of Bronze Age mounds. The central chamber of Holm of Papa Westray South cairn is over 20 metres long.
### Bookan
The Bookan type is named after a cairn found to the north-west of the Ring of Brodgar in Orkney, which is now a dilapidated oval mound, about 16 metres in diameter. Excavations in 1861 indicated a rectangular central chamber surrounded by five smaller chambers. Because of the structure\'s unusual design, it was originally presumed to be an early form. However, later interpretations and further excavation work in 2002 suggested that they have more in common with the later Maeshowe type rather than the stalled Orkney-Cromarty cairns.
Huntersquoy chambered cairn on Eday is a double storied Orkney--Cromarty type cairn with a Booken-type lower chamber.
### Shetland
The Shetland or Zetland group are relatively small passage graves, that are round or heel-shaped in outline. The whole chamber is cross or trefoil-shaped and there are no smaller individual compartments. An example is to be found on the uninhabited island of Vementry on the north side of the West Mainland, where it appears that the cairn may have originally been circular and its distinctive heel shape added as a secondary development, a process repeated elsewhere in Shetland. This probably served to make the cairn more distinctive and the forecourt area more defined.
### Hebridean
Like the Shetland cairn the Hebridean group appear relatively late in the Neolithic. They are largely found in the Outer Hebrides, although a mixture of cairn types are found here. These passage graves are usually larger than the Shetland type and are round or have funnel-shaped forecourts, although a few are long cairns -- perhaps originally circular but with later tails added. They often have a polygonal chamber and a short passage to one end of the cairn.
The Rubha an Dùnain peninsula on the island of Skye provides an example from the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC. Barpa Langass on North Uist is the best preserved chambered cairn in the Hebrides.
### Bargrennan
Bargrennan chambered cairns are a class of passage graves found only in south-west Scotland, in western Dumfries and Galloway and southern Ayrshire. As well as being structurally different from the nearby Clyde cairns, Bargrennan cairns are distinguished by their siting and distribution; they are found in upland, inland areas of Galloway and Ayrshire.
### Bronze Age {#bronze_age}
In addition to the increasing prominence of individual burials, during the Bronze Age regional differences in architecture in Scotland became more pronounced. The Clava cairns date from this period, with about 50 cairns of this type in the Inverness area. Corrimony chambered cairn near Drumnadrochit is an example dated to 2000 BC or older. The only surviving evidence of burial was a stain indicating the presence of a single body. The cairn is surrounded by a circle of 11 standing stones. The cairns at Balnuaran of Clava are of a similar date. The largest of three is the north-east cairn, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century and the central cairn may have been used as a funeral pyre.
Glebe cairn in Kilmartin Glen in Argyll dates from 1700 BC and has two stone cists inside one of which a jet necklace was found during 19th century excavations. There are numerous prehistoric sites in the vicinity including Nether Largie North cairn, which was entirely removed and rebuilt during excavations in 1930.
## Wales
### Chambered long cairns {#chambered_long_cairns}
There are 18 Scheduled Ancient Monuments listed:
- Siambr gladdu Din Dryfol, Aberffraw
- Carnedd gellog hir Pen y Wyrlod, Talgarth
- Siambr gladdu Llety\'r Filiast, Llandudno
- Siambr gladdu Bachwen, Clynnog
- Siambr gladdu Rhiw, Aberdaron
- Siambr gladdu Maen y Bardd, Caerhun
- Siambr gladdu Ystum-Cegid, Llanystumdwy
- Siambr gladdu Caer-Dynni, Cricieth
- Siambr gladdu Capel Garmon, Bro Garmon, Conwy
- Siambr gladdu Tyddyn Bleiddyn, Cefn Meiriadog
- Siambr gladdu Hendre-Waelod, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy
- Parc Cwm long cairn, Parc le Breos, Gower Peninsula
- Siambr gladdu Cefn Bryn, Llanilltud Gŵyr
- Siambr gladdu Dyffryn, Dyffryn Ardudwy
- Siambr gladdu Carneddau Hengwm, Dyffryn Ardudwy
- Siambr gladdu Cors-y-Gedol, Dyffryn Ardudwy
- Siambr gladdu Tan-y-Coed, Llandrillo
- Siambr gladdu Gorllewin Bron-y-Foel, Dyffryn Ardudwy
### Chambered round cairns {#chambered_round_cairns}
- Siambr gladdu Bryn yr Hen Bobl, Llanddaniel Fab, Môn
- Siambr gladdu Gelli, Llanfair-ar-y-bryn, Sir Gaerfyrddin
- Siambr gladdu Cefnamwlch, Tudweiliog, Gwynedd
- Siambr galddu Afon y Dolau Gwynion, overlooking Lake Vyrnwy, Llanwddyn, Powys
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Collective noun
|
In linguistics, a **collective noun** is a word referring to a collection of things taken as a whole. Most collective nouns in everyday speech are not specific to one kind of thing. For example, the collective noun \"group\" can be applied to people (\"a group of people\"), or dogs (\"a group of dogs\"), or objects (\"a group of stones\").
Some collective nouns are specific to one kind of thing, especially terms of venery, which identify groups of specific animals. For example, \"pride\" as a term of venery always refers to lions, never to dogs or cows. Other examples come from popular culture such as a group of owls, which is called a \"parliament\".
Different forms of English handle verb agreement with collective count nouns differently. For example, users of British English generally accept that collective nouns take either singular or plural verb forms depending on context and the metonymic shift that it implies, while in some other forms of English the verb agreement is less flexible.
## Derivation
Morphological derivation accounts for many collective words and various languages have common affixes for denoting collective nouns. Because derivation is a slower and less productive word formation process than the more overtly syntactical morphological methods, there are fewer collectives formed this way. As with all derived words, derivational collectives often differ semantically from the original words, acquiring new connotations and even new denotations.
## Affixes
### Proto-Indo-European {#proto_indo_european}
Early Proto-Indo-European used the suffix \*eh₂ to form collective nouns, which evolved into, among others, the Latin neuter plural ending -a, as in \"datum/data\". Late Proto-Indo-European used the ending \*t, which evolved into the English ending -th, as in \"young/youth\".
### English
The English endings *-age* and *-ade* often signify a collective. Sometimes, the relationship is easily recognizable: *baggage, drainage, blockade*. Though the etymology is plain to see, the derived words take on a distinct meaning. This is a productive ending, as evidenced in the recent coin, \"signage\".
### German
German uses the prefix *ge-* to create collectives. The root word often undergoes umlaut and suffixation as well as receiving the *ge-* prefix. Nearly all nouns created in that way are of neuter gender:
- **das Gebirge**, \"group of hills, mountain range\" `{{abbr|<|from}}`{=mediawiki} **der Berg**, \"mountain\" or \"hill\"
- **das Gepäck**, \"luggage, baggage\" \< **der Pack**, \"pack, bundle, pile\"
- **das Geflügel**, \"poultry, fowl (birds)\" \< late MHG **gevlügel(e)**, under the influence of **der Flügel**, \"wing\" \< MHG **gevügel** \< OHG **gifugili** = collective formation of **fogal**, \"bird\"
- **das Gefieder**, \"plumage\" \< **die Feder**, \"feather\"
- **das Geschwisterkind**, \"sibling of another child\" or \"child of a sibling\" \< **die Schwester**, \"sister\"
- **die Geschwister**, \"siblings\" \< **die Schwester**, \"sister\"
- \"Der Gebirgszug\" and \"die Bergkette\" also mean \"mountain range\", drawing on the words \"der Zug\" = train, and \"die Kette\" = chain.
There are also several endings that can be used to create collectives, such as \"welt\" and \"masse\".
### Dutch
Dutch has a similar pattern but sometimes uses the (unproductive) circumfix *`{{linktext|ge- -te}}`{=mediawiki}*:
- **berg** \'mountain\' \> **gebergte** \'mountain range\'
- **been** \'bone\' \> **gebeente** \'skeleton\'
- **vogel** \'bird\' \> **gevogelte** \'poultry\'
- **blad** \'leaf\' \> **gebladerte** \'foliage\'
### Swedish
The following Swedish example has different words in the collective form and in the individual form:
- An individual mosquito is a **mygga\]\]** (plural: **myggor\]\]**), but mosquitos as a collective is **mygg\]\]**.
### Esperanto
Esperanto uses the collective infix -*ar*- to produce a large number of derived words:
- *monto* \'mountain\' \> *montaro* \'mountain range\'
- *birdo* \'bird\' \> *birdaro* \'flock\'
- *arbo* \'tree\' \> *arbaro* \'forest\'
- *ŝipo* \'ship\' \> *ŝiparo* \'fleet\'
- *manĝilo* \'eating utensil\' \> *manĝilaro* \'silverware\', \'cutlery\'
## Metonymic merging of grammatical number {#metonymic_merging_of_grammatical_number}
Two examples of collective nouns are \"team\" and \"government\", which are both words referring to groups of (usually) people. Both \"team\" and \"government\" are *countable* nouns (consider: \"one team\", \"two teams\", \"most teams\"; \"one government\", \"two governments\", \"many governments\").
### Agreement in different forms of English {#agreement_in_different_forms_of_english}
Confusion often stems from the way that different forms of English handle agreement with collective nouns---specifically, whether or not to use the **collective singular**: the singular verb form with a collective noun. The plural verb forms are often used in British English with the singular forms of these countable nouns (e.g., \"The team *have* finished the project.\"). Conversely, in the English language as a whole, singular verb forms can often be used with nouns ending in \"-s\" that were once considered plural (e.g., \"Physics *is* my favorite academic subject\"). This apparent \"number mismatch\" is a natural and logical feature of human language, and its mechanism is a subtle metonymic shift in the concepts underlying the words.
In British English, it is generally accepted that collective nouns can take either singular or plural verb forms depending on the context and the metonymic shift that it implies. For example, \"the team *is* in the dressing room\" (*formal agreement*) refers to *the team* as an ensemble, while \"the team *are* fighting among themselves\" (*notional agreement*) refers to *the team* as individuals. That is also the British English practice with names of countries and cities in sports contexts (e.g., \"Newcastle *have* won the competition.\").
In American English, collective nouns almost always take singular verb forms (formal agreement). In cases that a metonymic shift would be revealed nearby, the whole sentence should be recast to avoid the metonymy. (For example, \"The team are fighting among themselves\" may become \"the team *members* are fighting among themselves\" or simply \"the team is infighting\".) Collective proper nouns are usually taken as singular (\"Apple is expected to release a new phone this year\"), unless the plural is explicit in the proper noun itself, in which case it is taken as plural (\"The Green Bay Packers are scheduled to play the Minnesota Vikings this weekend\"). More explicit examples of collective proper nouns include \"General Motors is once again the world\'s largest producer of vehicles\", and \"Texas Instruments is a large producer of electronics here\", and \"British Airways is an airline company in Europe\". Furthermore, \"American Telephone & Telegraph is a telecommunications company in North America\". Such phrases might look plural, but they are not.
### Examples of metonymic shift {#examples_of_metonymic_shift}
A good example of such a metonymic shift in the singular-to-plural direction (which exclusively takes place in British English) is the following sentence: \"The team have finished the project.\" In that sentence, the underlying thought is of the individual members of the team working together to finish the project. Their accomplishment is collective, and the emphasis is not on their individual identities, but they are still discrete individuals; the word choice \"team have\" manages to convey both their collective and discrete identities simultaneously. Collective nouns that have a singular form but take a plural verb form are called **collective plurals**. An example of such a metonymic shift in the plural-to-singular direction is the following sentence: \"Mathematics is my favorite academic subject\". The word \"mathematics\" may have originally been plural in concept, referring to mathematic endeavors, but metonymic shift (the shift in concept from \"the endeavors\" to \"the whole set of endeavors\") produced the usage of \"mathematics\" as a singular entity taking singular verb forms. (A true mass-noun sense of \"mathematics\" followed naturally.)
Nominally singular pronouns can be collective nouns taking plural verb forms, according to the same rules that apply to other collective nouns. For example, it is correct usage in both British English and American English usage to say: \"None are so fallible as those who are sure they\'re right.\" In that case, the plural verb is used because the context for \"none\" suggests more than one thing or person. This also applies to the use of an adjective as a collective noun: \"The British are coming!\"; \"The poor will always be with you.\"
Other examples include:
- \"Creedence Clearwater Revival *was* founded in El Cerrito, California\" (but in British English, \"Creedence Clearwater Revival *were* founded \...\")
- \"Arsenal *have* won the match\" (but in American English, \"Arsenal *has* won the game\")
- \"Nintendo *is* a video game company headquartered in Japan\".
This does not, however, affect the tense later in the sentence:
- \"Cream *is* a psychedelic rock band who *were* primarily popular in the 1960s.
Abbreviations provide other \"exceptions\" in American usage concerning plurals:
- \"Runs Batted In\" becomes \"RBIs\". \"Smith had 10 RBIs in the last three games.\"
- \"Revised Statutes Annotated\" or RSAs. \"The RSAs contain our laws.\"
When only the name is plural but not the object, place, or person:
- \"The bends *is* a deadly disease mostly affecting SCUBA divers.\"
- \"*Hot Rocks* *is* a greatest hits compilation by The Rolling Stones.\"
## Terms of venery {#terms_of_venery}
The tradition of using \"terms of venery\" or \"nouns of assembly\", collective nouns that are specific to certain kinds of animals, stems from an English hunting tradition of the Late Middle Ages. The fashion of a consciously developed hunting language came to England from France. It was marked by an extensive proliferation of specialist vocabulary, applying different names to the same feature in different animals. The elements can be shown to have already been part of French and English hunting terminology by the beginning of the 14th century. In the course of the 14th century, it became a courtly fashion to extend the vocabulary, and by the 15th century, the tendency had reached exaggerated and even satirical proportions. Other synonyms for \"terms of venery\" include \"company nouns\", \"gatherations\", and \"agminals\".
*The Treatise*, written by Walter of Bibbesworth in the mid-1200s, is the earliest source for collective nouns of animals in any European vernacular (and also the earliest source for animal noises). The *Venerie* of Twiti (early 14th century) distinguished three types of droppings of animals, and three different terms for herds of animals. Gaston Phoebus (14th century) had five terms for droppings of animals, which were extended to seven in the *Master of the Game* (early 15th century). The focus on collective terms for groups of animals emerged in the later 15th century. Thus, a list of collective nouns in Egerton MS 1995, dated to c. 1452 under the heading of \"termis of venery &c.\", extends to 70 items, and the list in the *Book of Saint Albans* (1486) runs to 164 items, many of which, even though introduced by \"the compaynys of beestys and fowlys\", relate not to venery, but to human groups and professions and are humorous, such as \"a Doctryne of doctoris\"*, \"*a Sentence of Juges\"*, \"*a Fightyng of beggers\"*, \"*an uncredibilite of Cocoldis\"*, \"*a Melody of harpers\"*, \"*a Gagle of women\"*, \"*a Disworship of Scottis\", etc.
The *Book of Saint Albans* became very popular during the 16th century and was reprinted frequently. Gervase Markham edited and commented on the list in his *The Gentleman\'s Academie*, in 1595. The book\'s popularity had the effect of perpetuating many of these terms as part of the Standard English lexicon even if they were originally meant to be humorous and have long ceased to have any practical application.
Even in their original context of medieval venery, the terms were of the nature of kennings, intended as a mark of erudition of the gentlemen able to use them correctly rather than for practical communication. The popularity of the terms in the modern period has resulted in the addition of numerous lighthearted, humorous, or facetious collective nouns.
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European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
|
The **European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations** (**CEPT**) was established on 26 June 1959 by nineteen European states in Montreux, Switzerland, as a coordinating body for European state telecommunications and postal organizations. The acronym comes from the French version of its name, *Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications*.
CEPT was responsible for the creation of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988.
## Organization
CEPT is organised into three main components:
- Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) -- responsible for radiocommunications and telecommunications matters and formed by the merger of ECTRA (European Committee for Telecommunications Regulatory Affairs) and ERC (European Radiocommunications Committee) in September 2001
- The permanent secretariat of the ECC is the European Communications Office (ECO)
- European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP, after the French *\"Comité européen des régulateurs postaux\"*) -- responsible for postal matters
- The committee for ITU Policy (Com-ITU) is responsible for organising the co-ordination of CEPT actions for the preparation for and during the course of the ITU activities meetings of the council, Plenipotentiary Conferences, World Telecommunication Development Conferences, World Telecommunication Standardisation Assemblies
The entity is based on the concept of a Postal, telegraph and telephone service entity.
## Member countries {#member_countries}
*As of March 2022: 46 countries.*
Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City. The Russian Federation and Belarus memberships were suspended indefinitely on 17 March 2022.
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Cartoon
|
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Example of a modern cartoon. The text was excerpted by cartoonist Greg Williams from the Wikipedia article on Dr. Seuss.\|alt=A cartoon shows a bearded man with a red bow tie holding the hat from Dr. Seuss\'s \"The Cat in the Hat\". A **cartoon** is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation. Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a *cartoonist*, and in the second sense they are usually called an *animator*.
The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, beginning in *Punch* magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer -- ironically at first -- to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers. Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips. When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons.
## Fine art {#fine_art}
In fine art, a cartoon (from *cartone* and *karton*---words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard and cognates for carton) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or *modello* for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days (*giornate*). In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work.
Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or \"pounced\" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster (\"pouncing\"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, Francisco Goya\'s tapestry cartoons, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design. As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver.
## Mass media {#mass_media}
In print media, a cartoon is a drawing or series of drawings, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843, when *Punch* magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London.
Sir John Tenniel---illustrator of *Alice\'s Adventures in Wonderland---*joined *Punch* in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons.
Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips.
Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others. Many consider *New Yorker* cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day. `{{Comics navbar}}`{=mediawiki} Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in *The Washington Post* before creating his *Cul de Sac* comic strip. The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester \"Chet\" Brown\'s *All in Sport*.
*Editorial cartoons* are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe.
*Comic strips*, also known as *cartoon strips* in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the United States, they are not commonly called \"cartoons\" themselves, but rather \"comics\" or \"funnies\". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips---as well as comic books and graphic novels---are usually referred to as \"cartoonists\". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Some noteworthy cartoonists of humorous comic strips are Scott Adams, Charles Schulz, E. C. Segar, Mort Walker and Bill Watterson.
### Political
Political cartoons are like illustrated editorials that serve visual commentaries on political events. They offer subtle criticism which are cleverly quoted with humour and satire to the extent that the criticized does not get embittered.
The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is regarded as a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th century England. George Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s. The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray\'s satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon. George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s. His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications.
By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day. Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning. His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down. Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast\'s cartoons. In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London. In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe.
Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect. The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back. Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of \"Black Friday\", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners\' Federation. To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination. Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law. Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation.
### Scientific
Cartoons such as *xkcd* have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology. For example, the cartoon *Wonderlab* looked at daily life in the chemistry lab. In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris. Many of Gary Larson\'s cartoons have a scientific flavor.
### Comic books {#comic_books}
The first comic-strip cartoons were of a humorous tone. Notable early **humor comics** include the Swiss comic-strip book *Mr. Vieux Bois* (1837), the British strip *Ally Sloper* (first appearing in 1867) and the American strip *Yellow Kid* (first appearing in 1895).
In the United States in the 1930s, books with cartoons were magazine-format \"American comic books\" with original material, or occasionally reprints of newspaper comic strips.
In Britain in the 1930s, adventure comic magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. DC Thomson issued the first *The Dandy Comic* in December 1937. It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children\'s comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful. Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product *The Beano* in 1938.
On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication.
## Animation
*Main article: Animated cartoon* Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, *cartoon* came to refer to animation, and the word *cartoon* is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons. While *animation* designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word \"cartoon\" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes.
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Chief Minister of the Northern Territory
|
The **chief minister of the Northern Territory** is the head of government of the Northern Territory. The office is the equivalent of a state premier. When the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was created in 1974, the head of government was officially known as **majority leader**. This title was used in the first parliament (1974--1977) and the first eighteen months of the second. When the Northern Territory acquired limited self-government in 1978, the title of the head of government became chief minister with greatly expanded powers, though still somewhat less than those of a state premier.
The chief minister is formally appointed by the administrator, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whichever party holds the majority of seats in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. In times of constitutional crisis, the administrator can appoint someone else as chief minister, though this has never occurred.
Since 28 August 2024, following the 2024 Northern Territory general election, the chief minister is Lia Finocchiaro of the Country Liberal Party. She is the fourth female chief minister of the Northern Territory.
## History
The Country Liberal Party won the first Northern Territory election on 19 October 1974 and elected Goff Letts majority leader. He headed an Executive that carried out most of the functions of a ministry at the state level. At the 1977 election Letts lost his seat and party leadership. He was succeeded on 13 August 1977 by Paul Everingham (CLP) as Majority Leader. When the Territory attained self-government on 1 July 1978, Everingham became chief minister and his Executive became a Ministry.
Despite the Majority Leader\'s title, the Majority Leader\'s opposite number was not known as Minority Leader but instead the Leader of the Opposition.
In 2001, Clare Martin became the first Labor and female chief minister of the Northern Territory. Until 2004 the conduct of elections and drawing of electoral boundaries was performed by the Northern Territory Electoral Office, a unit of the Department of the chief minister. In March 2004 the independent Northern Territory Electoral Commission was established.
In 2013, Mills was replaced as chief minister and CLP leader by Adam Giles at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March to become the first indigenous Australian to lead a state or territory government in Australia.
Following the 2016 election landslide outcome, Labor\'s Michael Gunner became chief minister; he was the first Chief Minister who was born in the Northern Territory. On 10 May 2022, Gunner announced his intention to resign. On 13 May 2022, Natasha Fyles was elected to the position by the Labor caucus. On 19 December 2023, Fyles resigned following controversy over undeclared shares in mining company South32. On 21 December 2023, Eva Lawler replaced Fyles by a unanimous decision of the Labor caucus.
## List of chief ministers of the Northern Territory {#list_of_chief_ministers_of_the_northern_territory}
From the foundation of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in 1974 until the granting of self-government in 1978, the head of government was known as the majority leader:
Political parties
`{{legend|{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}|[[Territory Labor Party]] (TL)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}`{=mediawiki}
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| | Portrait | Name\ | Election | Term of office | | | Political party |
| | | Electoral division\ | | | | | |
| | | (Birth--death) | | | | | |
+=================================================================+=================================================================+=========================+==================+================+============+==========+=================+
| Term start | Term end | Time in office | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 1 | | Goff Letts\ | 1974 | 19 October\ | 12 August\ | | CLP |
| | | MLA for Victoria River\ | | 1974 | 1977 | | |
| | | (1928--2023) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| *None*\ | | | | | | | |
| (1975--1978) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 2 | | Paul Everingham\ | 1977 | 13 August\ | 30 June\ | |
| | | | MLA for Jingili\ | | 1977 | 1978 | |
| | | | (born 1943) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| John England\ | | | | | | | |
| (1978--1981) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
From 1978, the position was known as the chief minister:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| No. | Portrait | Name\ | Election | Term of office | | | Political party |
| | | Electoral division\ | | | | | |
| | | (Birth--death) | | | | | |
+=================================================================+==============================================================================================+=====================+======================+================+================+================+=================+
| Term start | Term end | Time in office | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| rowspan=\"4\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 1 | | Paul Everingham\ | --- | 1 July\ | 15 October\ | | CLP |
| | | MLA for Jingili\ | | 1978 | 1984 | | |
| | | (born 1943) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| 1980 | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | | | Eric Johnston\ | | | | |
| | | | (1981--1989) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| 1983 | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| \| 2 | | Ian Tuxworth\ | | --- | 16 October\ | 13 May\ | |
| | | MLA for Barkly\ | | | 1984 | 1986 | |
| | | (1942--2020) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 3 | | Stephen Hatton\ | | --- | 14 May\ | 12 July\ | |
| | | MLA for Nightcliff\ | | | 1986 | 1988 | |
| | | (born 1948) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| 1987 | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| rowspan=\"5\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 4 | | Marshall Perron\ | | --- | 13 July\ | 24 May\ | |
| | | MLA for Fannie Bay\ | | | 1988 | 1995 | |
| | | (born 1942) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| James Muirhead\ | | | | | | | |
| (1989--1993) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | | | 1990 | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Austin Asche\ | | | | | | | |
| (1993--1997) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | | | 1994 | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"3\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 5 | | Shane Stone\ | --- | 25 May\ | 7 February\ | |
| | | | MLA for Port Darwin\ | | 1995 | 1999 | |
| | | | (born 1950) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | 1997 | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Neil Conn\ | | | | | | | |
| (1997--2000) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 6 | | Denis Burke\ | --- | 8 February\ | 27 August\ | |
| | | | MLA for Brennan\ | | 1999 | 2001 | |
| | | | (born 1948) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| John Anictomatis\ | | | | | | | |
| (2000--2003) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"4\" style=\"background:`{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}`{=mediawiki}; \| 7 | | Clare Martin\ | 2001 | 27 August\ | 26 November\ | |
| | | | MLA for Fannie Bay\ | | 2001 | 2007 | |
| | | | (born 1952) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Ted Egan\ | | | | | | | |
| (2003--2007) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | 2005 | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Tom Pauling\ | | | | | | | |
| (2007--2011) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"3\" style=\"background:`{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}`{=mediawiki}; \| 8 | | Paul Henderson\ | --- | 26 November\ | 28 August\ | |
| | | | MLA for Wanguri\ | | 2007 | 2012 | |
| | | | (born 1962) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | 2008 | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Sally Thomas\ | | | | | | | |
| (2011--2014) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | \| 9 | | Terry Mills\ | 2012 | 29 August\ | 13 March\ | |
| | | | MLA for Blain\ | | 2012 | 2013 | |
| | | | (born 1957) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 10 | | Adam Giles\ | --- | 14 March\ | 30 August\ | |
| | | | MLA for Braitling\ | | 2013 | 2016 | |
| | | | (born 1973) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| John Hardy\ | | | | | | | |
| (2014--2017) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"3\" style=\"background:`{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}`{=mediawiki}; \| 11 | | Michael Gunner\ | 2016 | 31 August\ | 13 May\ | |
| | | | MLA for Fannie Bay\ | | 2016 | 2022 | |
| | | | (born 1976) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Vicki O\'Halloran\ | | | | | | | |
| (2017--2023) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | 2020 | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" style=\"background:`{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}`{=mediawiki}; \| 12 | | Natasha Fyles\ | --- | 13 May\ | 21 December\ | |
| | | | MLA for Nightcliff\ | | 2022 | 2023 | |
| | | | (born 1978) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Hugh Heggie\ | | | | | | | |
| (since 2023) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | style=\"background:`{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}`{=mediawiki}; \| 13 | | Eva Lawler\ | --- | 21 December\ | 28 August 2024 | |
| | | | MLA for Drysdale\ | | 2023 | | |
| | | | (born 1962) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 14 | | Lia Finocchiaro\ | 2024 | 28 August 2024 | *Incumbent* | |
| | | | MLA for Spillett\ | | | | |
| | | | (born 1984) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,174 |
Chinese historiography
|
**Chinese historiography** is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China.
## Overview of Chinese history {#overview_of_chinese_history}
The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600--1046 BC). Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones. The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history. The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been the inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang *pan*. This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials.
The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the *Book of Documents (Shujing)*. The *Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu)*, the official chronicle of the State of Lu, cover the period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals. The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius. The *Zuo zhuan*, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC. The anonymous *Zhan Guo Ce* was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on the Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.
The first systematic Chinese historical text, the *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*), was written by Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135--86 BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan, during the Han dynasty. It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author\'s own lifetime. Two instances of systematic book-burning and a palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work. Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. The *Twenty-Four Histories*, the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian\'s format. Typically, rulers initiating a new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources.
Around the turn of the millennium, father--son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above. Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately the version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time. In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material.
The *Shitong* was the first Chinese work about historiography. It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 AD. The book describes the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to the structure, method, arrangement, sequence, caption, and commentary, dating back to the Warring States period.
The *Zizhi Tongjian* was a pioneering reference work of Chinese historiography. Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065, and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084. It contains 294 volumes and about three million characters, and it narrates the history of China from 403 BC to the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959. This style broke the nearly thousand-year tradition of Sima Qian, which employed annals for imperial reigns but biographies or treatises for other topics. The more consistent style of the *Zizhi Tongjian* was not followed by later official histories. In the mid 13th century, Ouyang Xiu was heavily influenced by the work of Xue Juzheng. This led to the creation of the *New History of the Five Dynasties*, which covered five dynasties in over 70 chapters.
Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models. In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to a new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific. Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including *History of Chinese Culture*. This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities. They included Chang Chi-yun, Gu Jiegang, Fu Sinian, and Tsiang Tingfu, who were PhDs from Columbia University; and Chen Yinke, who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and the United States. Other historians, such as Qian Mu, who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends. In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo, adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history. The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning.
## Key organizing concepts {#key_organizing_concepts}
### Dynastic cycle {#dynastic_cycle}
Like the three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod, the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.
Unlike Hesiod\'s system, however, the Duke of Zhou\'s idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man\'s fall as a cyclical pattern. In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute. This immorality removes the dynasty\'s divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods), rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder is able to rectify many of society\'s problems and begin the cycle anew. Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained.
This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time. Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity, a great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate. Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy -- even when that was not the case. Such a narrative was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing, and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun.
### Multi-ethnic history {#multi_ethnic_history}
Traditional Chinese historiography includes states ruled by other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.) in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China. Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as a historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven\'s throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern \"unitary China\" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors. However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not a succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven.
As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of the Han people. Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia, but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous.
Both the Republic of China and the People\'s Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all the ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak, with these ethnicities forming part of the *Zhonghua minzu* (Chinese nation). This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui. This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting the contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities.
The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues. The 14th Dalai Lama, long insistent on Tibet\'s history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet \"is a part of\" China\'s \"5,000-year history\" as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy. Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China\'s application to UNESCO for recognition of the Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory. The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire. The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that was conquered by the Khan.
The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus, faithfully carried out this practice, composing the official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively.
Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in traditional and Chinese Communist Party (CCP)-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, \"a degree of \'partisanship\' for the indigenous underdogs of frontier history\". Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing. So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China. Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous.
### Marxism
Most Chinese history that is published in the People\'s Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo, and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are:
- Slave society
- Feudal society
- Capitalist society
- Socialist society
- The world communist society
The official historical view within the People\'s Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history.
- Slave society -- Xia to Zhou
- Feudal society (decentralized) -- Qin to Sui
- Feudal society (bureaucratic) -- Tang to the First Opium War
- Feudal society (semi-colonial) -- First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty
- Semi-feudal and Semi-capitalist society -- Republican era
- Socialist society -- PRC 1949 to present
Because of the strength of the CCP and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.
Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them.
There are several problems associated with imposing Marx\'s European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China\'s history but never as the primary form of labor. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term \"bureaucratic feudalism\". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed.
The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that \"Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West\" and assumed that China existed in a \"qualitatively different historical world from Western society\". That is, there is an argument between those who see \"unilinear, monistic world history\" and those who conceive of a \"two-tracked or multi-tracked world history\". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220--589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China\'s history from that point on.
There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian\'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism\'s ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics.
### Modernization
This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as the model. Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction.
By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of \"changeless China\" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank, was the notion of \"change within tradition\", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say \"China has not changed fundamentally\" is tautological, since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental.
Nonetheless, studies seeing China\'s interaction with Europe as the driving force behind its recent history are still common. Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China\'s modern period. Examples include the works of H.B. Morse, who wrote chronicles of China\'s international relations such as *Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire*. The Chinese convention is to use the word *jindai* (\"modern\") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with the Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period.
In the 1950s, several of Fairbank\'s students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity. Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright, and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress. Wright concluded, \"The failure of the \[\[Tongzhi Restoration\|T\'ung-chih \[*Tongzhi*\] Restoration\]\] demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society. Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial.\"
In a different view of modernization, the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity. The Chinese nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry. Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget. Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations, itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts. The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith.
### Hydraulic despotism {#hydraulic_despotism}
With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. Yu the Great, one of China\'s legendary founders, is known for his control of the floods of the Yellow River. The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation. In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works. As only a centralized administration could organize the building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands.
When Wittfogel published his *Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power*, critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern.
While Wittfogel\'s theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch\'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, *Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control*. The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability.
### Convergence
Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang\'s involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization. Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China\'s case, it is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of *Shijie Datong* or \"Great Unity\". It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture.
### Anti-imperialism {#anti_imperialism}
Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives. These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or the former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said\'s *Orientalism*, which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia\'s histories into European categories unsuited to them. With regard to China particularly, T.F. Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited the influential volume *China\'s Response to the West* (1953). This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces. In the 1980s, Paul Cohen, a student of Fairbank\'s, issued a call for a more \"China-Centered history of China\".
### Republican
The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic. The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as a bourgeois revolution. In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen\'s writings:
- Military unification -- 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition)
- Political tutelage -- 1928 to 1947
- Constitutional democracy -- 1947 onward
The most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of \"political tutelage\" and of a \"constitutional democracy\" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s. Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory.
### Postmodernism
Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on a small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings.
### Long-term political economy {#long_term_political_economy}
Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history:
- The aristocratic settlement state (to c. 550 BCE)
- Centralization of power with military revolution (c. 550 BCE -- c. 25 CE)
- Landowning families competing for central power and integrating the South (c. 25 -- c. 755)
- Imperial examination scholar-officials and commercialization (c. 755 -- c. 1550)
- Commercial interests with global convergence (since c. 1550)
## Recent trends {#recent_trends}
From the beginning of CCP rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle. From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978--1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China\'s contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism\'s influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China.
The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed. Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys. In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children\'s books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life.
Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism, and has questioned modernist narratives of China\'s backwardness and lack of development. The desire to challenge the preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia. Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China.
As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of the Nationalist period. A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience. There has been an increasingly nuanced portrayal of Chiang Kai-shek, particularly in more favorably evaluating his leadership during the Second Sino-Japanese War and highlighting his position as one of the Big Four allied leaders. Recently released archival sources on the Nationalist era, including the Chiang Kai-shek diaries at Stanford University\'s Hoover Institution, have contributed to a surge in academic publishing on the period.
### Nationalism
In China, historical scholarship remains largely nationalist and modernist or even traditionalist. The legacies of the modernist school (such as Lo Hsiang-lin) and the traditionalist school (such as Qian Mu (Chien Mu)) remain strong in Chinese circles. The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and employ the scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts. For example, using radiocarbon dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history. The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial historical works, and analyzes the rise and fall of dynasties using Confucian philosophy, albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective.
After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the late imperial system and its failures. However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture, in both the media and social media. Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over the internet.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,184 |
C*-algebra
|
In mathematics, specifically in functional analysis, a **C^∗^-algebra** (pronounced \"C-star\") is a Banach algebra together with an involution satisfying the properties of the adjoint. A particular case is that of a complex algebra *A* of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties:
- *A* is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.
- *A* is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators.
Another important class of non-Hilbert C\*-algebras includes the algebra $C_0(X)$ of complex-valued continuous functions on *X* that vanish at infinity, where *X* is a locally compact Hausdorff space.
C\*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables. This line of research began with Werner Heisenberg\'s matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933. Subsequently, John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras, which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C\*-algebras that are now known as von Neumann algebras.
Around 1943, the work of Israel Gelfand and Mark Naimark yielded an abstract characterisation of C\*-algebras making no reference to operators on a Hilbert space.
C\*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics. Another active area of research is the program to obtain classification, or to determine the extent of which classification is possible, for separable simple nuclear C\*-algebras.
## Abstract characterization {#abstract_characterization}
We begin with the abstract characterization of C\*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gelfand and Naimark.
A C\*-algebra, *A*, is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map $x \mapsto x^*$ for $x\in A$ with the following properties:
- It is an involution, for every *x* in *A*:
$$x^{**} = (x^*)^* = x$$
- For all *x*, *y* in *A*:
$$(x + y)^* = x^* + y^*$$
$$(x y)^* = y^* x^*$$
- For every complex number $\lambda\in\mathbb{C}$ and every *x* in *A*:
$$(\lambda x)^* = \overline{\lambda} x^* .$$
- For all *x* in *A*:
$$\|x x^* \| = \|x\|\|x^*\|.$$
**Remark.** The first four identities say that *A* is a \*-algebra. The last identity is called the **C\* identity** and is equivalent to:
$\|xx^*\| = \|x\|^2,$
which is sometimes called the B\*-identity. For history behind the names C\*- and B\*-algebras, see the history section below.
The C\*-identity is a very strong requirement. For instance, together with the spectral radius formula, it implies that the C\*-norm is uniquely determined by the algebraic structure:
$$\|x\|^2 = \|x^* x\| = \sup\{|\lambda| : x^* x - \lambda \,1 \text{ is not invertible} \}.$$
A bounded linear map, *π* : *A* → *B*, between C\*-algebras *A* and *B* is called a **\*-homomorphism** if
- For *x* and *y* in *A*
$$\pi(x y) = \pi(x) \pi(y) \,$$
- For *x* in *A*
$$\pi(x^*) = \pi(x)^* \,$$
In the case of C\*-algebras, any \*-homomorphism *π* between C\*-algebras is contractive, i.e. bounded with norm ≤ 1. Furthermore, an injective \*-homomorphism between C\*-algebras is isometric. These are consequences of the C\*-identity.
A bijective \*-homomorphism *π* is called a **C\*-isomorphism**, in which case *A* and *B* are said to be **isomorphic**.
## Some history: B\*-algebras and C\*-algebras {#some_history_b_algebras_and_c_algebras}
The term B\*-algebra was introduced by C. E. Rickart in 1946 to describe Banach \*-algebras that satisfy the condition:
- $\lVert x x^* \rVert = \lVert x \rVert ^2$ for all *x* in the given B\*-algebra. (B\*-condition)
This condition automatically implies that the \*-involution is isometric, that is, $\lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert$. Hence, $\lVert xx^*\rVert = \lVert x \rVert \lVert x^*\rVert$, and therefore, a B\*-algebra is also a C\*-algebra. Conversely, the C\*-condition implies the B\*-condition. This is nontrivial, and can be proved without using the condition $\lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert$. For these reasons, the term B\*-algebra is rarely used in current terminology, and has been replaced by the term \'C\*-algebra\'.
The term C\*-algebra was introduced by I. E. Segal in 1947 to describe norm-closed subalgebras of *B*(*H*), namely, the space of bounded operators on some Hilbert space *H*. \'C\' stood for \'closed\'. In his paper Segal defines a C\*-algebra as a \"uniformly closed, self-adjoint algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space\".
## Structure of C\*-algebras {#structure_of_c_algebras}
C\*-algebras have a large number of properties that are technically convenient. Some of these properties can be established by using the continuous functional calculus or by reduction to commutative C\*-algebras. In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the Gelfand isomorphism.
### Self-adjoint elements {#self_adjoint_elements}
Self-adjoint elements are those of the form $x = x^*$. The set of elements of a C\*-algebra *A* of the form $x^*x$ forms a closed convex cone. This cone is identical to the elements of the form $xx^*$. Elements of this cone are called *non-negative* (or sometimes *positive*, even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of $\mathbb{R}$)
The set of self-adjoint elements of a C\*-algebra *A* naturally has the structure of a partially ordered vector space; the ordering is usually denoted $\geq$. In this ordering, a self-adjoint element $x \in A$ satisfies $x \geq 0$ if and only if the spectrum of $x$ is non-negative, if and only if $x = s^*s$ for some $s \in A$. Two self-adjoint elements $x$ and $y$ of *A* satisfy $x \geq y$ if $x - y \geq 0$.
This partially ordered subspace allows the definition of a positive linear functional on a C\*-algebra, which in turn is used to define the states of a C\*-algebra, which in turn can be used to construct the spectrum of a C\*-algebra using the GNS construction.
### Quotients and approximate identities {#quotients_and_approximate_identities}
Any C\*-algebra *A* has an approximate identity. In fact, there is a directed family {*e*~λ~}~λ∈I~ of self-adjoint elements of *A* such that
:
: $x e_\lambda \rightarrow x$
: $0 \leq e_\lambda \leq e_\mu \leq 1\quad \mbox{ whenever } \lambda \leq \mu.$
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
: In case *A* is separable, *A* has a sequential approximate identity. More generally, *A* will have a sequential approximate identity if and only if *A* contains a **strictly positive element**, i.e. a positive element *h* such that *hAh* is dense in *A*.
Using approximate identities, one can show that the algebraic quotient of a C\*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided ideal, with the natural norm, is a C\*-algebra.
Similarly, a closed two-sided ideal of a C\*-algebra is itself a C\*-algebra.
## Examples
### Finite-dimensional C\*-algebras {#finite_dimensional_c_algebras}
The algebra M(*n*, **C**) of *n* × *n* matrices over **C** becomes a C\*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space, **C**^*n*^, and use the operator norm \|\|·\|\| on matrices. The involution is given by the conjugate transpose. More generally, one can consider finite direct sums of matrix algebras. In fact, all C\*-algebras that are finite dimensional as vector spaces are of this form, up to isomorphism. The self-adjoint requirement means finite-dimensional C\*-algebras are semisimple, from which fact one can deduce the following theorem of Artin--Wedderburn type:
> **Theorem.** A finite-dimensional C\*-algebra, *A*, is canonically isomorphic to a finite direct sum
>
> $$A = \bigoplus_{e \in \min A } A e$$ where min *A* is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of *A*.
Each C\*-algebra, *Ae*, is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M(dim(*e*), **C**). The finite family indexed on min *A* given by {dim(*e*)}~*e*~ is called the *dimension vector* of *A*. This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C\*-algebra. In the language of K-theory, this vector is the positive cone of the *K*~0~ group of *A*.
A **†-algebra** (or, more explicitly, a *†-closed algebra*) is the name occasionally used in physics for a finite-dimensional C\*-algebra. The dagger, †, is used in the name because physicists typically use the symbol to denote a Hermitian adjoint, and are often not worried about the subtleties associated with an infinite number of dimensions. (Mathematicians usually use the asterisk, \*, to denote the Hermitian adjoint.) †-algebras feature prominently in quantum mechanics, and especially quantum information science.
An immediate generalization of finite dimensional C\*-algebras are the approximately finite dimensional C\*-algebras.
### C\*-algebras of operators {#c_algebras_of_operators}
The prototypical example of a C\*-algebra is the algebra *B(H)* of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space *H*; here *x\** denotes the adjoint operator of the operator *x* : *H* → *H*. In fact, every C\*-algebra, *A*, is \*-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of *B*(*H*) for a suitable Hilbert space, *H*; this is the content of the Gelfand--Naimark theorem.
### C\*-algebras of compact operators {#c_algebras_of_compact_operators}
Let *H* be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra *K*(*H*) of compact operators on *H* is a norm closed subalgebra of *B*(*H*). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C\*-algebra.
Concrete C\*-algebras of compact operators admit a characterization similar to Wedderburn\'s theorem for finite dimensional C\*-algebras:
> **Theorem.** If *A* is a C\*-subalgebra of *K*(*H*), then there exists Hilbert spaces {*H~i~*}~*i*∈*I*~ such that
>
> $$A \cong \bigoplus_{i \in I } K(H_i),$$ where the (C\*-)direct sum consists of elements (*T~i~*) of the Cartesian product Π *K*(*H~i~*) with \|\|*T~i~*\|\| → 0.
Though *K*(*H*) does not have an identity element, a sequential approximate identity for *K*(*H*) can be developed. To be specific, *H* is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences *l*^2^; we may assume that *H* = *l*^2^. For each natural number *n* let *H~n~* be the subspace of sequences of *l*^2^ which vanish for indices *k* ≥ *n* and let *e~n~* be the orthogonal projection onto *H~n~*. The sequence {*e~n~*}~*n*~ is an approximate identity for *K*(*H*).
*K*(*H*) is a two-sided closed ideal of *B*(*H*). For separable Hilbert spaces, it is the unique ideal. The quotient of *B*(*H*) by *K*(*H*) is the Calkin algebra.
### Commutative C\*-algebras {#commutative_c_algebras}
Let *X* be a locally compact Hausdorff space. The space $C_0(X)$ of complex-valued continuous functions on *X* that *vanish at infinity* (defined in the article on local compactness) forms a commutative C\*-algebra $C_0(X)$ under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. $C_0(X)$ has a multiplicative unit element if and only if $X$ is compact. As does any C\*-algebra, $C_0(X)$ has an approximate identity. In the case of $C_0(X)$ this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of $X$, and for each compact $K$ let $f_K$ be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on $K$. Such functions exist by the Tietze extension theorem, which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. Any such sequence of functions $\{f_K\}$ is an approximate identity.
The Gelfand representation states that every commutative C\*-algebra is \*-isomorphic to the algebra $C_0(X)$, where $X$ is the space of characters equipped with the weak\* topology. Furthermore, if $C_0(X)$ is isomorphic to $C_0(Y)$ as C\*-algebras, it follows that $X$ and $Y$ are homeomorphic. This characterization is one of the motivations for the noncommutative topology and noncommutative geometry programs.
### C\*-enveloping algebra {#c_enveloping_algebra}
Given a Banach \*-algebra *A* with an approximate identity, there is a unique (up to C\*-isomorphism) C\*-algebra **E**(*A*) and \*-morphism π from *A* into **E**(*A*) that is universal, that is, every other continuous \*-morphism `{{nowrap|π ' : ''A'' → ''B''}}`{=mediawiki} factors uniquely through π. The algebra **E**(*A*) is called the **C\*-enveloping algebra** of the Banach \*-algebra *A*.
Of particular importance is the C\*-algebra of a locally compact group *G*. This is defined as the enveloping C\*-algebra of the group algebra of *G*. The C\*-algebra of *G* provides context for general harmonic analysis of *G* in the case *G* is non-abelian. In particular, the dual of a locally compact group is defined to be the primitive ideal space of the group C\*-algebra. See spectrum of a C\*-algebra.
### Von Neumann algebras {#von_neumann_algebras}
Von Neumann algebras, known as W\* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C\*-algebra. They are required to be closed in the weak operator topology, which is weaker than the norm topology.
The Sherman--Takeda theorem implies that any C\*-algebra has a universal enveloping W\*-algebra, such that any homomorphism to a W\*-algebra factors through it.
## Type for C\*-algebras {#type_for_c_algebras}
A C\*-algebra *A* is of type I if and only if for all non-degenerate representations π of *A* the von Neumann algebra π(*A*)`{{pprime}}`{=mediawiki} (that is, the bicommutant of π(*A*)) is a type I von Neumann algebra. In fact it is sufficient to consider only factor representations, i.e. representations π for which π(*A*)`{{pprime}}`{=mediawiki} is a factor.
A locally compact group is said to be of type I if and only if its group C\*-algebra is type I.
However, if a C\*-algebra has non-type I representations, then by results of James Glimm it also has representations of type II and type III. Thus for C\*-algebras and locally compact groups, it is only meaningful to speak of type I and non type I properties.
## C\*-algebras and quantum field theory {#c_algebras_and_quantum_field_theory}
In quantum mechanics, one typically describes a physical system with a C\*-algebra *A* with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of *A* (elements *x* with *x\** = *x*) are thought of as the *observables*, the measurable quantities, of the system. A *state* of the system is defined as a positive functional on *A* (a **C**-linear map φ : *A* → **C** with φ(*u\*u*) ≥ 0 for all *u* ∈ *A*) such that φ(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable *x*, if the system is in state φ, is then φ(*x*).
This C\*-algebra approach is used in the Haag--Kastler axiomatization of local quantum field theory, where every open set of Minkowski spacetime is associated with a C\*-algebra.
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7,198 |
Characteristic subgroup
|
In mathematics, particularly in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a **characteristic subgroup** is a subgroup that is mapped to itself by every automorphism of the parent group. Because every conjugation map is an inner automorphism, every characteristic subgroup is normal; though the converse is not guaranteed. Examples of characteristic subgroups include the commutator subgroup and the center of a group.
## Definition
A subgroup `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} of a group `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} is called a **characteristic subgroup** if for every automorphism `{{math|''φ''}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}, one has `{{math|φ(''H'') ≤ ''H''}}`{=mediawiki}; then write **`{{math|''H'' char ''G''}}`{=mediawiki}**.
It would be equivalent to require the stronger condition `{{math|φ(''H'')}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} for every automorphism `{{math|''φ''}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}, because `{{math|φ<sup>−1</sup>(''H'') ≤ ''H''}}`{=mediawiki} implies the reverse inclusion `{{math|''H'' ≤ φ(''H'')}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Basic properties {#basic_properties}
Given `{{math|''H'' char ''G''}}`{=mediawiki}, every automorphism of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} induces an automorphism of the quotient group `{{math|''G/H''}}`{=mediawiki}, which yields a homomorphism `{{math|Aut(''G'') → Aut(''G''/''H'')}}`{=mediawiki}.
If `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} has a unique subgroup `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} of a given index, then `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} is characteristic in `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Related concepts {#related_concepts}
### Normal subgroup {#normal_subgroup}
A subgroup of `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} that is invariant under all inner automorphisms is called normal; also, an invariant subgroup.
:
Since `{{math|Inn(''G'') ⊆ Aut(''G'')}}`{=mediawiki} and a characteristic subgroup is invariant under all automorphisms, every characteristic subgroup is normal. However, not every normal subgroup is characteristic. Here are several examples:
- Let `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} be a nontrivial group, and let `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} be the direct product, `{{math|''H'' × ''H''}}`{=mediawiki}. Then the subgroups, `{{math|{1} × ''H''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''H'' × {1{{)}}`{=mediawiki}}}, are both normal, but neither is characteristic. In particular, neither of these subgroups is invariant under the automorphism, `{{math|(''x'', ''y'') → (''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}, that switches the two factors.
- For a concrete example of this, let `{{math|''V''}}`{=mediawiki} be the Klein four-group (which is isomorphic to the direct product, $\mathbb{Z}_2 \times \mathbb{Z}_2$). Since this group is abelian, every subgroup is normal; but every permutation of the 3 non-identity elements is an automorphism of `{{math|''V''}}`{=mediawiki}, so the 3 subgroups of order 2 are not characteristic. Here `{{math|V {{=}}`{=mediawiki} {*e*, *a*, *b*, *ab*} }}. Consider `{{math|H {{=}}`{=mediawiki} {*e*, *a*{{)}}}} and consider the automorphism, `{{math|T(''e'') {{=}}`{=mediawiki} *e*, T(*a*) {{=}} *b*, T(*b*) {{=}} *a*, T(*ab*) {{=}} *ab*}}; then `{{math|T(''H'')}}`{=mediawiki} is not contained in `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki}.
- In the quaternion group of order 8, each of the cyclic subgroups of order 4 is normal, but none of these are characteristic. However, the subgroup, `{{math|{1, −1{{)}}`{=mediawiki}}}, is characteristic, since it is the only subgroup of order 2.
- If `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} \> 2 is even, the dihedral group of order `{{math|2''n''}}`{=mediawiki} has 3 subgroups of index 2, all of which are normal. One of these is the cyclic subgroup, which is characteristic. The other two subgroups are dihedral; these are permuted by an outer automorphism of the parent group, and are therefore not characteristic.
### Strictly characteristic subgroup`{{anchor|Strictly invariant subgroup}}`{=mediawiki} {#strictly_characteristic_subgroup}
A *`{{vanchor|strictly characteristic subgroup}}`{=mediawiki}*, or a *`{{vanchor|distinguished subgroup}}`{=mediawiki}*, is one which is invariant under surjective endomorphisms. For finite groups, surjectivity of an endomorphism implies injectivity, so a surjective endomorphism is an automorphism; thus being *strictly characteristic* is equivalent to *characteristic*. This is not the case anymore for infinite groups.
### Fully characteristic subgroup`{{anchor|Fully invariant subgroup}}`{=mediawiki} {#fully_characteristic_subgroup}
For an even stronger constraint, a *fully characteristic subgroup* (also, *fully invariant subgroup*) of a group *G*, is a subgroup *H* ≤ *G* that is invariant under every endomorphism of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} (and not just every automorphism):
: .
Every group has itself (the improper subgroup) and the trivial subgroup as two of its fully characteristic subgroups. The commutator subgroup of a group is always a fully characteristic subgroup.
Every endomorphism of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} induces an endomorphism of `{{math|''G/H''}}`{=mediawiki}, which yields a map `{{math|End(''G'') → End(''G''/''H'')}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Verbal subgroup {#verbal_subgroup}
An even stronger constraint is verbal subgroup, which is the image of a fully invariant subgroup of a free group under a homomorphism. More generally, any verbal subgroup is always fully characteristic. For any reduced free group, and, in particular, for any free group, the converse also holds: every fully characteristic subgroup is verbal.
## Transitivity
The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is transitive; if `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki} is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}, then `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}.
: .
Moreover, while normality is not transitive, it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal.
:
Similarly, while being strictly characteristic (distinguished) is not transitive, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a strictly characteristic subgroup is strictly characteristic.
However, unlike normality, if `{{math|''H'' char ''G''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki} is a subgroup of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} containing `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki}, then in general `{{math|''H''}}`{=mediawiki} is not necessarily characteristic in `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki}.
:
## Containments
Every subgroup that is fully characteristic is certainly strictly characteristic and characteristic; but a characteristic or even strictly characteristic subgroup need not be fully characteristic.
The center of a group is always a strictly characteristic subgroup, but it is not always fully characteristic. For example, the finite group of order 12, `{{math|Sym(3) × <math>\mathbb{Z} / 2 \mathbb{Z}</math>}}`{=mediawiki}, has a homomorphism taking `{{math|(''π'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{math|((1, 2){{sup|''y''}}, 0)}}`{=mediawiki}, which takes the center, $1 \times \mathbb{Z} / 2 \mathbb{Z}$, into a subgroup of `{{math|Sym(3) × 1}}`{=mediawiki}, which meets the center only in the identity.
The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as:
: Subgroup ⇐ Normal subgroup ⇐ **Characteristic subgroup** ⇐ Strictly characteristic subgroup ⇐ Fully characteristic subgroup ⇐ Verbal subgroup
## Examples
### Finite example {#finite_example}
Consider the group `{{math|''G'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} S`{{sub|3}}`{=mediawiki} × $\mathbb{Z}_2$}} (the group of order 12 that is the direct product of the symmetric group of order 6 and a cyclic group of order 2). The center of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} is isomorphic to its second factor $\mathbb{Z}_2$. Note that the first factor, `{{math|S{{sub|3}}}}`{=mediawiki}, contains subgroups isomorphic to $\mathbb{Z}_2$, for instance `{{math|{e, (12)} }}`{=mediawiki}; let $f: \mathbb{Z}_2<\rarr \text{S}_3$ be the morphism mapping $\mathbb{Z}_2$ onto the indicated subgroup. Then the composition of the projection of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} onto its second factor $\mathbb{Z}_2$, followed by `{{math|''f''}}`{=mediawiki}, followed by the inclusion of `{{math|S{{sub|3}}}}`{=mediawiki} into `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} as its first factor, provides an endomorphism of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki} under which the image of the center, $\mathbb{Z}_2$, is not contained in the center, so here the center is not a fully characteristic subgroup of `{{math|''G''}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Cyclic groups {#cyclic_groups}
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is characteristic.
### Subgroup functors {#subgroup_functors}
The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group is a verbal subgroup. The torsion subgroup of an abelian group is a fully invariant subgroup.
### Topological groups {#topological_groups}
The identity component of a topological group is always a characteristic subgroup.
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Contempt of court
|
**Contempt of court**, often referred to simply as \"**contempt**\", is the crime of being disobedient to or disrespectful toward a court of law and its officers in the form of behavior that opposes or defies the authority, justice, and dignity of the court. A similar attitude toward a legislative body is termed contempt of Parliament or contempt of Congress. The verb for \"to commit contempt\" is **contemn** (as in \"to contemn a court order\") and a person guilty of this is a **contemnor** or **contemner**.
There are broadly two categories of contempt: being disrespectful to legal authorities in the courtroom, or willfully failing to obey a court order. Contempt proceedings are especially used to enforce equitable remedies, such as injunctions. In some jurisdictions, the refusal to respond to subpoena, to testify, to fulfill the obligations of a juror, or to provide certain information can constitute contempt of the court.
When a court decides that an action constitutes contempt of court, it can issue an order in the context of a court trial or hearing that declares a person or organization to have disobeyed or been disrespectful of the court\'s authority, called \"found\" or \"held\" in contempt. That is the judge\'s strongest power to impose sanctions for acts that disrupt the court\'s normal process.
A finding of being in contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material or non-disclosure of material, which in doing so is deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine, jail or social service for someone found guilty of contempt of court, which makes contempt of court a process crime. Judges in common law systems usually have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.
## In use today {#in_use_today}
Contempt of court is essentially seen as a form of disturbance that may impede the functioning of the court. The judge may impose fines and/or jail time upon any person committing contempt of court. The person is usually let out upon an agreement to fulfill the wishes of the court. Civil contempt can involve acts of omission. The judge will make use of warnings in most situations that may lead to a person being charged with contempt if the warnings are ignored. It is relatively rare that a person is charged for contempt without first receiving at least one warning from the judge. Constructive contempt, also called *consequential contempt*, is when a person fails to fulfill the will of the court as it applies to outside obligations of the person. In most cases, constructive contempt is considered to be in the realm of civil contempt due to its passive nature.
Indirect contempt is something that is associated with civil and constructive contempt and involves a failure to follow court orders. Criminal contempt includes anything that could be considered a disturbance, such as repeatedly talking out of turn, bringing forth previously banned evidence, or harassment of any other party in the courtroom, including committing an assault against the defendant in a criminal case. There have been instances during murder trials that grieving family members of murder victims have attacked the defendants in courtrooms in plain view of judges, bailiffs, and jurors, leading to said family members to be charged with contempt. Direct contempt is an unacceptable act in the presence of the judge (*in facie curiae*), and generally begins with a warning; it may be accompanied by the immediate imposition of a punishment.
### Australia
In Australia, a judge may impose a fine or jail for contempt of court.
### Belgium
A Belgian correctional or civil judge may immediately try the person for insulting the court.
### British West Indies {#british_west_indies}
In 1888, Louis de Souza, a young barrister in British Guiana was fined \$500 and imprisoned for six months for contempt of court for publicly criticising judicial decisions. De Souza applied for special leave to appeal his case to the Privy Council as the decisions that he had criticised were not ongoing or cases in which he appeared and, therefore, broader than disrespect to legal authorities in a courtroom. A few years earlier, in Grenada, a newspaper had also been sanctioned for defaming a judge by printing remarks about a case.
The Privy Council granted De Souza\'s leave, with the judges apparently remarking that judges in England are subjected to far worse. De Souza, however, contracted tuberculosis while in jail and died 3 months after his release. His imprisonment was reported across the West Indies and his death elicited outrage. Valence Gale, a Barbadian journalist, wrote passionately about the events leading up De Souza\'s death. One of his articles is credited with paving the way for the passage of Barbados\' Contempt of Court Act 1891, the first of many across the West Indies.
### Canada
#### Common law offense {#common_law_offense}
In Canada, contempt of court is an exception to the general principle that all criminal offences are set out in the federal *Criminal Code*. Contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.
Contempt of court includes the following behaviors:
- Failing to maintain a respectful attitude, failing to remain silent or failing to refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
- Refusing or neglecting to obey a subpoena
- Willfully disobeying a process or order of the court
- Interfering with the orderly administration of justice or impairing the authority or dignity of the court
- Failing to perform duties as an officer of the court
- A sheriff or bailiff not executing a writ of the court forthwith or not making a return thereof
#### Canadian Federal courts {#canadian_federal_courts}
*This section applies only to the Federal Court of Appeal and Federal Court.*
Under Federal Court Rules, Rules 466, and Rule 467 a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved.
If it is a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person being imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order or fine.
#### Tax Court of Canada {#tax_court_of_canada}
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of *Tax Court of Canada Act*, a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.
#### Provincial courts {#provincial_courts}
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in British Columbia, a justice of the peace can only issue a summons to an offender for contempt, which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done in the face of the justice.
### Hong Kong {#hong_kong}
Judges from the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, High Court of Hong Kong, District Court along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner\'s Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislation or through common law:
- Insult a judge or justice, witness or officers of the court
- Interrupts the proceedings of the court
- Interfere with the course of justice
- Misbehaves in court (e.g., use of mobile phone or recording devices without permission)
- Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
- Disobeying a judgment or court order
- Breach of undertaking
- Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court
The use of insulting or threatening language in the magistrates\' courts or against a magistrate is in breach of section 99 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) which states the magistrate can \'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.\'
In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority for contempt by them (e.g., Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc.). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the Court of First Instance who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In England and Wales (a common law jurisdiction), the law on contempt is partly set out in case law (common law), and partly codified by the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be classified as *criminal* or *civil*. The maximum penalty for criminal contempt under the 1981 Act is committal to prison for two years.
Disorderly, contemptuous or insolent behaviour toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as \"direct\" contempt. The term \"direct\" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behaviour observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.
There are limits to the powers of contempt created by rulings of European Court of Human Rights. Reporting on contempt of court, the Law Commission commented that \"punishment of an advocate for what he or she says in court, whether a criticism of the judge or a prosecutor, amounts to an interference with his or her rights under article 10 of the ECHR\" and that such limits must be \"prescribed by law\" and be \"necessary in a democratic society\", citing Nikula v Finland.
#### Criminal contempt {#criminal_contempt}
The Crown Court is a superior court according to the Senior Courts Act 1981 and as such has the power to punish contempt. The Divisional Court as part of the High Court has ruled that this power can apply in these three circumstances:
1. Contempt \"in the face of the court\" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
2. Disobedience of a court order; and
3. Breaches of undertakings to the court.
Where it is necessary to act quickly, a judge may act to impose committal (to prison) for contempt.
Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the Attorney General can intervene and the Crown Prosecution Service will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before a Divisional Court of the King\'s Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. For example, in January 2012, Theodora Dallas, a juror who had researched information on the internet was jailed for contempt of court. Initially searching for the meaning of the term \"grievous bodily harm\", she added search criteria which localised her search and brought to light another charge against the defendant. Because she then shared this information with the other jurors, the judge stated that she had compromised the defendant\'s right to a fair trial and the prosecution was abandoned.
Magistrates\' courts also have powers under the 1981 Act to order to detain any person who \"insults the court\" or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon contempt being admitted or proved the (invariably) District Judge (sitting as a magistrate) may order committal to prison for a maximum of one month, impose a fine of up to £2,500, or both.
It will be contempt to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.
It will not be contempt according to section 10 of the Act for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is \"necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime\".
#### Strict liability contempt {#strict_liability_contempt}
Under the Contempt of Court Act it is criminal contempt to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the Attorney General has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial or linked trials are over and the juries have given their verdicts.
Section 2 of the Act defines and limits the previous common law definition of contempt (which was previously based upon a presumption that any conduct could be treated as contempt, regardless of intent), to only instances where there can be proved an intent to cause a substantial risk of serious prejudice to the administration of justice (i.e./e.g., the conduct of a trial).
#### Civil contempt {#civil_contempt}
In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:
1. Failure to attend at court despite a summons requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a writ of latitat would have been issued, but now a bench warrant is issued, authorizing the tipstaff to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally \"backed for bail\"---i.e., bail will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
2. Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a \"penal notice\"---i.e., notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment---is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claimant of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.
### India
In India, contempt of court is of two types:
### Pakistan
### Singapore
### United States {#united_states}
In United States jurisprudence, acts of contempt are generally divided into direct or indirect, and civil or criminal. Direct contempt occurs in the presence of a judge; civil contempt is \"coercive and remedial\" as opposed to punitive. In the United States, relevant statutes include `{{usc|18|401|403}}`{=mediawiki} and Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 42.
1. Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (*in facie curiae*) and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
2. Indirect contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court\'s prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and, since there is no written procedure, may or may not be allowed to present evidence in rebuttal.
Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.
Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a fine or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court\'s order continues: once the party complies with the court\'s order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to \"hold the keys\" to their own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. In federal and most state courts, the burden of proof for civil contempt is clear and convincing evidence, a lower standard than in criminal cases.
In civil contempt cases there is no principle of proportionality. In *Chadwick v. Janecka* (3d Cir. 2002), a U.S. court of appeals held that H. Beatty Chadwick could be held indefinitely for his failure to produce \$2.5 million as a state court ordered in a civil trial. Chadwick had been imprisoned for nine years at that time and continued to be held in prison until 2009, when a state court set him free after 14 years, making his imprisonment the longest on a contempt charge to date.
Civil contempt is only appropriate when the imposed party has the power to comply with the underlying order. Controversial contempt rulings have periodically arisen from cases involving asset protection trusts, where the court has ordered a settlor of an asset protection trust to repatriate assets so that the assets may be made available to a creditor. A court cannot maintain an order of contempt where the imposed party does not have the ability to comply with the underlying order. This claim when made by the imposed party is known as the \"impossibility defense\".
Contempt of court is considered a prerogative of the court, and \"the requirement of a jury does not apply to \'contempts committed in disobedience of any lawful writ, process, order, rule, decree, or command entered in any suit or action brought or prosecuted in the name of, or on behalf of, the United States.{{\'\"}} This stance is not universally agreed with by other areas of the legal world, and there have been many calls to have contempt cases to be tried by jury, rather than by judge, as a potential conflict of interest rising from a judge both accusing and sentencing the defendant. At least one Supreme Court justice has made calls for jury trials to replace bench trials on contempt cases.
The United States Marshals Service is the agency component that first holds all federal prisoners. It uses the Prisoner Population Management System / Prisoner Tracking System. The only types of records that are disclosed as being in the system are those of \"federal prisoners who are in custody pending criminal proceedings.\" The records of \"alleged civil contempors\" are not listed in the Federal Register as being in the system leading to a potential claim for damages under The Privacy Act, `{{usc|5|552a(e)(4)(I)}}`{=mediawiki}.
In *Ex parte Grossman* (1925), the U.S. Supreme Court held that the U.S. President may pardon criminal contempt of court.
#### News media in the United States {#news_media_in_the_united_states}
In the United States, because of the broad protections granted by the First Amendment, with extremely limited exceptions, unless the media outlet is a party to the case, a media outlet cannot be found in contempt of court for reporting about a case because a court cannot order the media in general not to report on a case or forbid it from reporting facts discovered publicly. Newspapers cannot be closed because of their content.
#### Criticism
There have been criticisms over the practice of trying contempt from the bench. In particular, Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black wrote in a dissent, \"It is high time, in my judgment, to wipe out root and branch the judge-invented and judge-maintained notion that judges can try criminal contempt cases without a jury.\"
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Corroborating evidence
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**Corroborating evidence**, also referred to as **corroboration**, is a type of evidence in lawful command.
## Types and uses {#types_and_uses}
Corroborating evidence tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some initial evidence, therefore confirming the proposition. For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car. Meanwhile, Y, another witness, *corroborates* the proposition by testifying that when he examined X\'s car, later that day, he noticed green paint on its fender. There can also be corroborating evidence related to a certain source, such as what makes an author think a certain way due to the evidence that was supplied by witnesses or objects.
Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the Baconian method, i.e., the method of agreement, method of difference, and method of concomitant variations.
These methods are followed in experimental design. They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables, in turn, to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations, and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.
In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as in Scots law, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source (see Corroboration in Scots law).
## An example of corroboration {#an_example_of_corroboration}
Defendant says, \"It was like what he/she (a witness) said but\...\". This is Corroborative evidence from the defendant that the evidence the witness gave is true and correct.
Corroboration is not needed in certain instances. For example, there are certain statutory exceptions. In the Education (Scotland) Act, it is only necessary to produce a register as proof of lack of attendance. No further evidence is needed.
## England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
**Perjury**
See section 13 of the Perjury Act 1911.
**Speeding offences**
See section 89(2) of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984.
**Sexual offences**
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
**Confessions by mentally handicapped persons**
See section 77 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.
**Evidence of children**
See section 34 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.
**Evidence of accomplices**
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
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Cross-examination
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`{{Evidence law}}`{=mediawiki} In law, **cross-examination** is the interrogation of a witness by one\'s opponent. It is preceded by direct examination (known as examination-in-chief in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India and Pakistan) and may be followed by a redirect (known as re-examination in the aforementioned countries). A redirect examination, performed by the attorney or pro se individual who performed the direct examination, clarifies the witness\' testimony provided during cross-examination including any subject matter raised during cross-examination but not discussed during direct examination. Recross examination addresses the witness\' testimony discussed in redirect by the opponent. Depending on the judge\'s discretion, opponents are allowed multiple opportunities to redirect and recross examine witnesses (this may vary by jurisdiction).
## Variations by jurisdiction {#variations_by_jurisdiction}
In the United States federal courts, a cross-examining attorney is generally limited by Rule 611 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to the \"subject matter of the direct examination and matters affecting the witness\'s credibility\". The rule also permits the trial court, in its discretion, to \"allow inquiry into additional matters as if on direct examination\". Many state courts do permit a lawyer to cross-examine a witness on matters not raised during direct examination, though California restricts cross-examination to \"any matter within the scope of the direct examination\". Similarly, courts in England, South Africa, Australia, and Canada allow a cross-examiner to exceed the scope of direct examination.
Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, leading questions are allowed on cross-examination. A witness called by a direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the party that called them.
## Affecting the outcome of jury trials {#affecting_the_outcome_of_jury_trials}
Cross-examination is a key component of a trial and the topic is given substantial attention during courses on trial advocacy. The opinions of a jury or judge are often changed if cross-examination casts doubt on the witness. On the other hand, a credible witness may reinforce the substance of their original statements and enhance the judge\'s or jury\'s belief. Though the closing argument is often considered the deciding moment of a trial, effective cross-examination wins trials.
Attorneys anticipate hostile witnesses\' responses during pretrial planning, and often attempt to shape the witnesses\' perception of the questions to draw out information helpful to the attorney\'s case. Typically during an attorney\'s closing argument, they will repeat any admissions made by witnesses that favor their case. In the United States, cross-examination is seen as a core part of the entire adversarial system of justice, in that it \"is the principal means by which the believability of a witness and the truth of his testimony are tested.\" Another key component affecting a trial outcome is jury selection, in which attorneys will attempt to include jurors from whom they feel they can get a favorable response or at the least an unbiased fair decision. So while there are many factors affecting the outcome of a trial, the cross-examination of a witness will often influence an open-minded unbiased jury searching for the certainty of facts upon which to base their decision.
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Charles d'Abancourt
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**Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d\'Abancourt** (4 July 1758`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}9 September 1792) was a French statesman, minister to Louis XVI.
## Biography
D\'Abancourt was born in Douai, and was the nephew of Charles Alexandre de Calonne. He was Louis XVI\'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organised the defence of the Tuileries Palace during the 10 August attack. Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss Guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to Orléans to be tried.
At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude Fournier, nicknamed *l\'Americain*. At Versailles they learned of the massacres at Paris. Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood during the 9 September massacres (9 September 1792) at Versailles. Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.
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Claudius Aelianus
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**Claudius Aelianus** (*Klaúdios Ailianós*; c. 175), commonly **Aelian** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ən}}`{=mediawiki}), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222. He spoke Greek so fluently that he was called \"honey-tongued\" (*μελίγλωσσος* *meliglossos*); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.`{{EB1911|wstitle=Aelian (Claudius Aelinaus) |display=Aelian |volume=1|page=256}}`{=mediawiki} This cites:
- *Editio princeps* of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864-1866.
- English translation of the *Various History* only by Fleming, 1576, and Stanley, 1665
- Translation of the *Letters* by Quillard (French), 1895
His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view. *De Natura Animalium* is also the only Greco-Roman work to mention Gilgamesh.
## *De Natura Animalium* {#de_natura_animalium}
*On the Nature of Animals* (alternatively \"On the Characteristics of Animals\"; *Περὶ ζῴων ἰδιότητος*, **Perì zṓōn idiótētos**; usually cited by its Latin title *De Natura Animalium*) is a collection, in seventeen books, of brief stories of natural history. Some are included for the moral lessons they convey; others because they are astonishing.
The Loeb Classical Library introduction characterizes the book as \"an appealing collection of facts and fables about the animal kingdom that invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior\".
Aelian\'s anecdotes on animals rarely depend on direct observation: they are almost entirely taken from written sources, not only Pliny the Elder, Theopompus, and Lycus of Rhegium, but also other authors and works now lost, to whom he is thus a valuable witness. He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected,`{{According to whom|date=February 2016}}`{=mediawiki} though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes \"fishermen\". At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them. Aelian\'s work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the bestiaries of the Middle Ages.
The surviving portions of the text are badly mangled and garbled and replete with later interpolations. Conrad Gessner (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian\'s work, to give it a wider European audience. An English translation by A. F. Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library, 3 vols. (1958--59).
## *Varia Historia* {#varia_historia}
*Various History* (*Ποικίλη ἱστορία*, **Poikílē historía**)---for the most part preserved only in an abridged form---is Aelian\'s other well-known work, a miscellany of anecdotes and biographical sketches, lists, pithy maxims, and descriptions of natural wonders and strange local customs, in 14 books, with many surprises for the cultural historian and the mythographer, anecdotes about the famous Greek philosophers, poets, historians, and playwrights and myths instructively retold. The emphasis is on *various* moralizing tales about heroes and rulers, athletes and wise men; reports about food and drink, different styles in dress or lovers, local habits in giving gifts or entertainments, or in religious beliefs and death customs; and comments on Greek painting. Aelian gives accounts of, among other things, fly fishing using lures of red wool and feathers, lacquerwork, and serpent worship. Essentially, the *Various History* is a classical \"magazine\" in the original sense of that word.`{{Explain|date=September 2022}}`{=mediawiki} He is not perfectly trustworthy in details, and his writing was heavily influenced by Stoic opinions, perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but Jane Ellen Harrison found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her *Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion* (1903, 1922).
*Varia Historia* was first printed in 1545. The standard modern text is that of Mervin R. Dilts (1974).
Two English translations of the *Various History,* by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian\'s miscellany available to English readers, but after 1665 no English translation appeared, until three English translations appeared almost simultaneously: James G. DeVoto, *Claudius Aelianus: Ποικίλης Ἱστορίας (*Varia Historia*)* Chicago, 1995; Diane Ostrom Johnson, *An English Translation of Claudius Aelianus\' \"Varia Historia\"*, 1997; and N. G. Wilson, *Aelian: Historical Miscellany* in the Loeb Classical Library.
## Other works {#other_works}
Considerable fragments of two other works, *On Providence* and *Divine Manifestations*, are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the *Suda.* Twenty \"letters from a farmer\" after the manner of Alciphron are also attributed to him. The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, *de Natura Animalium* XI.40, that he had seen the bull Serapis with his own eyes). Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the *Letters* are as likely to evoke Latium as Attica. The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English. The *Letters* are available in the Loeb Classical Library, translated by Allen Rogers Benner and Francis H. Fobes (1949).
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Cookie
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A **cookie** is a sweet biscuit with high sugar and fat content. Cookie dough is softer than that used for other types of biscuit, and they are cooked longer at lower temperatures. The dough typically contains flour, sugar, egg, and some type of oil or fat. It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, or nuts. Cookie texture varies from crisp and crunchy to soft and chewy, depending on the exact combination of ingredients and methods used to create them.
People in the United States and Canada typically refer to all sweet biscuits as \"cookies\". People in most other English-speaking countries call crunchy cookies \"biscuits\" but may use the term \"cookies\" for chewier biscuits and for certain types, such as chocolate-chip cookies.
Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee, or tea and sometimes dunked, which releases more flavour by dissolving the sugars, while also softening their texture. Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores, and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses.
## Terminology
In many English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is \"biscuit\". Where biscuit is the most common term, \"cookie\" often only refers to one type of biscuit, a chocolate chip cookie. However, in some regions both terms are used. The container used to store cookies may be called a cookie jar.
In Scotland, the term \"cookie\" is sometimes used to describe a plain bun.
Cookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called **bar cookies** in American English or **traybakes** in British English.
## Etymology
The word *cookie* dates from at least 1701 in Scottish usage where the word meant \"plain bun\", rather than thin baked good, and so it is not certain whether it is the same word. From 1808, the word \"cookie\" is attested \"\...in the sense of \"small, flat, sweet cake\" in American English. The American use is derived from Dutch *koekje* \"little cake\", which is a diminutive of \"*koek*\" (\"cake\"), which came from the Middle Dutch word \"*koke*\" with an informal, dialect variant *koekie*. According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name may derive from the diminutive form (+ suffix *-ie*) of the word *cook*, giving the Middle Scots *cookie*, *cooky* or *cu(c)kie*. There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf.
## Description
Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or else for just long enough to ensure a soft interior. Other types of cookies are not baked at all, such as varieties of peanut butter cookies that use solidified chocolate rather than set eggs and wheat gluten as a binder. Cookies are produced in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits.
A general theory of cookies may be formulated in the following way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the batter as thin as possible, the better to allow bubbles---responsible for a cake\'s fluffiness---to form. In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a far higher temperature. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs in place of water is much denser after removal from the oven.
Rather than evaporating as water does in a baking cake, oils in cookies remain. These oils saturate the cavities created during baking by bubbles of escaping gases. These gases are primarily composed of steam vaporized from the egg whites and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not render soggy the food it has soaked into.
## History
Cookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking has been documented, in part because they survive travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies by modern standards.
Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain.`{{Dubious|Cookies from Persia|date=March 2025}}`{=mediawiki} By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors. The first documented instance of the figure-shaped gingerbread man was at the court of Elizabeth I of England in the 16th century. She had the gingerbread figures made and presented in the likeness of some of her important guests.
With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water.
Cookies came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s. The Dutch word \"*koekje*\" was Anglicized to \"cookie\" or cooky. The earliest reference to cookies in America is in 1703, when \"The Dutch in New York provided\...\'in 1703\...at a funeral 800 cookies\...{{\'\"}}
The modern form of cookies, which is based on creaming butter and sugar together, did not appear commonly until the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution in Britain and the consumers it created saw cookies (biscuits) become products for the masses, and firms such as Huntley & Palmers (formed in 1822), McVitie\'s (formed in 1830) and Carr\'s (formed in 1831) were all established. The decorative biscuit tin, invented by Huntley & Palmers in 1831, saw British cookies exported around the world. In 1891, Cadbury filed a patent for a chocolate-coated cookie.
## Classification
Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed or made, including at least these categories:
- *Bar cookies* consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. In British English, bar cookies are known as \"tray bakes\". Examples include brownies, fruit squares, and bars such as date squares.
- *Drop cookies* are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include *thumbprint cookies*, for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip. In the UK, the term \"cookie\" often refers only to this particular type of product.
- *Filled cookies* are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit, jam or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.
- *Molded cookies* are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.
- *No-bake cookies* are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal clusters and rum balls are no-bake cookies.
- *Pressed cookies* are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.
- *Refrigerator cookies* (also known as *icebox cookies*) are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Pinwheel cookies and those made by Pillsbury are representative.
- *Rolled cookies* are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.
- *Sandwich cookies* are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet filling. Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing. The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate cookies with a vanilla icing filling, is an example.
Other types of cookies are classified for other reasons, such as their ingredients, size, or intended time of serving:
- *Breakfast cookies* are typically larger, lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\" that are eaten as a quick breakfast snack.
- *Low-fat cookies* or *diet cookies* typically have lower fat than regular cookies.
- *Raw cookie dough* is served in some restaurants, though the eggs may be omitted since the dough is eaten raw, which could pose a salmonella risk if eggs were used. Cookie Dough Confections in New York City is a restaurant that has a range of raw cookie dough flavors, which are scooped into cups for customers like ice cream.
- *Skillet cookies* are big cookies that are cooked in a cast-iron skillet and served warm, while they are still soft and chewy. They are either eaten straight from the pan or cut into wedges, often with vanilla ice cream on top.
- *Supersized cookies* are large cookies such as the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie. These very large cookies are sold at grocery stores, restaurants and coffeeshops.
- *Vegan cookies* can be made with flour, sugar, nondairy milk, and nondairy margarine. Aquafaba icing can be used to decorate the cookies.
- *Cookie cakes* are made in a larger circular shape usually with writing made of frosting.
## Reception
Leah Ettman from Nutrition Action has criticized the high-calorie count and fat content of supersized cookies, which are extra large cookies; she cites the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie, a supersized chocolate chip cookie, which measures `{{frac|5|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} inches in diameter and has 800 calories. For busy people who eat breakfast cookies in the morning, Kate Bratskeir from the *Huffington Post* recommends lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\". A book on nutrition by Paul Insel et al. notes that \"low-fat\" or \"diet cookies\" may have the same number of calories as regular cookies, due to added sugar.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
There are a number of slang usages of the term \"cookie\". The slang use of \"cookie\" to mean a person, \"especially an attractive woman\" is attested to in print since 1920. The catchphrase \"that\'s the way the cookie crumbles\", which means \"that\'s just the way things happen\" is attested to in print in 1955. Other slang terms include \"smart cookie\" and \"tough cookie.\" According to *The Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms*, a smart cookie is \"someone who is clever and good at dealing with difficult situations.\" The word \"cookie\" has been vulgar slang for \"vagina\" in the US since 1970. The word \"cookies\" is used to refer to the contents of the stomach, often in reference to vomiting (e.g., \"pop your cookies\", a 1960s expression, or \"toss your cookies\", a 1970s expression). The expression \"cookie cutter\", in addition to referring literally to a culinary device used to cut rolled cookie dough into shapes, is also used metaphorically to refer to items or things \"having the same configuration or look as many others\" (e.g., a \"cookie cutter tract house\") or to label something as \"stereotyped or formulaic\" (e.g., an action movie filled with \"generic cookie cutter characters\"). \"Cookie duster\" is a whimsical expression for a mustache.
Cookie Monster is a Muppet on the children\'s television show *Sesame Street.* He is best known for his voracious appetite for cookies and his famous eating phrases, such as \"Me want cookie!\", \"Me eat cookie!\" (or simply \"COOKIE!\"), and \"Om nom nom nom\" (said through a mouth full of food).
Cookie Clicker is a game where players click a cookie to buy upgrades to make more cookies.
## Notable varieties {#notable_varieties}
- Alfajor
- Angel Wings (Chruściki)
- Animal cracker
- Anzac biscuit
- Berger cookie
- Berner Haselnusslebkuchen
- Biscotti
- Biscuit rose de Reims
- Black and white cookie
- Blondie
- Bourbon biscuit
- Brownie
- Butter cookie
- Chocolate chip cookie
- Chocolate-coated marshmallow treat
- Congo bar
- Digestive biscuit
- Fat rascal
- Fattigmann
- Flies graveyard
- Florentine biscuit
- Fortune cookie
- Fruit squares and bars (date, fig, lemon, raspberry, etc.)
- Ginger snap
- Gingerbread house
- Gingerbread man
- Graham cracker
- Hamentashen
- Hobnob biscuit
- Joe Frogger
- Jumble
- Kifli
- Koulourakia
- Krumkake
- Linzer cookie
- Macaroon
- Meringue
- Nice biscuit
- Oatmeal raisin cookie
- Pastelito
- Peanut butter blossom cookie
- Peanut butter cookie
- Pepparkakor
- Pfeffernüsse
- Pizzelle
- Polvorón
- Qurabiya
- Rainbow cookie
- Ranger Cookie
- Rich tea
- Riposteria
- Rosette
- Rum ball
- Rusk
- Russian tea cake
- Rock cake
- Sablé
- Sandbakelse
- Şekerpare
- Shortbread
- Snickerdoodle
- Speculoos
- Springerle
- Spritzgebäck (Spritz)
- Stroopwafel
- Sugar cookie
- Tea biscuit
- Toruń gingerbread
- Tuile
- Wafer
- Windmill cookie
## Gallery
<File:Maple> spice cookies and thumbprint cookies.jpg\|A variety of Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookies <File:Cookie> Cake.JPG\|A cookie cake is a large cookie that can be decorated with icing or fondant like a cake. This is made by Mrs. Fields. <File:Heart> shaped cookies.jpg\|Hearts shaped Valentine\'s Day cookies adorned with icing <File:McVitie's> chocolate digestive biscuit.jpg\|A McVitie\'s chocolate digestive, a popular biscuit to dunk in tea/coffee in the UK <File:Fortune> cookie.png\|A fortune cookie <File:Meringue> cookies.jpg\|Meringue cookies <File:Oreo-Two-Cookies.jpg%7CCommercially> sold Oreo cookies <File:Cookie> stack.jpg\|Choc-chip cookies <File:Cookies> being sold.jpg\|A cookie shop, filled with a wide range of cookies <File:CookieCuttersAl.jpg%7CCookie> cutters <File:Chef's> Cookie Deep Dish - 27682832174.jpg\|A cookie dessert, topped with ice cream <File:Chocolate> chip cookies.jpg\|A plate of chocolate chip cookies <File:Algerian_cookies.jpg%7CAlgerian> cookies <File:Little> heart-shaped cookies in West Bengal, India.jpg\|Little heart-shaped cookies from India
## Related pastries and confections {#related_pastries_and_confections}
- Acıbadem kurabiyesi
- Animal crackers
- Berliner (pastry)
- Bun
- Candy
- Cake
- Churro
- Cracker (food)
- Cupcake
- Danish pastry
- Doughnut
- Funnel cake
- Galette
- Graham cracker
- Hershey\'s Cookies \'n\' Creme
- Kit Kat
- Halvah
- Ladyfinger (biscuit)
- Lebkuchen
- Mille-feuille
- Marzipan
- Mille-feuille (Napoleon)
- Moon pie
- Pastry
- Palmier
- Petit four
- Rum ball
- S\'more
- Snack cake
- Tartlet
- Teacake
- Teething biscuit
- Whoopie pie
## Manufacturers
- Arnott\'s Biscuits
- Bahlsen
- Burton\'s Foods
- D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company
- DeBeukelaer
- Famous Amos (division of Ferrero)
- Fazer
- Fox\'s Biscuits
- Interbake Foods
- Jules Destrooper
- Keebler
- Lance
- Lotte Confectionery (division of Lotte)
- Lotus Bakeries
- McKee Foods
- Meiji Seika Kaisha Ltd.
- Mrs. Fields
- Nabisco (division of Mondelēz International)
- Nestlé
- Northern Foods
- Otis Spunkmeyer (division of Aryzta)
- Pillsbury (division of General Mills)
- Pinnacle Foods
- Pepperidge Farm (division of Campbell Soup Company)
- Royal Dansk (division of Kelsen Group)
- Sunshine Biscuits (historical)
- United Biscuits
- Walkers Shortbread
- Utz Brands
## Product lines and brands {#product_lines_and_brands}
- Animal Crackers (Nabisco, Keebler, Cadbury, Bahlsen, others)
- Anna\'s (Lotus)
- Archway Cookies (Lance)
- Barnum\'s Animals (Nabisco)
- Betty Crocker (General Mills, cookie mixes)
- Biscoff (Lotus)
- Chips Ahoy! (Nabisco)
- Chips Deluxe (Keebler)
- Danish Butter Cookies (Royal Dansk)
- Duncan Hines (Pinnacle, cookie mixes)
- Famous Amos (Kellogg)
- Fig Newton (Nabisco)
- Fox\'s Biscuits (Northern)
- Fudge Shoppe (Keebler)
- Girl Scout cookie (Keebler, Interbake)
- Hello Panda (Meiji)
- Hit (Bahlsen)
- Hydrox (Sunshine, discontinued by Keebler)
- Jaffa Cakes (McVitie)
- Jammie Dodgers (United)
- Koala\'s March (Lotte)
- Leibniz-Keks (Bahlsen)
- Little Debbie (McKee)
- Lorna Doone (Nabisco)
- Maryland Cookies (Burton\'s)
- McVitie\'s (United)
- Milano (Pepperidge Farm)
- Nilla Wafers (Nabisco)
- Nutter Butter (Nabisco)
- Oreo (Nabisco)
- Pillsbury (General Mills, cookie mixes)
- Pecan Sandies (Keebler)
- Peek Freans (United)
- Pirouline (DeBeukelaer)
- Stauffer\'s (Meiji)
- Stella D\'Oro (Lance)
- Sunshine (Keebler)
- Teddy Grahams (Nabisco)
- Toll House (Nestle)
- Tim Tam (Arnott\'s)
- Vienna Fingers (Keebler)
## Miscellaneous
- Christmas cookie
- Cookie cutter
- Cookie dough
- Cookie exchange
- Cookie Clicker
- Cookie Monster
- Cookie sheet
- Cookie table
- Cookies and cream
- Girl Scout cookie
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Common Gateway Interface
|
thumb\|The official CGI logo from the spec announcement
In computing, **Common Gateway Interface** (**CGI**) is an interface specification that enables web servers to execute an external program to process HTTP or HTTPS user requests.
Such programs are often written in a scripting language and are commonly referred to as *CGI scripts*, but they may include compiled programs.`{{ref RFC|3875|section=1.4}}`{=mediawiki}
A typical use case occurs when a web user submits a web form on a web page that uses CGI. The form\'s data is sent to the web server within a HTTP request with a URL denoting a CGI script. The web server then launches the CGI script in a new computer process, passing the form data to it. The CGI script passes its output, usually in the form of HTML, to the Web server, and the server relays it back to the browser as its response to the browser\'s request.`{{ref RFC|3875}}`{=mediawiki}
Developed in the early 1990s, CGI was the earliest common method available that allowed a web page to be interactive. Due to a necessity to run CGI scripts in a separate process every time the request comes in from a client, various alternatives were developed.
## History
In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) team wrote the specification for calling command line executables on the www-talk mailing list. The other Web server developers adopted it, and it has been a standard for Web servers ever since. A work group chaired by Ken Coar started in November 1997 to get the NCSA definition of CGI more formally defined. This work resulted in RFC 3875, which specified CGI Version 1.1. Specifically mentioned in the RFC are the following contributors:
- Rob McCool (author of the NCSA HTTPd Web server)
- John Franks (author of the GN Web server)
- Ari Luotonen (the developer of the CERN httpd Web server)
- Tony Sanders (author of the Plexus Web server)
- George Phillips (Web server maintainer at the University of British Columbia)
Historically CGI programs were often written using the C programming language. RFC 3875 \"The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)\" partially defines CGI using C, in saying that environment variables \"are accessed by the C library routine getenv() or variable environ\".
The name CGI comes from the early days of the Web, where *webmasters* wanted to connect legacy information systems such as databases to their Web servers. The CGI program was executed by the server and provided a common \"gateway\" between the Web server and the legacy information system.
## Purpose
Traditionally a Web server has a directory which is designated as a document collection, that is, a set of files that can be sent to Web browsers connected to the server. For example, if a web server has the fully-qualified domain name `www.example.com`, and its document collection is stored at `/usr/local/apache/htdocs/` in the local file system (its *document root*), then the web server will respond to a request for `http://www.example.com/index.html` by sending to the browser a copy of the file `/usr/local/apache/htdocs/index.html` (if it exists).
For pages constructed on the fly, the server software may defer requests to separate programs and relay the results to the requesting client (usually, a Web browser that displays the page to the end user).
Such programs usually require some additional information to be specified with the request, such as query strings or cookies. Conversely, upon returning, the script must provide all the information required by HTTP for a response to the request: the HTTP status of the request, the document content (if available), the document type (e.g. HTML, PDF, or plain text), et cetera.
Initially, there were no standardized methods for data exchange between a browser, the HTTP server with which it was communicating and the scripts on the server that were expected to process the data and ultimately return a result to the browser. As a result, mutual incompatibilities existed between different HTTP server variants that undermined script portability.
Recognition of this problem led to the specification of how data exchange was to be carried out, resulting in the development of CGI. Web page-generating programs invoked by server software that adheres to the CGI specification are known as *CGI scripts*, even though they may actually have been written in a non-scripting language, such as C.
The CGI specification was quickly adopted and continues to be supported by all well-known HTTP server packages, such as Apache, Microsoft IIS, and (with an extension) Node.js-based servers.
An early use of CGI scripts was to process forms. In the beginning of HTML, HTML forms typically had an \"action\" attribute and a button designated as the \"submit\" button. When the submit button is pushed the URI specified in the \"action\" attribute would be sent to the server with the data from the form sent as a query string. If the \"action\" specifies a CGI script then the CGI script would be executed, the script in turn generating an HTML page.
## Deployment
A Web server that supports CGI can be configured to interpret a URL that it serves as a reference to a CGI script. A common convention is to have a `cgi-bin/` directory at the base of the directory tree and treat all executable files within this directory (and no other, for security) as CGI scripts. When a Web browser requests a URL that points to a file within the CGI directory (e.g., `http://example.com/cgi-bin/printenv.pl/with/additional/path?and=a&query=string`), then, instead of simply sending that file (`/usr/local/apache/htdocs/cgi-bin/printenv.pl`) to the Web browser, the HTTP server runs the specified script and passes the output of the script to the Web browser. That is, anything that the script sends to standard output is passed to the Web client instead of being shown in the terminal window that started the web server. Another popular convention is to use filename extensions; for instance, if CGI scripts are consistently given the extension `.cgi`, the Web server can be configured to interpret all such files as CGI scripts. While convenient, and required by many prepackaged scripts, it opens the server to attack if a remote user can upload executable code with the proper extension.
The CGI specification defines how additional information passed with the request is passed to the script. The Web server creates a subset of the environment variables passed to it and adds details pertinent to the HTTP environment. For instance, if a slash and additional directory name(s) are appended to the URL immediately after the name of the script (in this example, `/with/additional/path`), then that path is stored in the `PATH_INFO` environment variable before the script is called. If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP GET request (a question mark appended to the URL, followed by param=value pairs; in the example, `?and=a&query=string`), then those parameters are stored in the `QUERY_STRING` environment variable before the script is called. Request HTTP message body, such as form parameters sent via an HTTP POST request, are passed to the script\'s standard input. The script can then read these environment variables or data from standard input and adapt to the Web browser\'s request.
## Uses
CGI is often used to process input information from the user and produce the appropriate output. An example of a CGI program is one implementing a wiki. If the user agent requests the name of an entry, the Web server executes the CGI program. The CGI program retrieves the source of that entry\'s page (if one exists), transforms it into HTML, and prints the result. The Web server receives the output from the CGI program and transmits it to the user agent. Then if the user agent clicks the \"Edit page\" button, the CGI program populates an HTML `textarea` or other editing control with the page\'s contents. Finally if the user agent clicks the \"Publish page\" button, the CGI program transforms the updated HTML into the source of that entry\'s page and saves it.
## Security
CGI programs run, by default, in the security context of the Web server. When first introduced a number of example scripts were provided with the reference distributions of the NCSA, Apache and CERN Web servers to show how shell scripts or C programs could be coded to make use of the new CGI. One such example script was a CGI program called PHF that implemented a simple phone book.
In common with a number of other scripts at the time, this script made use of a function: `escape_shell_cmd()`. The function was supposed to sanitize its argument, which came from user input and then pass the input to the Unix shell, to be run in the security context of the Web server. The script did not correctly sanitize all input and allowed new lines to be passed to the shell, which effectively allowed multiple commands to be run. The results of these commands were then displayed on the Web server. If the security context of the Web server allowed it, malicious commands could be executed by attackers.
This was the first widespread example of a new type of Web-based attack called code injection, where unsanitized data from Web users could lead to execution of code on a Web server. Because the example code was installed by default, attacks were widespread and led to a number of security advisories in early 1996.
## Alternatives
For each incoming HTTP request, a Web server creates a new CGI process for handling it and destroys the CGI process after the HTTP request has been handled. Creating and destroying a process can consume more CPU time and memory resources than the actual work of generating the output of the process, especially when the CGI program still needs to be interpreted by a virtual machine. For a high number of HTTP requests, the resulting workload can quickly overwhelm the Web server.
The computational overhead involved in CGI process creation and destruction can be reduced by the following techniques:
- CGI programs precompiled to machine code, e.g. precompiled from C or C++ programs, rather than CGI programs executed by an interpreter, e.g. Perl, PHP or Python programs.
- Web server extensions such as Apache modules (e.g. `mod_perl`, `mod_php` and `mod_python` ), NSAPI plugins, and ISAPI plugins which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request and hosted within the Web server.
- FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request to be hosted externally; i.e., separately from the Web server. Each application process listens on a socket; the Web server handles an HTTP request and sends it via another protocol (FastCGI, SCGI or AJP) to the socket only for dynamic content, while static content is usually handled directly by the Web server. This approach needs fewer application processes so consumes less memory than the Web server extension approach. And unlike converting an application program to a Web server extension, FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP application programs remain independent of the Web server.
- Jakarta EE runs Jakarta Servlet applications in a Web container to serve dynamic content and optionally static content which replaces the overhead of creating and destroying processes with the much lower overhead of creating and destroying threads. It also exposes the programmer to the library that comes with Java SE on which the version of Jakarta EE in use is based.
- Standalone HTTP Server
- Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a modern approach written in the Python programming language. It is defined by PEP 3333 and implemented via various methods like `mod_wsgi` (Apache module), Gunicorn web server (in between of Nginx & Scripts/Frameworks like Django), UWSGI, etc.
The optimal configuration for any Web application depends on application-specific details, amount of traffic, and complexity of the transaction; these trade-offs need to be analyzed to determine the best implementation for a given task and time budget. Web frameworks offer an alternative to using CGI scripts to interact with user agents.
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Chemical affinity
|
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, **chemical affinity** is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
## History
### Early theories {#early_theories}
The idea of *affinity* is extremely old. Many attempts have been made at identifying its origins. The majority of such attempts, however, except in a general manner, end in futility since \"affinities\" lie at the basis of all magic, thereby pre-dating science. Physical chemistry, however, was one of the first branches of science to study and formulate a \"theory of affinity\". The name *affinitas* was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher Albertus Magnus near the year 1250. Later, those as Robert Boyle, John Mayow, Johann Glauber, Isaac Newton, and Georg Stahl put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how heat is evolved during combustion reactions.
The term *affinity* has been used figuratively since c. 1600 in discussions of structural relationships in chemistry, philology, etc., and reference to \"natural attraction\" is from 1616. \"Chemical affinity\", historically, has referred to the \"force\" that causes chemical reactions. as well as, more generally, and earlier, the ″tendency to combine″ of any pair of substances. The broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.
The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor \"elective affinity\" or elective attractions, a term that was used by the 18th century chemistry lecturer William Cullen. Whether Cullen coined the phrase is not clear, but his usage seems to predate most others, although it rapidly became widespread across Europe, and was used in particular by the Swedish chemist Torbern Olof Bergman throughout his book *De attractionibus electivis* (1775). Affinity theories were used in one way or another by most chemists from around the middle of the 18th century into the 19th century to explain and organise the different combinations into which substances could enter and from which they could be retrieved. Antoine Lavoisier, in his famed 1789 *Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry)*, refers to Bergman\'s work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions.
According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook *Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions* by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term \"affinity\" by the term \"free energy\" in much of the English-speaking world.
According to Prigogine, the term was introduced and developed by Théophile de Donder.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe used the concept in his novel *Elective Affinities* (1809).
### Visual representations {#visual_representations}
thumb\|500px\|Geoffroy\'s *Affinity Table* (1718): At the head of the column is a substance with which all the substances below can combine, where each column below the header is ranked by degrees of \"affinity\"
The affinity concept was very closely linked to the visual representation of substances on a table. The first-ever *affinity table*, which was based on displacement reactions, was published in 1718 by the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy. Geoffroy\'s name is best known in connection with these tables of \"affinities\" (*tables des rapports*), which were first presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1718 and 1720.
During the 18th century many versions of the table were proposed with leading chemists like Torbern Bergman in Sweden and Joseph Black in Scotland adapting it to accommodate new chemical discoveries. All the tables were essentially lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents.
Crucially, the table was the central graphic tool used to teach chemistry to students and its visual arrangement was often combined with other kinds diagrams. Joseph Black, for example, used the table in combination with chiastic and circlet diagrams to visualise the core principles of chemical affinity. Affinity tables were used throughout Europe until the early 19th century when they were displaced by affinity concepts introduced by Claude Berthollet.
## Modern conceptions {#modern_conceptions}
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
In modern terms, we relate affinity to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond. For example, in the 1919 book *Chemistry of Human Life* physician George W. Carey states that, \"Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe~3~(PO~4~)~2~ in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.\" In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term \"magnetic attraction\". Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a \"law of chemical affinity\".
Ilya Prigogine summarized the concept of affinity, saying, \"All chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the *affinities* of the reactions vanish.\"
## Thermodynamics
The present IUPAC definition is that affinity *A* is the negative partial derivative of Gibbs free energy *G* with respect to extent of reaction *ξ* at constant pressure and temperature. That is,
$$A = -\left(\frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi}\right)_{P,T}.$$
It follows that affinity is positive for spontaneous reactions.
In 1923, the Belgian mathematician and physicist Théophile de Donder derived a relation between affinity and the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction. Through a series of derivations, de Donder showed that if we consider a mixture of chemical species with the possibility of chemical reaction, it can be proven that the following relation holds:
$$A = -\Delta_rG. \,$$
With the writings of Théophile de Donder as precedent, Ilya Prigogine and Defay in *Chemical Thermodynamics* (1954) defined chemical affinity as the rate of change of the uncompensated heat of reaction *Q*\' as the reaction progress variable or reaction extent *ξ* grows infinitesimally:
$$A = \frac{{\mathrm d}Q'}{{\mathrm d}\xi}. \,$$
This definition is useful for quantifying the factors responsible both for the state of equilibrium systems (where `{{nowrap|1=''A'' = 0}}`{=mediawiki}), and for changes of state of non-equilibrium systems (where *A* ≠ 0).
## Literature
-
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Conspiracy
|
A **conspiracy**, also known as a **plot**, **ploy**, or **scheme**, is a secret plan or agreement between people (called **conspirers** or **conspirators**) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with a political motivation, while keeping their agreement secret from the public or from other people affected by it. In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of people united in the goal of subverting established political power structures. This can take the form of usurping or altering them, or even continually illegally profiteering from certain activities in a way that weakens the establishment with help from various political authorities. Depending on the circumstances, a conspiracy may also be a crime or a civil wrong. The term generally connotes, or implies, wrongdoing or illegality on the part of the conspirators, as it is commonly believed that people would not need to conspire to engage in activities that were lawful and ethical, or to which no one would object.
There are some coordinated activities that people engage in with secrecy that are not generally thought of as conspiracies. For example, intelligence agencies such as the American CIA and the British MI6 necessarily make plans in secret to spy on suspected enemies of their respective countries and the general populace of its home countries, but this kind of activity is generally not considered to be a conspiracy so long as their goal is to fulfill their official functions, and not something like improperly enriching themselves. Similarly, the coaches of competing sports teams routinely meet behind closed doors to plan game strategies and specific plays designed to defeat their opponents, but this activity is not considered a conspiracy because this is considered a legitimate part of the sport. Furthermore, a conspiracy must be engaged in knowingly. The continuation of social traditions that work to the advantage of certain groups and to the disadvantage of certain other groups, though possibly unethical, is not a conspiracy if participants in the practice are not carrying it forward for the purpose of perpetuating this advantage.
On the other hand, if the intent of carrying out a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively, but research into the agency\'s work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. During the Cold War, the United States tried to covertly change other nations\' governments 66 times, succeeding in 26 cases.
A \"conspiracy theory\" is a belief that a conspiracy has actually been decisive in producing a political event of which the theorists strongly disapprove. Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them. Political scientist Michael Barkun has described conspiracy theories as relying on the view that the universe is governed by design, and embody three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected. Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them, so that they become, as Barkun writes, a closed system that is unfalsifiable, and therefore \"a matter of faith rather than proof.\"
## Etymology
*Conspiracy* comes from the Latin word *conspiratio*. While *conspiratio* can mean \"plot\" or \"conspiracy\", it can also be translated as \"unity\" and \"agreement\", in the context of a group an example of this \"Kirri and Adele commenced the conspiracy at the secret thursday gin meeting\". *Conspiratio* comes from *conspiro* which, while still meaning \"conspiracy\" in the modern sense, also means \"I sing in unison\", as *con*- means \"with\" or \"together\", and *spiro* means \"I breathe\", literally meaning \"I breathe together with others\".
## Types of conspiracies {#types_of_conspiracies}
- Conspiracy (civil), an agreement between people to deceive, mislead, or defraud others of their legal rights or to gain an unfair advantage.
- Conspiracy (criminal), an agreement between people to break the law in the future, in some cases having committed an act to further that agreement.
- Conspiracy (political), an agreement between people with the goal of gaining political power or meeting a political objective.
- Hub-and-spoke conspiracy, a conspiracy in which one or more principal conspirators (the \"hub\") enter into several similar agreements with others (the \"spokes\") who know concerted action is contemplated, usually where the success of the concerted action depends on the participation of the other spokes.
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Constantine II (emperor)
|
**Constantine II** (*Flavius Claudius Constantinus*; 316--340) was Roman emperor from 337 to 340. The son of the emperor Constantine I, he was proclaimed *caesar* by his father shortly after his birth. He was associated with military victories over the Sarmatians, Alamanni and Goths during his career, for which he was granted a number of victory titles. He held the consulship four times -- in 320, 321, 324, and 329.
Constantine I had arranged for his sons to share power with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but this was not accepted by Constantine II and his brothers. As a result, Constantine II\'s brother Constantius II ordered the killings of numerous male relatives following Constantine I\'s death, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, thus eliminating any possible opponents to the succession of Constantine I\'s sons. Constantine II then ascended to the throne alongside his two younger brothers, ruling Gaul, Hispania, and Britain. However, his belief in his rights of primogeniture and attempts to exert them over his youngest brother Constans caused conflict, which ended with his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340. Constans subsequently took control of Constantine\'s territories, with the latter being subjected to *damnatio memoriae*.
## Life
Born in Arles in 316, Constantine II was the second son of the Roman emperor Constantine I, and probably the eldest with his wife Fausta, the daughter of the emperor Maximian.
### Caesar
On 1 March 317, he was made *caesar* at Serdica. After accompanying his father on his campaign against the Sarmatians in 323, he was commemorated on coinage produced to recognize the ensuing victory. Constantine II usually resided with his father until 328, when his own court was installed at Trier. An inscription dated to 328--330 records the title of *Alamannicus*, indicating that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 winter campaign against the Goths. As a result of his leadership, the military operation concluded with 100,000 Goths reportedly slain and the surrender of the ruler Ariaric. Festival games were initiated in Rome to celebrate the *caesar*\'s role in the successful military campaigns, in a public advertisement of his capability to rule. He was married prior to 336, although his wife\'s identity remains unknown. David Woods has theorized that she may have been a half-cousin, possibly a daughter of Julius Constantius, as Constantine minted coins of his grandfather\'s second wife Flavia Maximiana Theodora. Another sugestion by Barnes is that she could have been a daughter of Flavius Optatus.
While Constantine I had intended for his sons to rule together with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, soon after his death in May 337 the army murdered several of their male relatives, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, on the orders of Constantine II\'s younger brother Constantius II. Although Constantine himself appears to not have been directly involved, Burgess observed from numismatic evidence that he and his brothers \"not only seem not to have fully accepted the legitimacy of Dalmatius and viewed him as an interloper, but also appear to have communicated with one another on this point and agreed on a common response.\"
In what seemed to be an attempt to distance themselves from the massacre, the three brothers proceeded to print coins of Theodora, whom their murdered relatives had been descended from. Most of the coins were generated at Constantine II\'s capital, Trier, indicating that he was the one responsible for designing and producing the coinage at the start, as well as convincing his brothers to do the same. Woods considered it to suggest that he was more sympathetic to Theodora\'s memory than his brothers, possibly because his wife may have been a granddaughter of Theodora.
In June 337, before he was named emperor, Constantine had already begun attempting to assert his seniority. He issued an order allowing the exiled bishop Athanasius to return to Alexandria, which was under the control of Constantius II, claiming to be carrying out the unfulfilled intentions of his father. While Constantine\'s motives remain unclear, suggested explanations include him truly believing in the bishop\'s innocence, him wanting to get rid of a religious nuisance, or him wanting to cause trouble for Constantius, who would oust Athanasius from Alexandria only two years later.
### Augustus
The three brothers were not named as *Augusti* until 9 September 337, when they gathered together in Pannonia and divided the Roman territories among themselves. Constantine received Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. Unlike his younger brothers, he gained little from Dalmatius\'s removal.
Constantine was evidently left unsatisfied with the results of their meeting, seemingly believing that his age granted him some sort of seniority in the imperial college and, by extension, control over the dominion of his youngest brother Constans, who was still a teenager in 337. Even after campaigning successfully against the Alamanni in 338, Constantine continued to maintain his position. The Theodosian Code recorded his legislative intervention in Constans\'s territory through issuing an edict to the proconsul of Africa in 339.
In April 340, Constantine launched an invasion into Italy to claim territory from Constans. Constans, at that time in Naissus, sent a number of troops to confront him, and Constantine was killed in an ambush near Aquileia. Constans then took control of his brother\'s realm, whose inhabitants seem to have been largely unaffected by their change in ruler.
After his death, Constantine was subjected to *damnatio memoriae*. Constans issued legislation repealing Constantine\'s acts shortly after his death, where the deceased emperor was branded as \"the public enemy and our own enemy.\" Years later, when Libanius delivered a panegyric for both Constans and Constantius, Constantine was completely omitted from the narrative, as if he had never existed.
## Gallery
<File:INC-2046-a> Ауреус. Константин II. Ок. 337---340 гг. (аверс).png\|Coin of Constantine II as *caesar* (aged 1--7), marked: `{{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} {{Abbreviation|fl·|FLAVIUS}} {{Abbreviation|cl·|CLAVDIUS}} constantinus {{Abbreviation|nob·|NOBILISSIMUS}} {{Abbreviation|c·|CAESAR}}}}`{=mediawiki} (*Our Lord Flavius Claudius Constantine, Noblest Caesar*) <File:Constantineii90010167.jpg>\|*Aureus* of Constantine II as *caesar* (aged 8), marked: `{{Smallcaps|constantinus {{abbreviation|iun·|IUNIOR}} {{abbreviation|nob·|NOBILISSIMUS}} {{abbreviation|c·|CAESAR}}}}`{=mediawiki} (\"*Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar*\") on the obverse <File:Constantine> II as Caesar.jpg\|*Solidus* of Constantine II as *caesar* (aged 19), marked: `{{Smallcaps|constantinus {{Abbreviation|iun·|IUNIOR}} {{Abbreviation|nob·|NOBILISSIMUS}} {{Abbreviation|caes·|CAESAR}}}}`{=mediawiki} on the obverse (\"*Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar*\") and `{{Smallcaps|principi iuventutis}}`{=mediawiki} (*Princeps of youth*) on the reverse
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Constantine II of Scotland
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**Causantín mac Áeda** (Modern Gaelic: *Còiseam mac Aoidh*, anglicised **Constantine II**; born no later than 879; died 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name *Alba*. The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine\'s lifetime, was situated in what is now Northern Scotland.
The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay. Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine\'s grandfather Kenneth I (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine\'s lifetime.
His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Norse rulers in the British Isles, particularly the Uí Ímair (\'Grandsons/Descendants of Ímar\', or Ivar the Boneless). During Constantine\'s reign, the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the Kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria. At first, the southern rulers allied with him against the Vikings, but in 934, Æthelstan, unprovoked, invaded Scotland both by sea and land with a huge host that included four Welsh kings. He ravaged southern Alba, but there is no record of any battles. He had withdrawn by September. Three years later, in 937, probably in retaliation for the invasion of Alba, King Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, but they were defeated at the battle of Brunanburh. In 943, Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952. He was succeeded by his predecessor\'s son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill).
Constantine\'s reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the Gaelicisation of Pictland, in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor. During his reign, the words \"Scots\" and \"Scotland\" (*Scottas, Scotland*) were first used to mean part of what is now Scotland. The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time.
## Pictland from Constantín mac Fergusa to Constantine I {#pictland_from_constantín_mac_fergusa_to_constantine_i}
The dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth. By the 9th century, the Gaels of Dál Riata (Dalriada) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Causantín mac Fergusa (Constantine son of Fergus). Constantín\'s family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps, if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts (Óengus son of Fergus), from around 730. The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the *Annals of Ulster* in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran, Constantín\'s nephews, together with the king of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, \"and others almost innumerable\" were killed. These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland. By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner.
Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the Kingdom of Scotland, the founding of which was dated from 843, the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era. The historical record for 9th century Scotland is meagre, but the Irish annals and the 10th century *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king, and call him \"king of the Picts\" at his death. The same style is used of Kenneth\'s brother Donald I (Domnall mac Ailpín) and sons Constantine I (Constantín mac Cináeda) and Áed (Áed mac Cináeda).
The kingdom ruled by Kenneth\'s descendants --- older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor, Irish sources referring to *Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín* (\"the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin\") --- lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu, centred in the lands around the River Tay. The extent of Kenneth\'s nameless kingdom is uncertain, but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north. Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain --- Druim Alban --- is unclear. The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns, Forfarshire, Forfar, Perth, Fife, and Kinross. Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld, probably the seat of the bishop of the kingdom, and *Cell Rígmonaid* (modern St Andrews).
Kenneth\'s son Constantine died in 876, probably killed fighting against a Viking army that had come north from Northumbria in 874. According to the king lists, he was counted as the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times.
## Britain and Ireland at the end of the 9th century {#britain_and_ireland_at_the_end_of_the_9th_century}
In 899 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of England south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son-in-law Æthelred ruling the western, English part of Mercia. The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern England is less clear. King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia, but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria. It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Siefredus and Cnut, although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain. Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers, perhaps represented by Eadulf, based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north.
In Ireland, Flann Sinna, married to Constantine\'s aunt Máel Muire, was dominant. The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse--Gaels of Dublin. They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders. In 894 one group left Dublin, perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde. The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna\'s son-in-law Cerball mac Muirecáin, and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain.
To the southwest of Constantine\'s lands lay the Kingdom of Strathclyde. This extended north into The Lennox, east to the River Forth, and south into the Southern Uplands. In 900 it was probably ruled by King Dyfnwal.
The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain. No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta. The Frankish *Annales Bertiniani* may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides, the seaward part of Dál Riata, by Northmen in 849. In addition to these, the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace. Whether there were Viking or Norse-Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated.
## Early life {#early_life}
Áed, Constantine\'s father, succeeded Constantine\'s uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878. Áed\'s short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists. Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded, Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father\'s death, *i.e.*, 879. His name may suggest that he was born a few years earlier, during the reign of his uncle Constantine I.
After Áed\'s death, there is a two-decade gap until the death of Donald II (Domnall mac Constantín) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals. The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*, and in this case, the *Chronicle* is at variance with every other king list. According to the *Chronicle*, Áed was followed by Eochaid, a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin, who is somehow connected with Giric, but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him. Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth\'s, although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage. The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric\'s reign.
Woolf suggests that Constantine and his younger brother Donald may have passed Giric\'s reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland, Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna. Giric died in 889. If he had been in exile, Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king. Donald\'s reputation is suggested by the epithet *dasachtach*, a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls, attached to him in the 11th-century writings of Flann Mainistrech, echoed by his description in *The Prophecy of Berchán* as \"the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth\". Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald\'s reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900. Constantine succeeded him as king.
## Vikings and bishops {#vikings_and_bishops}
The earliest event recorded in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* in Constantine\'s reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld \"and all Albania\" in his third year. This is the first use of the word Albania, the Latin form of the Old Irish *Alba*, in the *Chronicle* which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia.
These Norsemen could have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902 or were the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900. The *Chronicle* states that the Northmen were killed in *Srath Erenn*, which is confirmed by the *Annals of Ulster* which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904. This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair, the grandsons of Ímar, to be reported; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín\'s reign. The *Fragmentary Annals of Ireland* contain an account of the battle, and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer. An entry in the *Chronicon Scotorum* under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle.
The next event reported by the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* is dated to 906. This records that: `{{blockquote|King Constantine and Bishop [[Cellach I|Cellach]] met at the ''Hill of Belief'' near the royal city of [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]] and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith, and the laws of churches and gospels, should be kept ''pariter cum Scottis''.<ref>After Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 445.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The meaning of this entry, and its significance, have been the subject of debate.
The phrase *pariter cum Scottis* in the Latin text of the *Chronicle* has been translated in several ways. William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as \"in conformity with the customs of the Gaels\", relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs. It has been read as \"together with the Gaels\", suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast. Finally, it is suggested that it was the ceremony that followed \"the custom of the Gaels\" and not the agreements.
The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban. Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine\'s kingship, prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone. Alternatively, if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric, it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church.
## Return of the Uí Ímair {#return_of_the_uí_ímair}
Following the events at Scone, there is little of substance reported for a decade. A story in the *Fragmentary Annals of Ireland*, perhaps referring to events sometime after 911, claims that Æthelflæd, who ruled in Mercia, allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria. The *Annals of Ulster* record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings \"on the coast of England\" at about this time.
In this period the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster, in the eighth year of Constantine\'s reign. This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as \"In his time Domnall \[i.e. Dyfnwal\], king of the \[Strathclyde\] Britons died, and Domnall son of Áed was elected\". This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba. The entry in question is now read as \"\... Dyfnwal \... and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died\", this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 21 March 915. Finally, the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded.
There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards. By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall, said to be grandsons of Ímar (that is, they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904), were very active in Ireland. Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917. The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish Sea intent on establishing himself as king at York. The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Æthelflæd of Mercia on 12 June 918 at Tamworth, Staffordshire. Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission, but her death put an end to this and her successor, her brother Edward the Elder, was occupied with securing control of Mercia.
The northern part of Northumbria, and perhaps the whole kingdom, had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913. Faced with Ragnall\'s invasion, Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine. The two advanced south to face Ragnall, and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne, probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river. The Battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive; the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* is alone in giving Constantine the victory.
The report of the battle in the *Annals of Ulster* says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed. This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer; other than the knowledge that Constantine\'s kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas, this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom.
After Corbridge, Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite. In the south, Alfred\'s son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north. An army from Dublin led by Ragnall\'s kinsman Sihtric struck at north-western Mercia in 919, but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* states that these kings \"chose Edward as father and lord\". Among the other kings present were Constantine, Ealdred son of Eadwulf, and the king of Strathclyde, Owain ap Dyfnwal. Here, again, a new term appears in the record, the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* for the first time using the word *scottas*, from which Scots derives, to describe the inhabitants of Constantine\'s kingdom in its report of these events.
Edward died in 924. His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd\'s court. Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward\'s lands in 925.
## Æthelstan
By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged Æthelstan as overlord, adopting Christianity and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at Tamworth. Within the year he appears to have forsaken his new faith and repudiated his wife, but before Æthelstan could respond, Sihtric died suddenly in 927. His kinsman, perhaps brother, Gofraid, who had remained as his deputy in Dublin, came from Ireland to take power in York but failed. Æthelstan moved quickly, seizing much of Northumbria. In less than a decade, the kingdom of the English had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland, perhaps stretching as far north as the Firth of Forth.
John of Worcester\'s chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine, Owain, and the Welsh kings. William of Malmesbury writes that Gofraid, together with Sihtric\'s young son Olaf Cuaran fled north and received refuge from Constantine, which led to war with Æthelstan. A meeting at Eamont Bridge on 12 July 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine, Owain, Hywel Dda, and Ealdred would \"renounce all idolatry\": that is, they would not ally with the Viking kings. William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine, probably Indulf (Ildulb mac Constantín), during the conference.
Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings. For the next seven years, the record of events in the north is blank. Æthelstan\'s court was attended by the Welsh kings, but not by Constantine or Owain. This absence of record means that Æthelstan\'s reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear.
Æthelstan\'s invasion is reported in brief by the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, and later chroniclers such as John of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon and Symeon of Durham add detail to that bald account. Æthelstan\'s army began gathering at Winchester by 28 May 934 and travelled north to Nottingham by 7 June. He was accompanied by many leaders, including the Welsh kings Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel and Morgan ab Owain. From Mercia, the army continued to Chester-le-Street, before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships. Owain was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as Dunnottar and Fortriu, while the fleet is said to have raided Caithness, by which a much larger area, including Sutherland, is probably intended. It is unlikely that Constantine\'s personal authority extended so far north, so the attacks were probably directed at his allies, comprising simple looting expeditions.
The *Annals of Clonmacnoise* state that \"the Scottish men compelled \[Æthelstan\] to return without any great victory\", while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition. A negotiated settlement might have ended matters: according to John of Worcester, a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantine himself accompanied the English king on his return south. He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at Buckingham on 13 September 934 in which he is described as *subregulus*, *i.e.*, a king acknowledging Æthelstan\'s overlordship, the only place there is any record of such a description. However, there is no record of Constantine having ever submitted to Æthelstan\'s overlordship or that he considered himself such. The following year, Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan\'s court, this time at Cirencester where he appears as a witness, as the first of several kings, followed by Owain and Hywel Dda, who subscribed to the diploma. At Christmas of 935, Owain was once more at Æthelstan\'s court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not. His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances.
## Brunanburh and after {#brunanburh_and_after}
Following his departure from Æthelstan\'s court after 935, there is no further report of Constantine until 937. In that year, together with Owain and Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin, Constantine invaded England. The resulting battle of Brunanburh --- *Dún Brunde* --- is reported in the *Annals of Ulster* as follows: `{{blockquote|a great battle, lamentable and terrible was cruelly fought... in which fell uncounted thousands of the Northmen. ... And on the other side, a multitude of Saxons fell; but Æthelstan, the king of the Saxons, obtained a great victory.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', pp. 428–429; ''Annals of Ulster'', s.a. 937.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The battle was remembered in England a generation later as \"the Great Battle\". When reporting the battle, the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* abandons its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory. In this, the \"hoary\" Constantine, by now around 60 years of age, is said to have lost a son in the battle, a claim which the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* confirms. The *Annals of Clonmacnoise* give his name as Cellach. For all its fame, the site of the battle is uncertain and several sites have been advanced, with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured location.
Brunanburh, for all that it had been a famous and bloody battle, settled nothing. On 27 October 939 Æthelstan, the \"pillar of the dignity of the western world\" in the words of the *Annals of Ulster*, died at Malmesbury. He was succeeded by his brother Edmund, then aged 18. Æthelstan\'s realm, seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh, collapsed in little more than a year from his death when Amlaíb returned from Ireland and seized Northumbria and the Mercian Danelaw. Edmund spent the remainder of Constantín\'s reign rebuilding his kingdom.
For Constantine\'s last years as king, there is only the meagre record of the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*. The death of Æthelstan is reported, as are two others. The first of these, in 938, is that of Dubacan, mormaer of Angus or son of the mormaer. Unlike the report of 918, on this occasion, the title mormaer is attached to a geographical area, but it is unknown whether the Angus of 938 was in any way similar to the later mormaerdom or earldom. The second death entered with that of Æthelstan, is that of Eochaid mac Ailpín, who might, from his name, have been a kinsman of Constantín.
## Abdication and posterity {#abdication_and_posterity}
By the early 940s, Constantine was an old man in his late sixties or seventies. The kingdom of Alba was too new to be said to have a customary rule of succession, but Pictish and Irish precedents favoured an adult successor descended from Kenneth MacAlpin. Constantine\'s surviving son Indulf, probably baptised in 927, would have been too young to be a serious candidate for the kingship in the early 940s, and the obvious heir was Constantine\'s nephew, Malcolm I. As Malcolm was born no later than 901, by the 940s he was no longer a young man and may have been impatient. Willingly or not --- the 11th century *The Prophecy of Berchán*, a verse history in the form of a supposed prophecy, states that it was not a voluntary decision --- Constantine abdicated in 943 and entered a monastery, leaving the kingdom to Malcolm.
Although his retirement might have been involuntary, the *Life* of Cathróe of Metz and *The Prophecy of Berchán* portray Constantine as a devout king. The monastery to which Constantine retired, and where he is said to have been abbot, was probably that of St Andrews. This had been refounded in his reign and given to the reforming Céli Dé (Culdee) movement. The Céli Dé were subsequently to be entrusted with many monasteries throughout the kingdom of Alba until replaced in the 12th century by new orders imported from France.
Seven years later the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* says: `{{blockquote|[Malcolm I] plundered the English as far as the [[river Tees]], and he seized a multitude of people and many herds of cattle: and the Scots called this the raid of Albidosorum, that is, Nainndisi. But others say that Constantine made this raid, asking of the king, Malcolm I, that the kingship should be given to him for a week's time so that he could visit the English. In fact, it was Malcolm I who made the raid, but Constantine incited him, as I have said.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', pp. 452–453.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Woolf suggests that the association of Constantine with the raid is a late addition, one derived from a now-lost saga or poem.
Constantine\'s death in 952 is recorded by the Irish annals, who enter it among ecclesiastics. His son Indulf would become king on Malcolm\'s death. The last of Constantine\'s certain descendants to be king in Alba was a great-grandson, Constantine III (Constantín mac Cuiléin). Another son had died at Brunanburh and according to John of Worcester, Amlaíb mac Gofraid was married to a daughter of Constantine. It is possible that Constantine had other children, but like the name of his wife, or wives, this has not been recorded.
The form of kingdom which appeared in Constantine\'s reign continued in much the same way until the Davidian Revolution in the 12th century. As with his ecclesiastical reforms, his political legacy was the creation of a new form of Scottish kingship that lasted for two centuries after his death.
## Family
The name of Constantine\'s wife is not known, however, they are known to have had at least 3 children:
- Ildulb mac Causantín (Indulf or Indulph)(died 962), king of Alba 954--962;
- Cellach, died in 937 in the Battle of Brunanburh;
- A daughter, name not recorded, married Amlaíb mac Gofraid.
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Common Language Infrastructure
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The **Common Language Infrastructure** (**CLI**) is an open specification and technical standard originally developed by Microsoft and standardized by ISO/IEC (**ISO/IEC 23271**) and Ecma International (**ECMA 335**) that describes executable code and a runtime environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures. This implies it is platform agnostic. The .NET Framework, .NET and Mono are implementations of the CLI. The metadata format is also used to specify the API definitions exposed by the Windows Runtime.
## Overview
Among other things, the CLI specification describes the following five aspects:
The Common Type System (CTS)
: A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages.
The Metadata
: Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language the developer is not using.
The Common Language Specification (CLS)
: The CLS, a subset of the CTS, are rules to which components developed with/for the supported languages must adhere.
: They apply to consumers (developers who are programmatically accessing a component that is CLS-compliant), frameworks (developers who are using a language compiler to create CLS-compliant libraries), and extenders (developers who are creating a tool such as a language compiler or a code parser that creates CLS-compliant components).
The Virtual Execution System (VES)
: The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime.
: All compatible languages compile to Common Intermediate Language (CIL), which is an intermediate language that is abstracted from the platform hardware. When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the machine language according to the specific hardware and operating system.
: In the CLI standard initially developed by Microsoft, the VES is implemented by the Common Language Runtime (CLR).
```{=html}
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```
The Standard Libraries
: A set of libraries providing many common functions, such as file reading and writing. Their core is the Base Class Library (BCL).
## Standardization and licensing {#standardization_and_licensing}
In August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and others worked to standardize CLI. By December 2001, it was ratified by the Ecma, with ISO/IEC standardization following in April 2003.
Microsoft and its partners hold patents for CLI. Ecma and ISO/IEC require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under \"reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms.\" It is common for RAND licensing to require some royalty payment, which could be a cause for concern with Mono. `{{as of|2013|January}}`{=mediawiki}, neither Microsoft nor its partners have identified any patents essential to CLI implementations subject to RAND terms.
, Microsoft added C# and CLI to the list of specifications that the Microsoft Community Promise applies to, so anyone can safely implement specified editions of the standards without fearing a patent lawsuit from Microsoft. To implement the CLI standard requires conformance to one of the supported and defined profiles of the standard, the minimum of which is the kernel profile. The kernel profile is actually a very small set of types to support in comparison to the well known core library of default .NET installations. However, the conformance clause of the CLI allows for extending the supported profile by adding new methods and types to classes, as well as deriving from new namespaces. But it does not allow for adding new members to interfaces. This means that the features of the CLI can be used and extended, as long as the conforming profile implementation does not change the behavior of a program intended to run on that profile, while allowing for unspecified behavior from programs written specifically for that implementation.
In 2012, Ecma and ISO/IEC published the new edition of the CLI standard.
## Implementations
- .NET Framework is Microsoft\'s original commercial implementation of the CLI. It only supports Windows. It was superseded by .NET in November 2020.
- .NET, previously known as .NET Core, is the free and open-source multi-platform successor to .NET Framework, released under the MIT License
- .NET Compact Framework is Microsoft\'s commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices and Xbox 360.
- .NET Micro Framework is an open source implementation of the CLI for resource-constrained devices.
- Mono is an alternative open source implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, mainly used for mobile and game development.
- DotGNU is a decommissioned part of the GNU Project started in January 2001 that aimed to provide a free and open source software alternative to Microsoft\'s .NET Framework.
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Chinese classics
|
The **Chinese classics** or **canonical texts** are the works of Chinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperial Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the Four Books and Five Classics in the Neo-Confucian tradition, themselves an abridgment of the Thirteen Classics. The Chinese classics used a form of written Chinese consciously imitated by later authors, now known as Classical Chinese. A common Chinese word for \"classic\" (`{{zhi|first=t|t=經|s=经|p=jīng}}`{=mediawiki}) literally means \'warp thread\', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes.
Texts may include *shi* (*史*, \'histories\') *zi* (*子* \'master texts\'), philosophical treatises usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and *ji* (*集}}* \'literary works\') as well as the cultivation of *jing*, \'essence\' in Chinese medicine.
In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to take the imperial examination and needed to pass them in order to become scholar-officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of the literati---or even a military officer in some periods---without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the Chinese characters of the *Three Character Classic* and *Hundred Family Surnames* and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values.
## Qin dynasty {#qin_dynasty}
### Loss of texts {#loss_of_texts}
According to Sima Qian\'s *Records of the Grand Historian*, after Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor Li Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought, with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of Legalism. According to the *Shiji*, three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning the ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime.
Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding the alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period, and the \"schools of thought\" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China. Michael Nylan observes that despite its mythic significance, the \"burning of books and burying of scholars\" legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that the reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian Five Classics was partly to \"slander\" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as Confucian. Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on the *Classic of Poetry* and the *Book of Documents*, which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the *Book of Rites* and the *Zuo Zhuan* did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BC and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time. Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite the Classics, especially the *Documents* and the *Classic of Poetry*, which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported.
## Western Han dynasty {#western_han_dynasty}
### Five Classics {#five_classics}
The **Five Classics** (`{{zhi|t=五經|p=Wǔjīng}}`{=mediawiki}) are five pre-Qin texts that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the Western Han dynasty, which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as a set collection, and to be called collectively the \"Five Classics\". Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period, but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles. Mencius, the leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the *Spring and Autumn Annals* as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods.
*Classic of Poetry*
: A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house.
*Book of Documents*
: A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese narrative, and may date from the 6th century BC. It includes examples of early Chinese prose.
*Book of Rites*
: Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies. The version studied today is a re-worked version compiled by scholars in the third century BC rather than the original text, which is said to have been edited by Confucius himself.
*I Ching*
: The book contains a divination system comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. In Western cultures and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.
*Spring and Autumn Annals*
: A historical record of the State of Lu, Confucius\'s native state, 722--481 BC.
Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn.
### Han imperial library {#han_imperial_library}
In 26 BCE, at the command of the emperor, Liu Xiang (77--6 BC) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the *Abstracts* (`{{zhi|first=t|t=別錄|s=别录|p=Bielu}}`{=mediawiki}), and is the first known editor of the *Classic of Mountains and Seas*, which was finished by his son. Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the *Biographies of Exemplary Women*. He has long erroneously been credited with compiling the *Biographies of the Immortals*, a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns.`{{better source needed|date=April 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the \"Nine Laments\" that appears in the *Chu Ci*.
The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include:
This work was continued by his son, Liu Xin, who finally completed the task after his father\'s death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from the versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair\'s editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China\'s pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does.
## Song dynasty {#song_dynasty}
### Four Books {#four_books}
The **Four Books** (`{{zhi|t=四書|p=Sìshū}}`{=mediawiki}) are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism. They were selected by Zhu Xi (1130--1200) during the Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations. They are:
*Great Learning*
: Originally one chapter in the *Book of Rites*. It consists of a short main text attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zengzi, one of the disciples of Confucius. Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi\'s foreword that this is the gateway of learning. It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked.
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*Doctrine of the Mean*
: Another chapter in *Book of Rites*, attributed to Confucius\'s grandson Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on the Tao that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue of *de*. Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.
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*Analects*
: Thought to be a compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held. Since Confucius\'s time, the *Analects* has heavily influenced the philosophy and moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The imperial examinations, started in the Sui dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.
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*Mencius*
: A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the *Mencius* consists of long dialogues with extensive prose.
## Ming dynasty {#ming_dynasty}
### Thirteen Classics {#thirteen_classics}
The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the Thirteen Classics. In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass the examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates.
- *I Ching*
- *Book of Documents*
- *Classic of Poetry*
- The Three Ritual Classics (`{{zhi|c=三禮|p=Sānlǐ}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Rites of Zhou*
- *Ceremonies and Rites*
- *Book of Rites*
- \"Great Learning\" chapter (`{{zhi|c=大學|p=Dà xué}}`{=mediawiki})
- \"Doctrine of the Mean\" chapter (`{{zhi|c=中庸|p=Zhōng yōng}}`{=mediawiki})
- The Three Commentaries on the *Spring and Autumn Annals*
- *Zuo Zhuan*
- *The Commentary of Gongyang*
- *The Commentary of Guliang*
- *Analects*
- *Classic of Filial Piety*
- *Erya*
- *Mencius*
## List of classics {#list_of_classics}
### Before 221 BC {#before_221_bc}
It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being \"pre-Qin\", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so the older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed \"authors\".
The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the *Siku Quanshu* (*Complete Library of the Four Treasuries*), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor. The *Siku Quanshu* classifies all works into 4 top-level branches: the Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch.
#### Classics branch {#classics_branch}
Title Description
---------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*I Ching* A manual of divination based on the eight trigrams attributed to the mythical figure Fuxi---by at least the Eastern Zhou, these eight trigrams had been multiplied to create 64 hexagrams.
*Book of Documents* A collection of documents and speeches allegedly from the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou periods, and even earlier. It contains some of the earliest examples of Chinese prose.
*Classic of Poetry* Made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities, 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation edited by Confucius. A standard version, named *Maoshi Zhengyi*, was compiled in the mid-7th century under the leadership of Kong Yingda.
The Three Rites
*Rites of Zhou* Conferred the status of a classic in the 12th century, in place of the lost *Classic of Music*.
*Book of Etiquette and Ceremony* Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies.
*Classic of Rites* Describes social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites.
*Spring and Autumn Annals* Chronologically the earliest of the annals; comprising about 16,000 characters, it records the events of the state of Lu from 722 to 481 BC, with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc.
*Zuo zhuan* A different report of the same events as the *Spring and Autumn Annals* with a few significant differences. It covers a longer period than the *Spring and Autumn Annals* .
*Commentary of Gongyang* Another surviving commentary on the same events (see *Spring and Autumn Annals*).
*Commentary of Guliang* Another surviving commentary on the same events (see *Spring and Autumn Annals*).
*Classic of Filial Piety* A small book giving advice on filial piety; how to behave towards a senior (such as a father, an elder brother, or ruler).
The Four Books
*Mencius* A book of anecdotes and conversations of Mencius.
*Analects* A twenty-chapter work of dialogues attributed to Confucius and his disciples; traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius\'s own circle it is thought to have been set down by later Confucian scholars.
Doctrine of the Mean A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi
Great Learning A chapter from the Book of Rites made into an independent work by Zhu Xi
Philology
*Erya* A dictionary explaining the meaning and interpretation of words in the context of the Confucian Canon.
#### History branch {#history_branch}
Title Description
------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Bamboo Annals* History of Zhou dynasty excavated from a Wei tomb in the Jin dynasty.
*Yi Zhou Shu* Similar in style to the *Book of Documents*
*Guoyu* A collection of historical records of numerous states recorded the period from the Western Zhou to 453 BC.
*Strategies of the Warring States* Edited by Liu Xiang.
*Yanzi chunqiu* Attributed to the statesman Yan Ying, a contemporary of Confucius
#### Philosophy branch {#philosophy_branch}
The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within the text itself. The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time.
Title Description
------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Confucianism (excluding Classics branch)
*Kongzi Jiayu* Collection of stories about Confucius and his disciples. Authenticity disputed.
*Xunzi* Attributed to Xun Kuang, an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings that makes the distinction between what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education.
Seven Military Classics
*Six Secret Teachings* Attributed to Jiang Ziya
*The Art of War* Attributed to Sunzi.
*Wuzi* Attributed to Wu Qi.
*The Methods of the Sima* Attributed to Sima Rangju.
*Wei Liaozi* Attributed to Wei Liao.
*Three Strategies of Huang Shigong* Attributed to Jiang Ziya.
*Thirty-Six Stratagems* Recently recovered.
Legalism
*Guanzi* Attributed to Guan Zhong.
*Deng Xizi*`{{csni|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Fragment
*The Book of Lord Shang* Attributed to Shang Yang.
*Han Feizi* Attributed to Han Fei.
*Shenzi* Attributed to Shen Buhai. All but one chapter is lost.
*Canon of Laws* Attributed to Li Kui.
Medicine
*Huangdi Neijing*
*Nan Jing*
Miscellaneous
*Yuzi*`{{csni|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Fragment
*Mozi* Attributed to Mozi.
*Yinwenzi*`{{csni|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Fragment
*Shenzi* Attributed to Shen Dao. It originally consisted of ten volumes and forty-two chapters, of which all but seven chapters have been lost.
*Heguanzi*
*Gongsun longzi*
*Guiguzi*
*Lüshi Chunqiu* An encyclopedia of ancient classics edited by Lü Buwei.
*Shizi* Attributed to Shi Jiao
Mythology
*Classic of Mountains and Seas* A compilation of early geography descriptions of animals and myths from various locations around China.
Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven tells the tale of king mu and his quest for immortality and after receiving it sadness over the death of his lover.
Taoism
*Tao Te Ching* Attributed to Laozi.
*Guan Yinzi*`{{csni |date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Fragment
*Liezi* Attributed to Lie Yukou.
*Zhuangzi* Attributed to Zhuang Zhou.
*Wenzi*
#### Poetry
Title Description
---------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Chu Ci* Aside from the Shi Jing (see Classics branch) the only surviving pre-Qin poetry collection. Attributed to the southern state of Chu, and especially Qu Yuan.
### After 206 BC {#after_206_bc}
- The *Twenty-Four Histories*, a collection of authoritative histories of China for various dynasties:
- The *Records of the Grand Historian* by Sima Qian
- The *Book of Han* by Ban Gu.
- The *Book of Later Han* by Fan Ye
- The *Records of Three Kingdoms* by Chen Shou
- The *Book of Jin* by Fang Xuanling
- The *Book of Song* by Shen Yue
- The *Book of Southern Qi* by Xiao Zixian
- The *Book of Liang* by Yao Silian
- The *Book of Chen* by Yao Silian
- The *History of the Southern Dynasties* by Li Yanshou
- The *Book of Wei* by Wei Shou
- The *Book of Zhou* by Linghu Defen
- The *Book of Northern Qi* by Li Baiyao
- The *History of the Northern Dynasties* by Li Yanshou
- The *Book of Sui* by Wei Zheng
- The *Old Book of Tang* by Liu Xu
- The *New Book of Tang* by Ouyang Xiu
- The *Old History of Five Dynasties* by Xue Juzheng
- The *New History of Five Dynasties* by Ouyang Xiu
- The *History of Song* by Toqto\'a
- The *History of Liao* by Toqto\'a
- The *History of Jin* by Toqto\'a
- The *History of Yuan* by Song Lian
- The *History of Ming* by Zhang Tingyu
- The *Draft History of Qing* by Zhao Erxun is usually referred as the 25th classic of history records
- The *New History of Yuan* by Ke Shaomin is sometimes referred as the 26th classic of history records
- The *Chronicles of Huayang*, an old record of ancient history and tales of southwestern China, attributed to Chang Qu.
- The *Biographies of Exemplary Women*, a biographical collection of exemplary women in ancient China, compiled by Liu Xiang.
- The *Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms*, a historical record of the Sixteen Kingdoms, attributed to Cui Hong, is lost.
- The *Shiming*, is a dictionary compiled by Liu Xi by the end of 2nd century.
- *A New Account of the Tales of the World*, a collection of historical anecdotes and character sketches of some 600 literati, musicians, and painters.
- The *Thirty-Six Strategies*, a military strategy book attributed to Tan Daoji.
- *The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons*, a review book on ancient Chinese literature and writings by Liu Xie.
- The *Commentary on the Water Classic*, a book on hydrology of rivers in China attributed to the great geographer Li Daoyuan.
- The *Dialogues between Li Jing and Tang Taizong*, a military strategy book attributed to Li Jing
- The *Zizhi Tongjian*, with Sima Guang as its main editor.
- The *Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue*, a historical record of the states of Wu and Yue during the Spring and Autumn period, attributed to Zhao Ye.
- The *Zhenguan Zhengyao*, a record of governance strategies and leadership of Emperor Taizong of Tang, attributed to Wu Jing.
- The *Jiaoshi Yilin*, a work modeled after the *I Ching*, composed during the Western Han dynasty and attributed to Jiao Yanshou.
- *The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*, a mathematics Chinese book composed by several generations scholars of Han dynasty.
- The *Thousand Character Classic*, attributed to Zhou Xingsi.
- The *Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era*, compiled by Gautama Siddha, is a Chinese encyclopedia on astrology and divination.
- The *Shitong*, written by Liu Zhiji, a work on historiography.
- The *Tongdian*, written by Du You, a contemporary text focused on the Tang dynasty.
- The *Tang Huiyao*, compiled by Wang Pu, a text based on the institutional history of the Tang dynasty.
- The *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, compiled by Bianji; a recount of Xuanzang\'s journey.
- The *Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang*, written by Duan Chengshi, records fantastic stories, anecdotes, and exotic customs.
- The *Four Great Books of Song*, a term referring to the four large compilations during the beginning of Song dynasty:
- The *Taiping Yulan,* a *leishu* encyclopedia.
- The *Taiping Guangji*, a collection of folk tales and theology.
- The *Wenyuan Yinghua*, an anthology of poetry, odes, songs and other writings.
- The *Cefu Yuangui*, a *leishu* encyclopedia of political essays, autobiographies, memorials and decrees.
- The *Dream Pool Essays*, a collection of essays on science, technology, military strategies, history, politics, music and arts, written by Shen Kuo.
- The *Tiangong Kaiwu*, an encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing.
- The *Compendium of Materia Medica*, a classic book of medicine written by Li Shizhen.
- The *Complete Library of the Four Treasuries*, the largest compilation of literature in Chinese history.
- The *New Songs from the Jade Terrace*, a poetry collection from the Six Dynasties period.
- The *Complete Tang Poems*, compiled during the Qing dynasty, published in 1705.
- The *Xiaolin Guangji*, a collection of jokes compiled during the Qing dynasty.
### See also {#see_also}
- List of early Chinese texts
- Kaicheng Stone Classics
- Ancient Script Texts
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Charles Messier
|
**Charles Messier** (`{{IPA|fr|ʃaʁl me.sje|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 26 June 1730 -- 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer. He published an astronomical catalogue consisting of 110 nebulae and star clusters, which came to be known as the *Messier objects*, referred to with the letter M and their number between 1 and 110. Messier\'s purpose for the catalogue was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and transient visually diffuse objects in the sky.
## Biography
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, in 1730, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741. Charles\' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.
In 1751, Messier entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier\'s first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753, followed by his observations journals at Cluny Hotel and at the French Navy observatories.
In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. He was given the nickname \"Ferret of Comets\" by King Louis XV.
Messier discovered 13 comets:
- C/1760 B1 (Messier)
- C/1763 S1 (Messier)
- C/1764 A1 (Messier)
- C/1766 E1 (Messier)
- C/1769 P1 (Messier)
- D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
- C/1771 G1 (Messier)
- C/1773 T1 (Messier)
- C/1780 U2 (Messier)
- C/1785 A1 (Messier--Méchain)
- C/1788 W1 (Messier)
- C/1793 S2 (Messier)
- C/1798 G1 (Messier)
He also co-discovered comet C/1801 N1 (Pons), a discovery shared with several other observers including Pons, Méchain, and Bouvard.
Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of Napoleon, who was in power at the time of publishing. According to Maik Meyer:`{{quotation| As hard as it may seem to accept, the memoir is an ingratiation to Napoleon in order to receive attention and monetary support. It is full of servility and opportunism. Messier did not even refrain from utilizing astrology to reach his goal. Messier comes quickly to the point on the first page of the memoir, by stating that the beginning of the epoch of Napoleon the Great ... coincides with the discovery of one of the greatest comets ever observed.}}`{=mediawiki}
Messier is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in the 20th arrondissement of Paris.
## Messier catalogue {#messier_catalogue}
Messier\'s occupation as a comet hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets. He compiled a list of them, in collaboration with his friend and assistant Pierre Méchain (who may have found at least 20 of the objects), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets for which they were looking. The entries are now known to be 39 galaxies, 4 planetary nebulae, 7 other types of nebulae, 26 open star clusters and 29 globular star clusters.
Messier did his observing with a 100 mm (four-inch) refracting telescope from Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in downtown Paris, France. The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north celestial pole to a declination of about −35.7° . They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location. The first version of Messier\'s catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45 objects being discovered by Messier himself. By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80 objects.
The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of *Connaissance des Temps*. The final list of Messier objects had grown to 103. On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, M 104 through M 110, are accepted by astronomers as \"official\" Messier objects.
The objects\' Messier designations, from M 1 to M 110, are still used by professional and amateur astronomers today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community.
## Legacy
thumb\|right\|upright=1.3\|Commemorative plaque in Messier\'s hometown of Badonviller The lunar crater Messier and the asteroid 7359 Messier were named in his honour.
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Crankshaft
|
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray), cylinders (blue) and flywheel (black)
A **crankshaft** is a mechanical component used in a piston engine to convert the reciprocating motion into rotational motion. The crankshaft is a rotating shaft containing one or more crankpins, that are driven by the pistons via the connecting rods.
The crankpins are also called *rod bearing journals*, and they rotate within the \"big end\" of the connecting rods.
Most modern crankshafts are located in the engine block. They are made from steel or cast iron, using either a forging, casting or machining process.
## Design
The crankshaft is located within the engine block and held in place via main bearings which allow the crankshaft to rotate within the block. The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods. A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to smoothen the power delivery and reduce vibration.
A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than 19000 lb per cylinder. Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders.
### Bearings
The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the \'main bearings\'. Since the crankshaft is subject to large horizontal and torsional forces from each cylinder, these main bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, rather than just one at each end. The number of main bearings is determined based on the overall load factor and the maximum engine speed. Crankshafts in diesel engines often use a main bearing between every cylinder and at both ends of the crankshaft, due to the high forces of combustion present.
Flexing of the crankshaft was a factor in replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s; the long crankshafts suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM).
### Piston stroke {#piston_stroke}
The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.
Most modern car engines are classified as \"over square\" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as \"stroking\" the engine. Historically, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was a lower rev limit and increased vibration at high RPM, due to the increased piston velocity.
### Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations {#cross_plane_and_flat_plane_configurations}
When designing an engine, the crankshaft configuration is closely related to the engine\'s firing order.
Most production V8 engines (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine) use a cross-plane crank whereby the crank throws are spaced 90 degrees apart. However, some high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 488) instead use a flat-plane crank, whereby the throws are spaced 180° apart, which essentially results in two inline-four engines sharing a common crankcase. Flat-plane engines are usually able to operate at higher RPM, however they have higher second-order vibrations, so they are better suited to racing car engines.
### Engine balance {#engine_balance}
For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of the piston, conrods and crankshaft, in order to improve the engine balance. These counterweights are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces.
### Flying arms {#flying_arms}
In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crankpins, without the usual intermediate main bearing. These links are called *flying arms*.`{{refpage |pages=16, 41}}`{=mediawiki} This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, in order to maintain an even firing interval while using different V angles, and to reduce the number of main bearings required. The downside of flying arms is that the rigidity of the crankshaft is reduced, which can cause problems at high RPM or high power outputs.
### Counter-rotating crankshafts {#counter_rotating_crankshafts}
In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall. To prevent this, some early engines -- such as the 1900--1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines -- connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions. This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights. This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used.
### Eccentricity and dynamic displacement of diesel engines {#eccentricity_and_dynamic_displacement_of_diesel_engines}
Eccentricity and dynamic displacement are critical factors influencing the performance, efficiency, and durability of diesel engines. These phenomena arise due to the flexibility of the crankshaft, secondary piston motion, and varying loads during engine operation. Understanding these effects is essential for reducing mechanical wear, improving fuel efficiency, and optimizing engine design.
## Construction
### Forged crankshafts {#forged_crankshafts}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Forged crankshaft
Crankshafts can be created from a steel bar using roll forging. Today, manufacturers tend to favour the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mainly used as these steels can be air-cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, except for the surface hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high-alloy steels. Carbon steels also require additional heat treatment to reach the desired properties.
### Cast crankshafts {#cast_crankshafts}
Another construction method is to cast the crankshaft from ductile iron. Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the loads are lower.
### Machined crankshafts {#machined_crankshafts}
Crankshafts can also be machined from billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material\'s chemical composition generated during casting) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be used. Per unit, these crankshafts tend to be expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method allows small production runs without high up-front costs.
## History
### Crankshaft
In 9th century Abbasid Baghdad, automatically operated cranks appear in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in the *Book of Ingenious Devices*. These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft, five centuries before the earliest known European description of a crankshaft. However, the automatic crank mechanism described by the Banū Mūsā would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.
In the Artuqid Sultanate, Arab engineer Ismail al-Jazari (1136--1206) described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine for two of his water-raising machines, which include both crank and shaft mechanisms.
thumb\|right\|upright=0.8\|15th century paddle-wheel boatThe Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280), planning for a new Crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels, identified as an early crankshaft prototype by Lynn Townsend White.
thumb\|right\|upright=0.8\|1661 water pump by Georg Andreas Böckler Crankshafts were described by Leonardo da Vinci (1452--1519) and a Dutch farmer and windmill owner by the name Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest in 1592. His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill\'s circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597.
From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period: Agostino Ramelli\'s *The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines* of 1588 depicts eighteen examples, a number that rises in the *Theatrum Machinarum Novum* by Georg Andreas Böckler to 45 different machines. Cranks were formerly common on some machines in the early 20th century; for example almost all phonographs before the 1930s were powered by clockwork motors wound with cranks. Reciprocating piston engines use cranks to convert the linear piston motion into rotational motion. Internal combustion engines of early 20th century automobiles were usually started with hand cranks, before electric starters came into general use.
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Central nervous system
|
The **central nervous system** (**CNS**) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic animals---that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and diploblasts. It is a structure composed of nervous tissue positioned along the rostral (nose end) to caudal (tail end) axis of the body and may have an enlarged section at the rostral end which is a brain. Only arthropods, cephalopods and vertebrates have a true brain, though precursor structures exist in onychophorans, gastropods and lancelets.
The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals.
## Overview
In vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges. The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in the blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals.
In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, while the brain is housed in the cranial cavity within the skull. The spinal cord is housed in the spinal canal within the vertebrae. Within the CNS, the interneuronal space is filled with a large amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglia or glia from the Greek for \"glue\".
In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), as well as the olfactory nerves and olfactory epithelium. As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate ganglia. The olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for therapeutic agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier.
## Structure
The CNS consists of two major structures: the brain and spinal cord. The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain. It is protected by the vertebrae. The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, and continues through or starting below the foramen magnum, and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra, occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.
### White and gray matter {#white_and_gray_matter}
Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of white and gray matter. This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue. Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.
The brain (cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain) consists of a cortex, composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures. Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei.
### Spinal cord {#spinal_cord}
From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa, sacral plexa etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.
The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the final common pathway to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex.
<File:1615> Locations Spinal Fiber Tracts.jpg\|Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord. <File:1507> Short and Long Reflexes.jpg\|Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the CNS as in the below example of a short reflex.
#### Cranial nerves {#cranial_nerves}
Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle, which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves).
Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs.
### Brain
At the anterior end of the spinal cord lies the brain. The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS. It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general. The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.
#### Brainstem
The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.
Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing. Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing, and control of muscles of the face and neck.
The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex. In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste.
The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres, among others. Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements.
The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of the face and neck through cranial nerves, Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve. A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the heart, blood vessels, and pupils, among others.
The brainstem also holds the reticular formation, a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness.
#### Cerebellum
The cerebellum lies behind the pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements. Despite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition. These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography.
The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum, but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons. It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the vestibular organ.
#### Diencephalon
The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a \"relay station\", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (neocortex).
Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefulness and consciousness, such as though the SCN.
The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.
#### Cerebrum
The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain.
Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures. One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks.
The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement.
### Difference from the peripheral nervous system {#difference_from_the_peripheral_nervous_system}
The PNS consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.
The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates a single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons. Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane, which envelop and enclose the axon.
## Development
During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube. The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation. At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone. The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells, multiply and generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis, forming the rudiment of the CNS.
The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord. The anterior (or \'rostral\') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon. (By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or \'caudal\' portion of the neural tube.
As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle. The tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the pons and the cerebellum, the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata, and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle.
<File:EmbryonicBrain.svg%7CDiagram> depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. <File:Development> of the neural tube.png\|Development of the neural tube
----- ------------- ---------------- ----------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CNS Brain Prosencephalon Telencephalon Rhinencephalon, amygdala, hippocampus, neocortex, basal ganglia, lateral ventricles
Diencephalon Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, third ventricle
Brain stem Mesencephalon Tectum, cerebral peduncle, pretectum, mesencephalic duct
Rhombencephalon Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal cord
----- ------------- ---------------- ----------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
### Evolution
#### Planaria
Planarians, members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a PNS. Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS. Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS. The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS.
A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.
#### Arthropoda
In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS. Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory motor neurons due to their small size. `{{see also|Lateral horn of insect brain}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Chordata
The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the entire mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.
##### Mammals
Mammals -- which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles -- are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the neocortex. This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the sensory cortices (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by the tectum). The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions -- gyri and sulci -- found in the neocortex of most placental mammals (eutherians). Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related to their complex echolocation.
## Clinical significance {#clinical_significance}
### Diseases
There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, seizure disorders such as epilepsy, headache disorders such as migraine, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\'s disease, Parkinson\'s disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe\'s disease and Huntington\'s disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning.
Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer a specific clinical question and not as routine screening.
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Cell cycle
|
*Cell Cycle* (journal)}} `{{see also|Cell division}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}`{=mediawiki} The **cell cycle**, or **cell-division cycle**, is the sequential series of events that take place in a cell that causes it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the growth of the cell, duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm, chromosomes and other components into two daughter cells in a process called cell division.
In eukaryotic cells (having a cell nucleus) including animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells, the cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase, and the M phase that includes mitosis and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, and replicates its DNA and some of its organelles. During the M phase, the replicated chromosomes, organelles, and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper replication of cellular components and division, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints after each of the key steps of the cycle that determine if the cell can progress to the next phase.
In cells without nuclei the prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells.
In single-celled organisms, a single cell-division cycle is how the organism reproduces to ensure its survival. In multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, a series of cell-division cycles is how the organism develops from a single-celled fertilized egg into a mature organism, and is also the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are regenerated and healed (with possible exception of nerves; see nerve damage). After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cell cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of the cell division.
## Phases
The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G~1~ phase, S phase (synthesis), G~2~ phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell\'s nucleus divides, and cytokinesis, in which the cell\'s cytoplasm and cell membrane divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence known as G~0~ phase or *resting phase*.
State Phase Abbreviation Description
--------------- ----------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Resting Gap 0 **G~0~** A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.
Interphase Gap 1 **G~1~** Cell growth. The *G~1~ checkpoint* ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.
Synthesis **S** DNA replication.
Gap 2 **G~2~** Growth and preparation for mitosis. The *G~2~ checkpoint* ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.
Cell division Mitosis **M** Cell division occurs. The *Metaphase Checkpoint* ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.
### G~0~ phase (quiescence) {#g0_phase_quiescence}
*Main article: G0 phase*
G~0~ is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G~0~ state from G~1~ and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Some cells enter the G~0~ phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G~0~ and continue to divide throughout an organism\'s life, e.g., epithelial cells.
The word \"post-mitotic\" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G~1~. Cellular senescence may make a cell\'s progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.
### Interphase
Interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Interphase proceeds in three stages, G~1~, S, and G~2~, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell\'s nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase.
#### G~1~ phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase) {#g1_phase_first_growth_phase_or_post_mitotic_gap_phase}
*Main article: G1 phase* The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G~1~ (G indicating *gap*). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G~1~ is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G~1~ phase, a cell has three options.
- To continue cell cycle and enter S phase
- Stop cell cycle and enter G~0~ phase for undergoing differentiation.
- Become arrested in G~1~ phase hence it may enter G~0~ phase or re-enter cell cycle.
The deciding point is called check point (Restriction point). This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G~1~/S cyclins, which cause transition from G~1~ to S phase. Passage through the G~1~ check point commits the cell to division.
#### S phase (DNA replication) {#s_phase_dna_replication}
The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has doubled, though the ploidy and number of chromosomes are unchanged. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.
#### G~2~ phase (growth) {#g2_phase_growth}
G~2~ phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle (preprophase). Before proceeding to mitotic phase, cells must be checked at the G~2~ checkpoint for any DNA damage within the chromosomes. The G~2~ checkpoint is mainly regulated by the tumor protein p53. If the DNA is damaged, p53 will either repair the DNA or trigger the apoptosis of the cell. If p53 is dysfunctional or mutated, cells with damaged DNA may continue through the cell cycle, leading to the development of cancer.
### Mitotic phase (chromosome separation) {#mitotic_phase_chromosome_separation}
The relatively brief *M phase* consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis) and division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:
- prophase
- prometaphase
- metaphase
- anaphase
- telophase
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense (chromosome condensation) and attach to microtubules that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as *Aspergillus nidulans* and *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* (yeast) undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.
### Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components) {#cytokinesis_phase_separation_of_all_cell_components}
Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Cytokinesis occurs differently in plant and animal cells. While the cell membrane forms a groove that gradually deepens to separate the cytoplasm in animal cells, a cell plate is formed to separate it in plant cells. The position of the cell plate is determined by the position of a preprophase band of microtubules and actin filaments. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the parent cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.
Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, \"mitosis\" is often used interchangeably with \"M phase\". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime molds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can result in cell death through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
## `{{anchor|Regulation_of_cell_cycle}}`{=mediawiki}Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle {#regulation_of_eukaryotic_cell_cycle}
thumb\|upright=2\|Levels of the three major cyclin types oscillate during the cell cycle (top), providing the basis for oscillations in the cyclin--Cdk complexes that drive cell-cycle events (bottom). Cdk levels are constant and in large excess over cyclin levels; thus, cyclin--Cdk complexes form in parallel with cyclin levels. The enzymatic activities of cyclin--Cdk complexes also tend to rise and fall in parallel with cyclin levels. Formation of active G1/S--Cdk complexes commits the cell to a new division cycle at the Start checkpoint in late G1. G1/S--Cdks then activate the S--Cdk complexes that initiate DNA replication at the beginning of S phase. M--Cdk activation occurs after the completion of S phase, resulting in progression through the G2/M checkpoint and assembly of the mitotic spindle. APC activation then triggers sister-chromatid separation at the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC activity is maintained in G1 until G1/S--Cdk activity rises again and commits the cell to the next cycle.
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to \"reverse\" the cycle.
### Role of cyclins and CDKs {#role_of_cyclins_and_cdks}
+-----------------+-----------------+
| \ | \ |
| Nobel Laureate\ | Nobel Laureate\ |
| Paul Nurse | Tim Hunt |
+-----------------+-----------------+
Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell\'s progress through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general, more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes *cdc* (for \"cell division cycle\") followed by an identifying number, e.g. *cdc25* or *cdc20*.
Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.
#### General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction {#general_mechanism_of_cyclin_cdk_interaction}
Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G~1~ cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G~1~ cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. Results from a study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.
Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G~1~ phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell\'s genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.
Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G~2~ phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.
#### Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes {#specific_action_of_cyclin_cdk_complexes}
Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cells that enter the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D levels stay low in resting cells that are not proliferating. Additionally, CDK4/6 and CDK2 are also inactive because CDK4/6 are bound by INK4 family members (e.g., p16), limiting kinase activity. Meanwhile, CDK2 complexes are inhibited by the CIP/KIP proteins such as p21 and p27, When it is time for a cell to enter the cell cycle, which is triggered by a mitogenic stimuli, levels of cyclin D increase. In response to this trigger, cyclin D binds to existing CDK4/6, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4/6 complexes in turn mono-phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb) to pRb. The un-phosphorylated Rb tumour suppressor functions in inducing cell cycle exit and maintaining G0 arrest (senescence).
In the last few decades, a model has been widely accepted whereby pRB proteins are inactivated by cyclin D-Cdk4/6-mediated phosphorylation. Rb has 14+ potential phosphorylation sites. Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 progressively phosphorylates Rb to hyperphosphorylated state, which triggers dissociation of pRB--E2F complexes, thereby inducing G1/S cell cycle gene expression and progression into S phase.
Scientific observations from a study have shown that Rb is present in three types of isoforms: (1) un-phosphorylated Rb in G0 state; (2) mono-phosphorylated Rb, also referred to as \"hypo-phosphorylated\' or \'partially\' phosphorylated Rb in early G1 state; and (3) inactive hyper-phosphorylated Rb in late G1 state. In early G1 cells, mono-phosphorylated Rb exists as 14 different isoforms, one of each has distinct E2F binding affinity. Rb has been found to associate with hundreds of different proteins and the idea that different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms have different protein partners was very appealing. A later report confirmed that mono-phosphorylation controls Rb\'s association with other proteins and generates functional distinct forms of Rb. All different mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms inhibit E2F transcriptional program and are able to arrest cells in G1-phase. Different mono-phosphorylated forms of Rb have distinct transcriptional outputs that are extended beyond E2F regulation.
In general, the binding of pRb to E2F inhibits the E2F target gene expression of certain G1/S and S transition genes including E-type cyclins. The partial phosphorylation of Rb de-represses the Rb-mediated suppression of E2F target gene expression, begins the expression of cyclin E. The molecular mechanism that causes the cell switched to cyclin E activation is currently not known, but as cyclin E levels rise, the active cyclin E-CDK2 complex is formed, bringing Rb to be inactivated by hyper-phosphorylation. Hyperphosphorylated Rb is completely dissociated from E2F, enabling further expression of a wide range of E2F target genes are required for driving cells to proceed into S phase \[1\]. It has been identified that cyclin D-Cdk4/6 binds to a C-terminal alpha-helix region of Rb that is only distinguishable to cyclin D rather than other cyclins, cyclin E, A and B. This observation based on the structural analysis of Rb phosphorylation supports that Rb is phosphorylated in a different level through multiple Cyclin-Cdk complexes. This also makes feasible the current model of a simultaneous switch-like inactivation of all mono-phosphorylated Rb isoforms through one type of Rb hyper-phosphorylation mechanism. In addition, mutational analysis of the cyclin D- Cdk 4/6 specific Rb C-terminal helix shows that disruptions of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 binding to Rb prevents Rb phosphorylation, arrests cells in G1, and bolsters Rb\'s functions in tumor suppressor. This cyclin-Cdk driven cell cycle transitional mechanism governs a cell committed to the cell cycle that allows cell proliferation. A cancerous cell growth often accompanies with deregulation of Cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 activity.
The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively \"blocking\" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G~1~ to S phase (G~1~/S, which initiates the G~2~/M transition). Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis. A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.
### Inhibitors
#### Endogenous
Two families of genes, the *cip/kip* (*CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein*) family and the INK4a/ARF (*In*hibitor of *K*inase 4/*A*lternative *R*eading *F*rame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.
The ***cip/kip* family** includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt the cell cycle in G~1~ phase by binding to and inactivating cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.
The **INK4a/ARF family** includes p16^INK4a^, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G~1~ phase, and p14^ARF^ which prevents p53 degradation.
#### Synthetic
Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.
Many human cancers possess the hyper-activated Cdk 4/6 activities. Given the observations of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 functions, inhibition of Cdk 4/6 should result in preventing a malignant tumor from proliferating. Consequently, scientists have tried to invent the synthetic Cdk4/6 inhibitor as Cdk4/6 has been characterized to be a therapeutic target for anti-tumor effectiveness. Three Cdk4/6 inhibitors -- palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib -- currently received FDA approval for clinical use to treat advanced-stage or metastatic, hormone-receptor-positive (HR-positive, HR+), HER2-negative (HER2-) breast cancer. For example, palbociclib is an orally active CDK4/6 inhibitor which has demonstrated improved outcomes for ER-positive/HER2-negative advanced breast cancer. The main side effect is neutropenia which can be managed by dose reduction.
Cdk4/6 targeted therapy will only treat cancer types where Rb is expressed. Cancer cells with loss of Rb have primary resistance to Cdk4/6 inhibitors.
### Transcriptional regulatory network {#transcriptional_regulatory_network}
Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* have identified 800--1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle. They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.
Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects. Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression. The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).
Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando *et al.* used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (*clb1,2,3,4,5,6*). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G~1~ and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events. Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.
While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.
### DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity {#dna_replication_and_dna_replication_origin_activity}
Analyses of synchronized cultures of *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3\' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes. This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.
## Checkpoints
Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle. It is estimated that in normal human cells about 1% of single-strand DNA damages are converted to about 50 endogenous DNA double-strand breaks per cell per cell cycle. Although such double-strand breaks are usually repaired with high fidelity, errors in their repair are considered to contribute significantly to the rate of cancer in humans.
There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G~1~/S checkpoint, the G~2~/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint. Another checkpoint is the Go checkpoint, in which the cells are checked for maturity. If the cells fail to pass this checkpoint by not being ready yet, they will be discarded from dividing.
G~1~/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.
The G~2~/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G~2~/M checkpoint.
The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that\'s not to say it isn\'t important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.
While these are the three \"main\" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially acquire mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G~0~ until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism\'s development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G~0~, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.
p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G~1~/S and G~2~/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.
## Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle {#fluorescence_imaging_of_the_cell_cycle}
Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator ([FUCCI](http://www.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zimmer/GFP-ww/cooluses19.html)), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO~2~) was fused to hCdt1(30/120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G~2~, or M phase and degraded during the G~0~ or G~1~ phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G~0~ or G~1~ phase and destroyed during the S, G~2~, or M phase. A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein ([movie found at this link](http://www.nature.com/nmeth/journal/vaop/ncurrent/fig_tab/nmeth.3935_SV2.html)). Several modifications have been made to the original FUCCI system to improve its usability in several in vitro systems and model organisms. These advancements have increased the sensitivity and accuracy of cell cycle phase detection, enabling more precise assessments of cellular proliferation
## Role in tumor formation {#role_in_tumor_formation}
A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G~0~ phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.
The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G~0~ to G~1~ phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.
The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G~1~, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.
In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G~2~ phases and most resistant in late S phase. For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G~1~ phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G~1~. The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.
Homologous recombination (HR) is an accurate process for repairing DNA double-strand breaks. HR is nearly absent in G1 phase, is most active in S phase, and declines in G~2~/M. Non-homologous end joining, a less accurate and more mutagenic process for repairing double strand breaks, is active throughout the cell cycle.
## Cell cycle evolution {#cell_cycle_evolution}
### Evolution of the genome {#evolution_of_the_genome}
The cell cycle must duplicate all cellular constituents and equally partition them into two daughter cells. Many constituents, such as proteins and ribosomes, are produced continuously throughout the cell cycle (except during M-phase). However, the chromosomes and other associated elements like MTOCs, are duplicated just once during the cell cycle. A central component of the cell cycle is its ability to coordinate the continuous and periodic duplications of different cellular elements, which evolved with the formation of the genome.
The pre-cellular environment contained functional and self-replicating RNAs. All RNA concentrations depended on the concentrations of other RNAs that might be helping or hindering the gathering of resources. In this environment, growth was simply the continuous production of RNAs. These pre-cellular structures would have had to contend with parasitic RNAs, issues of inheritance, and copy-number control of specific RNAs.
Partitioning \"genomic\" RNA from \"functional\" RNA helped solve these problems. The fusion of multiple RNAs into a genome gave a template from which functional RNAs were cleaved. Now, parasitic RNAs would have to incorporate themselves into the genome, a much greater barrier, in order to survive. Controlling the copy number of genomic RNA also allowed RNA concentration to be determined through synthesis rates and RNA half-lives, instead of competition. Separating the duplication of genomic RNAs from the generation of functional RNAs allowed for much greater duplication fidelity of genomic RNAs without compromising the production of functional RNAs. Finally, the replacement of genomic RNA with DNA, which is a more stable molecule, allowed for larger genomes. The transition from self-catalysis enzyme synthesis to genome-directed enzyme synthesis was a critical step in cell evolution, and had lasting implications on the cell cycle, which must regulate functional synthesis and genomic duplication in very different ways.
### Cyclin-dependent kinase and cyclin evolution {#cyclin_dependent_kinase_and_cyclin_evolution}
Cell-cycle progression is controlled by the oscillating concentrations of different cyclins and the resulting molecular interactions from the various cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). In yeast, just one CDK (Cdc28 in *S. cerevisiae* and Cdc2 in *S. pombe*) controls the cell cycle. However, in animals, whole families of CDKs have evolved. Cdk1 controls entry to mitosis and Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6 regulate entry into S phase. Despite the evolution of the CDK family in animals, these proteins have related or redundant functions. For example, *cdk2 cdk4 cdk6* triple knockout mice cells can still progress through the basic cell cycle. *cdk1* knockouts are lethal, which suggests an ancestral CDK1-type kinase ultimately controlling the cell cycle.
*Arabidopsis thaliana* has a Cdk1 homolog called CDKA;1, however *cdka;1* *A. thaliana* mutants are still viable, running counter to the opisthokont pattern of CDK1-type kinases as essential regulators controlling the cell cycle. Plants also have a unique group of B-type CDKs, whose functions may range from development-specific functions to major players in mitotic regulation.
### G1/S checkpoint evolution {#g1s_checkpoint_evolution}
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Overviews of the G1/S transition control networks in plants, animals, and yeast. All three show striking network topology similarities, even though individual proteins in the network have very little sequence similarity. The G1/S checkpoint is the point at which the cell commits to division through the cell cycle. Complex regulatory networks lead to the G1/S transition decision. Across opisthokonts, there are both highly diverged protein sequences as well as strikingly similar network topologies.
Entry into S-phase in both yeast and animals is controlled by the levels of two opposing regulators. The networks regulating these transcription factors are double-negative feedback loops and positive feedback loops in both yeast and animals. Additional regulation of the regulatory network for the G1/S checkpoint in yeast and animals includes the phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation of CDK-cyclin complexes. The sum of these regulatory networks creates a hysteretic and bistable scheme, despite the specific proteins being highly diverged. For yeast, Whi5 must be suppressed by Cln3 phosphorylation for SBF to be expressed, while in animals Rb must be suppressed by the Cdk4/6-cyclin D complex for E2F to be expressed. Both Rb and Whi5 inhibit transcript through the recruitment of histone deacetylase proteins to promoters. Both proteins additionally have multiple CDK phosphorylation sites through which they are inhibited. However, these proteins share no sequence similarity.
Studies in *A. thaliana* extend our knowledge of the G1/S transition across eukaryotes as a whole. Plants also share a number of conserved network features with opisthokonts, and many plant regulators have direct animal homologs. For example, plants also need to suppress Rb for E2F translation in the network. These conserved elements of the plant and animal cell cycles may be ancestral in eukaryotes. While yeast share a conserved network topology with plants and animals, the highly diverged nature of yeast regulators suggests possible rapid evolution along the yeast lineage.
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Connection (dance)
|
In partner dancing, **connection** is physical, non-verbal communication between dancers to facilitate synchronized or coordinated dance movements. Some forms of connection involve \"lead/follow\" in which one dancer (the \"lead\") directs the movements of the other dancer (the \"follower\") by means of non-verbal directions conveyed through a physical connection between the dancers. In other forms, connection involves multiple dancers (more than two) without a distinct leader or follower (e.g. contact improvisation). Connection refers to a host of different techniques in many types of partner dancing, especially (but not exclusively) those that feature significant physical contact between the dancers, including the Argentine Tango, Lindy Hop, Balboa, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing, Salsa, and other ballroom dances.
Other forms of communication, such as visual cues or spoken cues, sometimes aid in connecting with one\'s partner, but are often used in specific circumstances (e.g., practicing figures, or figures which are purposely danced without physical connection). Connection can be used to transmit power and energy as well as information and signals; some dance forms (and some dancers) primarily emphasize power or signaling, but most are probably a mixture of both. Philosopher of dance Ilya Vidrin argues that connection between partners involves norm-based communication that include "a physical exchange of information on the basis of ethically-bound conditions" (proximity, orientation, and points of contact) which constrain agency and predictability.
## Lead/Follow
Following and leading in a partner dance is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the frame that allows the leader to transmit body movement to the follower, and for the follower to suggest ideas to the leader. A frame is a stable structural combination of both bodies maintained through the dancers\' arms and/or legs.
Connection occurs in both open and closed dance positions (also called \"open frame\" and \"closed frame\").
In closed position with body contact, connection is achieved by maintaining the frame. The follower moves to match the leader, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position.
When creating frame, tension is the primary means of establishing communication. Changes in tension are made to create rhythmic variations in moves and movements, and are communicated through points of contact. In an open position or a closed position without body contact, the hands and arms alone provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral.
- During *tension* or *leverage connection*, the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force. The arms do not originate this force alone: they are often assisted by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum.
- During *compression connection*, the dancers are pushing towards each other.
- In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the touch of the follower\'s hands in the leader\'s.
In swing dances, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time. In other dances, such as Latin, tension and compression may be used as indications of upcoming movement. However, in both styles, tension and compression do not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move prior to actual movement by the lead. Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands. In some styles of Lindy Hop, the tension may become quite high without initiating movement.
The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader\'s hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body. Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the corresponding move of the body. Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct. Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns.
Instead of just tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles. Movement originates in the body\'s core. A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection. Different forms of dance and different movements within each dance may call for differences in the connection. In some dances the separation distance between the partners remains pretty constant. In others e.g. Modern Jive moving closer together and further apart are fundamental to the dance, requiring flexion and extension of the arms, alternating compression and tension.
The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner. Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners.
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CORAL
|
**CORAL**, short for **Computer On-line Real-time Applications Language** is a programming language originally developed in 1964 at the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE), Malvern, Worcestershire, in the United Kingdom. The R was originally for \"radar\", not \"real-time\". It was influenced primarily by JOVIAL, and thus ALGOL, but is not a subset of either.
The most widely-known version, **CORAL 66**, was subsequently developed by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths under the auspices of the *Inter-Establishment Committee for Computer Applications* (IECCA). Its official definition, edited by Woodward, Wetherall, and Gorman, was first published in 1970.
In 1971, CORAL was selected by the Ministry of Defence as the language for future military applications and to support this, a standardization program was introduced to ensure CORAL compilers met the specifications. This process was later adopted by the US Department of Defense while defining Ada.
## Overview
Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on ALGOL 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and Fortran. It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal). Like Edinburgh IMP it allows inline (embedded) assembly language, and also offers good runtime checking and diagnostics. It is designed for real-time computing and embedded system applications, and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed-point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation.
The language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the Ferranti and General Electric Company (GEC) computers from 1971 onwards. Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, VAX and Alpha platforms and HPE Integrity Servers; for the Honeywell, and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL, later ITL) Modular-1; and for SPARC running Solaris, and Intel running Linux.
Queen Elizabeth II sent the first email from a head of state from the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment over the ARPANET on March 26, 1976. The message read \"This message to all ARPANET users announces the availability on ARPANET of the Coral 66 compiler provided by the GEC 4080 computer at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Malvern, England, \... Coral 66 is the standard real-time high level language adopted by the Ministry of Defence.\"
As Coral was aimed at a variety of real-time work, rather than general office data processing, there was no standardised equivalent to a stdio library. IECCA recommended a primitive input/output (I/O) package to accompany any compiler (in a document titled *Input/Output of Character data in Coral 66 Utility Programs*). Most implementers avoided this by producing Coral interfaces to extant Fortran and, later, C libraries.
CORAL\'s most significant contribution to computing may have been enforcing quality control in commercial compilers. To have a CORAL compiler approved by IECCA, and thus allowing a compiler to be marketed as a CORAL 66 compiler, the candidate compiler had to compile and execute a standard suite of 25 test programs and 6 benchmark programs. The process was part of the British Standard (BS) 5905 approval process. This methodology was observed and adapted later by the United States Department of Defense for the certification of Ada compilers.
Source code for a Coral 66 compiler (written in BCPL) has been recovered and the *Official Definition of Coral 66* document by Her Majesty\'s Stationery Office (HMSO) has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has issued a licence to the Edinburgh Computer History project to allow them to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use.
## Variants
A variant of Coral 66 named PO-CORAL was developed during the late 1970s to early 1980s by the British General Post Office (GPO), together with GEC, STC and Plessey, for use on the System X digital telephone exchange control computers. This was later renamed BT-CORAL when British Telecom was spun off from the Post Office. Unique features of this language were the focus on real-time execution, message processing, limits on statement execution between waiting for input, and a prohibition on recursion to remove the need for a stack.
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Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code
|
**Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code** (Title 11 of the United States Code) permits reorganization under the bankruptcy laws of the United States. Such reorganization, known as **Chapter 11 bankruptcy**, is available to every business, whether organized as a corporation, partnership or sole proprietorship, and to individuals, although it is most prominently used by corporate entities. In contrast, Chapter 7 governs the process of a liquidation bankruptcy, though liquidation may also occur under Chapter 11; while Chapter 13 provides a reorganization process for the majority of private individuals.
## Chapter 11 overview {#chapter_11_overview}
When a business is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, the business or its creditors can file with a federal bankruptcy court for protection under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 11.
In Chapter 7, the business ceases operations, a trustee sells all of its assets, and then distributes the proceeds to its creditors. Any residual amount is returned to the owners of the company.
In Chapter 11, in most instances the debtor remains in control of its business operations as a debtor in possession, and is subject to the oversight and jurisdiction of the court.
A Chapter 11 bankruptcy will result in one of three outcomes for the debtor: reorganization, conversion to Chapter 7 bankruptcy, or dismissal. In order for a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, the debtor must file (and the court must confirm) a plan of reorganization. In effect, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including the debtor and its creditors. Most Chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible.
If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all agree, then the plan can be confirmed. Section 1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to confirming or approving the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case, most notably that the plan complies with applicable law and was proposed in good faith. The court must also find that the reorganization plan is feasible in that, unless the plan provides otherwise, the plan is not likely to be followed by further reorganization or liquidation.
In a Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor corporation is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, a process through which some of the debtor corporation\'s debts may be discharged. Determinations as to which debts are discharged, and how equity and other entitlements are distributed to various groups of investors, are often based on a valuation of the reorganized business. Bankruptcy valuation is often highly contentious because it is both subjective and important to case outcomes. The methods of valuation used in bankruptcy have changed over time, generally tracking methods used in investment banking, Delaware corporate law, and corporate and academic finance, but with a significant time lag.
## Features of Chapter 11 reorganization {#features_of_chapter_11_reorganization}
Chapter 11 retains many of the features present in all or most bankruptcy proceedings in the United States. It provides additional tools for debtors as well. Most importantly, `{{usc|11|1108}}`{=mediawiki} empowers the trustee to operate the debtor\'s business. In Chapter 11, unless a separate trustee is appointed for cause, the debtor, as debtor in possession, acts as trustee of the business.
Chapter 11 affords the debtor to possess several mechanisms to restructure its business. A debtor in possession can acquire financing and loans on favorable terms by giving new lenders first priority on the business\'s earnings. The court may also permit the debtor in possession to reject and cancel contracts. Debtors are also protected from other litigation against the business through the imposition of an automatic stay. While the automatic stay is in place, creditors are stayed from any collection attempts or activities against the debtor in possession, and most litigation against the debtor is stayed, or put on hold, until it can be resolved in bankruptcy court, or resumed in its original venue. An example of proceedings that are not necessarily stayed automatically is family law proceedings against a spouse or parent. Further, creditors may file with the court seeking relief from the automatic stay.
If the business is insolvent, its debts exceed its assets, and the business is unable to pay debts as they come due, the bankruptcy restructuring may result in the company\'s owners being left with nothing; instead, the owners\' rights and interests are ended and the company\'s creditors are left with ownership of the newly reorganized company.
All creditors are entitled to be heard by the court. The court is ultimately responsible for determining whether the proposed plan of reorganization complies with bankruptcy laws.
One controversy that has broken out in bankruptcy courts concerns the proper amount of disclosure that the court and other parties are entitled to receive from the members of the creditor\'s committees that play a large role in many proceedings.
### Chapter 11 plan {#chapter_11_plan}
Chapter 11 usually results in the reorganization of the debtor\'s business or personal assets and debts, but can also be used as a mechanism for liquidation. Debtors may \"emerge\" from a Chapter 11 bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. The Bankruptcy Code accomplishes this objective through the use of a bankruptcy plan. The debtor in possession typically has the first opportunity to propose a plan during the period of exclusivity. This period allows the debtor 120 days from the date of filing for Chapter 11 to propose a plan of reorganization before any other party in interest may propose a plan. If the debtor proposes a plan within the 120-day exclusivity period, a 180-day exclusivity period from the date of filing for Chapter 11 is granted in order to allow the debtor to gain confirmation of the proposed plan. With some exceptions, the plan may be proposed by any party in interest. Interested creditors then vote for a plan.
### Confirmation
If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors agree, the plan can be confirmed. If at least one class of creditors objects and votes against the plan, it may nonetheless be confirmed if the requirements of cramdown are met. In order to be confirmed over the creditors\' objection, the plan must not discriminate against that class of creditors, and the plan must be found fair and equitable to that class. Upon confirmation, the plan becomes binding and identifies the treatment of debts and operations of the business for the duration of the plan. If a plan cannot be confirmed, the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7 or, if, in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed, resulting in a return to the status quo before bankruptcy. If the case is dismissed, creditors will look to non-bankruptcy law in order to satisfy their claims.
In order to proceed to the confirmation hearing, the bankruptcy court must approve a disclosure statement. Once the disclosure statement is approved, the plan proponent will solicit votes from the classes of creditors. Solicitation is the process by which creditors vote on the proposed confirmation plan. This process can be complicated if creditors fail or refuse to vote. In this case, the plan proponent might tailor his or her efforts to obtain votes, or the plan itself. The plan may be modified before confirmation, so long as the modified plan meets all the requirements of Chapter 11.
A chapter 11 case typically results in one of three outcomes: a reorganization, a conversion into chapter 7 liquidation, or it is dismissed.
For a Chapter 11 debtor to reorganize, they must file (and the court must confirm) a reorganization plan. Simply put, the plan is a compromise between the major stakeholders in the case, including, but not limited to the debtor and its creditors. Most chapter 11 cases aim to confirm a plan, but that may not always be possible. Section 1121(b) of the Bankruptcy Code provides for an exclusivity period in which only the debtor may file a plan of reorganization. This period lasts 120 days after the date of the order for relief, and if the debtor does file a plan within the first 120 days, the exclusivity period is extended to 180 days after the order for relief for the debtor to seek acceptance of the plan by holders of claims and interests.
If the judge approves the reorganization plan and the creditors all \"agree\", then the plan can be confirmed. §1129 of the Bankruptcy Code requires the bankruptcy court reach certain conclusions prior to \"confirming\" or \"approving\" the plan and making it binding on all parties in the case. Most importantly, the bankruptcy court must find the plan (a) complies with applicable law, and (b) has been proposed in good faith. Furthermore, the court must determine whether the plan is \"feasible,\" In other words, the court must safeguard that confirming the plan will not yield to liquidation down the road.
The plan must ensure that the debtor will be able to pay most administrative and priority claims (priority claims over unsecured claims) on the effective date.
### Automatic stay {#automatic_stay}
Like other forms of bankruptcy, petitions filed under Chapter 11 invoke the automatic stay of § 362. The automatic stay requires all creditors to cease collection attempts, making many post-petition debt collection efforts void or voidable. Under some circumstances, some creditors, or the United States Trustee, can request the court convert the case into a liquidation under Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee to manage the debtor\'s business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors. Sometimes, a company will liquidate under Chapter 11 (perhaps in a 363 sale), in which the pre-existing management may be able to help get a higher price for divisions or other assets than a Chapter 7 liquidation would be likely to achieve. Section 362(d) of the Bankruptcy Code allows the court to terminate, annul, or modify the continuation of the automatic stay as may be necessary or appropriate to balance the competing interests of the debtor, its estate, creditors, and other parties in interest and grants the bankruptcy court considerable flexibility to tailor relief to the exigencies of the circumstances. Relief from the automatic stay is generally sought by motion and, if opposed, is treated as a contested matter under Bankruptcy Rule 9014. A party seeking relief from the automatic stay must also pay the filing fee required by 28 U.S.C.A. § 1930(b).
### Executory contracts {#executory_contracts}
In the new millennium, airlines have fallen under intense scrutiny for what many see as abusing Chapter 11 bankruptcy as a tool for escaping labor contracts, usually 30--35% of an airline\'s operating cost. Every major US airline has filed for Chapter 11 since 2002. In the space of 2 years (2002--2004) US Airways filed for bankruptcy twice leaving the AFL--CIO, pilot unions and other airline employees claiming the rules of Chapter 11 have helped turn the United States into a corporatocracy. The trustee or debtor-in-possession is given the right, under § 365 of the Bankruptcy Code, subject to court approval, to assume or reject executory contracts and unexpired leases. The trustee or debtor-in-possession must assume or reject an executory contract in its entirety unless some portion of it is severable. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally assumes a contract or lease if it is needed to operate the reorganized business or if it can be assigned or sold at a profit. The trustee or debtor-in-possession normally rejects a contract or lease to transform damage claims arising from the nonperformance of those obligations into a prepetition claim. In some situations, rejection can limit the damages a contract counterparty can claim against the debtor.
### Priority
Chapter 11 follows the same priority scheme as other bankruptcy chapters. The priority structure is defined primarily by § 507 of the Bankruptcy Code (`{{usc|11|507}}`{=mediawiki}).
As a general rule, administrative expenses (the actual, necessary expenses of preserving the bankruptcy estate, including expenses such as employee wages and the cost of litigating the Chapter 11 case) are paid first. Secured creditors---creditors who have a security interest, or collateral, in the debtor\'s property---will be paid before unsecured creditors. Unsecured creditors\' claims are prioritized by § 507. For instance, the claims of suppliers of products or employees of a company may be paid before other unsecured creditors are paid. Each priority level must be paid in full before the next lower priority level may receive payment.
### Section 1110 {#section_1110}
Section 1110 (`{{usc|11|1110}}`{=mediawiki}) generally provides a secured party with an interest in an aircraft the ability to take possession of the equipment within 60 days after a bankruptcy filing unless the airline cures all defaults. More specifically, the right of the lender to take possession of the secured equipment is not hampered by the automatic stay provisions of the Bankruptcy Code.
### Subchapter V {#subchapter_v}
In August 2019, the Small Business Reorganization Act of 2019 (\"SBRA\") added Subchapter V to Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code. Subchapter V, which took effect in February 2020, is reserved exclusively for small business debtors to expedite bankruptcy procedures and economically resolve small business bankruptcy cases.
Subchapter V retains many of the advantages of a traditional Chapter 11 case without the unnecessary procedural burdens and costs. It seeks to increase the debtor\'s ability to negotiate a successful reorganization, retain control of the business, increase oversight, and ensure a quick reorganization.
A Subchapter V case contrasts with a traditional Chapter 11 in several key aspects: it is earmarked only for the \"small business debtor\" (as defined by the Bankruptcy Code), so only a debtor can file a plan of reorganization. The SBRA requires the U.S. Trustee to appoint a \"Subchapter V trustee\" to every Subchapter V case to supervise and control estate funds and facilitate the development of a consensual plan. It also eliminates the automatic appointment of an official committee of unsecured creditors and abolishes quarterly fees usually paid to the U.S. Trustee throughout the case. Most notably, Subchapter V allows the small business owner to retain their equity in the business so long as the reorganization plan does not discriminate unfairly and is fair and equitable with respect to each class of claims or interests.
## Considerations
The reorganization and court process may take an inordinate amount of time, limiting the chances of a successful outcome and sufficient debtor-in-possession financing may be unavailable during an economic recession. A preplanned, pre-agreed approach between the debtor and its creditors (sometimes called a pre-packaged bankruptcy) may facilitate the desired result. A company undergoing Chapter 11 reorganization is effectively operating under the \"protection\" of the court until it emerges. An example is the airline industry in the United States; in 2006 over half the industry\'s seating capacity was on airlines that were in Chapter 11. These airlines were able to stop making debt payments, break their previously agreed upon labor union contracts, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors --- all with the bankruptcy court\'s approval.
Studies on the impact of forestalling the creditors\' rights to enforce their security reach different conclusions.
## Statistics
### Frequency
Chapter 11 cases dropped by 60% from 1991 to 2003. One 2007 study found this was because businesses were turning to bankruptcy-like proceedings under state law, rather than the federal bankruptcy proceedings, including those under chapter 11. Insolvency proceedings under state law, the study stated, are currently faster, less expensive, and more private, with some states not even requiring court filings. However, a 2005 study claimed the drop may have been due to an increase in the incorrect classification of many bankruptcies as \"consumer cases\" rather than \"business cases\".
Cases involving more than US\$50 million in assets are almost always handled in federal bankruptcy court, and not in bankruptcy-like state proceeding.
### Largest cases {#largest_cases}
The largest bankruptcy in history was of the US investment bank Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc., which listed \$639 billion in assets as of its Chapter 11 filing in 2008. The 16 largest corporate bankruptcies as of December 13, 2011 `{{Plainlist|
*{{color box|white|#|border=silver}} Company did not emerge from Chapter 11 bankruptcy}}`{=mediawiki}
Company Filing date Total Assets pre-filing Assets adjusted to the year 2012 Filing court district
---------------------------------------- ------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------
Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. \# \$639,063,000,800 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|639063000000|2008|r=5}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Washington Mutual \# \$327,913,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|327913000000|2008|r=5}}}}`{=mediawiki} DE
Worldcom Inc. \$103,914,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|103914000000|2002|r=5}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
General Motors Corporation \$82,300,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|82300000000|2009|r=5}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
CIT Group \$71,019,200,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|71019200000|2009|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Enron Corp. #‡ \$63,392,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|63392000000|2001|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Conseco, Inc. \$61,392,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|61392000000|2002|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} IL-N
MF Global \# \$41,000,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|41000000000|2011|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Chrysler LLC \$39,300,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|39300000000|2009|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Texaco, Inc. \$35,892,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|35892000000|1987|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Financial Corp. of America \$33,864,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|33864000000|1988|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} CA-C
Penn Central Transportation Company \# \$7,000,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|7000000000|1970|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} PA-S
Refco Inc. \# \$33,333,172,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|33333172000|2005|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Global Crossing Ltd. \$30,185,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|30185000000|2002|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Pacific Gas and Electric Co. \$29,770,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|29770000000|2001|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} CA-N
UAL Corp. \$25,197,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|25197000000|2002|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} IL-N
Delta Air Lines, Inc. \$21,801,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|21801000000|2005|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Delphi Corporation, Inc. \$22,000,000,000 \$`{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|21801000000|2005|r=4}}}}`{=mediawiki} NY-S
Enron, Lehman Brothers, MF Global and Refco have all ceased operations while others were acquired by other buyers or emerged as a new company with a similar name.
‡ The Enron assets were taken from the 10-Q filed on November 11, 2001. The company announced that the annual financials were under review at the time of filing for Chapter 11.
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7,283 |
Controversy
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\[\[<File:Carl> Schleicher Eine Streitfrage aus dem Talmud.jpg\|thumb\|A scene of rabbis
`in debate in ``Carl Schleicher``'s painting `*`A controversy from the Talmud`*`, 19th century]]`
**Controversy** (`{{IPA-cen|UK|k|ə|n|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|v|ə|r|s|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA-cen|US|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|t|r|ə|v|ɜː|r|s|i}}`{=mediawiki}) is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin *controversia*, as a composite of *controversus* -- \"turned in an opposite direction\", and also means an exercise in rhetoric practiced in Rome.
## Legal
In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a legal case; while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil, a controversy is a purely civil proceeding.
For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) states that \"the judicial Power shall extend \... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party\". This clause has been deemed to impose a requirement that United States federal courts are not permitted to cases that do not pose an actual controversy---that is, an actual dispute between adverse parties which is capable of being resolved by the \[court\]. In addition to setting out the scope of the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary, it also prohibits courts from issuing advisory opinions, or from hearing cases that are either unripe, meaning that the controversy has not arisen yet, or moot, meaning that the controversy has already been resolved.
## Benford\'s law {#benfords_law}
Benford\'s law of controversy, as expressed by the astrophysicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford in 1980, states: *Passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available.* In other words, it claims that the less factual information is available on a topic, the more controversy can arise around that topic -- and the more facts are available, the less controversy can arise. Thus, for example, controversies in physics would be limited to subject areas where experiments cannot be carried out yet, whereas controversies would be inherent to politics, where communities must frequently decide on courses of action based on insufficient information.
## Psychological bases {#psychological_bases}
Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants -- as implied by Benford\'s law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information (\"passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available\"). For example, in analyses of the political controversy over anthropogenic climate change, which is exceptionally virulent in the United States, it has been proposed that those who are opposed to the scientific consensus do so because they don\'t have enough information about the topic. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, but not on which side of the debate that they stood.
The puzzling phenomenon of two individuals being able to reach different conclusions after being exposed to the same facts has been frequently explained (particularly by Daniel Kahneman) by reference to a \'bounded rationality\' -- in other words, that most judgments are made using fast acting heuristics that work well in every day situations, but are not amenable to decision-making about complex subjects such as climate change. Anchoring has been particularly identified as relevant in climate change controversies as individuals are found to be more positively inclined to believe in climate change if the outside temperature is higher, if they have been primed to think about heat, and if they are primed with higher temperatures when thinking about the future temperature increases from climate change.
In other controversies -- such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the cognitive biases of biased assimilation and a credibility heuristic.
Similar effects on reasoning are also seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has been suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once and for all. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, based on the mistaken belief of the community\'s unhindered access to ground truth. Such confidence in the group to find the ground truth is explicable through the success of wisdom of the crowd based inferences. However, if there is no access to the ground truth, as there was not in this model, the method will fail.
Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. Experiments and computational models in multisensory integration have shown that sensory input from different senses is integrated in a statistically optimal way, in addition, it appears that the kind of inferences used to infer single sources for multiple sensory inputs uses a Bayesian inference about the causal origin of the sensory stimuli. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference.
Brocas and Carrillo propose a model to make decisions based on noisy sensory inputs, beliefs about the state of the world are modified by Bayesian updating, and then decisions are made based on beliefs passing a threshold. They show that this model, when optimized for single-step decision making, produces belief anchoring and polarization of opinions -- exactly as described in the global warming controversy context -- in spite of identical evidence presented, the pre-existing beliefs (or evidence presented first) has an overwhelming effect on the beliefs formed. In addition, the preferences of the agent (the particular rewards that they value) also cause the beliefs formed to change -- this explains the biased assimilation (also known as confirmation bias) shown above. This model allows the production of controversy to be seen as a consequence of a decision maker optimized for single-step decision making, rather than a result of limited reasoning in the bounded rationality of Daniel Kahneman.
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7,291 |
CuteFTP
|
**CuteFTP** is a series of FTP (file transfer protocol) client applications distributed and supported since 1996 by GlobalSCAPE, who later bought the rights to the software. Both a Windows-based or Mac-based interface were made for both home and professional use.
CuteFTP is used to transfer files between computers and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers to publish web pages, download digital images, music, multi-media files and software, and transfer files of any size or type between home and office. Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro and CuteFTP Mac Pro have also been available alongside CuteFTP Home with free trial periods.
It was originally developed by Alex Kunadze, a Russian programmer.
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7,309 |
Coleco Telstar series
|
The **Coleco** **Telstar** brand is a series of dedicated first-generation home video game consoles produced, released and marketed by Coleco from 1976 to 1978. Starting with Coleco Telstar *Pong* clone based video game console on General Instrument\'s AY-3-8500 chip in 1976, there were 14 consoles released in the Coleco Telstar series. About one million units of the first model called Coleco Telstar were sold.
Coleco sold over 1 million units at the price of \$50 in 1976. Coleco was unaffected by a chip shortage that year as their early orders meant it was entirely supplied. The large product lineup and the impending fading out of the *Pong* machines led Coleco to face near-bankruptcy in 1980.
## Model comparison {#model_comparison}
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Console | Model and chip | Release date | Integrated games | Description | Size (height x wide x depth) | Cite | Picture |
+====================================+========================================================+==============+============================================================+============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+==============================+======+======================+
| Coleco Telstar | No.6040,\ | 1976 | - hockey | Two fixed paddles. Games are *Pong* variants. | Unknown | | |
| | AY-3-8500 | | - handball | | | | |
| | | | - tennis | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Classic | No.6045,\ | 1976 | - hockey | Two fixed paddles. Deluxe wood case. | Unknown | | |
| | AY-3-8500 | | - handball | | | | |
| | | | - tennis | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Deluxe\ | model number unknown, AY-3-8500 | 1977 | - hockey | Two fixed paddles. Brown stand case with wood panel. Made for Canadian market with French and English text. | Unknown | | No picture available |
| (a.k.a. \"Video World of Sports\") | | | - handballs | | | | |
| | | | - tennis ball | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Ranger | No.6046,\ | 1977 | - hockey | Black and white plastic case, includes Colt 45-style light gun and separate paddle controllers. Four ball games, two target games. Special features of the four ball games include automatic serve and variable paddle and speed control for three experience levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries or an optional AC adapter, light gun requires one nine-volt battery. | 4 lb.\ | \ | |
| | AY-3-8500 | | - handball | | 17.5×6×8 in. | | |
| | | | - tennis | | | | |
| | | | - jai alai | | | | |
| | | | - target | | | | |
| | | | - skeet | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Alpha | No.6030,\ | 1977 | - hockey | Black and white plastic case, fixed paddles. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and pro). Uses six C batteries or optional 9 volt AC adapter. | 2.5 lb.\ | \ | |
| | AY-3-8500 | | - handball | | 13.5×3.5×7.5 in. | | |
| | | | - tennis | | | | |
| | | | - squash | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Colormatic | No.6130,\ | 1977 | - hockey | Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles. Color graphics - each game is a different color. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries. | 2.5 lb.\ | | |
| | AY-3-8500\ | | - handball | | 13×6.5×7.5 in. | | |
| | Texas Instruments SN76499N (color) | | - tennis | | | | |
| | | | - jai alai | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Regent | No.6036,\ | 1977 | - hockey | Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles. The games feature an automatic serve function and variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and professional). Uses six C batteries. | 2.5 lb.\ | | |
| | AY-3-8500 | | - handball | | 13.5×4×8 in. | | |
| | | | - tennis | | | | |
| | | | - jai alai | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Sportsman | model number unknown, AY-3-8500 | 1978 | | Black and white plastic case, detached wired paddles, and light gun. | Unknown | | No picture available |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Combat! | No.6065,\ | 1977 | - *Combat* | Four fixed joysticks (two per player). Games are variations on Kee Games\' *Tank*. Uses six C batteries or an optional AC adapter. | 5.5 lb.\ | \ | |
| | General Instrument AY-3-8700 Tank chip | | - *Night Battle* | | 15×8×10.5 in. | | |
| | | | - *Robot Battle* | | | | |
| | | | - *Camouflage Combat* | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Colortron | No.6135,\ | 1978 | - Tennis | In color, built in sound, fixed paddles. Games are *Pong* variants and feature variable settings for three skill levels (beginner, intermediate, and pro). Uses two nine-volt batteries or an optional AC adapter. | 1 lb.\ | | |
| | AY-3-8510 | | - Hockey | | 2×11.25×4 in. | | |
| | | | - Handball | | | | |
| | | | - Jai-alai | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Marksman | No.6136,\ | 1978 | - Tennis | In color, larger light gun with removable stock, fixed paddles. Four *Pong* variants and two gun games. Uses two nine-volt batteries or an optional AC adapter. | 1 lb.\ | | |
| | AY-3-8512 | | - Hockey | | 2×11.25×5 in. | | |
| | | | - Handball | | | | |
| | | | - Jai-alai | | | | |
| | | | - Skeet | | | | |
| | | | - Target | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Galaxy | model number unknown, AY-3-8600 (games)\ | 1977 | 48 variations of: | Separate joysticks and fixed paddles | Unknown | | No picture available |
| | AY-3-8615 (color encoder) | | | | | | |
| | | | - Tennis | | | | |
| | | | - Hockey | | | | |
| | | | - Handball | | | | |
| | | | - Soccer | | | | |
| | | | - Basketball | | | | |
| | | | - Foosball | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Gemini | model number unknown, MOS Technology MPS 7600-004 | 1977 | - Four pinball games | In color, light gun, two flipper buttons on left and right sides of case, pinball launch button and field adjustment sliders on top, light gun. | Unknown | | No picture available |
| | | | - Two light-gun games | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
| Coleco Telstar Arcade | model number 6175, MOS Technology MPS-7600 (each cart) | 1977 | - Pack-in game (Tennis, road racing, quick draw) | Cartridge-based, triangular case includes light gun, steering wheel with gear shift, and paddles, one on each side. | 4 lb.\ | \ | |
| | | | | | 7.5×18×16 in. | | |
| | | | ```{=html} | | | | |
| | | | <!-- --> | | | | |
| | | | ``` | | | | |
| | | | - Eight-game ball and target cartridge | | | | |
| | | | - Five-game pinball and shooting cartridge | | | | |
| | | | - Battle game cartridge | | | | |
| | | | - Twenty-five game driving maze cartridge | | | | |
| | | | - Fifteen game action cartridge (including *Break Thru*) | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------+------+----------------------+
: Telstar models
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7,310 |
Conventional warfare
|
`{{history of war}}`{=mediawiki} **Conventional warfare** is a form of warfare conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined and fight by using weapons that target primarily the opponent\'s military. It is normally fought by using conventional weapons, not chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons.
The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the opponent\'s military, which negates its ability to engage in conventional warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to unconventional warfare tactics.
## History
### Formation of state {#formation_of_state}
The state was first advocated by Plato but found more acceptance in the consolidation of power under the Roman Catholic Church. European monarchs then gained power as the Catholic Church was stripped of temporal power and was replaced by the divine right of kings. In 1648, the powers of Europe signed the Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the religious violence for purely political governance and outlook, signifying the birth of the modern state.
Within the statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives may bear arms and enter into war. In fact, war then became understood only as a conflict between sovereign states. Monarchs strengthened that idea and gave it the force of law. Any noble had been allowed to start a war, but European monarchs had to consolidate military power in response to the Napoleonic Wars.
### Clausewitzian paradigm {#clausewitzian_paradigm}
Prussia was one of the countries that tried to amass military power. Carl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia\'s officers, wrote *On War*, a work rooted solely in the world of the state. All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as rebellion, are not accounted for because in theoretical terms, he could not account for warfare before the state. However, near the end of his life, he grew increasingly aware of the importance of non-state military actors, as is revealed in his conceptions of \"the people in arms\", which he noted arose from the same social and political sources as traditional interstate warfare.
Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy. That war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world in the early 21st century, as is verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high-maintenance, and technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces.
Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of *casus belli*. Wars had been fought for social, religious, or even cultural reasons, and Clausewitz taught that war is merely \"a continuation of politics by other means.\" It is a rational calculation in which states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security-related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down.
### Prevalence
Most modern wars have been conducted using conventional means. Confirmed use of biological warfare by a nation state has not occurred since 1945, and chemical warfare has been used only a few times (the latest known confrontation in which it was utilized being the Syrian Civil War). Nuclear warfare has only occurred once: the American bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
### Since World War II {#since_world_war_ii}
The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the World Wars, during the 20th century, but they also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation from nuclear proliferation. During the Cold War, the superpowers sought to avoid open conflict between their respective forces, as both sides recognized that such a clash could very easily escalate and quickly involve nuclear weapons. Instead, the superpowers fought each other through their involvement in proxy wars, military buildups, and diplomatic standoffs. Thus, no two nuclear powers have yet fought a conventional war directly except for two brief skirmishes between China and Soviet Union in the 1969 Sino-Soviet conflict and between India and Pakistan in the 1999 Kargil War.
However, conventional wars have been fought since 1945 between countries without nuclear weapons, such as the Iran--Iraq War and Eritrean--Ethiopian War, or between a nuclear state and a weaker non-nuclear state, like the Gulf War and Russo-Ukrainian War.
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7,330 |
Complementary DNA
|
In genetics, **complementary DNA** (**cDNA**) is DNA that was reverse transcribed (via reverse transcriptase) from an RNA (e.g., messenger RNA or microRNA). cDNA exists in both single-stranded and double-stranded forms and in both natural and engineered forms.
In engineered forms, it often is a copy (replicate) of the naturally occurring DNA from any particular organism\'s natural genome; the organism\'s own mRNA was naturally transcribed from its DNA, and the cDNA is reverse transcribed from the mRNA, yielding a duplicate of the original DNA. Engineered cDNA is often used to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), or to sequence or quantify mRNA molecules using DNA based methods (qPCR, RNA-seq). cDNA that codes for a specific protein can be transferred to a recipient cell for expression as part of recombinant DNA, often bacterial or yeast expression systems. cDNA is also generated to analyze transcriptomic profiles in bulk tissue, single cells, or single nuclei in assays such as microarrays, qPCR, and RNA-seq.
In natural forms, cDNA is produced by retroviruses (such as HIV-1, HIV-2, simian immunodeficiency virus, etc.) and then integrated into the host\'s genome, where it creates a provirus.
The term *cDNA* is also used, typically in a bioinformatics context, to refer to an mRNA transcript\'s sequence, expressed as DNA bases (deoxy-GCAT) rather than RNA bases (GCAU).
Patentability of cDNA was a subject of a 2013 US Supreme Court decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. As a compromise, the Court declared, that exons-only cDNA is patent-eligible, whereas isolated sequences of naturally occurring DNA comprising introns are not.
## Synthesis
RNA serves as a template for cDNA synthesis. In cellular life, cDNA is generated by viruses and retrotransposons for integration of RNA into target genomic DNA. In molecular biology, RNA is purified from source material after genomic DNA, proteins and other cellular components are removed. cDNA is then synthesized through *in vitro* reverse transcription.
### RNA purification {#rna_purification}
RNA is transcribed from genomic DNA in host cells and is extracted by first lysing cells then purifying RNA utilizing widely used methods such as phenol-chloroform, silica column, and bead-based RNA extraction methods. Extraction methods vary depending on the source material. For example, extracting RNA from plant tissue requires additional reagents, such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), to remove phenolic compounds, carbohydrates, and other compounds that will otherwise render RNA unusable. To remove DNA and proteins, enzymes such as DNase and Proteinase K are used for degradation. Importantly, RNA integrity is maintained by inactivating RNases with chaotropic agents such as guanidinium isothiocyanate, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), phenol or chloroform. Total RNA is then separated from other cellular components and precipitated with alcohol. Various commercial kits exist for simple and rapid RNA extractions for specific applications. Additional bead-based methods can be used to isolate specific sub-types of RNA (e.g. mRNA and microRNA) based on size or unique RNA regions.
### Reverse transcription {#reverse_transcription}
#### First-strand synthesis {#first_strand_synthesis}
Using a reverse transcriptase enzyme and purified RNA templates, one strand of cDNA is produced (first-strand cDNA synthesis). The M-MLV reverse transcriptase from the Moloney murine leukemia virus is commonly used due to its reduced RNase H activity suited for transcription of longer RNAs. The AMV reverse transcriptase from the avian myeloblastosis virus may also be used for RNA templates with strong secondary structures (i.e. high melting temperature). cDNA is commonly generated from mRNA for gene expression analyses such as RT-qPCR and RNA-seq. mRNA is selectively reverse transcribed using oligo-dT primers that are the reverse complement of the poly-adenylated tail on the 3\' end of all mRNA. The oligo-dT primer anneals to the poly-adenylated tail of the mRNA to serve as a binding site for the reverse transcriptase to begin reverse transcription. An optimized mixture of oligo-dT and random hexamer primers increases the chance of obtaining full-length cDNA while reducing 5\' or 3\' bias. Ribosomal RNA may also be depleted to enrich both mRNA and non-poly-adenylated transcripts such as some non-coding RNA.
#### Second-strand synthesis {#second_strand_synthesis}
The result of first-strand syntheses, RNA-DNA hybrids, can be processed through multiple second-strand synthesis methods or processed directly in downstream assays. An early method known as hairpin-primed synthesis relied on hairpin formation on the 3\' end of the first-strand cDNA to prime second-strand synthesis. However, priming is random and hairpin hydrolysis leads to loss of information. The Gubler and Hoffman Procedure uses E. Coli RNase H to nick mRNA that is replaced with E. Coli DNA Polymerase I and sealed with E. Coli DNA Ligase. An optimization of this procedure relies on low RNase H activity of M-MLV to nick mRNA with remaining RNA later removed by adding RNase H after DNA Polymerase translation of the second-strand cDNA. This prevents lost sequence information at the 5\' end of the mRNA.
## Applications
Complementary DNA is often used in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. When scientists transfer a gene from one cell into another cell in order to express the new genetic material as a protein in the recipient cell, the cDNA will be added to the recipient (rather than the entire gene), because the DNA for an entire gene may include DNA that does not code for the protein or that interrupts the coding sequence of the protein (e.g., introns). Partial sequences of cDNAs are often obtained as expressed sequence tags.
With amplification of DNA sequences via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) now commonplace, one will typically conduct reverse transcription as an initial step, followed by PCR to obtain an exact sequence of cDNA for intra-cellular expression. This is achieved by designing sequence-specific DNA primers that hybridize to the 5\' and 3\' ends of a cDNA region coding for a protein. Once amplified, the sequence can be cut at each end with nucleases and inserted into one of many small circular DNA sequences known as expression vectors. Such vectors allow for self-replication, inside the cells, and potentially integration in the host DNA. They typically also contain a strong promoter to drive transcription of the target cDNA into mRNA, which is then translated into protein.
cDNA is also used to study gene expression via methods such as RNA-seq or RT-qPCR. For sequencing, RNA must be fragmented due to sequencing platform size limitations. Additionally, second-strand synthesized cDNA must be ligated with adapters that allow cDNA fragments to be PCR amplified and bind to sequencing flow cells. Gene-specific analysis methods commonly use microarrays and RT-qPCR to quantify cDNA levels via fluorometric and other methods.
On 13 June 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of *Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics* that while naturally occurring genes cannot be patented, cDNA is patent-eligible because it does not occur naturally.
## Viruses and retrotransposons {#viruses_and_retrotransposons}
Some viruses also use cDNA to turn their viral RNA into mRNA (viral RNA → cDNA → mRNA). The mRNA is used to make viral proteins to take over the host cell.
An example of this first step from viral RNA to cDNA can be seen in the HIV cycle of infection. Here, the host cell membrane becomes attached to the virus\' lipid envelope which allows the viral capsid with two copies of viral genome RNA to enter the host. The cDNA copy is then made through reverse transcription of the viral RNA, a process facilitated by the chaperone CypA and a viral capsid associated reverse transcriptase.
cDNA is also generated by retrotransposons in eukaryotic genomes. Retrotransposons are mobile genetic elements that move themselves within, and sometimes between, genomes via RNA intermediates. This mechanism is shared with viruses with the exclusion of the generation of infectious particles.
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7,331 |
Cellular digital packet data
|
**Cellular Digital Packet Data** (**CDPD**) is an obsolete wide-area mobile data service which used unused bandwidth normally used by Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) mobile phones between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s were possible, though real world speeds seldom reached higher than 9.6 kbit/s. The service was discontinued in conjunction with the retirement of the parent AMPS service; it has been functionally replaced by faster services such as 1xRTT, Evolution-Data Optimized, and UMTS/High Speed Packet Access (HSPA).
Developed in the early 1990s, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology. However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive Mobitex and DataTAC systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) became dominant.
CDPD had very limited consumer products. AT&T Wireless first sold the technology in the United States under the PocketNet brand. It was one of the first products of wireless web service. Digital Ocean, Inc. an original equipment manufacturer licensee of the Apple Newton, sold the Seahorse product, which integrated the Newton handheld computer, an AMPS/CDPD handset/modem along with a web browser in 1996, winning the CTIA\'s hardware product of the year award as a smartphone, arguably the world\'s first. A company named OmniSky provided service for Palm V devices. OmniSky then filed for bankruptcy in 2001 then was picked up by EarthLink Wireless. The technician that developed the tech support for all of the wireless technology was a man by the name of Myron Feasel he was brought from company to company ending up at Palm. Sierra Wireless sold PCMCIA devices and Airlink sold a serial modem. Both of these were used by police and fire departments for dispatch. Wireless later sold CDPD under the Wireless Internet brand (not to be confused with Wireless Internet Express, their brand for GPRS/EDGE data). PocketNet was generally considered a failure with competition from 2G services such as Sprint\'s Wireless Web. AT&T Wireless sold four PocketNet Phone models to the public: the Samsung Duette and the Mitsubishi MobileAccess-120 were AMPS/CDPD PocketNet phones introduced in October 1997; and two IS-136/CDPD Digital PocketNet phones, the Mitsubishi T-250 and the Ericsson R289LX.
Despite its limited success as a consumer offering, CDPD was adopted in a number of enterprise and government networks. It was particularly popular as a first-generation wireless data solution for telemetry devices (machine to machine communications) and for public safety mobile data terminals.
In 2004, major carriers in the United States announced plans to shut down CDPD service. In July 2005, the AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless CDPD networks were shut down.
## CDPD Network and system {#cdpd_network_and_system}
Primary elements of a CDPD network are: 1. **End systems**: physical & logical end systems that exchange information 2. **Intermediate systems**: CDPD infrastructure elements that store, forward & route the information
There are 2 kinds of End systems 1. **Mobile end system**: subscriber unit to access CDPD network over a wireless interface 2. **Fixed end system**: common host/server that is connected to the CDPD backbone and providing access to specific application and data
There are 2 kinds of Intermediate systems 1. **Generic intermediate system**: simple router with no knowledge of mobility issues 2. **mobile data intermediate system**: specialized intermediate system that routes data based on its knowledge of the current location of Mobile end system. It is a set of hardware and software functions that provide switching, accounting, registration, authentication, encryption, and so on.
The design of CDPD was based on several design objectives that are often repeated in designing overlay networks or new networks. A lot of emphasis was laid on open architectures and reusing as much of the existing RF infrastructure as possible. The design goal of CDPD included location independence and independence fro`{{Clarify|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki}, service provider, so that coverage could be maximized; application transparency and multiprotocol support, interoperability between products from multiple vendors.
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7,335 |
Creature of statute
|
A **creature of statute** (also known as **creature of the state**) is a legal entity, such as a corporation, created by statute. Creatures of statute may include municipalities and other artificial legal entities or relationships. Thus, when a statute in some fashion requires the formation of a corporate body---often for governmental purposes---such bodies when formed are known as \"creatures of statute.\" The same concept is also expressed with the phrase \"creature of the state.\"
The term \"creature of statute\" is most common to the United States. In the United Kingdom, these bodies are simply called statutory corporations (or statutory bodies) and generally have some governmental function. The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority is an example. In a wider sense, most companies in the UK are created under statute since the Companies Act 1985 specifies how a company may be created by a member of the public, but these companies are not called \'statutory corporations\'. Often, in American legal and business documents that speak of governing bodies (*e.g.*, a board that governs small businesses in China) these bodies are described as \"creatures of statute\" to inform readers of their origins and format although the national governments that created them may not term them as creatures of statute. Australia also uses the term \"creature of statute\" to describe some governmental bodies.
The importance of a corporate body, regardless of its exact function, when such a body is a creature of statute is that its active functions can only be within the scope detailed by the statute which created that corporation. Thereby, the creature of statute is the tangible manifestation of the functions or work described by a given statute. The jurisdiction of a body that is a creature of statute is also therefore limited to the functional scope written into the laws that created that body. Unlike most (private) corporate bodies, creatures of statute cannot expand their business interests into other diverse areas.
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7,339 |
General Conference on Weights and Measures
|
The **General Conference on Weights and Measures** (abbreviated **CGPM** from the *Conférence générale des poids et mesures*) is the supreme authority of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), the intergovernmental organization established in 1875 under the terms of the Metre Convention through which member states act together on matters related to measurement science and measurement standards. The CGPM is made up of delegates of the governments of the member states and observers from the Associates of the CGPM. It elects the **International Committee for Weights and Measures** (abbreviated **CIPM** from the *Comité international des poids et mesures*) as the supervisory board of the BIPM to direct and supervise it.
Initially the work of the BIPM concerned the kilogram and the metre, but in 1921 the scope of the Metre Convention was extended to accommodate all physical measurements and hence all aspects of the metric system. `{{anchor|11}}`{=mediawiki}In 1960 the 11th CGPM approved the title International System of Units, usually known as \"SI\".
The General Conference receives the report of the CIPM on work accomplished; it discusses and examines the arrangements required to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units (SI); it endorses the results of new fundamental metrological determinations and various scientific resolutions of international scope; and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM, including its financial endowment.
The CGPM meets in Paris, usually once every four years. `{{anchor|25}}`{=mediawiki}The 25th meeting of the CGPM took place from 18 to 20 November 2014, `{{anchor|26}}`{=mediawiki}the 26th meeting of the CGPM took place in Versailles from 13 to 16 November 2018, `{{anchor|27}}`{=mediawiki}and the 27th meeting of the CGPM took place from 15 to 18 November 2022.
## Establishment
On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the *Convention du Mètre* (Metre Convention) was signed by 17 states. This treaty established an international organisation, the Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM), which has two governing organs:
- Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM), a plenary meeting of official delegates of member states which is the supreme authority for all actions;
- Comité international des poids et mesures (CIPM), consisting of elected scientists and metrologists, which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the organisation.
The organization has a permanent laboratory and secretariat function (sometimes referred to as the Headquarters), the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities and maintenance of the international prototype standards.
The CGPM acts on behalf of the governments of its members. In so doing, it elects members to the CIPM, receives reports from the CIPM which it passes on to the governments and national laboratories on member states, examines and where appropriate approves proposals from the CIPM in respect of changes to the International System of Units (SI), approves the budget for the BIPM (over €13 million in 2018) and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM.
The structure is analogous to that of a stock corporation. The BIPM is the organisation, the CGPM is the general meeting of the shareholders, the CIPM is the board of directors appointed by the CGPM, and the staff at the site in Saint-Cloud perform the day-to-day work.
### Membership criteria {#membership_criteria}
The CGPM recognises two classes of membership -- full membership for those states that wish to participate in the activities of the BIPM and associate membership for those countries or economies that only wish to participate in the CIPM MRA program. Associate members have observer status at the CGPM. Since all formal liaison between the convention organisations and national governments is handled by the member state\'s ambassador to France, it is implicit that member states must have diplomatic relations with France, though during both world wars, nations that were at war with France retained their membership of the CGPM. CGPM meetings are chaired by the Président de l\'Académie des Sciences de Paris.
Of the twenty countries that attended the Conference of the Metre in 1875, representatives of seventeen signed the convention on 20 May 1875. In April 1884, H. J. Chaney, Warden of Standards in London unofficially contacted the BIPM inquiring whether the BIPM would calibrate some metre standards that had been manufactured in the United Kingdom. Broch, director of the BIPM replied that he was not authorised to perform any such calibrations for non-member states. On 17 September 1884, the British Government signed the convention on behalf of the United Kingdom. This number grew to 21 in 1900, 32 in 1950, and 49 in 2001. `{{As of|2022|11|18|since=}}`{=mediawiki}, there are 64 Member States and 37 Associate States and Economies of the General Conference (with year of partnership in parentheses):
#### Member states {#member_states}
Argentina (1877)\
Australia (1947)\
Austria (1875)\
Belarus (2020)\
Belgium (1875)\
Brazil (1921)\
Bulgaria (1911)\
Canada (1907)\
Chile (1908)\
China (1977)\
Colombia (2012)\
Costa Rica (2022)\
Croatia (2008)\
Czech Republic (1922)\
Denmark (1875)\
Ecuador (2019)\
Egypt (1962)\
Estonia (2021)\
Finland (1913)\
France (1875)\
Germany (1875)\
Greece (2001)\
Hungary (1925)\
India (1880)\
Indonesia (1960)\
Iran (1975)\
Iraq (2013)\
Ireland (1925)\
Israel (1985)\
Italy (1875)\
Japan (1885)\
Kazakhstan (2008)\
Kenya (2010)\
Lithuania (2015)\
Malaysia (2001)\
Mexico (1890)\
Montenegro (2018)\
Morocco (2019)\
Netherlands (1929)\
New Zealand (1991)\
Norway (1875)\
Pakistan (1973)\
Poland (1925)\
Portugal (1876)\
Romania (1884)\
Russia (1875)\
Saudi Arabia (2011)\
Serbia (2001)\
Singapore (1994)\
Slovakia (1922)\
Slovenia (2016)\
South Africa (1964)\
South Korea (1959)\
Spain (1875)\
Sweden (1875)\
Switzerland (1875)\
Thailand (1912)\
Tunisia (2012)\
Turkey (1875)\
Ukraine (2018)\
United Arab Emirates (2015)\
United Kingdom (1884)\
United States (1878)\
Uruguay (1908)\
`{{div col end}}`{=mediawiki}
##### Former members {#former_members}
Cameroon (1970--2012)\
Dominican Republic (1954--2015)\
North Korea (1982--2012)\
Peru (1875--1956)\
Venezuela (1879--1907, 1960--2018) `{{div col end}}`{=mediawiki}
##### Notes
#### Associates
At the 21st meeting of the CGPM in October 1999, the category of \"associate\" was created for states not yet BIPM members and for economic unions.
Albania (2007)\
Azerbaijan (2015)\
Bangladesh (2010)\
Bolivia (2008)\
Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011)\
Botswana (2012)\
Cambodia (2021)\
Caribbean Community (2005)\
Chinese Taipei (2002)\
Cuba (2000)\
Ethiopia (2018)\
Georgia (2008)\
Ghana (2009)\
Hong Kong (2000)\
Jamaica (2003)\
Kuwait (2018)\
Latvia (2001)\
Luxembourg (2014)\
Malta (2001)\
Mauritius (2010)\
Moldova (2007)\
Mongolia (2013)\
Namibia (2012)\
North Macedonia (2006)\
Oman (2012)\
Panama (2003)\
Paraguay (2009)\
Peru (2009)\
Philippines (2002)\
Qatar (2016)\
Sri Lanka (2007)\
Syria (2012)\
Tanzania (2018)\
Uzbekistan (2018)\
Vietnam (2003)\
Zambia (2010)\
Zimbabwe (2010--2020, 2022)\
`{{div col end}}`{=mediawiki}
##### Former Associates {#former_associates}
Seychelles (2010--2021)\
Sudan (2014--2021)\
`{{div col end}}`{=mediawiki}
## CGPM meetings {#cgpm_meetings}
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1st (1889) The international prototype of the kilogram (IPK), a cylinder made of platinum--iridium, and the international prototype of the metre, an X-cross-section bar also made from platinum--iridium, were selected from batches manufactured by the British firm Johnson Matthey. Working copies of both artifacts were also selected by lot and other copies distributed to member nations, again by lot. The prototypes and working copies were deposited at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures), Saint-Cloud, France. \|- `{{anchor|2}}`{=mediawiki} 2nd (1895) No resolutions were passed by the 2nd CGPM. \|- `{{anchor|3}}`{=mediawiki} 3rd (1901) The litre was redefined as volume of 1 kg of water. Clarified that kilograms are units of mass, \"standard weight\" defined, standard acceleration of gravity defined endorsing use of grams force and making them well-defined. \|- `{{anchor|4}}`{=mediawiki} 4th (1907) The carat was defined as 200 mg. \|- `{{anchor|5}}`{=mediawiki} 5th (1913) The International Temperature Scale was proposed. The General Conference recommended that the International Committee authorize the Bureau to organise, between establishments possessing a calibration base, the circulation, in groups, of well-defined invar threads, with a view to enabling agreement to be reached on the method of determining these bases, as well as the method of using the threads. \|- `{{anchor|6}}`{=mediawiki} 6th (1921) The Metre Convention revised. \|- `{{anchor|7}}`{=mediawiki} 7th (1927) The Consultative Committee for Electricity (CCE) created. \|- `{{anchor|8}}`{=mediawiki} 8th (1933) The need for absolute electrical unit identified. \|- `{{anchor|9}}`{=mediawiki} 9th (1948) The ampere, bar, coulomb, farad, henry, joule, newton, ohm, volt, watt, weber were defined. The degree Celsius was selected from three names in use as the name of the unit of temperature. The symbol l (lowercase L) was adopted as symbol for litre. Both the comma and dot on a line are accepted as decimal marker symbols. Symbols for the stere and second changed. The universal return to the Long Scale numbering system was proposed but not adopted. \|- `{{anchor|10}}`{=mediawiki} 10th (1954) The kelvin, standard atmosphere defined. Work on the *International System of Units* (metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela) began.
11th (1960) The metre was redefined in terms of wavelengths of light. The units hertz, lumen, lux, tesla were adopted. The new MKSA-based metric system given the official symbol **SI** for ***Système International d\'Unités*** and launched as the \"modernized metric system\". The prefixes *pico-*, *nano-*, *micro-*, *mega-*, *giga-* and *tera-* were confirmed. \|- `{{anchor|12}}`{=mediawiki} 12th (1964) The original definition of litre = 1 dm^3^ restored. The prefixes *atto-* and *femto-* were adopted. \|- `{{anchor|13}}`{=mediawiki} 13th (1967) The second was redefined as duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K. The *Degree Kelvin* renamed *kelvin* and the candela redefined. \|- `{{anchor|14}}`{=mediawiki} 14th (1971) A new SI base unit, the mole defined. The names pascal and siemens as units of pressure and electrical conductance were approved. \|- `{{anchor|15}}`{=mediawiki} 15th (1975) The prefixes *peta-* and *exa-* were adopted. The units gray and becquerel were adopted as radiological units within SI. \|- `{{anchor|16}}`{=mediawiki} 16th (1979) The candela and sievert were defined. Both l and L provisionally allowed as symbols for litre. \|- `{{anchor|17}}`{=mediawiki} 17th (1983) The metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light, i.e. The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of **1/299,792,458** of a second. \|- `{{anchor|18}}`{=mediawiki} 18th (1987) Conventional values were adopted for Josephson constant, *K~J~*, and von Klitzing constant, *R~K~*, preparing the way for alternative definitions of the ampere and kilogram. \|- `{{anchor|19}}`{=mediawiki} 19th (1991) New prefixes *yocto-*, *zepto-*, *zetta-* and *yotta-* were adopted. \|- `{{anchor|20}}`{=mediawiki} 20th (1995) The SI supplementary units (radian and steradian) become *derived units*. \|- `{{anchor|21}}`{=mediawiki}
25th (2014) Redefining the kilogram in relation to the Planck constant was discussed but not decided on. Progress towards realising the redefinition has been noted. However, it was concluded that the data did not yet appear to be sufficiently robust. Continued effort on improving the data has been encouraged, such that a resolution that would replace the current definition with the revised definition can be adopted at the 26th meeting.
26th (2018) The kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole were redefined at this meeting, in terms new permanently fixed values of the Planck constant, elementary charge, Boltzmann constant and Avogadro constant, respectively.
27th (2022) New prefixes *quecto-*, *ronto-*, *ronna-*, and *quetta-* were adopted. Planning was begun to eliminate the leap second and stabilize DUT1 by 2035.
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## International Committee for Weights and Measures {#international_committee_for_weights_and_measures}
The International Committee for Weights and Measures consists of eighteen persons, each of a different nationality. elected by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) whose principal task is to promote worldwide uniformity in units of measurement by taking direct action or by submitting proposals to the CGPM.
The CIPM meets every year (since 2011 in two sessions per year) at the Pavillon de Breteuil where, among other matters, it discusses reports presented to it by its Consultative Committees. Reports of the meetings of the CGPM, the CIPM, and all the Consultative Committees, are published by the BIPM.
### Mission
The secretariat is based in Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, France.
In 1999, the CIPM has established the CIPM *Arrangement de reconnaissance mutuelle* (Mutual Recognition Arrangement, MRA), which serves as the framework for the mutual acceptance of national measurement standards and for recognition of the validity of calibration and measurement certificates issued by national metrology institutes.
A recent focus area of the CIPM has been the revision of the SI.
### Consultative committees {#consultative_committees}
The CIPM has set up a number of consultative committees (CC) to assist it in its work. These committees are under the authority of the CIPM. The president of each committee, who is expected to take the chair at CC meetings, is usually a member of the CIPM. Apart from the CCU, membership of a CC is open to National Metrology Institutes (NMIs) of Member States that are recognized internationally as most expert in the field. NMIs from Member States that are active in the field, but lack the expertise to become Members, are able to attend CC meetings as observers.
These committees are:
- CCAUV: Consultative Committee for Acoustics, Ultrasound and Vibration
- CCEM: Consultative Committee for Electricity and Magnetism
- CCL: Consultative Committee for Length
- CCM: Consultative Committee for Mass and Related Quantities
- CCPR: Consultative Committee for Photometry and Radiometry
- CCQM: Consultative Committee for Amount of Substance -- Metrology in Chemistry and Biology
- CCRI: Consultative Committee for Ionizing Radiation
- CCT: Consultative Committee for Thermometry
- CCTF: Consultative Committee for Time and Frequency
- CCU: Consultative Committee for Units
The CCU\'s role is to advise on matters related to the development of the SI and the preparation of the SI brochure. It has liaison with other international bodies such as International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Astronomical Union (IAU), International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and International Commission on Illumination (CIE).
### Major reports {#major_reports}
Official reports of the CIPM include:
- Reports of CIPM meetings (*Procès-Verbaux*) (CIPM Minutes)
- Annual Report to Governments on the financial and administrative situation of the BIPM
- Notification of the contributive parts of the Contracting States
- Convocation to meetings of the CGPM
- Report of the President of the CIPM to the CGPM
From time to time the CIPM has been charged by the CGPM to undertake major investigations related to activities affecting the CGPM or the BIPM. Reports produced include:
#### The Blevin Report {#the_blevin_report}
The **Blevin Report**, published in 1998, examined the state of worldwide metrology. The report originated from a resolution passed at the 20th CGPM (October 1995) which committed the CIPM to `{{Blockquote| study and report on the long-term national and international needs relating to metrology, the appropriate international collaborations and the unique role of the BIPM to meet these needs, and the financial and other commitments that will be required from the Member States in the coming decades.}}`{=mediawiki} The report identified, amongst other things, a need for closer cooperation between the BIPM and other organisations such as International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) and International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) with clearly defined boundaries and interfaces between the organisations. Another major finding was the need for cooperation between accreditation laboratories and the need to involve developing countries in the world of metrology.
#### The Kaarls Report {#the_kaarls_report}
The Kaarls Report published in 2003 examined the role of the BIPM in the evolving needs for metrology in trade, industry and society.
#### SI Brochure {#si_brochure}
The CIPM has responsibility for commissioning the SI brochure, which is the formal definition of the International system of units. The brochure is produced by the CCU in conjunction with a number of other international organisations. Initially the brochure was only in French -- the official language of the metre convention, but recent versions have been published simultaneously in both English and French, with the French text being the official text. The 6th edition was published in 1991, the 7th edition was published in 1998, and the 8th, in 2006. The most recent edition is the 9th edition, originally published as version 1 in 2019 to include the 2019 revision of the SI (a.k.a. \"new SI\"); it was updated to version 2 in December 2022 to include the new SI prefixes ronna-, quetta-, ronto- and quecto- introduced in November 2022.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
7,345 |
Carl Barks
|
*Duckman*}} `{{original research|date=July 2022}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox comics creator
| image = Carl barks.jpg
| caption = Barks in 1982
| alt =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1901|3|27|mf=y}}<ref>[https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/JG4V-6ZF "United States Social Security Death Index", index, FamilySearch] (accessed 20 February 2013), Carl Barks, 25 August 2000; citing U.S. Social Security Administration, Death Master File, database (Alexandria, Virginia: National Technical Information Service, ongoing).</ref>
| birth_place = Near [[Merrill, Oregon]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|2000|8|25|1901|3|27|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Grants Pass, Oregon]], U.S.
| art = y
| write = y
| pencil = y
| ink = y
| notable works = [[Scrooge McDuck]], [[Huey, Dewey, and Louie]], [[Daisy Duck]], [[Gyro Gearloose]], [[Gladstone Gander]], [[The Junior Woodchucks]], [[Beagle Boys]], [[Flintheart Glomgold]], [[Magica De Spell]], [[List of Donald Duck universe characters#Neighbor Jones|Neighbor J. Jones]], [[Glittering Goldie]], [[Cornelius Coot]], [[John D. Rockerduck]]<br/><br/>Oil paintings of his duck characters
| spouse = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|Pearl Turner|1923|1929|end=div}}
* {{marriage|Clara Balken|1932|1951|end=div}}
* {{marriage|Garé Williams|1954|1993|end=d}}}}
| children = 2
| signature = Carl barks signature.svg
}}`{=mediawiki}
**Carl Barks** (March 27, 1901 -- August 25, 2000) was an American cartoonist, author, and painter. He is best known for his work in Disney comic books, as the writer and artist of the first Donald Duck stories and as the creator of Scrooge McDuck. He worked anonymously until late in his career; fans dubbed him \"The Duck Man\" and \"The Good Duck Artist\". In 1987, Barks was one of the three inaugural inductees of the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame.
Barks worked for the Disney Studio and Western Publishing where he created Duckburg and many of its inhabitants, such as Scrooge McDuck (1947), Gladstone Gander (1948), the Beagle Boys (1951), The Junior Woodchucks (1951), Gyro Gearloose (1952), Cornelius Coot (1952), Flintheart Glomgold (1956), John D. Rockerduck (1961) and Magica De Spell (1961).
He has been named by animation historian Leonard Maltin as \"the most popular and widely read artist-writer in the world\". Will Eisner called him \"the Hans Christian Andersen of comic books.\" Beginning especially in the 1980s, Barks\' artistic contributions would be a primary source for animated adaptations such as *DuckTales* and its 2017 remake.
## Biography
Barks was born near Merrill, Oregon, to William Barks and his wife, Arminta Johnson. He had an older brother named Clyde. His paternal grandparents were David Barks and his wife Ruth Shrum. Barks\' maternal grandparents were Carl Johnson and his wife, Suzanna Massey, but little else is known about his ancestors. Barks was the descendant of Jacob Barks, who came to Missouri from North Carolina c. 1800. They lived in Marble Hill in Bollinger County. Jacob Barks\' son Isaac was the father of the David Barks noted above.
### Childhood
According to Barks\'s description of his childhood, he was a rather lonely child. His parents owned 1 mi2 of land that served as their farm. The nearest neighbor lived 1/2 mi away, but he was more an acquaintance to Barks\'s parents than a friend. The closest school was about 2 mi away and Barks had to walk that distance every day. The rural area had few children, though, and Barks later remembered that his school had only about eight or ten students including him. He had high praise for the quality of the education he received in that small school. \"Schools were good in those days,\" he used to say. The lessons lasted from nine o\'clock in the morning to four o\'clock in the afternoon and then he had to return to the farm. There he remembered not having anybody to talk to, as his parents were busy, and he had little in common with his brother.
In 1908, William Barks (in an attempt to increase the family income) moved with his family to Midland, Oregon, some miles north of Merrill, to be closer to the new railway lines. He established a new stock-breeding farm and sold his produce to the local slaughterhouses.
Nine-year-old Clyde and seven-year-old Carl worked long hours there. But Carl later remembered that the crowd which gathered at Midland\'s market place made a strong impression on him. This was expected, as he was not used to crowds up until then. According to Barks, his attention was mostly drawn to the cowboys that frequented the market with their revolvers, strange nicknames for each other and sense of humor.
By 1911, they had been successful enough to move to Santa Rosa, California. There they started cultivating vegetables and set up some orchards. Unfortunately, the profits were not as high as William expected and they started having financial difficulties. William\'s anxiety over them was probably what caused his first nervous breakdown.
As soon as William recovered, he made the decision to move back to Merrill. The year was 1913, and Barks was already 12 years old; but, due to the constant moving, he had not yet managed to complete grade school. He resumed his education at this point and finally managed to graduate in 1916.
1916 served as a turning point in Barks\'s life for various reasons. First, Arminta, his mother, died in this year. Second, his hearing problems, which had already appeared earlier, had at the time become severe enough for him to have difficulties listening to his teachers talking. His hearing would continue to get worse later, but at that point he had not yet acquired a hearing aid. Later in life, he couldn\'t do without one. Third, the closest high school to their farm was 5 mi away and even if he did enroll in it, his bad hearing was likely to contribute to his learning problems. He had to decide to stop his school education, much to his disappointment.
### From job to job {#from_job_to_job}
Barks started taking various jobs but had little success in such occupations as a farmer, woodcutter, turner, mule driver, cowboy and printer. From his jobs he learned, he later averred, how eccentric, stubborn and unpredictable men, animals and machines can be. At the same time he interacted with colleagues, fellow breadwinners who had satirical disposition towards even their worst troubles. Barks later declared that he was sure that if not for a little humor in their troubled lives, they would certainly go insane. It was an attitude towards life that Barks would adopt. Later he would say it was natural for him to satirize the secret yearnings and desires, the pompous style and the disappointments of his characters. According to Barks, this period of his life would later influence his best known fictional characters: Walt Disney\'s Donald Duck and his own Scrooge McDuck.
Donald\'s drifting from job to job was reportedly inspired by Barks\'s own experiences. So was his usual lack of success. And even in those that he was successful this would be temporary, just until a mistake or chance event caused another failure, another disappointment for the frustrated duck. Barks also reported that this was another thing he was familiar with.
Scrooge\'s main difference to Donald, according to Barks, was that he too had faced the same difficulties in his past but through intelligence, determination and hard work, he was able to overcome them. Or, as Scrooge himself would say to Huey, Dewey, and Louie: by being \"tougher than the toughies and smarter than the smarties.\" In Barks\'s stories Scrooge would work to solve his many problems, even though the stories would often point out that his constant efforts seemed futile at the end.
Through both characters Barks would often exhibit his rather sarcastic sense of humor. It seems that this difficult period for the artist helped shape many of his later views in life that were expressed through his characters.
### Professional artist {#professional_artist}
At the same time Barks had started thinking about turning a hobby that he always enjoyed into a profession: that of drawing. Since his early childhood he spent his free time by drawing on any material he could find. He had attempted to improve his style by copying the drawings of his favorite comic strip artists from the newspapers where he could find them. As he later said, he wanted to create his own facial expressions, figures and comical situations in his drawings but wanted to study the master comic artists\' use of the pen and their use of color and shading.
Among his early favorites were Winsor McCay (mostly known for *Little Nemo*) and Frederick Burr Opper (mostly known for *Happy Hooligan*) but he would later study any style that managed to draw his attention.
At age 16, he was mostly self-taught but at this point he decided to take some lessons through correspondence. He only followed the first four lessons and then had to stop because his working left him with little free time. But as he later said, the lessons proved very useful in improving his style.
By December 1918, he left his father\'s home to attempt to find a job in San Francisco, California. He worked for a while in a small publishing house while attempting to sell his drawings to newspapers and other printed material with little success.
### First and second marriages {#first_and_second_marriages}
While he continued drifting through various jobs, he met Pearl Turner (1904--1987). In 1921 they married and had two daughters:
- Peggy Barks (1923--1963)
- Dorothy Barks (1924--2014)
In 1923 he returned to his paternal farm in Merrill in an attempt to return to the life of a farmer, but that ended soon. He continued searching for a job while attempting to sell his drawings. He soon managed to sell some of them to *Judge* magazine and then started having success submitting to the Minneapolis-based *Calgary Eye-Opener*, a racy men\'s cartoon magazine of the era. He was eventually hired as editor and scripted and drew most of the contents while continuing to sell occasional work to other magazines. His salary of \$90 per month was considered respectable enough for the time. A facsimile of one of the racy magazines he did cartoons for in this period, *Coo Coo* #1, was published by Hamilton Comics in 1997.
Meanwhile, he had his first divorce. He and Pearl were separated in 1929 and divorced in 1930. After he moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, where *Calgary-Eye-Opener* had its offices, he met Clara Balken, who in 1938 became his second wife.
### Disney
In November 1935, when he learned that Walt Disney was seeking more artists for his studio, Barks decided to apply. He was approved for a try-out which entailed a move to Los Angeles, California. He was one of two in his class of trainees who was hired. His starting salary was 20 dollars a week. He started at Disney Studios in 1935, more than a year after the debut of Donald Duck on June 9, 1934, in the short animated film *The Wise Little Hen*.
Barks initially worked as an inbetweener. This involved being teamed and supervised by one of the head animators who did the key poses of character action (often known as extremes) for which the inbetweeners did the drawings between the extremes to create the illusion of movement. While an inbetweener, Barks submitted gag ideas for cartoon story lines being developed and showed such a knack for creating comical situations that by 1937 he was transferred to the story department. His first story sale was the climax of *Modern Inventions*, for a sequence where a robot barber chair gives Donald Duck a haircut on his bottom.
In 1937, when Donald Duck became the star of his own series of cartoons instead of co-starring with Mickey Mouse and Goofy as previously, a new unit of storymen and animators was created devoted solely to this series. Though he originally just contributed gag ideas to some duck cartoons, by 1937 Barks was (principally with partner Jack Hannah) originating story ideas that were storyboarded and (if approved by Walt) put into production. He collaborated on such cartoons as *Donald\'s Nephews* (1938), *Donald\'s Cousin Gus* (1939), *Mr. Duck Steps Out* (1940), *Timber* (1941), *The Vanishing Private* (1942) and *The Plastics Inventor* (1944).
### The Good Duck Artist {#the_good_duck_artist}
Unhappy at the emerging wartime working conditions at Disney, and bothered by ongoing sinus problems caused by the studio\'s air conditioning, Barks quit in 1942. Shortly before quitting, he moonlighted as a comic book artist, contributing half the artwork for a one-shot comic book (the other half of the art being done by story partner Jack Hannah) titled *Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold*. This 64-page story was adapted by Donald Duck comic strip writer Bob Karp from an unproduced feature, and published in October 1942 in Dell Comics *Four Color Comics* #9. It was the first Donald Duck story originally produced for an American comic book and also the first involving Donald and his nephews in a treasure hunting expedition, in this case for the treasure of Henry Morgan. Barks would later use the treasure hunting theme in many of his stories. This actually was not his first work in comics, as earlier the same year Barks along with Hannah and fellow storyman Nick George scripted *Pluto Saves the Ship*, which was among the first original Disney comic book stories published in the United States.
After quitting the Disney Studio, Barks relocated to the Hemet/San Jacinto area in the semi-desert Inland Empire region east of Los Angeles where he hoped to start a chicken farm.
When asked which of his stories was a favorite in several interviews Barks cited the ten-pager in *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #146 (Nov. 1952) in which Donald tells the story of the chain of unfortunate events that took place when he owned a chicken farm in a town which subsequently was renamed Omelet. Likely one reason it was a favorite is that it was inspired by Barks\' own experiences in the poultry business.
But to earn a living in the meantime he inquired whether Western Publishing, which had published *Pirate Gold*, had any need for artists for Donald Duck comic book stories. He was immediately assigned to illustrate the script for a ten-page Donald Duck story for the monthly *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories*. At the publisher\'s invitation he revised the storyline and the improvements impressed the editor sufficiently to invite Barks to try his hand at contributing both the script and the artwork of his follow-up story. This set the pattern for Barks\' career in that (with rare exceptions) he provided art (pencil, inking, solid blacks and lettering) and scripting for his stories.
*The Victory Garden*, that initial ten-page story published in April, 1943 was the first of about 500 stories featuring the Disney ducks Barks would produce for Western Publishing over the next three decades, well into his purported retirement. These can be mostly divided into three categories:
- One-page gag stories like \"Coffee for Two\" and \"Sorry to be Safe\". These one-pagers were usually printed in black and white (or black and white and red) on the inside front, inside back, and outside back covers. These stories focused on one joke.
- Ten-pagers, comedic Donald Duck stories that were the lead for the monthly flagship title *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories*, whose circulation peaked in the mid-1950s at 3 million copies sold a month.
- Humorous adventure stories, usually 24-32 pages in length. In the 1940s these were one-shots in the *Four Color* series (issued 4--6 times a year) that starred Donald and his nephews. Starting in the early 1950s (and through his retirement) Barks\' longer stories were almost exclusively published in Uncle Scrooge\'s own quarterly title.
Barks\' artistic growth during his first decade in comics saw a transformation from rather rudimentary storytelling derived from his years as an animation artist and storyman into a virtuoso creator of complex narratives, notably in his longer adventure tales. According to critic Geoffrey Blum, the process that saw its beginnings in 1942\'s *Pirate Gold* first bore its full fruit in 1950\'s \"Vacation Time\", which he describes as \"a visual primer for reading comics and understanding \... the form\".
He surrounded Donald Duck and nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie with a cast of eccentric and colorful characters, such as the aforementioned Scrooge McDuck, the wealthiest duck in the world; Gladstone Gander, Donald\'s obscenely lucky cousin; inventor Gyro Gearloose; the persistent Beagle Boys; the sorceress Magica De Spell; Scrooge\'s rivals Flintheart Glomgold and John D. Rockerduck; Daisy\'s nieces April, May and June; Donald\'s neighbor Jones, and The Junior Woodchucks organization.
Barks\'s stories (whether humorous adventures or domestic comedies) often exhibited a wry, dark irony born of hard experience. The ten-pagers showcased Donald as everyman, struggling against the cruel bumps and bruises of everyday life with the nephews often acting as a Greek chorus commenting on the unfolding disasters Donald wrought upon himself. Yet while seemingly defeatist in tone, the humanity of the characters shines through in their persistence despite the obstacles. These stories found popularity not only among young children but adults as well. Despite the fact that Barks had done little traveling, his adventure stories often had the duck clan globe-trotting to the most remote or spectacular of places. This allowed Barks to indulge his penchant for elaborate backgrounds that hinted at his thwarted ambitions of doing realistic stories in the vein of Hal Foster\'s *Prince Valiant*.
### Third marriage {#third_marriage}
As Barks blossomed creatively, his marriage to Clara deteriorated. This is the period referred to in Barks\' famed quip that he could feel his creative juices flowing while the whiskey bottles hurled at him by a tipsy Clara flew by his head. They were divorced in 1951, his second and last divorce. In this period Barks dabbled in fine art, exhibiting paintings at local art shows. It was at one of these in 1952 he became acquainted with fellow exhibitor Margaret Wynnfred Williams (1917 -- March 10, 1993), nicknamed Garé. She was an accomplished landscape artist, some of whose paintings are in the collection of the Leanin\' Tree Museum of Western Art. During her lifetime, and to this day, note cards of her paintings are available from Leanin\' Tree. Her nickname appears as a store name in the story \"Christmas in Duckburg\", featured on page 1 of *Walt Disney\'s Christmas Parade* #9, published in 1958. Soon after they met, she started assisting Barks, handling the solid blacks and lettering, both of which he had found onerous. They married in 1954 and the union lasted until her death.
### No longer anonymous {#no_longer_anonymous}
People who worked for Disney (and its comic book licensees) generally did so in relative anonymity; stories would only carry Walt Disney\'s name and (sometimes) a short identification number. Prior to 1960 Barks\' identity remained a mystery to his readers. However, many readers recognized Barks\' work and drawing style and began to call him the Good Duck Artist, a label that stuck even after his true identity was discovered by fans in the late 1950s. Malcolm Willits was the first person to learn Barks\'s name and address, but two brothers named John and Bill Spicer became the first fans to contact Barks after independently discovering the same information. After Barks received a 1960 visit from the Spicer brothers and Ron Leonard, he was no longer anonymous, as word of his identity spread through the emerging network of comic book fandom fanzines and conventions.
### Later life {#later_life}
Carl Barks retired in 1966, but was persuaded by editor Chase Craig to continue to script stories for Western. The last new comic book story drawn by Carl Barks was a Daisy Duck tale (\"The Dainty Daredevil\") published in *Walt Disney Comics Digest* issue 5 (Nov. 1968). When bibliographer Michael Barrier asked Barks why he drew it, Barks\' vague recollection was no one was available and he was asked to do it as a favor by Craig.
He wrote one Uncle Scrooge story, and three Donald Duck stories. From 1970 to 1974, Barks was the main writer for the Junior Woodchucks comic book (issues 6 through 25). The latter included environmental themes that Barks first explored in 1957 \[\"Land of the Pygmy Indians\", *Uncle Scrooge* #18\]. Barks also sold a few sketches to Western that were redrawn as covers. For a time the Barkses lived in Goleta, California, before returning to the Inland Empire by moving to Temecula.
To make a little extra money beyond what his pension and scripting earnings brought in, Barks started doing oil paintings to sell at the local art shows where he and Garé exhibited. Subjects included humorous depictions of life on the farm and portraits of Native American princesses. These skillfully rendered paintings encouraged fan Glenn Bray to ask Barks if he could commission a painting of the ducks (\"A Tall Ship and a Star to Steer Her By\", taken from the cover of *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #108 by Barks). This prompted Barks to contact George Sherman at Disney\'s Publications Department to request permission to produce and sell oil paintings of scenes from his stories. In July 1971 Barks was granted a royalty-free license by Disney. When word spread that Barks was taking commissions from those interested in purchasing an oil of the ducks, much to his astonishment the response quickly outstripped what he reasonably could produce in the next few years.
When Barks expressed dismay at coping with the backlog of orders he faced, fan/dealers Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran suggested Barks instead auction his paintings at conventions and via Cochran\'s catalog *Graphic Gallery*. By September 1974 Barks had discontinued taking commissions.
At Boston\'s NewCon convention, in October 1975, the first Carl Barks oil painting auctioned at a comic book convention (\"She Was Spangled and Flashy\") sold for \$2,500. Subsequent offerings saw an escalation in the prices realized.
In 1976, Barks and Garé went to Boston for the NewCon show, their first comic convention appearance. Among the other attendees was famed *Little Lulu* comic book scripter John Stanley; despite both having worked for Western Publishing this was the first time they met. The highlight of the convention was the auctioning of what was to that time the largest duck oil painting Barks had done, \"July Fourth in Duckburg\", which included depictions of several prominent Barks fans and collectors. It sold for a then record high amount: \$6,400.
Soon thereafter a fan sold unauthorized prints of some of the Scrooge McDuck paintings, leading Disney to withdraw permission for further paintings. To meet demand for new work Barks embarked on a series of paintings of non-Disney ducks and fantasy subjects such as Beowulf and Xerxes. These were eventually collected in the limited-edition book *Animal Quackers*.
As the result of efforts by *Star Wars* producer Gary Kurtz and screenwriter Edward Summer, Disney relented and, in 1981, allowed Barks to produce an oil painting called *Wanderers of Wonderlands* for a limited edition book entitled *Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times*. The book collected 11 classic Barks stories of Uncle Scrooge colored by artist Peter Ledger along with a new Scrooge story by Barks done storybook style with watercolor illustrations, \"Go Slowly, Sands of Time\". After being turned down by every major publisher in New York City, Kurtz and Summer published the book through Celestial Arts, which Kurtz acquired partly for this purpose. The book went on to become the model for virtually every important collection of comic book stories.`{{or|date=March 2024}}`{=mediawiki} It was the first book of its kind ever reviewed in *Time* magazine and subsequently in *Newsweek*, and the first book review in *Time* with large color illustrations.
In 1977 and 1982, Barks attended San Diego Comic-Con. As with his appearance in Boston, the response to his presence was overwhelming, with long lines of fans waiting to meet Barks and get his autograph.
In 1981, Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran, two long-time Disney comics fans, decided to combine forces to bring greater recognition to the works of Carl Barks. Their first efforts went into establishing Another Rainbow Publishing, the banner under which they produced and issued the award-winning book *The Fine Art of Walt Disney\'s Donald Duck by Carl Barks*, a comprehensive collection of the Disney duck paintings of this artist and storyteller. Not long after, the company began producing fine art lithographs of many of these paintings, in strictly limited editions, all signed by Barks, who eventually produced many original works for the series.
In 1983, Barks relocated one last time to Grants Pass, Oregon, near where he grew up, partly at the urging of friend and *Broom Hilda* artist Russell Myers, who lived in the area. The move also was motivated, Barks stated in another famous quip, by Temecula being too close to Disneyland and thus facilitating a growing torrent of drop-in visits by vacationing fans. In this period Barks made only one public appearance, at a comic book shop near Grants Pass.
In 1983, Another Rainbow took up the daunting task of collecting the entire Disney comic book oeuvre of Barks---over 500 stories in all---in the ten-set, thirty-volume *Carl Barks Library*. These oversized hardbound volumes reproduced Barks\' pages in pristine black and white line art, as close as possible to the way he would originally draw them, and included mountains of special features, articles, reminiscences, interviews, storyboards, critiques, and more than a few surprises. This monumental project was finally completed in mid-1990.
In 1985, a new division was founded, Gladstone Publishing, which took up the then-dormant Disney comic book license. Gladstone introduced a new generation of Disney comic book readers to the storytelling of Barks, Paul Murry, and Floyd Gottfredson, as well as presenting the first works of modern Disney comics artists Don Rosa and William Van Horn. Seven years after Gladstone\'s founding, the *Carl Barks Library* was revived as the *Carl Barks Library in Color*, as full-color, high-quality squarebound comic albums (including the first-ever Carl Barks trading cards).
From 1993 to 1998, Barks\' career was managed by the \"Carl Barks Studio\" (Bill Grandey and Kathy Morby---they had sold Barks original art since 1979). This involved numerous art projects and activities, including a tour of 11 European countries in 1994, Iceland being the first foreign country he ever visited. Barks appeared at the first of many Disneyana conventions in 1993. Silk screen prints of paintings along with high-end art objects (such as original water colors, bronze figurines and ceramic tiles) were produced based on designs by Barks.
During the summer of 1994 and until his death, Barks and his studio personally assigned Peter Reichelt, a museum exhibition producer from Mannheim, Germany, as his agent for Europe. Publisher \"Edition 313\" put out numerous lithographs. In 1997, tensions between Barks and the Studio eventually resulted in a lawsuit that was settled with an agreement that included the disbanding of the Studio. Barks never traveled to make another Disney appearance. He was represented by Ed Bergen, as he completed a final project. Gerry Tank and Jim Mitchell were to assist Barks in his final years.
During his Carl Barks Studio years, Barks created two more stories: the script for the final Uncle Scrooge story \"Horsing Around with History\", which was first published in Denmark in 1994 with Bill Van Horn art. The outlines for Barks\' final Donald Duck story \"Somewhere in Nowhere\", were first published in 1997, in Italy, with art by Pat Block.
Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein curated and organized the first solo museum-exhibition of Barks. Between 1994 and 1998 the retrospective was shown in ten European museums and seen by more than 400,000 visitors.
At the same time in spring 1994, Reichelt and Ina Brockmann designed a special museum exhibition tour about Barks\' life and work. Also represented for the first time at this exhibition were Disney artists Al Taliaferro and Floyd Gottfredson. Since 1995, more than 500,000 visitors have attended the shows in Europe.
Reichelt also translated Michael Barrier\'s biography of Barks into German and published it in 1994.
### Final days and death {#final_days_and_death}
Barks spent his final years in a new home in Grants Pass, Oregon, which he and Garé, who died in 1993, had built next door to their original home. In July 1999, he was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, a form of cancer arising from the white blood cells in the bone marrow, for which he received oral chemotherapy. However, as the disease progressed, causing him great discomfort, the ailing Barks decided to stop receiving treatment in June 2000. In spite of his terminal condition, Barks remained, according to caregiver Serene Hunicke, \"funny up to the end\".
The year before, Barks had told the university professor Donald Ault:
> I have no apprehension, no fear of death. I do not believe in an afterlife. \... I think of death as total peace. You\'re beyond the clutches of all those who would crush you.
On August 25, 2000, shortly after midnight, Carl Barks died quietly in his sleep at the age of 99. He was interred in Hillcrest Memorial Cemetery in Grants Pass, beside Garé\'s grave.
## Influence
\"(A)n asteroid was named after the Duck Man in 1983 \-\-- 2730 Barks, a carbonaceous C-type asteroid with a diameter of between 10 and 16 kilometers, an ordital period of six years and four months, and a rotation period of just over six hours.\" In a 1983 interview, Barks says that \"Island in the Sky\", a story about the Ducks traveling to the asteroid belt to find a place Uncle Scrooge can store his money, was his favorite story.
Barks\' Donald Duck stories were rated #7 on *The Comics Journal* list of 100 top comics; his Uncle Scrooge stories were rated #20.
Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have acknowledged that the rolling-boulder booby trap in the opening scene of *Raiders of the Lost Ark* was inspired by the 1954 Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge adventure \"The Seven Cities of Cibola\" (*Uncle Scrooge* #7). Lucas and Spielberg have also said that some of Barks\' stories about space travel and the depiction of aliens had an influence on them. Lucas wrote the foreword to the 1982 *Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times*. In it he calls Barks\' stories \"cinematic\" and \"a priceless part of our literary heritage\".
The Walt Disney Treasures DVD set *Chronological Donald, Volume 2* includes a salute to Barks.
In Almere, Netherlands, a street was named after him: Carl Barksweg. The same neighborhood also includes a Donald Ducklaan and a Goofystraat.
Japanese animator and cartoonist Osamu Tezuka, who created manga such as *Astro Boy* and *Black Jack*, was a fan of Barks\' work. *New Treasure Island*, one of Tezuka\'s first works, was partly influenced by \"Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold\".
A 1949 Donald Duck ten-pager features Donald raising a yacht from the ocean floor by filling it with ping pong balls. In December 1965 Karl Krøyer, a Dane, lifted the sunken freight vessel *Al Kuwait* in the Kuwait Harbor by filling the hull with 27 million tiny inflatable balls of polystyrene. Krøyer denies having been inspired by this Barks story. Some sources claim Krøyer was denied a Dutch patent registration (application number NL 6514306) for his invention on the grounds that the Barks story was a prior publication of the invention. Krøyer later successfully raised another ship off Greenland using the same method, and several other sunken vessels worldwide have since been raised by modified versions of this concept. The television show *MythBusters* also tested this method and was able to raise a small boat.
Don Rosa, one of the most popular living Disney artists, and possibly the one who has been most keen on connecting the various stories into a coherent universe and chronology, considers (with few exceptions) all Barks\' duck stories as canon, and all others as apocryphal. Rosa has said that a number of novelists and movie-makers cite Carl Barks as their \'major influence and inspiration\'. Don Rosa created *The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck* based on Carl Barks references in Scrooge McDuck stories.
When the news of Barks\' passing was hardly covered by the press in America, \"in Europe the sad news was flashed instantly across the airwaves and every newspaper --- they realized the world had lost one of the most beloved, influential and well-known creators in international culture.\"
The video game *Donald Duck: Goin\' Quackers*, released late in 2000, is dedicated to the memory of Carl Barks.
In 2010 Oregon Cartoon Institute produced a video about the influence of Carl Barks and Basil Wolverton on Robert Crumb.
Carl Barks drew an early Andy Panda comic book story published in *New Funnies* #76, 1943. It is one of his few stories to feature humans interacting with talking animal characters (another is *Dangerous Disguise*, *Four Color* #308, 1951. See List of fictional pandas.)
The first image ever to be displayed on an Apple Macintosh was a scan of Carl Barks\' Scrooge McDuck.
The life story of Carl Barks, largely drawing upon his relationship with Disney and the phonetic similarity of his name to Karl Marx, serves as a loose inspiration to one of the subplots in *The Last Song of Manuel Sendero* by Ariel Dorfman.
## Filmography
Films where Barks served as storyman or story director include:
- *Modern Inventions* (May 29, 1937). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Donald\'s Ostrich* (December 10, 1937).
- *Self Control* (February 11, 1938). Barks served as the story director.
- *Donald\'s Better Self* (March 11, 1938). Barks served as the story director.
- *Donald\'s Nephews* (April 15, 1938).
- *Good Scouts* (July 8, 1938). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Donald\'s Golf Game* (November 4, 1938). Barks served as the story director.
- *Donald\'s Lucky Day* (January 13, 1939). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *The Hockey Champ* (April 28, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Donald\'s Cousin Gus* (May 19, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Sea Scouts* (June 30, 1939). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Donald\'s Penguin* (August 11, 1939). Barks served as the story director.
- *The Autograph Hound* (September 1, 1939).
- *Mr. Duck Steps Out* (June 7, 1940). Barks served as the story director.
- *Put-Put Troubles* (June 19, 1940).
- *Bone Trouble* (June 28, 1940).
- *Donald\'s Vacation* (August 9, 1940).
- *Window Cleaners* (September 20, 1940). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Fire Chief* (December 13, 1940). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Timber* (January 10, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Golden Eggs* (March 7, 1941).
- *Early to Bed* (July 11, 1941). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Truant Officer Donald* (August 1, 1941). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Old MacDonald Duck* (September 12, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Chef Donald* (December 5, 1941). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *The Village Smithy* (January 16, 1942).
- *Donald\'s Snow Fight* (April 10, 1942). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Donald Gets Drafted* (May 1, 1942). Barks served as the story director.
- *The Army Mascot* (May 22, 1942).
- *The Vanishing Private* (September 25, 1942). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Sky Trooper* (November 6, 1942).
- *Bellboy Donald* (December 18, 1942). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *The Spirit of \'43* (January 7, 1943).
- *The Old Army Game* (November 5, 1943). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Home Defense* (November 26, 1943). Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *Trombone Trouble* (February 18, 1944). Barks served as the story director. Barks also drew many of the storyboards for the film.
- *The Plastics Inventor* (September 1, 1944).
## Notable stories {#notable_stories}
- \"Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold\", *Four Color* #9, October 1942
- \"Donald Duck and the Mummy\'s Ring\", *Four Color* #29, September 1943
- \"Christmas on Bear Mountain\", *Four Color* #178, December 1947, first appearance of Scrooge McDuck.
- \"The Old Castle\'s Secret\", *Four Color* #189 June 1948
- \"Sheriff of Bullet Valley\", *Four Color* #199, October 1948
- \"Lost in the Andes!\", *Four Color* #223, April 1949
- \"Vacation Time\", *Vacation Parade* #1, July 1950
- \"A Financial Fable\", *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #126, March 1951
- \"Donald Duck in Old California!\", *Four Color* #328, May 1951
- \"A Christmas for Shacktown\", *Four Color* #367, January 1952
- \"Only a Poor Old Man\", *Four Color* #386 (*Uncle Scrooge* #1), March 1952
- \"Flip Decision\", *Walt Disney\'s Comics and Stories* #149, June 1952
- \"The Golden Helmet\", *Four Color* #408, July 1952
- \"Back to the Klondike\", *Four Color* #456 (*Uncle Scrooge* #2), March 1953
- \"Tralla La\", *Uncle Scrooge* #6, June 1954
- \"The Fabulous Philosopher\'s Stone\", *Uncle Scrooge* #10, June 1955
- \"The Golden Fleecing\", *Uncle Scrooge* #12, December 1955
- \"Land Beneath the Ground!\", *Uncle Scrooge* #13, March 1956
- \"The Money Well\", *Uncle Scrooge* #21, March 1958
- \"The Golden River\", *Uncle Scrooge* #22, 1958
- \"Island in the Sky\", *Uncle Scrooge* #29, March 1960
- \"North of the Yukon\", *Uncle Scrooge* #59, September 1965
## Awards
- The Shazam Award for Best Writer (Humor Division) in 1970
- The Academy of Comic Book Arts Hall of Fame Award in 1973
- The Inkpot in 1977 from San Diego Comic-Con
- Inducted into the Eisner Awards Hall of Fame in 1987
- Inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1987
- Inducted into the William Randolph Hearst Cartoon Hall of Fame.
- The Walt Disney Company bestowed a Duckster award in 1971 and their Disney Legends award in 1991
- The Comics Buyer\'s Guide Fan Award for Favorite Writer in 1996.
- The series *Carl Barks Library* received the Comics Buyer\'s Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Novel/Album for 1996.
## Art materials {#art_materials}
Barks was an enthusiastic user of Esterbrook pens, and used a Nº 356 model to ink and letter his Donald Duck comic-book pages.
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Centimetre–gram–second system of units
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unexpected '!'
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```
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Complaint
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In legal terminology, a **complaint** is any formal legal document that sets out the facts and legal reasons (see: cause of action) that the filing party or parties (the plaintiff(s)) believes are sufficient to support a claim against the party or parties against whom the claim is brought (the defendant(s)) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a remedy (either money damages or injunctive relief). For example, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) that govern civil litigation in United States courts provide that a civil action is commenced with the filing or service of a pleading called a complaint. Civil court rules in states that have incorporated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure use the same term for the same pleading.
In Civil Law, a \"complaint\" is the first formal action taken to officially begin a lawsuit. This written document contains the allegations against the defense, the specific laws violated, the facts that led to the dispute, and any demands made by the plaintiff to restore justice.
In some jurisdictions, specific types of criminal cases may also be commenced by the filing of a complaint, also sometimes called a **criminal complaint** or **felony complaint**. Most criminal cases are prosecuted in the name of the governmental authority that promulgates criminal statutes and enforces the police power of the state with the goal of seeking criminal sanctions, such as the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in Commonwealth realms). In the United States, the complaint is often associated with misdemeanor criminal charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most U.S. jurisdictions, the charging instrument presented to and authorized by a grand jury is referred to as an indictment.
## United States {#united_states}
Every U.S. state has some forms available on the web for most common complaints for lawyers and self-representing litigants; if a petitioner cannot find an appropriate form in their state, they often can modify a form from another state to fit his or her request. Several United States federal courts publish general guidelines for the petitioners and Civil Rights complaint forms.
After the complaint has been filed with the court, it has to be properly served to the opposite parties, but usually petitioners are not allowed to serve the complaint personally. The court also can issue a summons -- an official summary document which the plaintiff needs to have served together with the complaint. The defendants have limited time to respond, depending on the State or Federal rules. A defendant\'s failure to answer a complaint can result in a default judgment in favor of the petitioner.
For example, in United States federal courts, any person who is at least 18 years old and not a party may serve a summons and complaint in a civil case. The defendant must submit an answer within 21 days after being served with the summons and complaint, or request a waiver, according to FRCP Rule 12. After the civil complaint has been served to the defendants, the plaintiff must, as soon as practicable initiate a conference between the parties to plan for the rest of the discovery process and then the parties should submit a proposed discovery plan to the judge within 14 days after the conference.
In many U.S. jurisdictions, a complaint submitted to a court must be accompanied by a Case Information Statement, which sets forth specific key information about the case and the lawyers representing the parties. This allows the judge to make determinations about which deadlines to set for different phases of the case, as it moves through the court system.
There are also freely accessible web search engines to assist parties in finding court decisions that can be cited in the complaint as an example or analogy to resolve similar questions of law. Google Scholar is the biggest database of full text state and federal courts decisions that can be accessed without charge. These web search engines often allow one to select specific state courts to search.
Federal courts created the Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system to obtain case and docket information from the United States district courts, United States courts of appeals, and United States bankruptcy courts. The system is managed by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts; it allows lawyers and self-represented clients to obtain documents entered in the case much faster than regular mail.
### Filing and privacy {#filing_and_privacy}
In addition to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, many of the U.S. district courts have developed their own requirements included in Local Rules for filing with the Court. Local Rules can set up a limit on the number of pages, establish deadlines for motions and responses, explain whether it is acceptable to combine a motion petition with a response, specify if a judge needs an additional copy of the documents (called \"judge\'s copy\"), etc. Local Rules can define page layout elements like: margins, text font/size, distance between lines, mandatory footer text, page numbering, and provide directions on how the pages need to be bound together -- i.e. acceptable fasteners, number and location of fastening holes, etc. If the filed motion does not comply with the Local Rules then the judge can choose to strike the motion completely, or order the party to re-file its motion, or grant a special exception to the Local Rules.
According to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) `{{frcp|5.2}}`{=mediawiki}, sensitive text like Social Security number, Taxpayer Identification Number, birthday, bank accounts and children\'s names, should be redacted from the filings made with the court and accompanying exhibits, (exhibits normally do not need to be attached to the original complaint, but should be presented to Court after the discovery). The redacted text can be erased with black-out or white-out, and the page should have an indication that it was redacted - most often by stamping word \"redacted\" on the bottom. Alternately, the filing party may ask the court\'s permission to file some exhibits completely under seal. A minor\'s name of the petitions should be replaced with initials.
A person making a redacted filing can file an unredacted copy under seal, or the Court can choose to order later that an additional filing be made under seal without redaction. Copies of both redacted and unredacted documents filed with court should be provided to the other parties in the case. Some courts also require that an additional electronic courtesy copy be emailed to the other parties.
### Attorney fees {#attorney_fees}
Before filing the complaint, it is important for plaintiff(s) to remember that Federal courts can impose liability for the prevailing party\'s attorney fees to the losing party, if the judge considers the case frivolous or for purposes of harassment, even when the case was voluntarily dismissed. In the case of *Fox v. Vice*, the U.S. Supreme Court held that reasonable attorneys\' fees could be awarded to the defendant under 42 U.S.C. Sec. 1988, but only for costs that the defendant would not have incurred \"but for the frivolous claims.\" Even when there is no actual trial or judgment, if there is only pre-trial motion practice such as motions to dismiss, attorney fee shifting still can be awarded under FRCP Rule 11 when the opposing party files a Motion for Sanctions and the court issue an order identifying the sanctioned conduct and the basis for the sanction. The losing party has a right to appeal any order for sanctions in the higher court. In the state courts, each party is generally responsible only for its own attorney fees, with certain exceptions.
## England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In 1883, the Rules of the Supreme Court replaced the term *complaint* with *statement of claim*. This was then replaced in 1998 with *particulars of claim* by the Civil Procedure Rules, which also replaced the word *plaintiff* with *claimant* as part of a drastic reform of English legal terminology. Thus, in England and Wales, a claimant now initiates a claim by filing a claim form (instead of a writ of summons), and either pleads particulars of claim on the claim form itself or as a separate document.
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Chastity
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**Chastity**, also known as **purity**, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is *chaste* refrains from sexual activity that is considered immoral or from any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when making a vow of chastity, chastity means celibacy.
## Etymology
The words *chaste* and *chastity* stem from the Latin adjective *castus* (\"cut off\", \"separated\", \"pure\"). The words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century. *Chaste* meant \"virtuous\", \"pure from unlawful sexual intercourse\" or (from the early 14th century on) as a noun, a virgin, while *chastity* meant \"(sexual) purity\".
Thomas Aquinas links *castus* (chastity) to the Latin verb *castigo* (\"chastise, reprimand, correct\"), with a reference to Aristotle\'s *Nicomachean Ethics*: \"Chastity takes its name from the fact that reason \'chastises\' concupiscence, which, like a child, needs curbing, as the Philosopher states\".
## In Abrahamic religions {#in_abrahamic_religions}
For many Jews, Christians, and Muslims, people should restrict their acts of a sexual nature to the context of marriage. For unmarried people, chastity is equivalent to sexual abstinence. Sexual acts outside of or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication, masturbation, and prostitution, are considered immoral due to lust. `{{incomplete|chastity in Judaism|date=November 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
### Christianity
`{{Redirect|Vow of chastity|vow of chastity as part of public vows|Religious vows}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Traditions
In many Christian traditions, chastity is synonymous with purity. The Catholic Church teaches that chastity involves, in the words of cardinal bishop Alfonso López Trujillo, \"the successful integration of sexuality within the person and thus the inner unity of man in his bodily and spiritual being\", which according to one\'s marital status requires either having no sexual relationship, or only having sexual relations with one\'s spouse. In Western Christian morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. The moderation of sexual desires is also required to be virtuous. Reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good.
As an emblem of inward chastity, some Christians choose to wear a cord, girdle or a cincture of one of the several Confraternities of the Cord or a purity ring. The cord is worn as a symbol of chastity in honour of a chaste saint whom the bearer asks for intercession. The purity ring is worn before holy matrimony by those who marry or for the rest of their lives by those who stay single.
#### Marital chastity {#marital_chastity}
In marriage, the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship that excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. A third form of chastity, often called \"vidual chastity\", is expected by the society for a period after the woman\'s husband dies. For example, Anglican Bishop Jeremy Taylor defined five rules in *Holy Living* (1650), including abstaining from marrying \"so long as she is with child by her former husband\" and \"within the year of mourning\".
#### Celibacy
In the Roman Catholic Church, members of the consecrated life vow or promise celibacy as one of the evangelical counsels. In 306, the Synod of Elvira proscribed clergy from marrying. This was unevenly enforced until the Second Lateran Council in 1139 when it found its way into canon law. Unmarried deacons promise celibacy to their local bishop when ordained.
Eastern Catholic priests are permitted to marry, provided they do so before ordination and outside monastic life.
#### Vows of chastity {#vows_of_chastity}
*Vows of chastity* can be taken either as part of an organised religious life (such as Roman Catholic Beguines and Beghards in the past) or on an individual basis: as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle (often devoted to contemplation), or both. Some Protestant religious communities, such as the Bruderhof, take vows of chastity as part of the church membership process.
#### Teaching by denomination {#teaching_by_denomination}
##### Catholicism
Chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic praxis. Roman Catholic teaching regards chastity as essential in maintaining and cultivating the unity of body with spirit and thus the integrity of the human being. It is also fundamental to the practise of the Catholic life because it involves an *apprenticeship in self-mastery*. By attaining mastery over one\'s passions, reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good.
##### Lutheranism
The theology of the body of the Lutheran Churches emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit, who sanctified the bodies of Christians to be God\'s temple.
Many Lutheran monks and Lutheran nuns practice celibacy, though in some Lutheran religious orders it is not compulsory.
##### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints {#the_church_of_jesus_christ_of_latter_day_saints}
In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints chastity is very important:
> Physical intimacy between husband and wife is a beautiful and sacred part of God\'s plan for His children. It is an expression of love within marriage and allows husband and wife to participate in the creation of life. God has commanded that this sacred power be expressed only between a man and a woman who are legally married. The law of chastity applies to both men and women. It includes strict abstinence from sexual relations before marriage and complete fidelity and loyalty to one\'s spouse after marriage.
>
> The law of chastity requires that sexual relations be reserved for marriage between a man and a woman.
>
> In addition to reserving sexual intimacy for marriage, we obey the law of chastity by controlling our thoughts, words, and actions. Jesus Christ taught, \"Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart\" (`{{bibleverse|Matthew|5:27–28}}`{=mediawiki}).\"
Teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints also include that sexual expression within marriage is an important dimension of spousal bonding apart from, but not necessarily avoiding, its procreative result.
### Islam
#### Quran
The most famous personal example of chastity in the Quran is the Virgin Mary (Mariam):
Extramarital sex is forbidden. The Quran says:
In a list of commendable deeds the Quran says:
Because the sex desire is usually attained before a man is financially capable of marriage, the love to God and mindfulness of Him should be sufficient motive for chastity:
#### Sharia (Law) {#sharia_law}
Chastity is mandatory in Islam. Sex outside legitimacy is prohibited, for both men and women, whether married or unmarried. The injunctions and forbiddings in Islam apply equally to men and women. The legal punishment for adultery is equal for men and women.
The prophet\'s prescription to the youth was: `{{Blockquote|text="O young people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast, as fasting diminishes his sexual power."|author={{Href|bukhari|5066|b=yl}}}}`{=mediawiki}
Chastity is an attitude and a way of life. In Islam it is both a personal and a social value. A Muslim society should not condone relations entailing or conducive to sexual license. Social patterns and practices calculated to inflame sexual desire are frowned upon by Islam, such incitements to immorality including permissive ideologies, titillating works of art, and the failure to inculcate sound moral principles in the young. At the heart of such a view of human sexuality lies the conviction that the notion of personal freedom should never be misconstrued as the freedom to flout God\'s laws by overstepping the bounds which, in his infinite wisdom, he has set upon the relations of the sexes.
### Baháʼí Faith {#baháʼí_faith}
Chastity is highly prized in the Baháʼí Faith. Similar to other Abrahamic religions, Baháʼí teachings call for the restriction of sexual activity to that between a wife and husband in Baháʼí marriage, and discourage members from using pornography or engaging in sexually explicit recreational activities. The concept of chastity is extended to include avoidance of alcohol and mind-altering drugs, profanity, and gaudy or immodest attire.
## In Eastern religions {#in_eastern_religions}
### Hinduism
Hinduism\'s view on premarital sex is rooted in its concept of `{{transliteration|sa|[[Ashrama (stage)|ashrama]]}}`{=mediawiki} or the stages of life. The first of these stages, known as `{{transliteration|sa|[[brahmacharya]]}}`{=mediawiki}, roughly translates as chastity. Celibacy and chastity are considered the appropriate behavior for both male and female students during this stage, which precedes the stage of the married householder (`{{transliteration|sa|[[grihastha]]}}`{=mediawiki}). `{{transliteration|sa|[[Sanyasa|Sanyasis]]}}`{=mediawiki} and Hindu monks or `{{transliteration|sa|[[sadhu]]s}}`{=mediawiki} are also celibate as part of their ascetic discipline.
### Sikhism
In Sikhism, premarital or extramarital sex is strictly forbidden. However, it is encouraged to marry and live as a family unit to provide and nurture children for the perpetual benefit of creation (as opposed to `{{transliteration|sa|[[sannyasa]]}}`{=mediawiki} or living as a monk, which was, and remains, a common spiritual practice in India). A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse, beggar, monk, nun, celibate, or in any similar vein.
### Jainism
The Jain ethical code contains the vow of `{{transliteration|sa|[[brahmacarya]]}}`{=mediawiki} (meaning \"pure conduct\"), which prescribes the expectations for Jains concerning sexual activity. `{{transliteration|sa|Brahmacarya}}`{=mediawiki} is one of the five major and minor vows of Jainism, prescribing slightly different expectations for ascetics and laypeople, respectively.
Complete celibacy is expected only of Jain ascetics (who are also referred to as monks and nuns). For laypeople, chastity is expected, with extramarital sex and adultery being prohibited.
### Buddhism
The teachings of Buddhism include the Noble Eightfold Path, comprising a division called right action. Under the Five Precepts ethical code, `{{transliteration|sa|upāsaka}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|sa|upāsikā}}`{=mediawiki} lay followers should abstain from sexual misconduct, while `{{transliteration|sa|[[bhikkhu]]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|sa|[[bhikkhuni]]}}`{=mediawiki} monastics should practice strict chastity.
### Taoism
The Five Precepts of the Taoist religion include \"no sexual misconduct\", which is interpreted as prohibiting extramarital sex for lay practitioners and marriage or sexual intercourse for monks and nuns.
## Government
In Iran, women are required to wear hijabs as part of that society\'s efforts to enforce chastity. In 2023 the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance announced a new bill titled the Protection of the Culture of Chastity and Hijab Law, expanding its former sections from 15 to 70.
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Comparative law
|
**Comparative law** is the study of differences and similarities between the law and legal systems of different countries. More specifically, it involves the study of the different legal systems (or \"families\") in existence around the world, including common law, civil law, socialist law, Canon law, Jewish Law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Chinese law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism and economic globalization.
## History
The origins of modern comparative law can be traced back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1667 in his Latin-language book *Nova Methodus Discendae Docendaeque Iurisprudentiae* (New Methods of Studying and Teaching Jurisprudence). Chapter 7 (Presentation of Law as the Project for all Nations, Lands and Times) introduces the idea of classifying Legal Systems into several families. A few years later, Leibniz introduced an idea of Language families.
Although every legal system is unique, comparative law through studies of their similarities and differences allows for classification of legal systems, wherein law families is the basic level of the classification. The main differences between law families are found in the source(s) of law, the role of court precedents, the origin and development of the legal system. Montesquieu is generally regarded as an early founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the following excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, *De l\'esprit des lois* (1748; first translated by Thomas Nugent, 1750):`{{blockquote|[T]he political and civil laws of each nation ... should be adapted in such a manner to the people for whom they are framed that it should be a great chance if those of one nation suit another.
They should be in relation to the nature and principle of each government: whether they form it, as may be said of politic laws; or whether they support it, as in the case of civil institutions.
They should be in relation to the climate of each country, to the quality of its soil, to its situation and extent, to the principal occupation of the natives, whether husbandmen, huntsmen, or shepherds: they should have relation to the degree of liberty which the constitution will bear; to the religion of the inhabitants, to their inclinations, riches, numbers, commerce, manners, and customs.}}`{=mediawiki}
Also, in Chapter XI (entitled \'How to compare two different Systems of Laws\') of Book XXIX, discussing the French and English systems for punishment of false witnesses, he advises that \"to determine which of those systems is most agreeable to reason, we must take them each as a whole and compare them in their entirety.\" Yet another place where Montesquieu\'s comparative approach is evident is the following, from Chapter XIII of Book XXIX:
`{{blockquote|As the civil laws depend on the political institutions, because they are made for the same society, whenever there is a design of adopting the civil law of another nation, it would be proper to examine beforehand whether they have both the same institutions and the same political law.}}`{=mediawiki}
The modern founding figure of comparative and anthropological jurisprudence was Sir Henry Maine, a British jurist and legal historian. In his 1861 work *Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas*, he set out his views on the development of legal institutions in primitive societies and engaged in a comparative discussion of Eastern and Western legal traditions. This work placed comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential.
The first university course on the subject was established at the University of Oxford in 1869, with Maine taking up the position of professor.
Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in Germany, Rudolf Schlesinger. Schlesinger eventually became professor of comparative law at Cornell Law School helping to spread the discipline throughout the US.
## Purpose
Comparative law is an academic discipline that involves the study of legal systems, including their constitutive elements and how they differ, and how their elements combine into a system.
Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, including comparative constitutional law, comparative administrative law, comparative civil law (in the sense of the law of torts, contracts, property and obligations), comparative commercial law (in the sense of business organisations and trade), and comparative criminal law. Studies of these specific areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal analysis, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries. The purposes of comparative law are:
- To attain a deeper knowledge of the legal systems in effect
- To perfect the legal systems in effect
- Possibly, to contribute to a unification of legal systems, of a smaller or larger scale (cf. for instance, the UNIDROIT initiative)
## Relationship with other legal subjects {#relationship_with_other_legal_subjects}
Comparative law is different from general jurisprudence (i.e. legal theory) and from public and private international law. However, it helps inform all of these areas of normativity.
For example, comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the United Nations System, in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations. Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application. Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of legal transplants, i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of legal transplants was coined by Alan Watson, one of the world\'s renowned legal scholars specializing in comparative law. Gunther Teubner expanded the notion of legal transplantation to include *legal irritation*: Rather than smoothly integrating into domestic legal systems, a foreign rule disrupts established norms and societal arrangements. This disruption sparks an evolution where the external rule\'s meaning is redefined and where significant transformations within the internal context are triggered. Lasse Schuldt added that irritation is not spontaneous, but requires institutional drivers.
Also, the usefulness of comparative law for sociology of law and law and economics (and vice versa) is very large. The comparative study of the various legal systems may show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice. Conversely, sociology of law and law & economics may help comparative law answer questions, such as:
- How do regulations in different legal systems really function in the respective societies?
- Are legal rules comparable?
- How do the similarities and differences between legal systems get explained?
## Classifications of legal systems {#classifications_of_legal_systems}
### David
René David proposed the classification of legal systems, according to the different ideology inspiring each one, into five groups or families:
- Western laws, a group subdivided into the:
- Civil law subgroup (whose jurisprudence is based on post-classical Roman Law)
- Common law subgroup (originating in English law)
- Soviet Law
- Muslim Law
- Hindu Law
- Chinese Law
- Jewish Law
Especially with respect to the aggregating by David of the Civil and Common laws into a single family, David argued that the antithesis between the Common law and Civil law systems, is of a technical rather than of an ideological nature. Of a different kind is, for instance, the antithesis between, say, Italian and American laws, and of a different kind than between the Soviet, Muslim, Hindu, or Chinese laws. According to David, the Civil law legal systems included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman law, whereas Common law countries are those dominated by judge-made law. The characteristics that he believed uniquely differentiate the Western legal family from the other four are:
- liberal democracy
- capitalist economy
- Christian religion
### Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff {#arminjon_nolde_and_wolff}
Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff believed that, for purposes of classifying the (then) contemporary legal systems of the world, it was required that those systems *per se* get studied, irrespective of external factors, such as geographical ones. They proposed the classification of legal system into seven groups, or so-called \'families\', in particular the:
- French group, under which they also included the countries that codified their law either in 19th or in the first half of the 20th century, using the Napoleonic *code civil* of year 1804 as a model; this includes countries and jurisdictions such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Louisiana, various South American states such as Brazil, Quebec, Saint Lucia, the Ionian Islands, Egypt, and Lebanon
- German group
- Scandinavian group, comprising the laws of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland
- English group, including, *inter alia*, England, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
- Russian group
- Islamic group (used in the Muslim world)
- Hindu group
### Zweigert and Kötz {#zweigert_and_kötz}
Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz propose a different, multidimensional methodology for categorizing laws, i.e. for ordering families of laws. They maintain that, to determine such families, five criteria should be taken into account, in particular: the historical background, the characteristic way of thought, the different institutions, the recognized sources of law, and the dominant ideology. Using the aforementioned criteria, they classify the legal systems of the world into six families:
- Roman family
- German family
- Common law family
- Nordic family
- Family of the laws of the Far East (China and Japan)
- Religious family (Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu law)
Up to the second German edition of their introduction to comparative law, Zweigert and Kötz also used to mention Soviet or socialist law as another family of laws.
### Glenn
H. Patrick Glenn proposed the classification of legal systems places national laws in the broader context of major legal tradition:
- Chthonic (or indigenous) law
- Talmudic law
- Islamic law
- Hindu law
- Confucianism law
- Civil law
- Common law
## Professional associations {#professional_associations}
- American Association of Law Libraries
- American Society of Comparative Law
- International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace
- International Association of Procedural Law
- International Law Association
## Comparative law periodicals {#comparative_law_periodicals}
- *American Journal of Comparative Law*
- *German Law Journal*
- *Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law*
- [*The Journal of Comparative Law*](http://www.wildy.com/isbn/1477-0814/journal-of-comparative-law-annual-subscription)
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Cyberspace
|
`{{Cyborg}}`{=mediawiki} **Cyberspace** is an interconnected digital environment.`{{dubious|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki} It is a type of virtual world`{{dubious|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki} popularized with the rise of the Internet. The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, governments, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs. The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term *cyberspace* was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging. As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. Cyberspace users are sometimes referred to as ***cybernauts***.
The term *cyberspace* has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with general computing, the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The U.S. government recognizes the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures and cyber-physical systems operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics. Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically when opinions are involved with online social experiences.
According to Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation. In their view, the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people; the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other. They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness, complexity, and depth within a virtual world.
## Etymology
The term *cyberspace* first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s, when Danish artist Susanne Ussing (1940--1998) and her partner architect Carsten Hoff (b. 1934) constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace. Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled \"sensory spaces\" that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences, such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials.
Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off-limit to artists and creative engagement. In a 2015 interview with Scandinavian art magazine *Kunstkritikk*, Carsten Hoff recollects that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers, they had no interest in the virtual space as such:
In the same interview, Hoff continues:
The works of Atelier Cyberspace were originally shown at a number of Copenhagen venues and have later been exhibited at The National Gallery of Denmark in Copenhagen as part of the exhibition \"What\'s Happening?\"
The term *cyberspace* first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson, first in his 1982 short story \"Burning Chrome\" and later in his 1984 novel *Neuromancer*. In the next few years, the word became prominently identified with online computer networks. The portion of *Neuromancer* cited in this respect is usually the following:
Now widely used, the term has since been criticized by Gibson, who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary *No Maps for These Territories*:
### Metaphorical
Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace, describing the \"sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication \... it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks.\" The term *cyberspace* started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning, credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to \"the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks\". Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June 1990:
As Barlow and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of \"digital rights\", the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s.
### Virtual environments {#virtual_environments}
Although in the present-day, loose use of the term *cyberspace* no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality, current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers) sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location. It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven.
In 1989, Autodesk, an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software, developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace.
### Recent definitions of Cyberspace {#recent_definitions_of_cyberspace}
Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources, there is no fully agreed official definition yet. According to F. D. Kramer ,there are 28 different definitions of the term *cyberspace*.
The most recent draft definition is the following:
The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains, the remaining four being land, air, maritime, and space. *See United States Cyber Command*
## Cyberspace as an Internet metaphor {#cyberspace_as_an_internet_metaphor}
While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to \"exist in cyberspace\". According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but \"in cyberspace\". The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term *heterotopias* to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental.
Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not \"real\"`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}and clearly \"real\" in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity are enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between \"online\" and \"offline\" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the \"real\" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool, but a social destination, and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through \"hidden\" identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture.
The \"space\" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space, for example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as web servers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere \"out there.\" The concept of cyberspace, therefore, refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.
Video games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical.
Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current `{{as of|2006|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}.
Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspace`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}for example, Linden Lab calling their customers \"Residents\" of Second Life`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}while all such communities can be positioned \"in cyberspace\" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in *The Hacker Crackdown*, followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture.
The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD). The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network.
## Alternate realities in philosophy and art {#alternate_realities_in_philosophy_and_art}
### Predating computers {#predating_computers}
A forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes\'s ideas as their starting point.
Visual arts have a tradition, stretching back to antiquity, of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality. This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologians to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see *Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat*), and immersive computer simulations.
### Influenced by computers {#influenced_by_computers}
#### Philosophy
American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged) and Timothy Leary were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment.
Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (e.g. David Deutsch in *The Fabric of Reality*) employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example, Philip Zhai in *Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality* connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition:
Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the \"real world\".
### Cyber-Geography {#cyber_geography}
The "Geography of Notopia" (Papadimitriou, 2006) theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber-cultures and the geographical space. This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets (Papadimitriou, 2009).
#### A New Communication Model {#a_new_communication_model}
The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices. In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships. Forwards, arise instant ways of communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to \"connect\" people from different cultures outside the virtual space, which was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other\'s beliefs, customs, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem). In this sense, Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira created, in 2013, a new model of communication to the virtual universe, based in Claude Elwood Shannon (1948) article \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\".
#### Art
Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, \"cyberspace\" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted.
#### Computer crime {#computer_crime}
Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent.
#### 5-level model {#level_model}
In 2010, a five-level model was designed in France. According to this model, cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries: 1) language, 2) writing, 3) printing, 4) Internet, 5) Etc., i.e. the rest, e.g. noosphere, artificial life, artificial intelligence, etc., etc. This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies.
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Cyril of Jerusalem
|
**Cyril of Jerusalem** (*Κύριλλος Α΄ Ἱεροσολύμων*, *Kýrillos A Ierosolýmon*; *Cyrillus Hierosolymitanus*; c. 313 `{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki} 386) was a theologian of the Early Church. About the end of AD 350, he succeeded Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem, but was exiled on more than one occasion due to the enmity of Acacius of Caesarea, and the policies of various emperors. Cyril left important writings documenting the instruction of catechumens and the order of the Liturgy in his day.
Cyril is venerated as a saint within the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. In 1883, Cyril was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII.
The Roman Catholic Church maintains an Optional Memorial for Cyril on 18 March. Cyril is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 18 March. He should not be confused with Cyril of Alexandria.
## Life and character {#life_and_character}
Little is known of his life before he became a bishop; the assignment of his birth to the year 315 rests on conjecture. According to Butler, Cyril was born at or near the city of Jerusalem and was well-read in both the writings of the early Christian theologians and the Greek philosophers.
Cyril was ordained a deacon by Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem in about 335 AD and a priest some eight years later by Bishop Maximus. Around the end of 350 AD, he succeeded Maximus in the See of Jerusalem, although the evidence for this relies on the *Catecheses* written by Cyril where he refers to himself as \"bishop\". Jerome also suggests Cyril was an Arian at this stage.
Cyril is described as a preacher and liturgist by the pilgrim Egeria.
## Episcopacy
Relations between Metropolitan Acacius of Caesarea and Cyril became strained. Acacius is presented as a leading Arian by the orthodox historians, and his opposition to Cyril in the 350s is attributed by these writers to this. Sozomen also suggests that the tension may have been increased by Acacius\'s jealousy of the importance assigned to Cyril\'s See by the Council of Nicaea, as well as by the threat posed to Caesarea by the rising influence of the seat of Jerusalem as it developed into the prime Christian holy place and became a centre of pilgrimage.
Acacius charged Cyril with selling church property. The city of Jerusalem had suffered drastic food shortages at which point church historians Sozomen and Theodoret report \"Cyril secretly sold sacramental ornaments of the church and a valuable holy robe, fashioned with gold thread that the emperor Constantine had once donated for the bishop to wear when he performed the rite of Baptism\", possibly to keep people from starving.
For two years, Cyril resisted Acacius\' summons to account for his actions, but a church council held under Acacius\'s influence in 357 AD deposed Cyril in his absence, and Cyril took refuge with Silvanus, Bishop of Tarsus. The following year, 359 AD, in an atmosphere more hostile to Acacius, the Council of Seleucia reinstated Cyril and deposed Acacius. In 360 AD, this was reversed by Emperor Constantius again, and Cyril suffered another year\'s exile from Jerusalem until the Emperor Julian\'s accession allowed him to return in 361.
Cyril was once again banished from Jerusalem by the Arian Emperor Valens in 367 AD but was able to return again after Valens\'s death in 378 AD, after which he remained undisturbed until his death in 386. In 380 AD, Gregory of Nyssa came to Jerusalem on the recommendation of a council held at Antioch in the preceding year. He seemingly found the faith in good shape, but worried that the city was prey to parties and corrupt in morals. Cyril\'s jurisdiction over Jerusalem was expressly confirmed by the First Council of Constantinople (381), at which he was present. At that council he voted for acceptance of the term *homoousios* (which defined the nature between \"God the Father\", and \"God the Son\"), having been finally convinced that there was no better alternative. His story is perhaps best representative of those Eastern bishops (perhaps a majority) initially mistrustful of Nicaea, who came to accept the creed of that council, and the doctrine of the *homoousion*.
## Theological position {#theological_position}
Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene Orthodoxy. Even if he did avoid the debatable term *homoousios*, he expressed its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and the formula \"there was a time when the Son was not\" attributed to Arius. In other points he takes the ordinary ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis he lies on the freedom of the will, the *autexousion* (αὐτεξούσιον), and in his view of the nature of sin. To him sin is the consequence of freedom, not a natural condition. The body is not the cause, but the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the Eastern Fathers, he focuses on high moral living as essential to true Christianity. His doctrine of the Resurrection is not quite so realistic as that of other Fathers; but his conception of the Church is decidedly empirical: the existing Church form is the true one, intended by Christ, the completion of the Church of the Old Testament. His interpretation of the Eucharist is disputed. Some argue he sometimes seems to approach the symbolic view, though he professes a strong realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ.
Cyril\'s writings are filled with the loving and forgiving nature of God which was somewhat uncommon during his time period. Cyril fills his writings with great lines of the healing power of forgiveness and the Holy Spirit, like \"The Spirit comes gently and makes himself known by his fragrance. He is not felt as a burden for God is light, very light. Rays of light and knowledge stream before him as the Spirit approaches. The Spirit comes with the tenderness of a true friend to save, to heal, to teach, to counsel, to strengthen and to console\". Cyril himself followed God\'s message of forgiveness many times throughout his life. This is most clearly seen in his two major exiles where Cyril was disgraced and forced to leave his position and his people behind. He never wrote or showed any ill will towards those who wronged him. Cyril stressed the themes of healing and regeneration in his catechesis.
## Catechetical lectures {#catechetical_lectures}
Cyril\'s famous twenty-three lectures given to catechumens in Jerusalem being prepared for, and after, baptism are best considered in two parts: the first eighteen lectures are commonly known as the *Catechetical Lectures*, *Catechetical Orations* or *Catechetical Homilies*, while the final five are often called the *Mystagogic Catecheses* (μυσταγωγικαί), because they deal with the *mysteries* (μυστήρια) i.e. Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist.
His catechetical lectures (Greek Κατηχήσεις, *Katēchēseis*) are generally assumed, on the basis of limited evidence, to have been delivered either in Cyril\'s early years as a bishop, around 350 AD, or perhaps in 348 AD, while Cyril was still a priest, deputising for his bishop, Maximus. The *Catechetical Lectures* were given in the *Martyrion*, the basilica erected by Constantine. They contain instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practice, in a popular rather than scientific manner, full of a warm pastoral love and care for the catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout. In the *Catechetical Lectures*, parallel with the exposition of the Creed as it was then received in the Church of Jerusalem are vigorous polemics against pagan, Jewish, and heretical errors. They are of great importance for the light which they throw upon the method of instruction usual of that age, as well as upon the liturgical practises of the period, of which they give the fullest account extant.
> It is not only among us, who are marked with the name of Christ, that the dignity of faith is great; all the business of the world, even of those outside the Church, is accomplished by faith. By faith, marriage laws join in union persons who were strangers to one another. By faith, agriculture is sustained; for a man does not endure the toil involved unless he believes he will reap a harvest. By faith, seafaring men, entrusting themselves to a tiny wooden craft, exchange the solid element of the land for the unstable motion of the waves.\"
In the 13th lecture, Cyril of Jerusalem discusses the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus. The main themes that Cyril focuses on in these lectures are Original sin and Jesus\' sacrificing himself to save us from our sins. Also, the burial and Resurrection which occurred three days later proving the divinity of Jesus Christ and the loving nature of the Father. Cyril was very adamant about the fact that Jesus went to his death with full knowledge and willingness. Not only did he go willingly but throughout the process he maintained his faith and forgave all those who betrayed him and engaged in his execution. Cyril writes \"who did not sin, neither was deceit found in his mouth, who, when he was reviled, did not revile, when he suffered did not threaten\". This line by Cyril shows his belief in the selflessness of Jesus especially in this last final act of Love. The lecture also gives a sort of insight to what Jesus may have been feeling during the execution from the whippings and beatings, to the crown of thorns, to the nailing on the cross. Cyril intertwines the story with the messages Jesus told throughout his life before his execution relating to his final act. For example, Cyril writes \"I gave my back to those who beat me and my cheeks to blows; and my face I did not shield from the shame of spitting\". This clearly reflects the teachings of Jesus to turn the other cheek and not raising your hands against violence because violence just begets violence begets violence. The segment of the Catechesis really reflects the voice Cyril maintained in all of his writing. The writings always have the central message of the Bible; Cyril is not trying to add his own beliefs in reference to religious interpretation and remains grounded in true biblical teachings.
Danielou sees the baptism rite as carrying eschatological overtones, in that \"to inscribe for baptism is to write one\'s name in the register of the elect in heaven\".
## Eschatology
Oded Irshai observed that Cyril lived in a time of intense apocalyptic expectation, when Christians were eager to find apocalyptic meaning in every historical event or natural disaster. Cyril spent a good part of his episcopacy in intermittent exile from Jerusalem. Abraham Malherbe argued that when a leader\'s control over a community is fragile, directing attention to the imminent arrival of the antichrist effectively diverts attention from that fragility.
Soon after his appointment, Cyril in his *Letter to Constantius* of 351 AD recorded the appearance of a cross of light in the sky above Golgotha, witnessed by the whole population of Jerusalem. The Greek church commemorates this miracle on 7 May. Though in modern times the authenticity of the *Letter* has been questioned, on the grounds that the word *homoousios* occurs in the final blessing, many scholars believe this may be a later interpolation, and accept the letter\'s authenticity on the grounds of other pieces of internal evidence.
Cyril interpreted this as both a sign of support for Constantius, who was soon to face the usurper Magnentius, and as announcing the Second Coming, which was soon to take place in Jerusalem. Not surprisingly, in Cyril\'s eschatological analysis, Jerusalem holds a central position.
Matthew 24:6 speaks of \"wars and reports of wars\", as a sign of the End Times, and it is within this context that Cyril read Julian\'s war with the Persians. Matthew 24:7 speaks of \"earthquakes from place to place\", and Jerusalem experienced an earthquake in 363 at a time when Julian was attempting to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. Embroiled in a rivalry with Acacius of Caesarea over the relative primacy of their respective sees, Cyril saw even ecclesial discord a sign of the Lord\'s coming. Catechesis 15 would appear to cast Julian as the antichrist, although Irshai views this as a later interpolation.
\"In His first coming, He endured the Cross, despising shame; in His second, He comes attended by a host of Angels, receiving glory. We rest not then upon His first advent only, but look also for His second.\" He looked forward to the Second Advent which would bring an end to the world and then the created world to be made anew. At the Second Advent he expected to rise in the resurrection if it came after his time on earth.
## *Mystagogic Catecheses* {#mystagogic_catecheses}
There has been considerable controversy over the date and authorship of the *Mystagogic Catecheses*, addressed to the newly baptized, in preparation for the reception of Holy Communion, with some scholars having attributed them to Cyril\'s successor as Bishop of Jerusalem, John. Many scholars would currently view the *Mystagogic Catecheses* as being written by Cyril, but in the 370s or 380s, rather than at the same time as the *Catechetical Lectures*.
According to the Spanish pilgrim Egeria, these *mystagogical catecheses* were given to the newly baptised in the Church of the *Anastasis* in the course of Easter Week.
## Works
### Editions
- W. C. Reischl, J. Rupp (1848; 1860). *Cyrilli Hierosolymarum Archiepiscopi opera quae supersunt omnia.* München.
- Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff (1999). *The Catechism of Cyril of Jerusalem in the Christian Palestinian Aramaic Version, A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic*, vol. V. Groningen: STYX-Publications. `{{ISBN|90-5693-030-3}}`{=mediawiki}
- Christa Müller-Kessler (2021). *Neue Fragmente zu den Katechesen des Cyrill von Jerusalem im Codex Sinaiticus rescriptusi (Georg. NF 19, 71) mit einem zweiten Textzeugen (Syr. NF 11) aus dem Fundus des St. Katherinenklosters*, *Oriens Christianus* 104, pp. 23--66. `{{ISBN|9783447181358}}`{=mediawiki}
### Modern translations {#modern_translations}
-
- McCauley, Leo P. and Anthony A. Stephenson, (1969, 1970). *The works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem*. 2 vols. Washington: Catholic University of America Press \[contains an introduction, and English translations of: Vol 1: *The introductory lecture* (Procatechesis). *Lenten lectures* (Catecheses). Vol 2: *Lenten lectures* (Katēchēseis). *Mystagogical lectures* (Katēchēseis mystagōgikai). *Sermon on the paralytic* (Homilia eis ton paralytikon ton epi tēn Kolymbēthran). *Letter to Constantius* (Epistolē pros Kōnstantion). Fragments.\]
- Telfer, W. (1955). *Cyril of Jerusalem and Nemesius of Emesa*. The Library of Christian classics, v. 4. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
- Yarnold, E. (2000). *Cyril of Jerusalem. The early church fathers*. London: Routledge. \[provides an introduction, and full English translations of the *Letter to Constantius*, the *Homily on the Paralytic*, the *Procatechesis*, and the *Mystagogic Catechesis*, as well as selections from the Lenten *Catecheses*.\]
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
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