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Antipope Felix II
|
**Antipope Felix II**, an Archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.
## Biography
In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.
This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a \"distortion of the true facts\" and suggested that it arose because the \"Liber Pontificalis\", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried. However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.
The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that \"the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July.\" At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: `{{quote|At Rome, on the Aurelian Way, St. Felix II, pope and martyr. Being expelled from his See by the Arian emperor Constantius for defending the Catholic faith, and being put to the sword privately at Cera in Tuscany, he died gloriously. His body was taken away from that place by clerics, and buried on the Aurelian Way. It was afterwards brought to the Church of the Saints Cosmas and Damian, where, under the Sovereign Pontiff [[Gregory XIII]], it was found beneath the altar with the relics of the holy martyrs [[Mark and Marcellian|Mark, Marcellian, and Tranquillinus]], and with the latter was put back in the same place on 31 July. In the same altar were also found the bodies of the holy martyrs Abundius, a priest, and Abundantius, a deacon, which were shortly after solemnly transferred to the church of the Society of Jesus, on the eve of their feast.}}`{=mediawiki} This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology have instead: `{{quote|At Rome, at the third milestone on the Via Portuensis, in the cemetery dedicated to his name, Saint Felix, martyr.}}`{=mediawiki}
The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July. The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr\'s, occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century.
As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition, does not appear in the 1962 typical edition. To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral \"II\" and the word \"Papae\", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope \"himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on \[29 July\]\".
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,341 |
Alkaloid
|
**Alkaloids** are a broad class of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction, or solvent extractions followed by silica-gel column chromatography. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine), cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine), antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. berberine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste.
The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. Most alkaloids are basic, although some have neutral and even weakly acidic properties. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen or sulfur. Rarer still, they may contain elements such as phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids.`{{r|GoldBook}}`{=mediawiki} Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines.
## Naming
The name \"alkaloids\" (*links=no*) was introduced in 1819 by German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meissner, and is derived from late Latin root *alkali* and the Greek-language suffix *-οειδής* -(\'like\'). However, the term came into wide use only after the publication of a review article, by Oscar Jacobsen in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.
There is no unique method for naming alkaloids. Many individual names are formed by adding the suffix \"ine\" to the species or genus name. For example, atropine is isolated from the plant *Atropa belladonna*; strychnine is obtained from the seed of the Strychnine tree (*Strychnos nux-vomica* L.). Where several alkaloids are extracted from one plant their names are often distinguished by variations in the suffix: \"idine\", \"anine\", \"aline\", \"inine\" etc. There are also at least 86 alkaloids whose names contain the root \"vin\" because they are extracted from *vinca* plants such as *Vinca rosea* (*Catharanthus roseus*); these are called *vinca* alkaloids.
## History
Alkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in Mesopotamia from about 2000 BC. The *Odyssey* of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug. A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st--3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of ephedra and opium poppies. Also, coca leaves have been used by Indigenous South Americans since ancient times.
Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows.
Studies of alkaloids began in the 19th century. In 1804, the German chemist Friedrich Sertürner isolated from opium a \"soporific principle\" (*links=no*), which he called \"morphium\", referring to Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; in German and some other Central-European languages, this is still the name of the drug. The term \"morphine\", used in English and French, was given by the French physicist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.
A significant contribution to the chemistry of alkaloids in the early years of its development was made by the French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, who discovered quinine (1820) and strychnine (1818). Several other alkaloids were discovered around that time, including xanthine (1817), atropine (1819), caffeine (1820), coniine (1827), nicotine (1828), colchicine (1833), sparteine (1851), and cocaine (1860). The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had been identified.
The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium.
## Classifications
Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are characterized by a great structural diversity. There is no uniform classification. Initially, when knowledge of chemical structures was lacking, botanical classification of the source plants was relied on. This classification is now considered obsolete.
More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (*e.g.*, indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biochemical precursor (ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.). However, they require compromises in borderline cases; for example, nicotine contains a pyridine fragment from nicotinamide and a pyrrolidine part from ornithine and therefore can be assigned to both classes.
Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:
1. \"True alkaloids\" contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids.\<ref
name=\"ref21\"\>Plemenkov, p. 223
Their characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides the nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (*e.g.*, evonine) or peptide fragments (*e.g.* ergotamine). The piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine may be regarded as true alkaloids (rather than pseudoalkaloids: see below) although they do not originate from amino acids.
1. \"Protoalkaloids\", which contain nitrogen (but not the nitrogen heterocycle) and also originate from amino acids. Examples include mescaline, adrenaline and ephedrine.
2. Polyamine alkaloids -- derivatives of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine.
3. Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids.
4. Pseudoalkaloids -- alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids. This group includes terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids, as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, theacrine and theophylline. Some authors classify ephedrine and cathinone as pseudoalkaloids. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination.
Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galanthamine and homoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids.
Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Class | Major groups | Main synthesis steps | Examples |
+=================================================================+========================================================================================+================================================================================================================================================================================================+==================================================================================================================+
| *Alkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids)* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pyrrolidine derivatives | | Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ^1^-pyrroline | Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Tropane derivatives | Atropine group\ | Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ^1^-pyrroline | Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine |
| | Substitution in positions 3, 6 or 7 | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Cocaine group\ | Cocaine, ecgonine | | |
| Substitution in positions 2 and 3 | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pyrrolizidine derivatives | Non-esters | In plants: ornithine or arginine → putrescine → homospermidine → retronecine | Retronecine, heliotridine, laburnine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Complex esters of monocarboxylic acids | Indicine, lindelophin, sarracine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Macrocyclic diesters | Platyphylline, trichodesmine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1-aminopyrrolizidines (lolines) | In fungi: L-proline + L-homoserine → *N*-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)proline → norloline | Loline, *N*-formylloline, *N*-acetylloline | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Piperidine derivatives | | Lysine → cadaverine → Δ^1^-piperideine | Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Octanoic acid → coniceine → coniine | Coniine, coniceine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Quinolizidine derivatives | Lupinine group | Lysine → cadaverine → Δ^1^-piperideine | Lupinine, nupharidin |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Cytisine group | Cytisine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sparteine group | Sparteine, lupanine, anahygrine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Matrine group. | Matrine, oxymatrine, allomatridine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ormosanine group | Ormosanine, piptantine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Indolizidine derivatives | | Lysine → δ-semialdehyde of α-aminoadipic acid → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinone | Swainsonine, castanospermine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pyridine derivatives | Simple derivatives of pyridine | Nicotinic acid → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridine | Trigonelline, ricinine, arecoline |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Polycyclic noncondensing pyridine derivatives | Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Polycyclic condensed pyridine derivatives | Actinidine, gentianine, pediculinine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives | Nicotinic acid, isoleucine | Evonine, hippocrateine, triptonine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Isoquinoline derivatives and related alkaloids | Simple derivatives of isoquinoline | Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids Amarillis) | Salsoline, lophocerine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Derivatives of 1- and 3-isoquinolines | N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Derivatives of 1- and 4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines | Cryptostilin | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinoline | Ancistrocladine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Derivatives of 1- and 2-benzyl-izoquinolines | Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Cularine group | Cularine, yagonine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pavines and isopavines | Argemonine, amurensine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Benzopyrrocolines | Cryptaustoline | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Protoberberines | Berberine, canadine, ophiocarpine, mecambridine, corydaline | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Phthalidisoquinolines | Hydrastine, narcotine (Noscapine) | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Spirobenzylisoquinolines | Fumaricine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ipecacuanha alkaloids | Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Benzophenanthridines | Sanguinarine, oxynitidine, corynoloxine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aporphines | Glaucine, coridine, liriodenine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Proaporphines | Pronuciferine, glaziovine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Homoaporphines | Kreysiginine, multifloramine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Homoproaporphines | Bulbocodine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Morphines | Morphine, codeine, thebaine, sinomenine, heroin | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Homomorphines | Kreysiginine, androcymbine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Tropoloisoquinolines | Imerubrine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Azofluoranthenes | Rufescine, imeluteine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Amaryllis alkaloids | Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Erythrina alkaloids | Erysodine, erythroidine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Phenanthrene derivatives | Atherosperminine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Protopines | Protopine, oxomuramine, corycavidine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aristolactam | Doriflavin | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Oxazole derivatives | | Tyrosine → tyramine | Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Isoxazole derivatives | | Ibotenic acid → Muscimol | Ibotenic acid, Muscimol |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Thiazole derivatives | | 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine | Nostocyclamide, thiostreptone |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Quinazoline derivatives | 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives | Anthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithine | Febrifugine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives | Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pyrrolidine and piperidine quinazoline derivatives | Vazicine (peganine) | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Acridine derivatives | | Anthranilic acid | Rutacridone, acronicine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Quinoline derivatives | Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2--quinolones and 4-quinolone | Anthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinoline | Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Tricyclic terpenoids | Flindersine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Furanoquinoline derivatives | Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Quinines | Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninon | Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinhonidine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Indole derivatives `{{See also|indole alkaloids}}`{=mediawiki} | *Non-isoprene indole alkaloids* | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Simple indole derivatives | Tryptophan → tryptamine or 5-Hydroxytryptophan | Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenin | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Simple derivatives of β-carboline | Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Pyrroloindole alkaloids | Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Semiterpenoid indole alkaloids* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ergot alkaloids | Tryptophan → chanoclavine → agroclavine → elimoclavine → paspalic acid → lysergic acid | Ergotamine, ergobasine, ergosine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Corynanthe* type alkaloids | Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) | Ajmalicine, sarpagine, vobasine, ajmaline, yohimbine, reserpine, mitragynine, group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicine) | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Iboga-type alkaloids | Ibogamine, ibogaine, voacangine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aspidosperma-type alkaloids | Vincamine, *vinca* alkaloids, vincotine, aspidospermine | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Imidazole derivatives | | Directly from histidine | Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Purine derivatives | | Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methylxanthine → theobromine → caffeine | Caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, saxitoxin |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Alkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids)* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| β-Phenylethylamine derivatives | | Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dioxyphenilalanine → dopamine → adrenaline and mescaline tyrosine → tyramine phenylalanine → 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione → cathinone → ephedrine and pseudoephedrine | Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine) |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Colchicine alkaloids | | Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicine | Colchicine, colchamine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Muscarine | | Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid) | Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Benzylamine | | Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucine | Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylamine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Polyamines alkaloids* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Putrescine derivatives | | ornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine | Paucine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Spermidine derivatives | | Lunarine, codonocarpine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Spermine derivatives | | Verbascenine, aphelandrine | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Peptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloids* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Peptide alkaloids with a 13-membered cycle | Nummularine C type | From different amino acids | Nummularine C, Nummularine S |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ziziphine type | Ziziphine A, sativanine H | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Peptide alkaloids with a 14-membered cycle | Frangulanine type | Frangulanine, scutianine J | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Scutianine A type | Scutianine A | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Integerrine type | Integerrine, discarine D | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Amphibine F type | Amphibine F, spinanine A | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Amfibine B type | Amphibine B, lotusine C | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Peptide alkaloids with a 15-membered cycle | Mucronine A type | Mucronine A | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *Pseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids)* | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Diterpenes | Lycoctonine type | Mevalonic acid → Isopentenyl pyrophosphate → geranyl pyrophosphate | Aconitine, delphinine |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Steroidal alkaloids | | Cholesterol, arginine | Solanidine, cyclopamine, batrachotoxin |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
## Properties
Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine or coniine, are typically volatile, colorless, oily liquids. Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange).
Most alkaloids are weak bases, but some, such as theobromine and theophylline, are amphoteric. Many alkaloids dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether, chloroform or 1,2-dichloroethane. Caffeine, cocaine, codeine and nicotine are slightly soluble in water (with a solubility of ≥1g/L), whereas others, including morphine and yohimbine are very slightly water-soluble (0.1--1 g/L). Alkaloids and acids form salts of various strengths. These salts are usually freely soluble in water and ethanol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents, and the water-soluble quinine sulfate.
Most alkaloids have a bitter taste or are poisonous when ingested. Alkaloid production in plants appeared to have evolved in response to feeding by herbivorous animals; however, some animals have evolved the ability to detoxify alkaloids. Some alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume but cannot detoxify the alkaloids. One example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, produced in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% of lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily had serious facial deformations. These ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia. After decades of research, in the 1980s, the compound responsible for these deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, later renamed to cyclopamine.
## Distribution in nature {#distribution_in_nature}
Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants -- about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids. Therefore, in the past the term \"alkaloid\" was associated with plants.
The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (for example, black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (*Rauvolfia serpentina*) or bark (cinchona). Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids.
Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungus, such as psilocybin in the fruiting bodies of the genus *Psilocybe*, and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads and a number of insects, markedly ants. Many marine organisms also contain alkaloids. Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called alkaloids.
## Extraction
Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single method of their extraction from natural raw materials. Most methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic solvents but not in water, and the opposite tendency of their salts.
Most plants contain several alkaloids. Their mixture is extracted first and then individual alkaloids are separated. Plants are thoroughly ground before extraction. Most alkaloids are present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids. The extracted alkaloids may remain salts or change into bases. Base extraction is achieved by processing the raw material with alkaline solutions and extracting the alkaloid bases with organic solvents, such as 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, diethyl ether or benzene. Then, the impurities are dissolved by weak acids; this converts alkaloid bases into salts that are washed away with water. If necessary, an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is again made alkaline and treated with an organic solvent. The process is repeated until the desired purity is achieved.
In the acidic extraction, the raw plant material is processed by a weak acidic solution (*e.g.*, acetic acid in water, ethanol, or methanol). A base is then added to convert alkaloids to basic forms that are extracted with organic solvent (if the extraction was performed with alcohol, it is removed first, and the remainder is dissolved in water). The solution is purified as described above.
Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation.
A number of alkaloids are identified from insects, among which the fire ant venom alkaloids known as solenopsins have received greater attention from researchers. These insect alkaloids can be efficiently extracted by solvent immersion of live fire ants or by centrifugation of live ants followed by silica-gel chromatography purification. Tracking and dosing the extracted solenopsin ant alkaloids has been described as possible based on their absorbance peak around 232 nanometers.
## Biosynthesis
Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid. Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. However, there are a few typical reactions involved in the biosynthesis of various classes of alkaloids, including synthesis of Schiff bases and Mannich reaction.
### Synthesis of Schiff bases {#synthesis_of_schiff_bases}
Schiff bases can be obtained by reacting amines with ketones or aldehydes. These reactions are a common method of producing C=N bonds.
In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule, such as in the synthesis of piperidine:
### Mannich reaction {#mannich_reaction}
An integral component of the Mannich reaction, in addition to an amine and a carbonyl compound, is a carbanion, which plays the role of the nucleophile in the nucleophilic addition to the ion formed by the reaction of the amine and the carbonyl.
The Mannich reaction can proceed both intermolecularly and intramolecularly:
## Dimer alkaloids {#dimer_alkaloids}
In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:
- Mannich reaction, resulting in, *e.g.*, voacamine
- Michael reaction (villalstonine)
- Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine)
- Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine)
- Lactonization (carpaine).
<File:Voacamine> chemical structure.png\|Voacamine <File:Villalstonine.svg>\|Villalstonine <File:Toxiferine> I.png\|Toxiferine <File:Dauricine.svg>\|Dauricine <File:Tubocurarine.svg>\|Tubocurarine <File:Carpaine.png>\|Carpaine
There are also dimeric alkaloids formed from two distinct monomers, such as the *vinca* alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are formed from the coupling of catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, starting either from leurosine or the monomers themselves.
## Biological role {#biological_role}
Alkaloids are among the most important and best-known secondary metabolites, i.e. biogenic substances not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism. Instead, they generally mediate ecological interactions, which may produce a selective advantage for the organism by increasing its survivability or fecundity. In some cases their function, if any, remains unclear. An early hypothesis, that alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea and uric acid are in mammals, was refuted by the finding that their concentration fluctuates rather than steadily increasing.
Most of the known functions of alkaloids are related to protection. For example, aporphine alkaloid liriodenine produced by the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. In addition, the presence of alkaloids in the plant prevents insects and chordate animals from eating it. However, some animals are adapted to alkaloids and even use them in their own metabolism. Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth. One example of an organism that uses alkaloids for protection is the *Utetheisa ornatrix*, more commonly known as the ornate moth. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids render these larvae and adult moths unpalatable to many of their natural enemies like coccinelid beetles, green lacewings, insectivorous hemiptera and insectivorous bats. Another example of alkaloids being utilized occurs in the poison hemlock moth (*Agonopterix alstroemeriana).* This moth feeds on its highly toxic and alkaloid-rich host plant poison hemlock (*Conium maculatum*) during its larval stage. *A. alstroemeriana* may benefit twofold from the toxicity of the naturally-occurring alkaloids, both through the unpalatability of the species to predators and through the ability of *A. alstroemeriana* to recognize *Conium maculatum* as the correct location for oviposition. A fire ant venom alkaloid known as solenopsin has been demonstrated to protect queens of invasive fire ants during the foundation of new nests, thus playing a central role in the spread of this pest ant species around the world.
## Applications
### In medicine {#in_medicine}
Medical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the 19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice. Many alkaloids are still used in medicine, usually in the form of salts widely used including the following:
Alkaloid Action
-------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
Ajmaline Antiarrhythmic
Emetine Antiprotozoal agent, emesis
Ergot alkaloids Vasoconstriction, hallucinogenic, Uterotonic
Glaucine Antitussive
Morphine Analgesic
Nicotine Stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist
Physostigmine Inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase
Quinidine Antiarrhythmic
Quinine Antipyretic, antimalarial
Reserpine Antihypertensive
Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant
Vinblastine, vincristine Antitumor
Vincamine Vasodilating, antihypertensive
Yohimbine Stimulant, aphrodisiac
Berberine Antihyperglycaemic
Many synthetic and semisynthetic drugs are structural modifications of the alkaloids, which were designed to enhance or change the primary effect of the drug and reduce unwanted side-effects. For example, naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium.
<File:Thebaine> skeletal.svg\|Thebaine <File:Naloxone.svg>\|Naloxone
### In agriculture {#in_agriculture}
Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans.
### Use as psychoactive drugs {#use_as_psychoactive_drugs}
Preparations of plants and fungi containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used as psychoactive substances. Cocaine, caffeine, and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system. Mescaline and many indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect. Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.
There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and methamphetamine. Thebaine is used in the synthesis of many painkillers such as oxycodone.
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2,346 |
Albion, Michigan
|
**Albion** is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,700 at the 2020 census. Albion is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area.
The earliest English-speaking settlers also called this area *The Forks*, because it is at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. In the early 20th century, immigrants came to Albion from various eastern European nations, including the current Lithuania and Russia. More recently, Latino immigrants have come from Mexico and Central America. The *Festival of the Forks* has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion\'s diverse ethnic heritage.
Since the 19th century, several major manufacturers were established in Albion, which became known as a factory town. This changed after several manufacturers closed. In the 21st century, Albion\'s culture is changing to that of a college town whose residents have a strong interest in technology and sustainability. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,250. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France.
## History
The first European-American settler, Tenney Peabody, arrived in 1833 along with his brother-in-law, Charles Blanchard, and another young man, Clark Dowling. Peabody\'s family followed soon after. In 1835, the Albion Company, a land development company formed by Jesse Crowell, platted a village. Peabody\'s wife was asked to name the settlement. She considered the name \"Peabodyville\", but selected \"Albion\" instead, after the former residence of Jesse Crowell. Crowell was appointed in 1838 as the first US postmaster there.
Many early settlers migrated to Albion from western New York and New England, part of a movement after the construction of the Erie Canal and the opening of new lands in Michigan and other Great Lakes territories. They first developed agriculture and it became a rural trading village. Settlers were strong supporters of education and in 1835, Methodists established Albion College affiliated with their church. Its first classes were held in 1843. The college was known by a few other names before 1861. At that time it was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women.
Albion incorporated as a village in 1855, following construction of the railroad here in 1852, which stimulated development. It became a city in 1885.
Mills were constructed to operate on the water power of the forks of the Kalamazoo River. They were the first industry in the town, used to process lumber, grain, and other products to build the village. Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. The river that powered industry also flooded the town.
In the Great Flood of 1908, there was severe property damage. In February, several feet of snow fell across the region. Heavy rains and warmer conditions in early March created water saturation in the ground and risk of flooding because of the rivers\' high flow. After the Homer Dam broke around 3 p.m. on March 7, the Kalamazoo River flooded Albion. By midnight, the bridges surrounding town were underwater. Six buildings in Albion collapsed, resulting in more than \$125,000 in damage (1908 dollars). The town struggled to recover.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous Lithuanian and other Eastern European immigrants settled there, most working for the Albion Malleable Iron Company, and some in the coal mine north of town. The iron company initially made agricultural implements, but around World War I shifted to making automotive parts. The Malleable merged in 1969 with the Hayes Corporation, becoming the Hayes-Albion Corporation. Now known as a division of Harvard Industries, the company continues to produce automotive castings in Albion. Molder Statue Park downtown is dedicated to the many molders who dealt with molten iron.
There were soon enough Lithuanians in town to establish Holy Ascension Orthodox Church, which they built in 1916. It is part of the Orthodox Church in America. Today its services are in English.
Albion\'s population peaked in 1960. In 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated the award on May 15, 1974, when Michigan Governor William Milliken and many other dignitaries came to town. In 1975 the closure of a major factory began a difficult period of industrial restructuring and decline in jobs and population.
Since that time citizens have mobilized, founding the Albion Community Foundation in 1968. They formed the Albion Volunteer Service Organization in the 1980s, with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.
Key to the City Honor Bestowed:
- 1964: Aunt Jemima visited Albion on January 25.
- 1960s: Columnist Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys.
## Law and government {#law_and_government}
Albion has a council-manager government. City residents elect a mayor at-large and City Council members from each of six single-member districts. The council in turn selects a city manager to handle the city\'s day-to-day affairs. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years. The city levies an income tax of 1% on residents and 0.5% on nonresidents.
## Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.51 sqmi, of which 4.41 sqmi is land and 0.10 sqmi is water. Albion is 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian.
## Climate
## Demographics
### 2010 population by gender/age {#population_by_genderage}
----------------- ------- -------
**Male** 4,013 46.6%
**Female** 4,603 53.4%
**Under 18** 1,872 21.7%
**18 and over** 6,744 78.3%
**20-24** 1,364 15.8%
**25-34** 842 9.8%
**35-49** 1,251 14.5%
**50-64** 1,368 15.9%
**65+** 1,124 13.0%
----------------- ------- -------
### 2010 population by ethnicity {#population_by_ethnicity}
---------------------------- ------- -------
**Hispanic or Latino** 500 5.8%
**Non Hispanic or Latino** 8,116 94.2%
---------------------------- ------- -------
### 2010 population by race {#population_by_race}
------------------------------------------------ ------- -------
**White** 5,477 63.6%
**African American** 2,579 29.9%
**Asian** 91 1.1%
**American Indian and Alaska Native** 29 0.3%
**Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander** 17 0.2%
**Other** 90 1.0%
**Identified by two or more** 333 3.9%
------------------------------------------------ ------- -------
## Transportation
### Major highways {#major_highways}
-
-
-
-
### Rail
Amtrak provides daily service to Albion, operating its Wolverine both directions between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit.
### Bus
Greyhound Lines provides daily intercity city bus service to Albion between Chicago and Detroit.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Kim Cascone, musician, composer, owner of Silent Records; born in Albion
- M. F. K. Fisher, food writer, born in Albion
- Ada Iddings Gale, author, lived and buried in Albion
- Helen Rose Hull, author and university professor, was born in Albion. Her 1932 book *Heat Lightning* concerns a family that owns agricultural implement and automotive parts factories in a small town during the 1930s.
- Frank Joranko, football player and coach for Albion College
- LaVall Jordan, head men\'s basketball coach for Butler University, born in Albion
- Martin Wells Knapp, American Methodist evangelist who founded the Pilgrim Holiness Church and God\'s Bible School and College, born in Albion.
- Bill Laswell, jazz bassist, record producer and record label owner; raised in Albion
- Jerome D. Mack, banker, director of Las Vegas hotels Riviera and Dunes, founder of University of Nevada, Las Vegas; born in Albion
- Deacon McGuire, professional baseball player for 26 seasons, lived in Albion
- Gary Lee Nelson, composer, pioneer in electronic and computer music; grew up in Albion
- John Sinclair, poet and political activist, attended Albion College
- Jon Scieszka, children\'s author, attended Albion College
- Brian Tyler, racing driver, born in Albion
- Jack Vaughn, Assistant Secretary of State, Ambassador to Panama and Colombia, and Director of the Peace Corps (1966--1969); grew up in Albion
- The War and Treaty, musical duo
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2,363 |
Alessandro Scarlatti
|
**Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti** (2 May 1660 -- 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the most important representative of the Neapolitan school of opera.
Nicknamed by his contemporaries \"the Italian Orpheus\", he divided his career between Naples and Rome; a significant part of his works was composed for the papal city. He is often considered the founder of the Neapolitan school, although he has only been its most illustrious representative: his contribution, his originality and his influence were essential, as well as lasting, both in Italy and in Europe.
Particularly known for his operas, he brought the Italian dramatic tradition to its maximum development, begun by Monteverdi at the beginning of 17th century and continued by Cesti, Cavalli, Carissimi, Legrenzi and Stradella, designing the final form of the *Da capo aria*, imitated throughout Europe. He was also the inventor of the Italian overture in three movements (which was of the highest importance in the development of the symphony), of the four-part sonata (progenitor of the modern string quartet), and of the technique of motivic development. He was a model for the musical theater of his time, as evoked by Händel\'s Italian works, deeply influenced by his theatrical music. Eclectic, Scarlatti also worked on all the other common genres of his time, from the sonata to the concerto grosso, from the motet to the mass, from the oratorio to the cantata, the latter being a genre in which he was an undisputed master.
He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.
## Life
Scarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily. He received his first musical education in his family in Palermo. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera *Gli equivoci nel sembiante* (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her *maestro di cappella*. In February 1684 he became *maestro di cappella* to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.
In 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de\' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his *maestro di cappella*, and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.
After visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (*Telemaco*, 1718; *Marco Attilio Regolò*, 1719; *La Griselda*, 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a *Messa di Santa Cecilia* for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished *Erminia* serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto.
## Music
Scarlatti\'s music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti\'s style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school.
His early operas---*Gli equivoci nel sembiante* 1679; *L\'honestà negli amori* 1680, containing the famous aria \"Già il sole dal Gange\"; *Il Pompeo* 1683, containing the well-known airs \"O cessate di piagarmi\" and \"Toglietemi la vita ancor,\" and others down to about 1685---retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the \"Italian overture\" form (second edition of *Dal male il bene*), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are *La Rosaura* (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and *Pirro e Demetrio* (1694), in which occur the arias \"Le Violette\", and \"Ben ti sta, traditor\".
From about 1697 onwards (*La caduta del Decemviri*), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (*L\'Eraclea*, 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de\' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.
*Mitridate Eupatore*, accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (*L\'amor volubile e tiranno* 1709; *La principessa fedele* 1710; *Tigrane*, 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental *ritornelli*. In his opera *Teodora* (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral *ritornello*.
His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (*Olimpia vendicata*) and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.
Besides the operas, oratorios (*Agar et Ismaele esiliati*, 1684; *La Maddalena*, 1685; *La Giuditta*, 1693; *Humanita e Lucifero*, 1704; *Christmas Oratorio*, c. 1705; *Cain*, 1707; *S. Filippo Neri*, 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti\'s development.
His few remaining Masses and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great *Saint Cecilia Mass* (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.
## Operas
## Recordings
- Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). *La Gloria di Primavera*. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale.
- Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (2007). *Griselda*. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea Röschmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafé, Kobie van Rensburg.
- Le Consert de l\'Hostel Dieu. (2006). *Il martirio di Sant\'Orsola*. Ligia digital: 0202176--07
- Le parlement de musique. (2005). *La Giuditta*. Ambronay editions: AMY004
- Ensemble Europa Galante. (2004). *Oratorio per la Santissima Trinità*. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2
- Academia Bizantina. (2004). *Il Giardino di Rose*. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA.
- Orqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). *Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia*. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46
- Seattle Baroque. (2001). *Agar et Ismaele Esiliati*. Centaur: CRC 2664
- *Sedecia, re di Gerusalemme*. 2000 . Gérard Lesne, Philippe Jaroussky, Virginie Pouchon, Mark Padmore, Peter Harvey, Il Seminario musicale. Virgin veritas, Erato
- Capella Palatina. (2000). *Davidis pugna et victoria*. Agora: AG 249.1
- Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (1998). *Il Primo Omicidio*. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea Röschmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, René Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete
- Ensemble Europa Galante. (1995). *Humanita e Lucifero*. Opus 111: OPS 30--129
- Ensemble Europa Galante. (1993). *La Maddalena*. Opus 111: OPS 30--96
- Allesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia *Abramo, il tuo sembiante*. Nuova era: 7117
- I Musici. (1991). *Concerto Grosso*. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160--2
- I Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). *12 Sinfonie di concerto grosso* Philips Box 6769 066 \[9500 959 & 9500 960 -- 2 vinyl discs\]
- Emma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). *Stabat Mater*. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237
- Francis Colpron, recorder, with Les Boréades. (2007). *Concertos for flute*. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521
- Nederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). *Vespro della Beata Vergine* for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533
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2,372 |
ALF Tales
|
***ALF Tales*** is a 30-minute Saturday morning animated series that aired on NBC from September 10, 1988, to December 9, 1989. The show is a spin-off of *ALF: The Animated Series* that featured characters from that series playing various characters from fairy tales. The fairy tale parody was usually altered for comedic effect in a manner akin to Jay Ward\'s \"Fractured Fairy Tales\".
The episodes were performed in the style of a resident theater company or ensemble cast where Gordon and Rhonda would take the leading male and female roles, and the other characters were cast according to their characteristics.
Many stories spoof a film genre, such as the \"Cinderella\" episode which is presented like an Elvis Presley film. Some episodes featured a \"fourth wall\" effect where Gordon is backstage preparing for the episode, and Rob Cowan would appear drawn as a TV executive (who introduced himself as \"Roger Cowan, network executive\") who tries to brief Gordon on how to improve the episode. For instance Cowan once told Gordon who was readying for a medieval themed episode that \"less than 2% of our audience lives in the Dark Ages\".
## Voice cast {#voice_cast}
- Paul Fusco as ALF (Gordon Shumway), Rick Fusterman
- Paulina Gillis) as Augie, Rhonda
- Peggy Mahon as Flo
- Thick Wilson as Larson Petty, Bob
- Dan Hennessey as Sloop
- Rob Cowan as Skip
- Ellen-Ray Hennessy as Stella the Waitress
- Noam Zylberman as Curtis (1988)
- Michael Fantini as Curtis (1989)
## Episodes
### Season 1 (1988--89) {#season_1_198889}
### Season 2 (1989) {#season_2_1989}
## Home media {#home_media}
The first seven episodes were released on DVD on May 30, 2006, in Region 1 from Lionsgate Home Entertainment in a single-disc release entitled *ALF and The Beanstalk and Other Classic Fairy Tales*.
The complete series was remastered and subsequently released on October 17, 2023, by Shout! Factory in the DVD box set *ALF: The Complete Series (Deluxe Edition)*. The box set release also included the original 1986--90 sitcom, *ALF: The Animated Series* and *Project: ALF*.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,380 |
Accelerated Graphics Port
|
**Accelerated Graphics Port** (**AGP**) is a parallel expansion card standard, designed for attaching a video card to a computer system to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. It was originally designed as a successor to PCI-type connections for video cards. Since 2004, AGP was progressively phased out in favor of PCI Express (PCIe), which is serial, as opposed to parallel; by mid-2008, PCI Express cards dominated the market and only a few AGP models were available, with GPU manufacturers and add-in board partners eventually dropping support for the interface in favor of PCI Express.
## `{{Anchor|APERTURE}}`{=mediawiki}Advantages over PCI {#advantages_over_pci}
AGP is a superset of the PCI standard, designed to overcome PCI\'s limitations in serving the requirements of the era\'s high-performance graphics cards.
The primary advantage of AGP is that it doesn\'t share the PCI bus, providing a dedicated, point-to-point pathway between the expansion slot(s) and the motherboard chipset. The direct connection also allows higher clock speeds.
The second major change is the use of split transactions, wherein the address and data phases are separated. The card may send many address phases, so the host can process them in order, avoiding any long delays caused by the bus being idle during read operations.
Third, PCI bus handshaking is simplified. Unlike PCI bus transactions, whose length is negotiated on a cycle-by-cycle basis using the FRAME# and STOP# signals, AGP transfers are always a multiple of 8 bytes long, with the total length included in the request. Further, rather than using the IRDY# and TRDY# signals for each word, data is transferred in blocks of 4 clock cycles (32 words at AGP 8× speed), and pauses are allowed only between blocks.
Finally, AGP allows (mandatory only in AGP 3.0) *sideband addressing*, meaning that the address and data buses are separated, so the address phase does not use the main address/data (AD) lines at all. This is done by adding an extra 8-bit \"SideBand Address\" bus, over which the graphics controller can issue new AGP requests while other AGP data is flowing over the main 32 address/data (AD) lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughput.
This great improvement in memory read performance makes it practical for an AGP card to read textures directly from system RAM, while a PCI graphics card must copy it from system RAM to the card\'s video memory. System memory is made available using the graphics address remapping table (GART), which apportions main memory as needed for texture storage. The maximum amount of system memory available to AGP is defined as the *AGP aperture*.
## History
The AGP slot first appeared on x86-compatible system boards based on Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium II processors. Intel introduced AGP support with the i440LX Slot 1 chipset on August 26, 1997, and a flood of products followed from all the major system board vendors.
The first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP were the VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V. Intel never released an AGP-equipped Socket 7 chipset. FIC demonstrated the first Socket 7 AGP system board in November 1997 as the *FIC PA-2012* based on the VIA Apollo VP3 chipset, followed very quickly by the *EPoX P55-VP3* also based on the VIA VP3 chipset which was first to market.
Early video chipsets featuring AGP support included the Rendition Vérité V2200, 3dfx Voodoo Banshee, Nvidia RIVA 128, 3Dlabs PERMEDIA 2, Intel i740, ATI Rage series, Matrox Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Some early AGP boards used graphics processors built around PCI and were simply bridged to AGP. This resulted in the cards benefiting little from the new bus, with the only improvement used being the 66 MHz bus clock, with its resulting doubled bandwidth over PCI, and bus exclusivity. Intel\'s i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new AGP feature set; in fact it was designed to texture only from AGP memory, making PCI versions of the board difficult to implement (local board RAM had to emulate AGP memory), though this was eventually accomplished much later in the form of AGP-to-PCI bridges.
Microsoft first introduced AGP support into Windows via the USB Supplement patch for OSR2 of Windows 95 in 1997, also known as OSR2.1. The first Windows NT-based operating system to receive AGP support was Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 3, also in 1997. Linux support for AGP-enhanced fast data transfers was first added in 1999 with the implementation of the AGPgart kernel module.
### Later use {#later_use}
With the increasing adoption of PCIe, graphics cards manufacturers continued to produce AGP cards as the standard became obsolete. As GPUs began to be designed to connect to PCIe, an additional PCIe-to-AGP bridge-chip was required to create an AGP-compatible graphics card. The inclusion of a bridge, and the need for a separate AGP card design, incurred additional board costs.
The GeForce 6600 and ATI Radeon X800 XL, released during 2004--2005, were the first bridged cards. In 2009 AGP cards from Nvidia had a ceiling of the GeForce 7 series. In 2011 DirectX 10-capable AGP cards from AMD vendors (Club 3D, HIS, Sapphire, Jaton, Visiontek, Diamond, etc.) included the Radeon HD 2400, 3450, 3650, 3850, 4350, 4650, and 4670. The HD 5000 AGP series mentioned in the AMD Catalyst software was never available. There were many problems with the AMD Catalyst 11.2 - 11.6 AGP hotfix drivers under Windows 7 with the HD 4000 series AGP video cards; use of 10.12 or 11.1 AGP hotfix drivers is a possible workaround. Several of the vendors listed above make available past versions of the AGP drivers.
By 2010, no new motherboard chipsets supported AGP and few new motherboards had AGP slots, however some continued to be produced with older AGP-supporting chipsets.
In 2016, Windows 10 version 1607 dropped support for AGP.`{{Unreliable source?|date=November 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Possible future removal of support for AGP from open-source Linux kernel drivers was considered in 2020.`{{update inline|date=January 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
## Versions
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| Specification | Voltage | Clock | Speed | Transfers/\ | Rate (MB/s) |
| | | | | clock | |
+===============+=========+===========+=======+=============+=============+
| PCI | 3.3/5 V | 33 MHz | --- | 1 | 133 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| PCI 2.1 | 3.3/5 V | 33/66 MHz | --- | 1 | 133/266 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| AGP 1.0 | 3.3 V | 66 MHz | 1× | 1 | 266 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| AGP 1.0 | 3.3 V | 66 MHz | 2× | 2 | 533 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| AGP 2.0 | 1.5 V | 66 MHz | 4× | 4 | 1066 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| AGP 3.0 | 0.8 V | 66 MHz | 8× | 8 | 2133 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
| AGP 3.5^\*^ | 0.8 V | 66 MHz | 8× | 8 | 2133 |
+---------------+---------+-----------+-------+-------------+-------------+
: AGP and PCI: 32-bit buses operating at 66 and 33 MHz respectively
Intel released \"AGP specification 1.0\" in 1997. It specified 3.3 V signals and 1× and 2× speeds. Specification 2.0 documented 1.5 V signaling, which could be used at 1×, 2× and the additional 4× speed and 3.0 added 0.8 V signaling, which could be operated at 4× and 8× speeds. (1× and 2× speeds are physically possible, but were not specified.)
Available versions are listed in the adjacent table.
AGP version 3.5 is only publicly mentioned by Microsoft under *Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP)*, which specifies mandatory supports of extra registers once marked optional under AGP 3.0. Upgraded registers include PCISTS, CAPPTR, NCAPID, AGPSTAT, AGPCMD, NISTAT, NICMD. New required registers include APBASELO, APBASEHI, AGPCTRL, APSIZE, NEPG, GARTLO, GARTHI.
There are various physical interfaces (connectors); see the Compatibility section.
### Official extensions {#official_extensions}
#### AGP Pro {#agp_pro}
An official extension for cards that required more electrical power, with a longer slot with additional pins for that purpose. AGP Pro cards were usually workstation-class cards used to accelerate professional computer-aided design applications employed in the fields of architecture, machining, engineering, simulations, and similar fields.
#### 64-bit AGP {#bit_agp}
A 64-bit channel was once proposed as an optional standard for AGP 3.0 in draft documents, but it was dropped in the final version of the standard.
The standard allows 64-bit transfer for AGP8× reads, writes, and fast writes; 32-bit transfer for PCI operations.
### Unofficial variations {#unofficial_variations}
A number of non-standard variations of the AGP interface have been produced by manufacturers.
#### Internal AGP interface {#internal_agp_interface}
Ultra-AGP, Ultra-AGPII: It is an internal AGP interface standard used by SiS for the north bridge controllers with integrated graphics. The original version supports same bandwidth as AGP 8×, while Ultra-AGPII has maximum 3.2 GB/s bandwidth.
#### PCI-based AGP ports {#pci_based_agp_ports}
AGP Express: Not a true AGP interface, but allows an AGP card to be connected over the legacy PCI bus on a PCI Express motherboard. It is a technology used on motherboards made by ECS, intended to allow an existing AGP card to be used in a new motherboard instead of requiring a PCIe card to be obtained (since the introduction of PCIe graphics cards few motherboards provide AGP slots). An \"AGP Express\" slot is basically a PCI slot (with twice the electrical power) with an AGP connector. It offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, but provides incomplete support (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance---the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP.\
AGI: The ASRock Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for ASRock motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP support. However, it is not fully compatible with AGP, and several video card chipsets are known not to be supported.\
AGX: The EPoX Advanced Graphics eXtended (AGX) is another proprietary AGP variant with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI. User manuals recommend not using AGP 8× ATI cards with AGX slots.\
XGP: The Biostar Xtreme Graphics Port is another AGP variant, also with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI and AGX.
#### PCIe based AGP ports {#pcie_based_agp_ports}
AGR: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the AGP port used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer limited backward compatibility with AGP. It is, effectively, a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4×/8× slot, but does not support all AGP cards; the manufacturer published a list of some cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot.
## Compatibility
AGP cards are backward and forward compatible within limits. 1.5 V-only keyed cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though \"Universal\" cards exist which will fit into either type of slot. There are also unkeyed \"Universal\" slots that will accept either type of card. When an AGP Universal card is plugged-into an AGP Universal slot, only the 1.5 V portion of the card is used. Some cards, like Nvidia\'s GeForce 6 series (except the 6200) or ATI\'s Radeon X800 series, only have keys for 1.5 V to prevent them from being installed in older mainboards without 1.5 V support. Some of the last modern cards with 3.3 V support were:
- the Nvidia GeForce FX series (FX 5200, FX 5500, FX 5700, some FX 5800, FX 5900 and some FX 5950),
- certain Nvidia GeForce 6 series and 7 series (some 6600, 6800, 7300, 7600, 7800, 7900 and 7950 cards, really uncommon compared to their AGP 1.5v only versions; the GeForce 6200 is the only exception, as it was the most common card with 3.3 V support),
- the ATI Radeon 9000 series (Radeon 9500/9700/9800 (R300/R350), but not 9600/9800 (R360/RV360)).
Some cards incorrectly have dual notches, and some motherboards incorrectly have fully open slots, allowing a card to be plugged into a slot that does not support the correct signaling voltage, which may damage card or motherboard. Some incorrectly designed older 3.3 V cards have the 1.5 V key.
AGP Pro cards will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot. Motherboards equipped with a Universal AGP Pro slot will accept a 1.5 V or 3.3 V card in either the AGP Pro or standard AGP configuration, a Universal AGP card, or a Universal AGP Pro card.
There are some proprietary systems incompatible with standard AGP; for example, Apple Power Macintosh computers with the Apple Display Connector (ADC) have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Some cards designed to work with a specific CPU architecture (e.g., PC, Apple) may not work with others due to firmware issues.
Mark Allen of Playtools.com has made the following comments regarding practical AGP compatibility for AGP 3.0 and AGP 2.0: `{{blockquote|... nobody makes AGP 3.0 cards, and nobody makes AGP 3.0 motherboards. At least not any manufacturers I can find. Every single video card I could find which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 card was actually a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 card. And every motherboard which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 motherboard turned out to be a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 motherboard. It makes sense, if you think about it, because if anyone actually shipped a consumer-oriented product which supported only 0.8 volts, they would end up with lots of confused customers and a support nightmare. In the consumer market, you'd have to be crazy to ship a 0.8 volt only product.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Allen|first1=Mark|title=AGP compatibility for sticklers|work=Video card information|url=http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html|publisher=PlayTool.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622083724/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html|archive-date=22 June 2016|year=2006}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
## Power consumption {#power_consumption}
Slot Type 3.3 V 5 V 12 V 3.3 V Aux 1.5 V 3.3 V 12 V Total power
------------ ------- ----- ------ ----------- ------- ------- -------- -------------
AGP 6 A 2 A 1 A 0.375 mA 2 A \- \- 48.25 W
AGP Pro110 7.6 A 9.2 A 50 to 110 W
AGP Pro50 7.6 A 4.17 A 25 to 50 W
: AGP power provisioning
Actual power supplied by an AGP slot depends upon the card used. The maximum current drawn from the various rails is given in the specifications for the various versions. For example, if maximum current is drawn from all supplies and all voltages are at their specified upper limits, an AGP 3.0 slot can supply up to 48.25 watts; this figure can be used to specify a power supply conservatively, but in practice a card is unlikely ever to draw more than 40 W from the slot, with many using less. AGP Pro provides additional power up to 110 W. Many AGP cards had additional power connectors to supply them with more power than the slot could provide.
## Protocol
An AGP bus is a superset of a 66 MHz conventional PCI bus and, immediately after reset, follows the same protocol. The card must act as a PCI target, and optionally may act as a PCI master. (AGP 2.0 added a \"fast writes\" extension which allows PCI writes from the motherboard to the card to transfer data at higher speed.)
After the card is initialized using PCI transactions, AGP transactions are permitted. For these, the card is always the AGP master and the motherboard is always the AGP target. The card queues multiple requests which correspond to the PCI address phase, and the motherboard schedules the corresponding data phases later. An important part of initialization is telling the card the maximum number of outstanding AGP requests which may be queued at a given time.
AGP requests are similar to PCI memory read and write requests, but use a different encoding on command lines C/BE\[3:0\] and are always 8-byte aligned; their starting address and length are always multiples of 8 bytes (64 bits). The three low-order bits of the address are used instead to communicate the length of the request.
Whenever the PCI GNT# signal is asserted, granting the bus to the card, three additional status bits ST\[2:0\] indicate the type of transfer to be performed next. If the bits are `0xx`, a previously queued AGP transaction\'s data is to be transferred; if the three bits are `111`, the card may begin a PCI transaction or (if sideband addressing is not in use) queue a request in-band using PIPE#.
### AGP command codes {#agp_command_codes}
Like PCI, each AGP transaction begins with an address phase, communicating an address and 4-bit command code. The possible commands are different from PCI, however:
000p: Read
: Read 8×(AD\[2:0\]+1) = 8, 16, 24, \..., 64 bytes. The least significant bit p is 0 for low-priority, 1 for high.
001x: (reserved):\
010p: Write
: Write 8×(AD\[2:0\]+1) = 8--64 bytes.
011x: (reserved):\
100p: Long read
: Read 32×(AD\[2:0\]+1) = 32, 64, 96, \..., 256 bytes. This is the same as a read request, but the length is multiplied by four.
1010: Flush
: Force previously written data to memory, for synchronization. This acts as a low-priority read, taking a queue slot and returning 8 bytes of random data to indicate completion. The address and length supplied with this command are ignored.
1011: (reserved):\
1100: Fence
: This acts as a memory fence, requiring that all earlier AGP requests complete before any following requests. Ordinarily, for increased performance, AGP uses a very weak consistency model, and allows a later write to pass an earlier read. (E.g. after sending \"write 1, write 2, read, write 3, write 4\" requests, all to the same address, the read may return any value from 2 to 4. Only returning 1 is forbidden, as writes must complete before following reads.) This operation does not require any queue slots.
1101: Dual address cycle
: When making a request to an address above 2^32^, this is used to indicate that a second address cycle will follow with additional address bits. This operates like a regular PCI dual address cycle; it is accompanied by the low-order 32 bits of the address (and the length), and the following cycle includes the high 32 address bits and the desired command. The two cycles make one request, and take only one slot in the request queue. This request code is not used with side-band addressing.
111x: (reserved):
AGP 3.0 dropped high-priority requests and the long read commands, as they were little used. It also mandated side-band addressing, thus dropping the dual address cycle, leaving only four request types: low-priority read (0000), low-priority write (0100), flush (1010) and fence (1100).
### In-band AGP requests using PIPE# {#in_band_agp_requests_using_pipe}
To queue a request in-band, the card must request the bus using the standard PCI REQ# signal, and receive GNT# plus bus status ST\[2:0\] equal to `111`. Then, instead of asserting FRAME# to begin a PCI transaction, the card asserts the PIPE# signal while driving the AGP command, address, and length on the C/BE\[3:0\], AD\[31:3\] and AD\[2:0\] lines, respectively. (If the address is 64 bits, a dual address cycle similar to PCI is used.) For every cycle that PIPE# is asserted, the card sends another request without waiting for acknowledgement from the motherboard, up to the configured maximum queue depth. The last cycle is marked by deasserting REQ#, and PIPE# is deasserted on the following idle cycle.
### Side-band AGP requests using SBA\[7:0\] {#side_band_agp_requests_using_sba70}
If side-band addressing is supported and configured, the PIPE# signal is not used. (And the signal is re-used for another purpose in the AGP 3.0 protocol, which requires side-band addressing.) Instead, requests are broken into 16-bit pieces which are sent as two bytes across the SBA bus. There is no need for the card to ask permission from the motherboard; a new request may be sent at any time as long as the number of outstanding requests is within the configured maximum queue depth. The possible values are:
`0aaa aaaa aaaa alll`
: Queue a request with the given low-order address bits A\[14:3\] and length 8×(L\[2:0\]+1). The command and high-order bits are as previously specified. Any number of requests may be queued by sending only this pattern, as long as the command and higher address bits remain the same.
`10cc ccra aaaa aaaa`
: Use command C\[3:0\] and address bits A\[23:15\] for future requests. (Bit R is reserved.) This does not queue a request, but sets values that will be used in all future queued requests.
`110r aaaa aaaa aaaa`
: Use address bits A\[35:24\] for future requests.
`1110 aaaa aaaa aaaa`
: Use address bits A\[47:36\] for future requests.
`1111 0xxx`, `1111 10xx`, `1111 110x`
: *Reserved, do not use.*
`1111 1110`
: Synchronization pattern used when starting the SBA bus after an idle period.`{{r|agp10|agp20|p1=68|p2=163}}`{=mediawiki}
`1111 1111`
: No operation; no request. At AGP 1× speed, this may be sent as a single byte and a following 16-bit side-band request started one cycle later. At AGP 2× and higher speeds, all side-band requests, including this NOP, are 16 bits long.
Sideband address bytes are sent at the same rate as data transfers, up to 8× the 66 MHz basic bus clock. Sideband addressing has the advantage that it mostly eliminates the need for turnaround cycles on the AD bus between transfers, in the usual case when read operations greatly outnumber writes.
### AGP responses {#agp_responses}
While asserting GNT#, the motherboard may instead indicate via the ST bits that a data phase for a queued request will be performed next. There are four queues: two priorities (low- and high-priority) for each of reads and writes, and each is processed in order. Obviously, the motherboard will attempt to complete high-priority requests first, but there is no limit on the number of low-priority responses which may be delivered while the high-priority request is processed.
For each cycle when the GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value `00p`, a read response of the indicated priority is scheduled to be returned. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the motherboard will assert TRDY# (target ready) and begin transferring the response to the oldest request in the indicated read queue. (Other PCI bus signals like FRAME#, DEVSEL# and IRDY# remain deasserted.) Up to four clock cycles worth of data (16 bytes at AGP 1× or 128 bytes at AGP 8×) are transferred without waiting for acknowledgement from the card. If the response is longer than that, both the card and motherboard must indicate their ability to continue on the third cycle by asserting IRDY# (initiator ready) and TRDY#, respectively. If either one does not, wait states will be inserted until two cycles after they both do. (The value of IRDY# and TRDY# at other times is irrelevant and they are usually deasserted.)
The C/BE# byte enable lines may be ignored during read responses, but are held asserted (all bytes valid) by the motherboard.
The card may also assert the RBF# (read buffer full) signal to indicate that it is temporarily unable to receive more low-priority read responses. The motherboard will refrain from scheduling any more low-priority read responses. The card must still be able to receive the end of the current response, and the first four-cycle block of the following one if scheduled, plus any high-priority responses it has requested.
For each cycle when GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value `01p`, write data is scheduled to be sent across the bus. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the card will assert IRDY# (initiator ready) and begin transferring the data portion of the oldest request in the indicated write queue. If the data is longer than four clock cycles, the motherboard will indicate its ability to continue by asserting TRDY# on the third cycle. Unlike reads, there is no provision for the card to delay the write; if it didn\'t have the data ready to send, it shouldn\'t have queued the request.
The C/BE# lines *are* used with write data, and may be used by the card to select which bytes should be written to memory.
The multiplier in AGP 2×, 4× and 8× indicates the number of data transfers across the bus during each 66 MHz clock cycle. Such transfers use source synchronous clocking with a \"strobe\" signal (AD_STB\[0\], AD_STB\[1\], and SB_STB) generated by the data source. AGP 4× adds complementary strobe signals.
Because AGP transactions may be as short as two transfers, at AGP 4× and 8× speeds it is possible for a request to complete in the middle of a clock cycle. In such a case, the cycle is padded with dummy data transfers (with the C/BE# byte enable lines held deasserted).
## Connector pinout {#connector_pinout}
The AGP connector contains almost all PCI signals, plus several additions. The connector has 66 contacts on each side, although 4 are removed for each keying notch. Pin 1 is closest to the I/O bracket, and the B and A sides are as in the table, looking down at the motherboard connector.
Contacts are spaced at 1 mm intervals, however they are arranged in two staggered vertical rows so that there is 2 mm space between pins in each row. Odd-numbered A-side contacts, and even-numbered B-side contacts are in the lower row (1.0 to 3.5 mm from the card edge). The others are in the upper row (3.7 to 6.0 mm from the card edge).
Pin Side B Side A
----- ------------- -------------- --------
1 OVERCNT# +12 V
2 +5 V TYPEDET#
3 +5 V GC_DET#
4 USB+ USB−
5 Ground Ground
6 INTB# INTA#
7 CLK RST#
8 REQ# GNT#
9 +3.3 V +3.3 V
10 ST\[0\] ST\[1\]
11 ST\[2\] MB_DET#
12 RBF# PIPE# DBI_HI
13 Ground Ground
14 DBI_LO WBF#
15 SBA\[0\] SBA\[1\]
16 +3.3 V +3.3 V
17 SBA\[2\] SBA\[3\]
18 SB_STB SB_STB#
19 Ground Ground
20 SBA\[4\] SBA\[5\]
21 SBA\[6\] SBA\[7\]
22 Reserved Reserved
23 Ground Ground
24 +3.3 V aux Reserved
25 +3.3 V +3.3 V
26 AD\[31\] AD\[30\]
27 AD\[29\] AD\[28\]
28 +3.3 V +3.3 V
29 AD\[27\] AD\[26\]
30 AD\[25\] AD\[24\]
31 Ground Ground
32 AD_STB\[1\] AD_STB\[1\]#
33 AD\[23\] C/BE\[3\]#
34 Vddq Vddq
35 AD\[21\] AD\[22\]
36 AD\[19\] AD\[20\]
37 Ground Ground
38 AD\[17\] AD\[18\]
39 C/BE\[2\]# AD\[16\]
40 Vddq Vddq
41 IRDY# FRAME#
42 +3.3 V aux Reserved
43 Ground Ground
44 Reserved Reserved
45 +3.3 V +3.3 V
46 DEVSEL# TRDY#
47 Vddq STOP#
48 PERR# PME#
49 Ground Ground
50 SERR# PAR
51 C/BE\[1\]# AD\[15\]
52 Vddq Vddq
53 AD\[14\] AD\[13\]
54 AD\[12\] AD\[11\]
55 Ground Ground
56 AD\[10\] AD\[9\]
57 AD\[8\] C/BE\[0\]#
58 Vddq Vddq
59 AD_STB\[0\] AD_STB\[0\]#
60 AD\[7\] AD\[6\]
61 Ground Ground
62 AD\[5\] AD\[4\]
63 AD\[3\] AD\[2\]
64 Vddq Vddq
65 AD\[1\] AD\[0\]
66 Vregcg Vrefgc
: Accelerated Graphics Port connector pinout
Ground pin Zero volt reference
------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------
Power pin Supplies power to the AGP card
Output pin Driven by the AGP card, received by the motherboard
Initiator output Driven by the master/initiator, received by the target
I/O signal May be driven by initiator or target, depending on operation
Target output Driven by the target, received by the initiator/master
Input Driven by the motherboard, received by the AGP card
Open drain May be pulled low and/or sensed by card or motherboard
Reserved Not presently used, do not connect
: Legend
PCI signals omitted are:
- The −12 V supply
- The third and fourth interrupt requests (INTC#, INTD#)
- The JTAG pins (TRST#, TCK, TMS, TDI, TDO)
- The SMBus pins (SMBCLK, SMBDAT)
- The IDSEL pin; an AGP card connects AD\[16\] to IDSEL internally
- The 64-bit extension (REQ64#, ACK64#) and 66 MHz (M66EN) pins
- The LOCK# pin for locked transaction support
Signals added are:
- Data strobes AD_STB\[1:0\] (and AD_STB\[1:0\]# in AGP 2.0)
- The sideband address bus SBA\[7:0\] and SB_STB (and SB_STB# in AGP 2.0)
- The ST\[2:0\] status signals
- USB+ and USB− (and OVERCNT# in AGP 2.0)
- The PIPE# signal (removed in AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling)
- The RBF# signal
- The TYPEDET#, Vregcg and Vreggc pins (AGP 2.0 for 1.5V signaling)
- The DBI_HI and DBI_LO signals (AGP 3.0 for 0.8 V signaling only)
- The GC_DET# and MB_DET# pins (AGP 3.0 for 0.8V signaling)
- The WBF# signal (AGP 3.0 fast write extension)
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,381 |
Andreas Aagesen
|
**Andreas Aagesen** (5 August 1826 -- 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist.
## Biography
Aagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.
In 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall\'s successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,383 |
Alois Alzheimer
|
**Alois Alzheimer** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|l|t|s|h|aɪ|m|ər}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AHLTS|hy|mər}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|ɑː|l|t|s|-|,_|ˈ|ɑː|l|t|s|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AHLTS|-|,_|AHLTS|-}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|de|ˈaːlɔɪs ˈʔaltshaɪmɐ|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 14 June 1864 -- 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist, neuropathologist and colleague of Emil Kraepelin. He is credited with identifying the first published case of \"presenile dementia\", which Kraepelin later identified as Alzheimer\'s disease.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria, on 14 June 1864, the son of Anna Johanna Barbara Sabina and Eduard Román Alzheimer. His father served in the office of notary public in the family\'s hometown. The family was devoutly Catholic.
The Alzheimers moved to Aschaffenburg when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium (high school). After graduating with Abitur in 1883, Alzheimer studied medicine at University of Berlin, University of Tübingen, and University of Würzburg. In his final year at university, he was a member of a fencing fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team. In 1887, Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg as Doctor of Medicine.
## Career
In 1888, Alzheimer spent five months assisting mentally ill women before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt, the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for Lunatics and Epileptics). `{{Interlanguage link|Emil Sioli|lt=|de||WD=}}`{=mediawiki}, a noted psychiatrist, was the dean of the asylum. Another neurologist, Franz Nissl, began to work in the same asylum with Alzheimer. Together, they conducted research on the pathology of the nervous system, specifically the normal and pathological anatomy of the cerebral cortex. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal *Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie*, though he never wrote a book that he could call his own.
While at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him.
At the time, Kraepelin was doing clinical research on psychosis in senile patients; Alzheimer, on the other hand, was more interested in the lab work of senile illnesses. They faced many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, formal and informal arrangements were made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers.
In 1904, Alzheimer completed his habilitation at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was appointed as a professor in 1908. Afterward, he left Munich for the Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau in 1912, where he accepted a post as professor of psychiatry and director of the Neurologic and Psychiatric Institute. His health deteriorated shortly after his arrival so that he was hospitalized. He died three years later.
Alzheimer is known for having a variety of medical interests including vascular diseases of the brain, early dementia, brain tumors, forensic psychiatry and epilepsy.
### Auguste Deter {#auguste_deter}
In 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community; the Frankfurt asylum was too expensive for her husband. Herr Deter made several requests to have his wife moved to a less expensive facility, but Alzheimer intervened in these requests. Auguste D., as she was known, remained at the Frankfurt asylum, where Alzheimer had made a deal to receive her records and brain upon her death, paying for the remainder of her stay in return.
On 8 April 1906, Auguste Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin\'s laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the newly developed Bielschowsky stain to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies became identifiers of what is now known as Alzheimer\'s disease.
On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists. The attendees at this lecture seemed uninterested in what he had to say. The lecturer that followed Alzheimer was to speak on the topic of \"compulsive masturbation\", which the audience of 88 individuals was so eagerly awaiting that they sent Alzheimer away without any questions or comments on his discovery of the pathology of a peculiar case of early-onset dementia.
Following his presentation, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his presentation; in 1907 he wrote a longer paper detailing the disease and his findings. It became known as Alzheimer\'s disease in 1910, when Kraepelin named it so in the chapter on \"Presenile and Senile Dementia\" in the 8th edition of his *Handbook of Psychiatry*. By 1911, his description of the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US.
Additional case descriptions by Alzheimer and his colleagues continued in the following years, including older patients than the early-onset dementia of Auguste Deter. Alzheimer eventually conceived \"his\" disease as mainly characterized clinically by a severe dementia with instrumental symptoms, and pathologically by extended neurofibrillary tangles. He debated fiercely with Oskar Fischer, a German-speaking pathologist from Prague, who instead emphasized on the importance of neuritic plaques and of presbyophrenia as the phenotype. Finally, it must be highlighted that Fischer--Alzheimer\'s nosological considerations had less impact than Kraepelin\'s 1910 Textbook of Psychiatry, which distinguished between \"Alzheimer\'s disease\" and senile dementia, including presbyophrenia. This textbook had a strong influence on early 20th century research on senile dementia and played a significant role in the classification of dementia in the following decades.
## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death}
In 1894, Alzheimer married Cecilie Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer, with whom he had three children. She died in 1901. In August 1912, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on his way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in July 1912. Most probably a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever led to valvular heart disease, heart failure and kidney failure. He died of heart failure on 19 December 1915 at age 51, in Breslau, Silesia (present-day Wrocław, Poland). His body was buried four days later, next to Cecilie\'s at the Frankfurt Main Cemetery.
## Contemporaries
American Solomon Carter Fuller gave a report similar to that of Alzheimer at a lecture five months before Alzheimer. Oskar Fischer was a fellow German psychiatrist, twelve years Alzheimer\'s junior, who reported twelve cases of senile dementia in 1907 around the time that Alzheimer published his short paper summarizing his presentation.
Alzheimer and Fischer had different interpretations of the disease, but owing to Alzheimer\'s short life, they never had the opportunity to meet and discuss their ideas.
## Critics and rediscovery {#critics_and_rediscovery}
In the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer\'s findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer\'s notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin. Claire O\'Brien, meanwhile, hypothesized that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease.
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Auger effect
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The **Auger effect** (`{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|ʒ|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|fr|ˈ/o.ʒe/}}`{=mediawiki}) or **Meitner-Auger effect** is a physical phenomenon in which atoms eject electrons. It occurs when an inner-shell vacancy in an atom is filled by an electron, releasing energy that causes the emission of another electron from a different shell of the same atom.
When a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. For light atoms (Z\<12), this energy is most often transferred to a valence electron which is subsequently ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an **Auger electron**. For heavier atomic nuclei, the release of the energy in the form of an emitted photon becomes gradually more probable.
## Effect
Upon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located.
Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment.
Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine, giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization.
The Auger effect can impact biological molecules such as DNA. Following the K-shell ionization of the component atoms of DNA, Auger electrons are ejected, leading to damage to its sugar-phosphate backbone.
## Discovery
The Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis.
The French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused by an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect.
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Anode
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An **anode** usually is an electrode of a polarized electrical device through which conventional current enters the device. This contrasts with a cathode, which is usually an electrode of the device through which conventional current leaves the device. A common mnemonic is ACID, for \"anode current into device\". The direction of conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit is opposite to the direction of electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow from the anode of a galvanic cell, into an outside or external circuit connected to the cell. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a \"+\" is the cathode (while discharging).
In both a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, the anode is the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs. In a galvanic cell the anode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge as a result of the oxidation reaction. In an electrolytic cell, the **anode** is the wire or plate upon which excess positive charge is imposed. As a result of this, anions will tend to move towards the anode where they will undergo oxidation.
Historically, the anode of a galvanic cell was also known as the **zincode** because it was usually composed of zinc.
## Charge flow {#charge_flow}
The terms anode and cathode are not defined by the voltage polarity of electrodes, but are usually defined by the direction of current through the electrode. An anode usually is the electrode of a device through which conventional current (positive charge) flows into the device from an external circuit, while a cathode usually is the electrode through which conventional current flows out of the device.
In general, if the current through the electrodes reverses direction, as occurs for example in a rechargeable battery when it is being charged, the roles of the electrodes as anode and cathode are reversed. However, the definition of anode and cathode is different for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction. Therefore, the electrodes are named based on the direction of this \"forward\" current. In a diode the anode is the terminal through which current enters and the cathode is the terminal through which current leaves, when the diode is forward biased. The names of the electrodes do not change in cases where reverse current flows through the device. Similarly, in a vacuum tube only one electrode can thermionically emit electrons into the evacuated tube, so electrons can only enter the device from the external circuit through the heated electrode. Therefore, this electrode is permanently named the cathode, and the electrode through which the electrons exit the tube is named the anode.
Conventional current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, but also the carriers\' electric charge. The currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. Since electrons have a negative charge, the direction of electron flow is opposite to the direction of conventional current. Consequently, electrons leave the device through the anode and enter the device through the cathode.
## Examples
The polarity of voltage on an anode with respect to an associated cathode varies depending on the device type and on its operating mode. In the following examples, the anode is negative in a device that provides power, and positive in a device that consumes power:
In a discharging battery or galvanic cell (diagram on left), the anode is the negative terminal: it is where conventional current flows into the cell. This inward current is carried externally by electrons moving outwards.
In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal imposed by an external source of potential difference. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging.
In battery engineering, it is common to designate one electrode of a rechargeable battery the anode and the other the cathode according to the roles the electrodes play when the battery is discharged. This is despite the fact that the roles are reversed when the battery is charged. When this is done, \"anode\" simply designates the negative terminal of the battery and \"cathode\" designates the positive terminal.
In a diode, the anode is the terminal represented by the tail of the arrow symbol (flat side of the triangle), where conventional current flows into the device. Note the electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows \"most easily\"), even for types such as Zener diodes where the current of interest is the reverse current.
In vacuum tubes or gas-filled tubes, the anode is the terminal where current enters the tube.
## Etymology
The word was coined in 1834 from the Greek ἄνοδος (*anodos*), \'ascent\', by William Whewell, who had been consulted by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the \"decomposing body\" (electrolyte) in a direction \"from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move\", the anode is where the current enters the electrolyte, on the East side: \"*ano* upwards, *odos* a way; the way which the sun rises\".
The use of \'East\' to mean the \'in\' direction (actually \'in\' → \'East\' → \'sunrise\' → \'up\') may appear contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term \"eisode\" (the doorway where the current enters). His motivation for changing it to something meaning \'the East electrode\' (other candidates had been \"eastode\", \"oriode\" and \"anatolode\") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth\'s magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth\'s. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the East electrode would not have been the \'way in\' any more. Therefore, \"eisode\" would have become inappropriate, whereas \"anode\" meaning \'East electrode\' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the anode\'s function any more, but more importantly because as we now know, the Earth\'s magnetic field direction on which the \"anode\" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the \"eisode\" term was based has no reason to change in the future.
Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember and more durably correct technically although historically false, etymology has been suggested: anode, from the Greek *anodos*, \'way up\', \'the way (up) out of the cell (or other device) for electrons\'.
## Electrolytic anode {#electrolytic_anode}
In electrochemistry, the *anode* is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell. At the anode, anions (negative ions) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit. Mnemonics: LEO Red Cat (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Reduction occurs at the Cathode), or AnOx Red Cat (Anode Oxidation, Reduction Cathode), or OIL RIG (Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain of electrons), or Roman Catholic and Orthodox (Reduction -- Cathode, anode -- Oxidation), or LEO the lion says GER (Losing electrons is Oxidation, Gaining electrons is Reduction).
This process is widely used in metals refining. For example, in copper refining, copper anodes, an intermediate product from the furnaces, are electrolysed in an appropriate solution (such as sulfuric acid) to yield high purity (99.99%) cathodes. Copper cathodes produced using this method are also described as electrolytic copper.
Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday\'s time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction.
## Battery or galvanic cell anode {#battery_or_galvanic_cell_anode}
In a battery or galvanic cell, the anode is the negative electrode from which electrons flow out towards the external part of the circuit. Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode (even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected. Battery manufacturers may regard the negative electrode as the anode, particularly in their technical literature. Though from an electrochemical viewpoint incorrect, it does resolve the problem of which electrode is the anode in a secondary (or rechargeable) cell. Using the traditional definition, the anode switches ends between charge and discharge cycles.
## Vacuum tube anode {#vacuum_tube_anode}
In electronic vacuum devices such as a cathode-ray tube, the anode is the positively charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons.
## Diode anode {#diode_anode}
In a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies holes to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer (\'P\' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more holes are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).
## Sacrificial anode {#sacrificial_anode}
In cathodic protection, a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment than the metal system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system. As a result, the metal anode partially corrodes or dissolves instead of the metal system. As an example, an iron or steel ship\'s hull may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a static charge is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft. Sacrificial anodes are also generally used in tank-type water heaters.
In 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist-engineer Humphry Davy developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit.
A less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal. As long as the zinc remains intact, the iron is protected from the effects of corrosion. Inevitably, the zinc coating becomes breached, either by cracking or physical damage. Once this occurs, corrosive elements act as an electrolyte and the zinc/iron combination as electrodes. The resultant current ensures that the zinc coating is sacrificed but that the base iron does not corrode. Such a coating can protect an iron structure for a few decades, but once the protecting coating is consumed, the iron rapidly corrodes.
If, conversely, tin is used to coat steel, when a breach of the coating occurs it actually accelerates oxidation of the iron.
## Impressed current anode {#impressed_current_anode}
Another cathodic protection is used on the impressed current anode. It is made from titanium and covered with mixed metal oxide. Unlike the sacrificial anode rod, the impressed current anode does not sacrifice its structure. This technology uses an external current provided by a DC source to create the cathodic protection. Impressed current anodes are used in larger structures like pipelines, boats, city water tower, water heaters and more.
## Related antonym {#related_antonym}
The opposite of an anode is a cathode. When the current through the device is reversed, the electrodes switch functions, so the anode becomes the cathode and the cathode becomes anode, as long as the reversed current is applied. The exception is diodes where electrode naming is always based on the forward current direction.
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Arrangement
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In music, an **arrangement** is a musical adaptation of an existing composition. Differences from the original composition may include reharmonization, melodic paraphrasing, orchestration, or formal development. Arranging differs from orchestration in that the latter process is limited to the assignment of notes to instruments for performance by an orchestra, concert band, or other musical ensemble. Arranging \"involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings. Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety\". In jazz, a memorized (unwritten) arrangement of a new or pre-existing composition is known as a *head arrangement*.
## Classical music {#classical_music}
Arrangement and transcriptions of classical and serious music go back to the early history of classical music.
### Eighteenth century {#eighteenth_century}
J. S. Bach frequently made arrangements of his own and other composers\' pieces. One example is the arrangement that he made of the Prelude from his Partita No.3 for solo violin, BWV1006.
Bach transformed this solo piece into an orchestral Sinfonia that introduces his Cantata BWV29. \"The initial violin composition was in Emajor but both arranged versions are transposed down to D, the better to accommodate the wind instruments\".
\"The transformation of material conceived for a single string instrument into a fully orchestrated concerto-type movement is so successful that it is unlikely that anyone hearing the latter for the first time would suspect the existence of the former\".
### Nineteenth and twentieth centuries {#nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries}
#### Piano music {#piano_music}
In particular, music written for the piano has frequently undergone this treatment, as it has been arranged for orchestra, chamber ensemble, or concert band. Beethoven made an arrangement of his Piano Sonata No.9 for string quartet. Conversely, he also arranged his *Grosse Fuge* (one of his late string quartets) for piano duet. The American composer George Gershwin, due to his own lack of expertise in orchestration, had his *Rhapsody in Blue* arranged and orchestrated by Ferde Grofé.
Erik Satie wrote his three *Gymnopédies* for solo piano in 1888.
Eight years later, Debussy arranged two of them, exploiting the range of instrumental timbres available in a late 19th-century orchestra. \"It was Debussy whose 1896 orchestrations of the Gymnopédies put their composer on the map.\"
*Pictures at an Exhibition*, a suite of ten piano pieces by Modest Mussorgsky, has been arranged over twenty times, notably by Maurice Ravel. Ravel\'s arrangement demonstrates an \"ability to create unexpected, memorable orchestral sonorities\". In the second movement, \"Gnomus\", Mussorgsky\'s original piano piece simply repeats the following passage: Ravel initially orchestrates it as follows:
Repeating the passage, Ravel provides a fresh orchestration \"this time with the celesta (replacing the woodwinds) accompanied by string glissandos on the fingerboard\".
#### Songs
A number of Franz Schubert\'s songs, originally for voice with piano accompaniment, were arranged by other composers. For example, his \"highly charged\" and \"graphic\" song \"Erlkönig\" (\"The Erl King\") has a piano introduction that conveys \"unflagging energy\" from the start.
The arrangement of this song by Hector Berlioz uses strings to convey faithfully the driving urgency and threatening atmosphere of the original.
Berlioz adds colour in bars6--8 through the addition of woodwind, horns, and a timpani. With typical flamboyance, Berlioz adds spice to the harmony in bar6 with an Eflat in the horn part, creating a half-diminished seventh chord which is not in Schubert\'s original piano part.
There are subtle differences between this and the arrangement of the song by Franz Liszt. The upper string sound is thicker, with violins and violas playing the fierce repeated octaves in unison and bassoons compensating for this by doubling the cellos and basses. There are no timpani, but trumpets and horns add a small jolt to the rhythm of the opening bar, reinforcing the bare octaves of the strings by playing on the second main beat.
Unlike Berlioz, Liszt does not alter the harmony, but changes the emphasis somewhat in bar6, with the note A in the oboes and clarinets grating against rather than blending with the G in the strings.
\"Schubert has come in for his fair share of transcriptions and arrangements. Most, like Liszt\'s transcriptions of the Lieder or Berlioz\'s orchestration for *Erlkönig*, tell us more about the arranger that about the original composer, but they can be diverting so long as they are in no way a replacement for the original\".
Gustav Mahler\'s *Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen* (\"Songs of a Wayfarer\") were originally written for voice with piano accompaniment. The composer\'s later arrangement of the piano part shows a typical ear for clarity and transparency in rewriting for an ensemble. Below is the original piano version of the closing bars of the second song, \"Gieng heit\' Morgen über\'s Feld\".
The orchestration shows Mahler\'s attention to detail in bringing out differentiated orchestral colours supplied by woodwind, strings and horn. He uses a harp to convey the original arpeggios supplied by the left hand of the piano part. He also extracts a descending chromatic melodic line, implied by the left hand in bars2--4 (above), and gives it to the horn.
## Popular music {#popular_music}
Popular music recordings often include parts for brass horn sections, bowed strings, and other instruments that were added by arrangers and not composed by the original songwriters. Some pop arrangers even add sections using full orchestra, though this is less common due to the expense involved. Popular music arrangements may also be considered to include new releases of existing songs with a new musical treatment. These changes can include alterations to tempo, meter, key, instrumentation, and other musical elements.
Well known examples include Joe Cocker\'s version of the Beatles\' \"With a Little Help from My Friends\", Cream\'s \"Crossroads\", and Ike and Tina Turner\'s version of Creedence Clearwater Revival\'s \"Proud Mary\". The American group Vanilla Fudge and the British group Yes based their early careers on radical rearrangements of contemporary hits. Bonnie Pointer performed disco and Motown-styled versions of \"Heaven Must Have Sent You\". Remixes, such as in dance music, can also be considered arrangements.
## Jazz
Arrangements for small jazz combos are usually informal, minimal, and uncredited. Larger ensembles have generally had greater requirements for notated arrangements, though the early Count Basie big band is known for its many *head* arrangements, so called because they were worked out by the players themselves, memorized (\"in the player\'s *head*\"), and never written down. Most arrangements for big bands, however, were written down and credited to a specific arranger, as with arrangements by Sammy Nestico and Neal Hefti for Count Basie\'s later big bands.
Don Redman made innovations in jazz arranging as a part of Fletcher Henderson\'s orchestra in the 1920s. Redman\'s arrangements introduced a more intricate melodic presentation and *soli* performances for various sections of the big band. Benny Carter became Henderson\'s primary arranger in the early 1930s, becoming known for his arranging abilities in addition to his previous recognition as a performer. Beginning in 1938, Billy Strayhorn became an arranger of great renown for the Duke Ellington orchestra. Jelly Roll Morton is sometimes considered the earliest jazz arranger. While he toured around the years 1912 to 1915, he wrote down parts to enable \"pickup bands\" to perform his compositions.
Big-band arrangements are informally called *charts*. In the swing era they were usually either arrangements of popular songs or they were entirely new compositions. Duke Ellington\'s and Billy Strayhorn\'s arrangements for the Duke Ellington big band were usually new compositions, and some of Eddie Sauter\'s arrangements for the Benny Goodman band and Artie Shaw\'s arrangements for his own band were new compositions as well. It became more common to arrange sketchy jazz combo compositions for big band after the bop era.
After 1950, the big bands declined in number. However, several bands continued and arrangers provided renowned arrangements. Gil Evans wrote a number of large-ensemble arrangements in the late 1950s and early 1960s intended for recording sessions only. Other arrangers of note include Vic Schoen, Pete Rugolo, Oliver Nelson, Johnny Richards, Billy May, Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Brookmeyer, Lou Marini, Nelson Riddle, Ralph Burns, Billy Byers, Gordon Jenkins, Ray Conniff, Henry Mancini, Ray Reach, Vince Mendoza, and Claus Ogerman.
In the 21st century, the big-band arrangement has made a modest comeback. Gordon Goodwin, Roy Hargrove, and Christian McBride have all rolled out new big bands with both original compositions and new arrangements of standard tunes.
## For instrumental groups {#for_instrumental_groups}
### Strings
The string section is a body of instruments composed of various bowed stringed instruments. By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins (the same instrument as the first violins, but typically playing an accompaniment or harmony part to the first violins, and often at a lower pitch range), violas, cellos, and double basses. The string section in a multi-sectioned orchestra is sometimes referred to as the \"string choir\".
The harp is also a stringed instrument, but is not a member of nor homogeneous with the violin family, and is not considered part of the string choir. Samuel Adler classifies the harp as a plucked string instrument in the same category as the guitar (acoustic or electric), mandolin, banjo, or zither. Like the harp, these instruments do not belong to the violin family and are not homogeneous with the string choir. In modern arranging these instruments are considered part of the rhythm section. The electric bass and upright string bass---depending on the circumstance---can be treated by the arranger as either string section or rhythm section instruments.
A group of instruments in which each member plays a unique part---rather than playing in unison with other like instruments---is referred to as a chamber ensemble. A chamber ensemble made up entirely of strings of the violin family is referred to by its size. A string trio consists of three players, a string quartet four, a string quintet five, and so on.
In most circumstances the string section is treated by the arranger as one homogeneous unit and its members are required to play preconceived material rather than improvise.
A string section can be utilized on its own (this is referred to as a string orchestra) or in conjunction with any of the other instrumental sections. More than one string orchestra can be utilized.
A standard string section (vln., vln 2., vla., vcl, cb.) with each section playing unison allows the arranger to create a five-part texture. Often an arranger will divide each violin section in half or thirds to achieve a denser texture. It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part.
#### Size of the string section {#size_of_the_string_section}
Artistic, budgetary and logistical concerns, including the size of the orchestra pit or hall will determine the size and instrumentation of a string section. The Broadway musical *West Side Story*, in 1957, was booked into the Winter Garden theater; composer Leonard Bernstein disliked the playing of \"house\" viola players he would have to use there, and so he chose to leave them out of the show\'s instrumentation; a benefit was the creation of more space in the pit for an expanded percussion section.
George Martin, producer and arranger for the Beatles, warns arrangers about the intonation problems when only two like instruments play in unison: \"After a string quartet, I do not think there is a satisfactory sound for strings until one has at least three players on each line . . . as a rule two stringed instruments together create a slight \'beat\' which does not give a smooth sound.\" Different music directors may use different numbers of string players and different balances between the sections to create different musical effects.
While any combination and number of string instruments is possible in a section, a traditional string section sound is achieved with a violin-heavy balance of instruments.
Reference Author Section size Violins Violas Celli Basses
------------------------------- --------------- -------------- --------- -------- ------- --------
\"Arranged By Nelson Riddle\" Nelson Riddle 12 players 8 2 2 0
15 players 9 3 3 0
16 players 10 3 3 0
20 players 12 4 4 0
30 players 18 6 6 0
\"The Contemporary Arranger\" Don Sebesky 9 players 7 0 2 0
12 players 8 2 2 0
16 players 12 0 4 0
20 players 12 4 4 0
: Suggested string section sizes
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Ann Widdecombe
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**Ann Noreen Widdecombe** `{{Post-nominals|country=GBR|DSG}}`{=mediawiki} (born 4 October 1947) is a British politician and television personality who has been Reform UK\'s Immigration and Justice spokesperson since 2023. Originally a member of the Conservative Party, she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Maidstone and The Weald, and the former Maidstone constituency, from 1987 to 2010. She was a member of the Brexit Party from 2019 until it was renamed Reform UK in 2021, and served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South West England from 2019 to 2020; she rejoined Reform UK in 2023.
Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later studied philosophy, politics and economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She is a religious convert from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, and was a member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship. She served as Minister of State for Employment from 1994 to 1995 and Minister of State for Prisons from 1995 to 1997. She later served in the Shadow Cabinet of William Hague as Shadow Secretary of State for Health from 1998 to 1999 and Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001. She was appointed to the Privy Council in 1997.
Widdecombe stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election. Since 2002, she has made numerous television and radio appearances, including as a television presenter. A prominent Eurosceptic, in 2016 she supported the Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU). Widdecombe returned to politics as the lead candidate for the Brexit Party in South West England at the 2019 European Parliament election, winning the seat in line with results nationally, serving until the country left the EU on 31 January 2020. In the general election of December 2019 -- as with all other candidates for the Commons fielded by the Brexit Party -- she did not win the seat she contested (Plymouth Sutton and Devonport), but retained her deposit and came third.
Ideologically, Widdecombe identifies herself as a social conservative and stresses the importance of traditional values and conservatism. As a member of the House of Commons, she opposed the legality of abortion, opposed granting LGBT people legal rights such as the same age of consent as heterosexuals, and opposed the repeal of Section 28. She supported reintroduction of the death penalty for murder, though more narrowly applied than previously. She is opposed to all forms of assisted dying. She has a history of supporting rigorous laws on animal protection and opposition to fox hunting.
## Early life {#early_life}
Ann Noreen Widdecombe was born in Bath, Somerset, the daughter of Rita Noreen (*née* Plummer; 1911--2007) and Ministry of Defence civil servant James Murray Widdecombe. Widdecombe\'s maternal grandfather, James Henry Plummer, was born to a Catholic family of English descent in Crosshaven, County Cork, Ireland in 1874.
She attended the Royal Naval School in Singapore, and La Sainte Union Convent School in Bath. She then read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, to read philosophy, politics and economics. In 1971, she was the secretary of the Oxford Union for one term, and became its treasurer for one term in 1972.
While studying at Oxford, she lived next door to Mary Archer, Edwina Currie, and Gyles Brandreth\'s wife Michèle Brown. She worked for Unilever (1973--75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975--87) before entering Parliament.
## Political career {#political_career}
In 1974, Widdecombe was personal assistant to Michael Ancram in the February and October general elections of that year. From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a councillor on Runnymede District Council in Surrey.
She contested the seat of Burnley in Lancashire in the 1979 general election and then, against David Owen, the Plymouth Devonport seat in the 1983 general election. In 1983 she, with Lady Olga Maitland and Virginia Bottomley, co-founded Women and Families for Defence, a group founded in opposition to the anti-nuclear Greenham Common Women\'s Peace Camp.
Widdecombe was first elected to the House of Commons, for the Conservatives, in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997).
### In government {#in_government}
Widdecombe joined Prime Minister John Major\'s government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993, she was moved to the Department of Employment, and she was promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995, she joined the Home Office as Minister of State for Prisons and visited every prison in the UK.
In 1996, Widdecombe, as prisons minister, defended the Government\'s policy to shackle pregnant prisoners with handcuffs and chains when in hospital receiving prenatal care. Widdecombe told the Commons that the restrictions were needed to prevent prisoners from escaping the hospital. \"Some MPs may like to think that a pregnant woman would not or could not escape. Unfortunately this is not true. The fact is that hospitals are not secure places in which to keep prisoners, and since 1990, 20 women have escaped from hospitals\". Jack Straw, Labour\'s Home Affairs spokesman at the time, said it was \"degrading and unnecessary\" for a woman to be shackled at any stage.
### Shadow Cabinet {#shadow_cabinet}
In May 1997, in the context of an inquiry into a series of prison escapes, Widdecombe remarked of former Home Secretary Michael Howard, under whom she had served, that there was \"something of the night about him\". This much-quoted comment is thought to have contributed to the failure of Howard\'s 1997 campaign for the Conservative Party leadership, a sentiment shared by both Howard himself and Widdecombe. It led to him being caricatured as a vampire, in part due to his Romanian ancestry. Howard became the official party leader in 2003, and Widdecombe then stated, \"I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But \... we have to look to the future and not the past.\"
After the Conservative landslide defeat at the 1997 general election, she served as Shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later as Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001 under the leadership of William Hague.
### Leadership contest and backbenches {#leadership_contest_and_backbenches}
During the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient support amongst Conservative MPs for her leadership candidacy. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in Iain Duncan Smith\'s Shadow Cabinet (although she indicated on the television programme *When Louis Met\...*, prior to the leadership contest, that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway).
In 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as \"backbiters\" due to his alleged destabilising influence under Hague. She went on to say that, should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance. This was amidst a homophobic campaign led by socially conservative critics of Portillo.
In the 2005 leadership election, she initially supported Kenneth Clarke again. Once he was eliminated, she turned support towards Liam Fox. Following Fox\'s subsequent elimination, she took time to reflect before finally declaring for David Davis. She expressed reservations over the eventual winner David Cameron, feeling that he did not, like the other candidates, have a proven track record, and she was later a leading figure in parliamentary opposition to his A-List policy. At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of the television programme *Dragons\' Den*, in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal, which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown.
In an interview with *Metro* in September 2006 she stated that if Parliament were of a normal length, it was likely she would retire at the next general election. She confirmed her intention to stand down to *The Observer*\'s Pendennis diary in September 2007, and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an autumn 2007 general election.
In November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being \"Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten.\"
In 2007 Widdecombe was one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret. When the expenses claims were leaked, however, Widdecombe was described by *The Daily Telegraph* as one of the \"saints\" amongst all MPs.
In May 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons, it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support for election as interim Speaker until the next general election. On 11 June 2009, she confirmed her bid to be the Speaker, but came last in the second ballot and was eliminated.
Widdecombe retired from politics at the 2010 general election. It was rumoured that she would be a Conservative candidate for Police and Crime Commissioner in 2012, but she refused. She since spoke about her opposition to the Coalition Government and her surprise at not being given a peerage by David Cameron.
In 2016, she supported Brexit during the 2016 EU referendum and, following the resignation of David Cameron, endorsed Andrea Leadsom in her candidacy for election for the leadership of the governing Conservative Party.
### Return to politics -- Brexit Party {#return_to_politics_brexit_party}
In 2019 she returned to politics as a candidate for the Brexit Party in the European parliament elections in South West England, which were held on 23 May, though she maintained that she would still vote for the Conservatives in the local elections that took place three weeks before. She was expelled by the Conservative Party immediately after her announcement. Widdecombe had considered joining the Brexit Party in March 2019, but joined later, in May.
Widdecombe said that her decision to stand resulted from the Government\'s failure to deliver Britain\'s departure from the EU on schedule. \"Both major parties need a seismic shock,\" she said, \"to see the extent of public disgust.\" She subsequently won her seat.
Widdecombe became a member of the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE).
Widdecombe stood as a candidate for Plymouth Sutton and Devonport in the 2019 UK general election, coming a distant third but just retaining her deposit with 5.5% of the vote. Nigel Farage said that she was told by the Conservative Party that she would be part of their Brexit negotiations if she stood down as a candidate.
## Political views {#political_views}
### Social issues {#social_issues}
As an MP, Widdecombe expressed socially conservative views, including opposition to abortion; it was understood during her time in frontline politics that she would not become Health Secretary as long as this involved responsibility for abortions. Although a committed Christian, she characterised the issue as one of life and death on which her view had been the same when she was agnostic and was a member of the Society for the Protection of Unborn Children while studying at Oxford. During Parliament, Widdecombe was a member of the Pro-Life All Party Parliamentary Group, which met with SPUC over concerns the organisation\'s more strident approach to abortion policy could alienate Protestant and atheist supporters. She converted from the Church of England (CoE) to the Roman Catholic Church following the CoE decision to ordain women as priests.
She is an opponent of assisted dying in any form, saying that any such legislation would fail to \"protect the mentally ill, disabled and the frail elderly\". She further commented: \"You cannot get to my age without having seen loved ones suffer \[\...\] or having seen dear friends die in pain. And, yes, I too have thought \'We wouldn\'t do this to an animal\'. But that emotional indignation has also to be extended to those whom any euthanasia law would threaten.\"
#### LGBT rights {#lgbt_rights}
Although not an MP at the time, Widdecombe did voice support for the partial decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1967 in England and Wales. After that, Widdecombe consistently opposed further reforms while in Parliament. Out of the 17 parliamentary votes between 1998 and 2008 considered by the Public Whip website to concern equal rights for homosexuals, Widdecombe took the opposing position in 15 cases, not being present at the other two votes. In 1999, Widdecombe stated that \"I do not think that \[homosexuality\] can be promoted as an equally valid lifestyle to \[heterosexual\] marriage, but I would say the same about irregular heterosexual arrangements.\"
She has consistently argued against an equal age of consent for same-sex relationships, voting against a 1994 act (which would have reduced the age of consent for some male-male sexual activity from 21 to 18), and in 1998 (arguing against a further reduction from 18 to 16, which later occurred in 2000). On the latter act, she wrote in *The Mail on Sunday* that \"one of the sundry horrors for which this Government is likely to be remembered will be that it gave its imprimatur to sodomy at 16\", She later said in 2000: \"I do not believe that issues of equality should override the imperatives of protecting the young.\" In 2003, Widdecombe opposed the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988. In 2012, Widdecombe voiced support in the *Daily Express* for the practise of conversion therapy, which claims to change the orientation of homosexuals.
Widdecombe has also expressed her opposition to same-sex marriage, introduced by David Cameron\'s government in 2014, arguing that \"the state must have a preferred model\" which is \"a union that is generally open to procreation\". She also opposes gender self-identification for transgender people. In 2020, she expressed her opposition to same-sex dancing on *Strictly Come Dancing*, saying: \"I don\'t think it is what viewers of *Strictly*, especially families, are looking for. But that\'s up to the audience and the programme.\"
### Criminal justice {#criminal_justice}
In her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, she called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, with the punishment of £100 fines for users of cannabis. This was well received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates.
Over the years, Widdecombe has expressed her support for a reintroduction of the death penalty, which was abolished in the UK in 1965. She notably spoke of her support for its reintroduction for the worst cases of murder in the aftermath of the murder of two 10-year-old girls from Soham, Cambridgeshire, in August 2002, arguing that in the five years up to 1970 when the death penalty was suspended, the national murder rate had more than doubled.
### Environmental and science issues {#environmental_and_science_issues}
She is a committed animal lover and one of the several Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on the hunting of foxes. Widdecombe was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose David Cameron\'s plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.
In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue of climate change, but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe. In 2008, she wrote that her doubts had been \"crystalised\" by Nigel Lawson\'s book *An Appeal to Reason*; in 2014, she likened Lawson\'s difficulty in getting the book published to the book-burnings in Nazi Germany. Later in 2008, Widdecombe claimed that the \"science of climate change is robustly disputed\", then, in 2009, that \"There is no climate change, hasn\'t anybody looked out of their window recently?\" She was one of the five MPs who voted against the Climate Change Act 2008.
The previous year, she voted to support a parliamentary motion in favour of homeopathy, disagreeing with the Science and Technology Committee\'s Report on the subject.
## Controversies
In 2009, she partially defended Carol Thatcher\'s use of the racial slur \'golliwog\' on *Any Questions?*, saying: \"There is a generation to whom a golliwog is merely a toy, a generation which was much endeared by its golliwogs which grew up with them on jam jars \... and there is a generation, a new generation for whom that word is deeply offensive and one does have to make I think some allowance for the fact.\" In December 2019, WhatsApp conversations between her and Brexit Party activists were leaked to the *Plymouth Herald* which showed Widdecombe using the term amid rumours party campaign funding was being diverted away from Plymouth ahead of the general election of that year. Widdecombe said: \"Yes, I threw all my toys of the pram. Bears and gollywogs flying everywhere!!\"
In 2019 Widdecombe defended the comments she made in a 2012 article that supported \"gay conversion\" therapy. She told Sky News that science may yet \"provide an answer\" to the question of whether people can \"switch sexuality\". Following Widdecombe\'s apparent endorsement of conversion therapy, at least one venue, the Landmark theatre in Ilfracombe, Devon, cancelled a performance of her one-woman show.
Widdecombe and two other Brexit Party figures were criticised for previous appearances on the David Icke-affiliated *Richie Allen Show*, which has been accused of promoting Holocaust denial and antisemitic conspiracy theories about the Rothschild family and Zionism. Widdecombe appeared three times between August 2017 and April 2019 and was described as an \"old friend of the show\" by the host during one appearance. Widdecombe told *Jewish Chronicle* that she agreed to appear to discuss Brexit, and that she \"had never heard of the *Richie Allen Show* until I agreed to go on\" and distanced herself from its antisemitic content by, among other things, pointing to her membership of the Conservative Friends of Israel, B\'nai B\'rith event speeches, and her novel *An Act of Treachery*, which she said is set during the Holocaust.
Widdecombe was elected as a Member of the European Parliament for the Brexit Party on 23 May 2019 in the European elections. On 3 July 2019 she used her maiden speech in Strasbourg to compare Brexit to slaves revolting against their owners and to a colonised country rising up against occupying forces, a stance which was criticised by members of both the European Parliament and the British House of Commons.
## Media work and appearances {#media_work_and_appearances}
In 2002 she took part in the ITV programme *Celebrity Fit Club*. Also in 2002 she took part in a Louis Theroux television documentary, depicting her life, both in and out of politics. In March 2004 she briefly became *The Guardian* newspaper\'s agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview. In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of *The Widdecombe Project*, an agony aunt television programme. In 2005, she appeared in a new series of *Celebrity Fit Club*, this time as an agony aunt. Also in 2005, she presented the show *Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue* in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK. In 2005, she appeared in a discussion programme on Five to discuss who had been England\'s greatest monarch since the Norman Conquest; her choice of monarch was Charles II.
She was the guest host of news quiz *Have I Got News for You* twice, in 2006 and 2007. Her first appearance as guest host, in 2006, was widely regarded as a success. Following her second appearance, Widdecombe said she would never appear on the show again because of comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr which she considered filth, though she called regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton \"the fastest wits in showbusiness\". Merton later revealed that he thought Widdecombe had been \"the worst ever presenter\" of the show, particularly on her second appearance where Merton claimed she \"thought she was Victoria Wood\".
In 2007 she awarded the *University Challenge* trophy to the winners. In the same year, she appeared in \"The Sound of Drums\", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama *Doctor Who*, endorsing the Master\'s Prime Minister campaign. In 2007 and 2008 Widdecombe fronted a television series called *Ann Widdecombe Versus*, on ITV1, in which she spoke to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. In 2007 she talked about prostitution, social benefits, and truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which she travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs.
In 2009, Widdecombe appeared with Archbishop John Onaiyekan in an \"Intelligence Squared\" debate in which they defended the motion that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Arguing against the motion were Stephen Fry and Christopher Hitchens, who won the debate overall.
In October 2010, she appeared on BBC One\'s *Strictly Come Dancing*, partnered by Anton du Beke, winning the support of some viewers despite low marks from the judges. After nine weeks of routines strongly flavoured by comedy, the couple was eliminated, in the bottom two. In 2011 Widdecombe played the Lord Mayoress in an episode of Sooty.
In 2012, Widdecombe hosted the 30 one-hour episodes of *Cleverdicks*, a quiz show for the Sky Atlantic channel. In April 2012 Widdecombe presented an hour-long documentary for BBC Radio 5 Live, *Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates*, looking at how the British attitude to alcohol consumption had changed over the previous few years. Widdecombe was in a *Strictly Come Dancing* special in Children in Need\'s 2012 appeal night. On 4 November 2012, Widdecombe guest-hosted one episode of BBC\'s *Songs of Praise* programme about singleness.
In October 2014, she appeared in the BBC series *Celebrity Antiques Road Trip* with expert Mark Stacey.
Widdecombe took part in a four-part BBC One television series *24 Hours in the Past*, along with Colin Jackson, Alistair McGowan, Miquita Oliver, Tyger Drew-Honey and Zoe Lucker in April and May 2015, involving experiencing life as workers in a dustyard, coachhouse, pottery, and as workhouse inmates in 1840s Britain. She took part in an episode of *Tipping Point: Lucky Stars* in 2016. In 2017, Widdecombe took part in ITV\'s *Sugar Free Farm*.
In January 2018, Widdecombe participated in the Celebrity Big Brother twenty-first series; she was criticised over her comments regarding the Harvey Weinstein controversy and comments perceived to be anti-LGBT to her fellow housemates, most notably to drag queen Courtney Act (Shane Jenek). She finished the competition in second place, behind Jenek.
In 2019 Widdecombe appeared on the new celebrity version of *The Crystal Maze*, where alongside Sunetra Sarker, Wes Nelson, Matthew Wright and Nikki Sanderson, she won money for Stand Up to Cancer.
In 2020 Widdecombe travelled to Norway for three days to visit Halden Prison, for the documentary *The World\'s Most Luxurious Prison*.
## Stage acting career {#stage_acting_career}
Following her retirement, Widdecombe made her stage debut, on 9 December 2011, at the Orchard Theatre, Dartford in the Christmas pantomime *Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs*, alongside *Strictly Come Dancing* judge Craig Revel Horwood. In April 2012, she had a ten-minute non-singing cameo part in Gaetano Donizetti\'s comic opera *La Fille du Regiment*, playing the Duchesse de Crackentorp. Widdecombe reprised her pantomime performance, again with Horwood, at the Swan Theatre, High Wycombe in December 2012.
Widdecombe stepped in at short notice to play the Evil Queen in *Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs*, which was published by the Brothers Grimm in 1812, at Bridlington Spa in December 2016. She replaced injured Lorraine Chase. This was Widdecombe\'s first appearance as a pantomime \'baddie\'; a role she told the press she had always hoped for.
In December 2017 Widdecombe played the Empress of China in the pantomime *Aladdin* at the Marina Theatre in Lowestoft.
## Personal life and family {#personal_life_and_family}
Until her retirement following the 2010 general election, Widdecombe divided her time between her two homes -- one in London and one in the countryside village of Sutton Valence, Kent, in her constituency. She sold both upon retiring at the next general election. She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita\'s death, on 25 April 2007, aged 95. In March 2008, she bought a house in Haytor Vale, on Dartmoor in Devon, where she retired. Her brother, Malcolm (1937--2010), who was an Anglican canon in Bristol, retired in May 2009 and died in October 2010. Her nephew, Roger Widdecombe, is an Anglican priest. She has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least \"one sexual relationship\", to which Widdecombe replied: \"Be careful, that\'s the way you get sued\". When interviewer Jenni Murray asked if she had ever had a sexual relationship, Widdecombe laughed \"it\'s nobody else\'s business\".
A 2001 report in *The Guardian* said that she had had a three-year romance while studying at the University of Oxford; Widdecombe confirmed this in January 2018 on the UK reality TV show *Big Brother*, explaining that she had ended the romance in order to prioritise her career.
Widdecombe has a fondness for cats and many other animals such as foxes; a section of her website, the *Widdyweb*, is about the pet cats she has lived with. Widdecombe adopted two goats at the Buttercups Goat Sanctuary in Boughton Monchelsea near Maidstone. In an interview, Widdecombe talked about her appreciation of music, despite describing herself as \"pretty well tone-deaf\".
Outside politics she writes novels, and a weekly column for the *Daily Express*.
In January 2011 Widdecombe was President of the North of England Education Conference in Blackpool, and gave a speech there supporting selective education and opposing the ban on new grammar schools being built. She also became a patron of The Grace Charity for M.E.
In April 2012 Widdecombe said that she was writing her autobiography, which she described as \"rude about all and sundry, but an amount of truth is always necessary\". Her autobiography *Strictly Ann: The Autobiography*, was published in 2013, and was variously described as \"forthright\", \"candid\", even \"rude\".
Widdecombe is a patron of the charity Safe Haven for Donkeys in the Holy Land (SHADH) and in 2014 visited the SHADH Donkey Sanctuary in the West Bank.
### Religious views {#religious_views}
Widdecombe became an Anglican in her 30s, after a period of being an agnostic following her departure from religious schooling. She converted to Catholicism in 1993 after leaving the Church of England, explaining to reporters from the *New Statesman*:
: I left the Church of England because there was a huge bundle of straw. The ordination of women was the last straw, but it was only one of many. For years I had been disillusioned by the Church of England\'s compromising on everything. The Catholic Church doesn\'t care if something is unpopular.
In October 2006, she pledged to boycott British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her Christian cross, until the company reversed the suspension.
In 2010, Widdecombe turned down the offer to be Britain\'s next ambassador to the Holy See, being prevented from accepting by suffering a detached retina. She was made a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI for services to politics and public life on 31 January 2013.
## Honours
- Widdecombe was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony held at Canterbury Cathedral on 30 January 2009.
- She was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ) by the University of Birmingham on 5 July 2012.
- : Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (DSG) (2013)
## Selected publications {#selected_publications}
### Fiction
- 2000: *The Clematis Tree*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN|0-297-64572-2}}`{=mediawiki}
- 2002: *An Act of Treachery*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN|0-297-64573-0}}`{=mediawiki}
- 2005: *Father Figure*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN|0-297-82962-9}}`{=mediawiki}
- 2005: *An Act of Peace*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson `{{ISBN|0-297-82958-0}}`{=mediawiki}
### Non-fiction {#non_fiction}
- 1999: *Inspired and Outspoken: the collected speeches of Ann Widdecombe*; edited by John Simmons, with a biographical preface by Nick Kochan. London: Politico\'s Publishing `{{ISBN|1-902301-22-6}}`{=mediawiki}
- 2004: *The Mass is a Mess*, with Martin Kochanski. London: Catholic Writers\' Guild
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Alexandrine
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**Alexandrine** is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line\'s name derives from its use in the Medieval French *Roman d\'Alexandre* of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in *Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne*. The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a metrical pause or word break, which may or may not be realized as a stronger syntactic break):
`o o o o o o | o o o o o o`\
\
`o=any syllable; |=caesura`
However, no tradition remains this simple. Each applies additional constraints (such as obligatory stress or nonstress on certain syllables) and options (such as a permitted or required additional syllable at the end of one or both hemistichs). Thus a line that is metrical in one tradition may be unmetrical in another.
Where the alexandrine has been adopted, it has frequently served as the heroic verse form of that language or culture, English being a notable exception.
## Scope of the term {#scope_of_the_term}
The term \"alexandrine\" may be used with greater or lesser rigour. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine. Preminger *et al*. allow a broader scope: \"Strictly speaking, the term \'alexandrine\' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French.\" Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae.
## French
Although alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century, they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the *décasyllabe* and *octosyllabe* for cultural prominence and use in various genres. \"The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century.\" It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy. The structure of the classical French alexandrine is
`o o o o o S | o o o o o S (e)`\
\
`S=stressed syllable; (e)=optional `*`mute e`*
Classical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes, though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common.
Victor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure. While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (*alexandrin ternaire*) with this structure:
`o o o S | o o ¦ o S | o o o S (e)`\
\
`|=strong caesura; ¦=word break`
The Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae. However, at no point did the newer line *replace* the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem. This loosening process eventually led to *vers libéré* and finally to *vers libre*.
## English
In English verse, \"alexandrine\" is typically used to mean \"iambic hexameter\":
`× / × / × / ¦ × / × / × / (×)`\
\
`/=`*`ictus`*`, a strong syllabic position; ×=`*`nonictus`*\
`¦=often a mandatory or predominant caesura, but depends upon the author`
Whereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English.
Though English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Philip Sidney, and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton\'s *Poly-Olbion* and Robert Browning\'s *Fifine at the Fair*, they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness. Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter\'s measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line.
The strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from *Poly-Olbion*, which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized `¦`) in the first line:
Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps\' melodious strings Sung `{{not a typo|th'ancient}}`{=mediawiki} Heroes\' deeds (the monuments of Kings) And in your dreadful verse `{{not a typo|ingrav'd}}`{=mediawiki} the prophecies, The agèd world\'s descents, and genealogies; (lines 31-34)
The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare\'s blank verse). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet. In his *Essay on Criticism*, Alexander Pope denounced (and parodied) the excessive and unskillful use of this practice:
Then at the last and only couplet fraught With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. (lines 354-357)
## Other languages {#other_languages}
### Spanish
The Spanish *verso alejandrino* is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine. Its structure is:
`o o o o o S o | o o o o o S o`
It was used beginning about 1200 for *mester de clerecía* (clerical verse), typically occurring in the *cuaderna vía*, a stanza of four *alejandrinos* all with a single end-rhyme.
The *alejandrino* was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible *arte mayor*. Juan Ruiz\'s Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of *cuaderna vía*, though other verse forms also appear in the work.
### Dutch
The mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot. From the Low Countries the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures.
### German
Similarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice --- and German poets followed Opitz. The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque.
### Polish
Unlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line:
`Latin goliardic: o o o s S s s | o o o s S s`\
`Polish alexandrine: o o o o o S s | o o o s S s`\
\
`s=unstressed syllable`
Though looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works.
### Czech
The Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactylic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures:
`iambic hexameter: s S ``s S s`` S | s S ``s S s`` S ``(s)`\
`dactylic tetrameter: S s ``s S s`` s | S s ``s S s`` s ``(s)`\
`Czech alexandrine: o o ``s S s`` o | o o ``s S s`` o ``(s)`
### Hungarian
Hungarian metrical verse may be written either syllabically (the older and more traditional style, known as \"national\") or quantitatively. One of the national lines has a 6+6 structure:
`o o o o o o | o o o o o o`
Although deriving from native folk versification, it is possible that this line, and the related 6-syllable line, were influenced by Latin or Romance examples. When employed in 4-line or 8-line stanzas and rhyming in couplets, this is called the Hungarian alexandrine; it is the Hungarian heroic verse form. Beginning with the 16th-century verse of Bálint Balassi, this became the dominant Hungarian verse form.
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Alberto Giacometti
|
**Alberto Giacometti** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|dʒ|æ|k|ə|ˈ|m|ɛ|t|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|USalso|ˌ|dʒ|ɑː|k|-}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|alˈbɛrto dʒakoˈmetti|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 10 October 1901 -- 11 January 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman and printmaker, who was one of the most important sculptors of the 20th century. His work was particularly influenced by artistic styles such as Cubism and Surrealism. Philosophical questions about the human condition, as well as existential and phenomenological debates played a significant role in his work.
Beginning in 1922, he lived and worked mainly in Paris but regularly visited his hometown Borgonovo to see his family and work on his art. Around 1935, he gave up on his Surrealist influences to pursue a more deepened analysis of figurative compositions.
Giacometti wrote texts for periodicals and exhibition catalogues and recorded his thoughts and memories in notebooks and diaries. His critical nature led to self-doubt about his own work and his self-perceived inability to do justice to his own artistic vision. His insecurities nevertheless remained a powerful motivating artistic force throughout his entire life.
Between 1938 and 1944 Giacometti\'s sculptures had a maximum height of seven centimeters (2.75 inches). Their small size reflected the actual distance between the artist\'s position and his model. In this context he self-critically stated: \"But wanting to create from memory what I had seen, to my terror the sculptures became smaller and smaller\".
After World War II, Giacometti created his most famous sculptures: his extremely tall and slender figurines. These sculptures were subject to his individual viewing experience---between an imaginary yet real, a tangible yet inaccessible space.
In Giacometti\'s whole body of work, his painting constitutes only a small part. After 1957, however, his figurative paintings were equally as present as his sculptures. The almost monochrome paintings of his late work do not refer to any other artistic styles of modernity.
## Early life {#early_life}
thumb\|left\|upright 1.3\|\"Sick boy in bed\" (Alberto), by Giovanni Giacometti Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, Switzerland, the eldest of four children of Giovanni Giacometti, a well-known post-Impressionist painter, and Annetta Giacometti-Stampa. He was a descendant of Protestant refugees escaping the inquisition. Coming from an artistic background, he was interested in art from an early age and was encouraged by his father and godfather.
Alberto attended the Geneva School of Fine Arts. His brothers Diego (1902--1985) and Bruno (1907--2012) would go on to become artists and architects as well. Additionally, his cousin Zaccaria Giacometti, later professor of constitutional law and chancellor of the University of Zurich, grew up together with them, having been orphaned at the age of 12 in 1905.
## Career
thumb\|upright 1.5\|Giacometti at work. In 1922, he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with Cubism and Surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading Surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Miró, Max Ernst, Picasso, Bror Hjorth, and Balthus.
Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the sitter\'s gaze. He preferred models he was close to---his sister and the artist Isabel Rawsthorne (then known as Isabel Delmer). This was followed by a phase in which his statues of Isabel became stretched out; her limbs elongated.
Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, \"he would make your head look like the blade of a knife\". thumb\|upright 1.4\|Giacometti sculpting his wife Annette During World War II, Giacometti took refuge in Switzerland. There, in 1946, he met Annette Arm, a secretary for the Red Cross. They married in 1949.
After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. For the remainder of Giacometti\'s life, Annette was his main female model. His paintings underwent a parallel procedure. The figures appear isolated and severely attenuated, as the result of continuous reworking.
He frequently revisited his subjects: one of his favourite models was his younger brother Diego, with whom he shared his studio in Paris.
## Later years {#later_years}
In 1958 Giacometti was asked to create a monumental sculpture for the Chase Manhattan Bank building in New York, which was beginning construction. Although he had for many years \"harbored an ambition to create work for a public square\", he \"had never set foot in New York, and knew nothing about life in a rapidly evolving metropolis. Nor had he ever laid eyes on an actual skyscraper\", according to his biographer James Lord. Giacometti\'s work on the project resulted in the four figures of standing women---his largest sculptures---entitled *Grande femme debout* I through IV (1960). The commission was never completed, however, because Giacometti was unsatisfied by the relationship between the sculpture and the site, and abandoned the project.
In 1962, Giacometti was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame.
Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328561.jpg Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328562.jpg
Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, *Giacometti -- The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust* (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970.
In his later years Giacometti\'s works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. As his last work he prepared the text for the book *Paris sans fin*, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived.
## Artistic analysis {#artistic_analysis}
thumb\|upright 1.5\|Alberto Giacometti\
Photo by Henri Cartier-Bresson
Regarding Giacometti\'s sculptural technique and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: \"The rough, eroded, heavily worked surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique. Reduced, as they are, to their very core, these figures evoke lone trees in winter that have lost their foliage. Within this style, Giacometti would rarely deviate from the three themes that preoccupied him---the walking man; the standing, nude woman; and the bust---or all three, combined in various groupings*.*\"
In a letter to Pierre Matisse, Giacometti wrote: \"Figures were never a compact mass but like a transparent construction\". In the letter, Giacometti writes about how he looked back at the realist, classical busts of his youth with nostalgia, and tells the story of the existential crisis which precipitated the style he became known for.
\"\[I rediscovered\] the wish to make compositions with figures. For this I had to make (quickly I thought; in passing), one or two studies from nature, just enough to understand the construction of a head, of a whole figure, and in 1935 I took a model. This study should take, I thought, two weeks and then I could realize my compositions\...I worked with the model all day from 1935 to 1940\...Nothing was as I imagined. A head, became for me an object completely unknown and without dimensions.\"
Since Giacometti achieved exquisite realism with facility when he was executing busts in his early adolescence, Giacometti\'s difficulty in re-approaching the figure as an adult is generally understood as a sign of existential struggle for meaning, rather than as a technical deficit.
Giacometti was a key player in the Surrealist art movement, but his work resists easy categorization. Some describe it as formalist, others argue it is expressionist or otherwise having to do with what Deleuze calls \"blocs of sensation\" (as in Deleuze\'s analysis of Francis Bacon). Even after his excommunication from the Surrealist group,`{{Explain|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were an expression of his emotional response to the subject. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen. He once said that he was sculpting not the human figure but \"the shadow that is cast\".
Philosopher William Barrett in *Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy* (1962), argues that the attenuated forms of Giacometti\'s figures reflect the view of 20th century modernism and existentialism that modern life is increasingly empty and devoid of meaning.`{{failed verification|reason=Barrett does indeed mention Giacometti, but it is not at all clear how this paraphrase is related to what Barrett actually says. Either replace this paraphrase with one from a reliable source or explicitly quote Barrett where he mentions Giacometti.|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
A 2011--2012 exhibition at the Pinacothèque de Paris focused on showing how Giacometti was inspired by Etruscan art.
### *Walking Man* and other human figures {#walking_man_and_other_human_figures}
Giacometti is best known for the bronze sculptures of tall, thin human figures, made in the years 1945 to 1960. Giacometti was influenced by the impressions he took from the people hurrying in the big city. People in motion he saw as \"a succession of moments of stillness\".
The emaciated figures are often interpreted as an expression of the existential fear, insignificance and loneliness of mankind. The mood of fear in the period of the 1940s and the Cold War is reflected in this figure. It feels sad, lonely and difficult to relate to.
## Death
thumb\|upright 1.6 Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents.
With no children, Annette Giacometti became the sole holder of his property rights. She worked to collect a full listing of authenticated works by her late husband, gathering documentation on the location and manufacture of his works and working to fight the rising number of counterfeited works. When she died in 1993, the Fondation Giacometti was set up by the French state.
In May 2007 the executor of his widow\'s estate, former French foreign minister Roland Dumas, was convicted of illegally selling Giacometti\'s works to a top auctioneer, Jacques Tajan, who was also convicted. Both were ordered to pay €850,000 to the [Alberto and Annette Giacometti Foundation](https://www.fondation-giacometti.fr/en).
## Legacy
### Exhibitions
Giacometti\'s work has been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta (1970); Centre Pompidou, Paris (2007--2008); Pushkin Museum, Moscow *\"The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti\"* (2008); Kunsthal Rotterdam (2008); Fondation Beyeler, Basel (2009); Buenos Aires (2012); Kunsthalle Hamburg (2013); Pera Museum, Istanbul (2015); Tate Modern, London (2017); Vancouver Art Gallery, *\"Alberto Giacometti: A Line Through Time\"* (2019); National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin (2022).
The National Portrait Gallery, London\'s first solo exhibition of Giacometti\'s work, *Pure Presence* opened to five star reviews on 13 October 2015 (to 10 January 2016, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of the artist\'s death). From April 2019, the Prado Museum in Madrid, has been highlighting Giacometti in an exhibition.
### Public collections {#public_collections}
Giacometti\'s work is displayed in numerous public collections, including: `{{div col}}`{=mediawiki}
- Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo
- Art Institute of Chicago
- Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland
- Bechtler Museum of Modern Art, Charlotte, North Carolina
- Berggruen Museum, Berlin
- Botero Museum, Bogotá, Colombia
- Bündner Kunstmuseum Chur, Switzerland
- Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh
- Detroit Institute of Arts
- Fondation Beyeler, Basel
- Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.
- Holstebro, Denmark
- J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California
- Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University
- Kunsthaus Zürich
- Kunstmuseum Basel
- Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, South Korea
- Los Angeles County Museum of Art
- Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark
- Minneapolis Institute of Art
- Museum of Modern Art, New York
- Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
- National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
- National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
- North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina
- Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia
- Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona
- Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
- Tate, London
- Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Iran
- University of Michigan Museum of Art
- Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford
- Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
- Vancouver Art Gallery
- Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven
### Art foundations {#art_foundations}
The Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, having received a bequest from Alberto Giacometti\'s widow Annette, holds a collection of circa 5,000 works, frequently displayed around the world through exhibitions and long-term loans. A public interest institution, the Foundation was created in 2003 and aims at promoting, disseminating, preserving and protecting Alberto Giacometti\'s work.
The Alberto-Giacometti-Stiftung established in Zürich in 1965, holds a smaller collection of works acquired from the collection of the Pittsburgh industrialist G. David Thompson.
### Notable sales {#notable_sales}
According to record Giacometti has sold the two most expensive sculptures in history.
In November 2000 a Giacometti bronze, *Grande Femme Debout I*, sold for \$14.3 million. *Grande Femme Debout II* was bought by the Gagosian Gallery for \$27.4 million at Christie\'s auction in New York City on 6 May 2008.
*L\'Homme qui marche I*, a life-sized bronze sculpture of a man, became one of the most expensive works of art, and at the time was the most expensive sculpture ever sold at auction. It was in February 2010, when it sold for £65 million (US\$104.3 million) at Sotheby\'s, London. *Grande tête mince*, a large bronze bust, sold for \$53.3 million just three months later. `{{multiple image
| align = right
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| width =
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}}`{=mediawiki} *L\'Homme au doigt* (*Pointing Man*) sold for \$126 million (£81,314,455.32), or \$141.3 million with fees, in Christie\'s May 2015, \"Looking Forward to the Past\" sale in New York City. The work had been in the same private collection for 45 years. As of now it is the most expensive sculpture sold at auction.
After being showcased on the BBC programme *Fake or Fortune*, a plaster sculpture, titled *Gazing Head*, sold in 2019 for half a million pounds.
In April 2021, Giacometti\'s small-scale bronze sculpture, Nu debout II (1953), was sold from a Japanese private collection and went for £1.5 million (\$2 million), against an estimate of £800,000 (\$1.1 million).
### Other legacy {#other_legacy}
Giacometti created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
According to a lecture by Michael Peppiatt at Cambridge University on 8 July 2010, Giacometti, who had a friendship with author/playwright Samuel Beckett, created a tree for the set of a 1961 Paris production of *Waiting for Godot*.
Giacometti and his sculpture *L\'Homme qui marche I* appear on the former 100 Swiss franc banknote.
In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900--2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Giacometti\'s sculptural style has featured in advertisements for various financial institutions, starting in 1987 with the *Shoes* ad for Royal Bank of Scotland directed by Gerry Anderson.
The 2017 movie *Final Portrait* retells the story of his friendship with the biographer James Lord. Giacometti is played by Geoffrey Rush.
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Anthem
|
An **anthem** is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work (still frequently seen in Sacred Harp and other types of shape note singing) and still more particularly to a specific form of liturgical music. In this sense, its use began c. 1550 in English-speaking churches; it uses English language words, in contrast to the originally Roman Catholic \'motet\' which sets a Latin text.
## Etymology
*Anthem* is derived from the Greek *ἀντίφωνα* (*antíphōna*) via Old English *antefn*. Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of the singing. The adjectival form is \"anthemic\".
## History
Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form. Anthems may be described as \"verse\", \"full\", or \"full with verse\", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both. Another way of describing an anthem is that it is a piece of music written specifically to fit a certain accompanying text, and it is often difficult to make any other text fit that same melodic arrangement. It also often changes melody and/or meter, frequently multiple times within a single song, and is sung straight through from start to finish, without repeating the melody for following verses like a normal song (although certain sections may be repeated when marked). An example of an anthem with multiple meter shifts, fuguing, and repeated sections is \"Claremont\", or \"Vital Spark of Heav\'nly Flame\". Another well known example is William Billing\'s \"Easter Anthem\", also known as \"The Lord Is Risen Indeed!\" after the opening lines. This anthem is still one of the more popular songs in the Sacred Harp tune book.
The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic \"votive antiphon\" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints.
### Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context {#notable_composers_of_liturgical_anthems_historic_context}
During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric \"In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem\" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow, with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration. In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold. In the 19th century, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been written since then, generally by specialists in organ music rather than composers, and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually written anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions: for instance Edward Elgar\'s 1912 \"Great is the Lord\" and 1914 \"Give unto the Lord\" (both with orchestral accompaniment); Benjamin Britten\'s 1943 \"Rejoice in the Lamb\" (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece); and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams\'s 1952 \"O Taste and See\" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should only be in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.
## Types
The word \"anthem\" is commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson\'s \"Irresponsible Hate Anthem\", Silverchair\'s \"Anthem for the Year 2000\", and Toto\'s \"Child\'s Anthem\".
### National anthem {#national_anthem}
A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of a country\'s people, recognized either by that state\'s government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America, Central Asia, and Europe tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a simpler fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies\' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states.
### Flag anthem {#flag_anthem}
A flag anthem is generally a patriotic musical composition that extols and praises a flag, typically one of a country, in which case it is sometimes called a national flag anthem. It is often either sung or performed during or immediately before the raising or lowering of a flag during a ceremony. Most countries use their respective national anthems or some other patriotic song for this purpose. However, some countries, particularly in South America, use a separate flag anthem for such purposes. Not all countries have flag anthems. Some used them in the past but no longer do so, such as Iran, China, and South Africa. Flag anthems can be officially codified in law, or unofficially recognized by custom and convention. In some countries, the flag anthem may be just another song, and in others, it may be an official symbol of the state akin to a second national anthem, such as in Taiwan.
### Sports anthem {#sports_anthem}
Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen\'s \"We Are the Champions\" and \"We Will Rock You\", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League.
### Shared anthems {#shared_anthems}
Although anthems are used to distinguish states and territories, there are instances of shared anthems. \"Nkosi Sikelel\' iAfrika\" became a pan-African liberation anthem and was later adopted as the national anthem of five countries in Africa including Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe after independence. Zimbabwe and Namibia have since adopted new national anthems. Since 1997, the South African national anthem has been a hybrid song combining new English lyrics with extracts of \"Nkosi Sikelel\' iAfrika\" and the former state anthem \"Die Stem van Suid-Afrika\".
For North and South Korea, the folk song *Arirang* is considered a shared anthem for both countries. For example, it was played when the two Koreas marched together during the 2018 Winter Olympics.
\"Hymn to Liberty\" is the longest national anthem in the world by length of text. In 1865, the first three stanzas and later the first two officially became the national anthem of Greece and later also that of the Republic of Cyprus.
\"Forged from the Love of Liberty\" was composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958--1962) and was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962.
\"Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada\" is the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau and was also the national anthem of Cape Verde until 1996.
\"Oben am jungen Rhein\", the national anthem of Liechtenstein, is set to the tune of \"God Save the King/Queen\". Other anthems that have used the same melody include \"Heil dir im Siegerkranz\" (Germany), \"Kongesangen\" (Norway), \"My Country, \'Tis of Thee\" (United States), \"Rufst du, mein Vaterland\" (Switzerland), \"E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua\" (Hawai`{{okina}}`{=mediawiki}i), and \"The Prayer of Russians\".
The Estonian anthem \"Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm\" is set to a melody composed in 1848 by Fredrik (Friedrich) Pacius which is also that of the national anthem of Finland: \"*italic=no*\" (\"*italic=no*\" in Swedish). It is also considered to be the ethnic anthem for the Livonian people with lyrics \"Min izāmō, min sindimō\" (\"My Fatherland, my native land\").
\"Hey, Slavs\" is dedicated to Slavic peoples. Its first lyrics were written in 1834 under the title \"Hey, Slovaks\" (\"Hej, Slováci\") by Samuel Tomášik and it has since served as the ethnic anthem of the Pan-Slavic movement, the organizational anthem of the Sokol physical education and political movement, the national anthem of Yugoslavia and the transitional anthem of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The song is also considered to be the second, unofficial anthem of the Slovaks. Its melody is based on Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which has also been the anthem of Poland since 1926, but the Yugoslav variation is much slower and more accentuated.
Between 1991 and 1994 \"Deșteaptă-te, române!\" was the national anthem of both Romania (which adopted it in 1990) and Moldova, but in the case of the latter it was replaced by the current Moldovan national anthem, \"Limba noastră\". Between 1975 and 1977, the national anthem of Romania \"E scris pe tricolor Unire\" shared the same melody as the national anthem of Albania \"Himni i Flamurit\", which is the melody of a Romanian patriotic song \"Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire\".
The modern national anthem of Germany, \"Das Lied der Deutschen\", uses the same tune as the 19th- and early 20th-century Austro-Hungarian imperial anthem \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\".
The \"Hymn of the Soviet Union\", was used until its dissolution in 1991, and was given new words and adopted by the Russian Federation in 2000 to replace an instrumental national anthem that had been introduced in 1990.
\"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù\", the regional anthem of Brittany and, \"Bro Goth Agan Tasow\", the Cornish regional anthem, are sung to the same tune as that of the Welsh de-facto national anthem \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\", with similar words.
### For parts of states {#for_parts_of_states}
Some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among others, are held to be unions of several \"nations\" by various definitions. Each of the different \"nations\" may have their own anthem and these songs may or may not be officially recognized; these compositions are typically referred to as regional anthems though may be known by other names as well (e.g. \"state songs\" in the United States).
#### Austria
In Austria, the situation is similar to that in Germany. The regional anthem of Upper Austria, the \"Hoamatgsang\" (*\"Chant of the Homeland\"*), is notable as the only (official) German-language anthem written -- and sung -- entirely in dialect.
#### Belgium
In Belgium, Wallonia uses \"Le Chant des Wallons\" and Flanders uses \"De Vlaamse Leeuw\".
#### Brazil
Most of the Brazilian states have official anthems. Minas Gerais uses an adapted version of the traditional Italian song \"Vieni sul mar\" as its unofficial anthem. During the Vargas Era (1937--1945) all regional symbols including anthems were banned, but they were legalized again by the Eurico Gaspar Dutra government.
#### Canada
The Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, having been the independent Dominion of Newfoundland before 1949, also has its own regional anthem from its days as a dominion and colony of the UK, the \"Ode to Newfoundland\". It was the only Canadian province with its own anthem until 2010, when Prince Edward Island adopted the 1908 song \"The Island Hymn\" as its provincial anthem.
#### Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia had a national anthem composed of two parts, the Czech anthem followed by one verse of the Slovak one. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic adopted its own regional anthem as its national one, whereas Slovakia did so with slightly changed lyrics and an additional stanza.
#### Germany
In Germany, many of the Länder (states) have their own anthems, some of which predate the unification of Germany in 1871. A prominent example is the Hymn of Bavaria, which also has the status of an official anthem (and thus enjoys legal protection). There are also several unofficial regional anthems, like the \"Badnerlied\" and the \"Niedersachsenlied\".
#### India
Some of the states and union territories of India have officially adopted their own state anthem for use during state government functions.
#### Malaysia
All the individual states of Malaysia have their own anthems.
#### Mexico
In Mexico, after the national anthem was established in 1854, most of the states of the federation adopted their own regional anthems, which often emphasize heroes, virtues or particular landscapes. In particular, the regional anthem of Zacatecas, the \"Marcha de Zacatecas\", is one of the more well-known of Mexico\'s various regional anthems.
#### Serbia and Montenegro {#serbia_and_montenegro}
In 2004 and 2005 respectively, the Montenegrin and Serbian regions of Serbia and Montenegro adopted their own regional anthems. When the two regions both became independent sovereign states in mid-2006, their regional anthems became their national anthems.
#### Soviet Union {#soviet_union}
Fourteen of the fifteen constituent states of the Soviet Union had their own official song which was used at events connected to that region, and also written and sung in that region\'s own language. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic used the Soviet Union\'s national anthem as its regional anthem (\"The Internationale\" from 1917 to 1944 and the \"National Anthem of the Soviet Union\" from 1944 to 1990) until 1990, the last of the Soviet constituent states to do so. After the Soviet Union disbanded in the early 1990s, some of its former constituent states, now sovereign nations in their own right, retained the melodies of their old Soviet-era regional anthems until replacing them or, in some cases, still use them today.
Unlike most national anthems, few of which were composed by renowned composers, the Soviet Union\'s various regional anthems were composed by some of the best Soviet composers, including world-renowned Gustav Ernesaks (Estonia), Aram Khachaturian (Armenia), Otar Taktakishvili (Georgia), and Uzeyir Hajibeyov (Azerbaijan).
The lyrics present great similarities, all having mentions to Vladimir Lenin (and most, in their initial versions, to Joseph Stalin, the Armenian and Uzbek anthems being exceptions), to the guiding role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and to the brotherhood of the Soviet peoples, including a specific reference to the friendship of the Russian people (the Estonian, Georgian and Karelo-Finnish anthems were apparently an exception to this last rule).
Some of the Soviet regional anthems\' melodies can be sung in the Soviet Union anthem lyrics (Ukrainian and Belarus are the most fitted in this case).
Most of these regional anthems were replaced with new national ones during or after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; Belarus, Kazakhstan (until 2006), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (until 1997), and Uzbekistan kept the melodies, but with different lyrics. Russia itself had abandoned the Soviet hymn, replacing it with a tune by Glinka. However, with Vladimir Putin coming to power, the old Soviet tune was restored, with new lyrics written to it.
Like the hammer and sickle and red star, the public performance of the anthems of the Soviet Union\'s various regional anthems the national anthem of the Soviet Union itself are considered as occupation symbols as well as symbols of totalitarianism and state terror by several countries formerly either members of or occupied by the Soviet Union. Accordingly, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, and Ukraine have banned those anthems amongst other things deemed to be symbols of fascism, socialism, communism, and the Soviet Union and its republics. In Poland, dissemination of items which are "media of fascist, communist, or other totalitarian symbolism" was criminalized in 1997. However, in 2011 the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional. In contrast to this treatment of the *symbolism*, promotion of fascist, communist and other totalitarian *ideology* remains illegal. Those laws do not apply to the anthems of Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan which used the melody with different lyrics.
#### Spain
In Spain, the situation is similar to that in Austria and Germany. Unlike the national anthem, most of the anthems of the autonomous communities have words. All are official. Three prominent examples are \"Els Segadors\" of Catalonia, \"Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia\" of the Basque Country, and \"Os Pinos\" of Galicia, all written and sung in the local languages.
#### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
The United Kingdom\'s national anthem is \"God Save the King\" but its constituent countries and Crown Dependencies also have their own equivalent songs which have varying degrees of official recognition. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have anthems which are played at occasions such as sports matches and official events.
- England - \"God Save the King\" is usually presumed to be, and often played as, the English regional anthem; but \"Jerusalem\", \"I Vow To Thee, My Country\" and \"Land of Hope and Glory\" are also sung. \"Jerusalem\" is used as England\'s anthem at the Commonwealth Games.
- Scotland variously uses \"Flower of Scotland\", \"Auld Lang Syne\", and \"Scotland the Brave\" as its unofficial national anthems. \"Flower of Scotland\" is used as Scotland\'s anthem at the Commonwealth Games and international football and rugby matches.
- Wales has sung \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" since 1856 when it was written by father and son Evan and James James. The music and a Breton translation, \"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù\", were adopted by Brittany as its anthem; and there is also a Cornish version, \"Bro Goth agan Tasow\", sung alongside \"Trelawney\" as an unofficial Cornish anthem. In Wales, \"Hen Wlad fy Nhadau\" is sometimes accompanied by the hymn, \"Guide Me, O thou Great Redeemer\" (also referred to as \"Bread of Heaven\" from repeated words in its first verse), especially at rugby matches.
- Northern Ireland currently uses \"God Save the King\" as its anthem at international football matches and uses \"Danny Boy/Londonderry Air\" at the Commonwealth Games.
The Isle of Man, a Crown dependency, uses \"God Save the King\" as a Royal anthem, but also has its own local anthem, \"O Land of Our Birth\" (Manx: \"*O Halloo Nyn Ghooie*\").
#### United States {#united_states}
Although the United States has \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" as its official national anthem, all except two of its constituent states and territories also have their own regional anthem (referred to by most US states as a \"state song\"), along with Washington, DC. The two exceptions are New Jersey, which has never had an official state song, and Maryland, which rescinded \"Maryland, My Maryland\" in 2021 due to its racist language and has yet to adopt a replacement.
The state songs are selected by each state legislature, and/or state governor, as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular US state.
Some US states have more than one official state song, and may refer to some of their official songs by other names; for example, Arkansas officially has two state songs, plus a state anthem, and a state historical song. Tennessee has the most state songs, with 12 official state songs and an official bicentennial rap.
Arizona has a song that was written specifically as a state anthem in 1915, as well as the 1981 country hit \"Arizona\", which it adopted as the alternate state anthem in 1982.
Two individuals, Stephen Foster, and John Denver, have written or co-written two state songs. Foster\'s two state songs, \"Old Folks at Home\" (better known as \"Swanee Ribber\" or \"Suwannee River\"), adopted by Florida, and \"My Old Kentucky Home\" are among the best-known songs in the US On March 12, 2007, the Colorado Senate passed a resolution to make Denver\'s trademark 1972 hit \"Rocky Mountain High\" one of the state\'s two official state songs, sharing duties with its predecessor, \"Where the Columbines Grow\". On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make Denver\'s \"Take Me Home, Country Roads\" one of four official state songs of West Virginia. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014. Additionally, Woody Guthrie wrote or co-wrote two state *folk songs* -- Roll On, Columbia, Roll On and Oklahoma Hills -- but they have separate status from the official state *songs* of Washington and Oklahoma, respectively. Other well-known state songs include \"Yankee Doodle\", \"You Are My Sunshine\", \"Rocky Top\", and \"Home on the Range\"; a number of others are popular standards, including \"Oklahoma\" (from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical), Hoagy Carmichael\'s \"Georgia on My Mind\", \"Tennessee Waltz\", \"Missouri Waltz\", and \"On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away\". Many of the others are much less well-known, especially outside the state.
New Jersey has no official state song, while Virginia\'s previous state song, \"Carry Me Back to Old Virginny\", adopted in 1940, was later rescinded in 1997 due to its racist language by the Virginia General Assembly. In 2015, \"Our Great Virginia\" was made the new state song of Virginia.
Iowa (\"The Song of Iowa\") uses the tune from the song \"O Tannenbaum\" as the melody to its official state song.
#### Yugoslavia
In Yugoslavia, each of the country\'s constituent states (except for Bosnia and Herzegovina) had the right to have its own anthem, but only the Croatian one actually did so initially, later joined by the Slovene one on the brink of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Before 1989, Macedonia did not officially use a regional anthem, even though one was proclaimed during the World War II by the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM).
### International organizations {#international_organizations}
Larger entities also sometimes have anthems, in some cases known as \'international anthems\'. *Lullaby* is the official anthem of UNICEF composed by Steve Barakatt. \"The Internationale\" is the organizational anthem of various socialist movements. Before March 1944, it was also the anthem of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. ASEAN Way is the official anthem of ASEAN. The tune of the \"Ode to Joy\" from Beethoven\'s Symphony No. 9 is the official anthem of the European Union and of the Council of Europe. Let\'s All Unite and Celebrate is the official anthem of the African Union (\"Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together\").
The Olympic Movement also has its own organizational anthem. Esperanto speakers at meetings often use the song \"La Espero\" as their linguistic anthem. The first South Asian Anthem by poet-diplomat Abhay K may inspire SAARC to come up with an official SAARC Anthem.
\"Ireland\'s Call\" was commissioned as the sporting anthem of both the Ireland national rugby union team and the Ireland national rugby league team, which are composed of players from both jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, in response to dissatisfaction among Northern Ireland unionists with the use of the Irish national anthem. \"Ireland\'s Call\" has since been used by some other all-island bodies.
An international anthem also unifies a group of organizations sharing the same appellation such as the International Anthem of the Royal Golf Clubs composed by Steve Barakatt. Same applies to the European Broadcasting Union: the prelude of Te Deum in D Major by Marc-Antoine Charpentier is played before each official Eurovision and Euroradio broadcast. The prelude\'s first bars are heavily associated with the Eurovision Song Contest.
### Global anthem {#global_anthem}
Various artists have created \"Earth anthems\" for the entire planet, typically extolling the ideas of planetary consciousness. Though UNESCO have praised the idea of a global anthem, the United Nations has never adopted an official song.
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Acceleration
|
{dt} = \\frac{d\^2\\mathbf{x}}{dt\^2} \| dimension = wikidata }} `{{Classical mechanics |Fundamentals |width=20.5em}}`{=mediawiki}
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.
In mechanics, **acceleration** is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object\'s acceleration is given by the orientation of the *net* force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object\'s acceleration, as described by Newton\'s second law, is the combined effect of two causes:
- the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object --- magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force;
- that object\'s mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made --- magnitude is inversely proportional to the object\'s mass.
The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (`{{nowrap|m⋅s<sup>−2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, $\mathrm{\tfrac{m}{s^2}}$).
For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called **deceleration** or **retardation**, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralised in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed.
## Definition and properties {#definition_and_properties}
### Average acceleration {#average_acceleration}
An object\'s average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, $\Delta \mathbf{v}$, divided by the duration of the period, $\Delta t$. Mathematically, $\bar{\mathbf{a}} = \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t}.$
### Instantaneous acceleration {#instantaneous_acceleration}
Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time: $\mathbf{a} = \lim_{{\Delta t} \to 0} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}.$ As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, `{{math|'''v'''}}`{=mediawiki}, with respect to time `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki} and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, `{{math|'''x'''}}`{=mediawiki}, with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of `{{math|'''x'''}}`{=mediawiki} with respect to `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki}: $\mathbf{a} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}.$
(Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.)
By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function `{{math|''a''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} is the velocity function `{{math|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time (`{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} vs. `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki}) graph corresponds to the change of velocity. $\mathbf{\Delta v} = \int \mathbf{a} \, dt.$
Likewise, the integral of the jerk function `{{math|''j''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki}, the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time: $\mathbf{\Delta a} = \int \mathbf{j} \, dt.$
### Units
Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T^−2^. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s^−2^); or \"metre per second per second\", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second.
### Other forms {#other_forms}
An object moving in a circular motion---such as a satellite orbiting the Earth---is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing *centripetal* (directed towards the center) acceleration.
Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer.
In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body\'s center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton\'s second law): $\mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} \quad \implies \quad \mathbf{a} = \frac{\mathbf{F}}{m},$ where `{{math|'''F'''}}`{=mediawiki} is the net force acting on the body, `{{mvar|m}}`{=mediawiki} is the mass of the body, and `{{math|'''a'''}}`{=mediawiki} is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large.
## Tangential and centripetal acceleration {#tangential_and_centripetal_acceleration}
The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as: $\mathbf{v}(t) = v(t) \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} = v(t) \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(t) ,$ with `{{math|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} equal to the speed of travel along the path, and $\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} = \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} \, ,$ a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed `{{math|''v''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} and the changing direction of `{{math|'''u'''<sub>''t''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as:
$\begin{alignat}{3}
\mathbf{a} & = \frac{d \mathbf{v}}{dt} \\
& = \frac{dv}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} +v(t)\frac{d \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}}{dt} \\
& = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} + \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}\ ,
\end{alignat}$
where `{{math|'''u'''<sub>n</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle\'s trajectory (also called *the principal normal*), and `{{math|'''r'''}}`{=mediawiki} is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki}. The components
$$\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{t} = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \quad\text{and}\quad \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{c} = \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}$$ are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively.
Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet--Serret formulas.
## Special cases {#special_cases}
### Uniform acceleration {#uniform_acceleration}
*Uniform* or *constant* acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period.
A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength `{{math|g}}`{=mediawiki} (also called *acceleration due to gravity*). By Newton\'s second law the force $\mathbf{F_g}$ acting on a body is given by: $\mathbf{F_g} = m \mathbf{g}.$
Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed: $\begin{align}
\mathbf{s}(t) &= \mathbf{s}_0 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{a}t^2 = \mathbf{s}_0 + \tfrac{1}{2} \left(\mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{v}(t)\right) t \\
\mathbf{v}(t) &= \mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{a} t \\
{v^2}(t) &= {v_0}^2 + 2\mathbf{a \cdot}[\mathbf{s}(t)-\mathbf{s}_0],
\end{align}$
where
- $t$ is the elapsed time,
- $\mathbf{s}_0$ is the initial displacement from the origin,
- $\mathbf{s}(t)$ is the displacement from the origin at time $t$,
- $\mathbf{v}_0$ is the initial velocity,
- $\mathbf{v}(t)$ is the velocity at time $t$, and
- $\mathbf{a}$ is the uniform rate of acceleration.
In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth.
### Circular motion {#circular_motion}
In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant *speed* along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighbouring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle.
- For a given speed $v$, the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius $r$ of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: $a_c = \frac {v^2} {r}\,.$
- For a given angular velocity $\omega$, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius $r$. This is due to the dependence of velocity $v$ on the radius $r$. $v = \omega r.$
Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where $\mathbf{r}$ is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields $\mathbf {a_c}= -\frac{v^2}{|\mathbf {r}|}\cdot \frac{\mathbf {r}}{|\mathbf {r}|}\,.$
As usual in rotations, the speed $v$ of a particle may be expressed as an *angular speed* with respect to a point at the distance $r$ as $\omega = \frac {v}{r}.$
Thus $\mathbf {a_c}= -\omega^2 \mathbf {r}\,.$
This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed *toward* the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called \'centrifugal force\', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body\'s linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion.
In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius $r$ for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration $\alpha$, i.e., the rate of change $\alpha = \dot\omega$ of the angular speed $\omega$ times the radius $r$. That is, $a_t = r \alpha.$
The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration ($\alpha$), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector.
## Coordinate systems {#coordinate_systems}
In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as$a_x=dv_x/dt=d^2x/dt^2,$ $a_y=dv_y/dt=d^2y/dt^2.$The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as $\textbf{a}=<a_x, a_y>$. The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula as$|a|=\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2}.$In three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined as$a_z=dv_z/dt=d^2z/dt^2.$The three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as $\textbf{a}=<a_x, a_y, a_z>$ with its magnitude being determined by$|a|=\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2+a_z^2}.$
## Relation to relativity {#relation_to_relativity}
### Special relativity {#special_relativity}
The special theory of relativity describes the behaviour of objects travelling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.
As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.
### General relativity {#general_relativity}
Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration---gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all---including the force of gravity---are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.
## Conversions
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Anton Chekhov
|
thumb\|upright=.8\|Portrait of Anton Chekhov by Isaac Levitan (1886)
**Anton Pavlovich Chekhov**`{{Family name footnote|Pavlovich|Chekhov|lang=Eastern Slavic}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|tʃ|ɛ|k|ɒ|f}}`{=mediawiki}; ; 29 January 1860 -- 15 July 1904) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer, widely considered to be one of the greatest writers of all time. His career as a playwright produced four classics, and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov was a physician by profession. \"Medicine is my lawful wife,\" he once said, \"and literature is my mistress.\"
Chekhov renounced the theatre after the reception of *The Seagull* in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavski\'s Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov\'s *Uncle Vanya* and premiered his last two plays, *Three Sisters* and *The Cherry Orchard*. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a \"theatre of mood\" and a \"submerged life in the text.\" The plays that Chekhov wrote were not complex, and created a somewhat haunting atmosphere for the audience.
Chekhov began writing stories to earn money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations that influenced the evolution of the modern short story. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.
## Biography
### Childhood
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great (17 January Old Style) 29 January 1860 in Taganrog, a commercial port city on the Sea of Azov -- on Politseyskaya (Police) street, later renamed Chekhova street -- in southern Russia. He was the third of six surviving children; he had two older brothers, Alexander and Nikolai, and three younger siblings, Ivan, Maria, and Mikhail. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf and his wife, was from the village Olkhovatka (Voronezh Governorate) and ran a grocery store. He was a director of the parish choir, a devout Orthodox Christian, and a physically abusive father. Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son\'s many portraits of hypocrisy. Chekhov\'s mother, Yevgeniya (Morozova), was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels all over Russia with her cloth-merchant father. \"Our talents we got from our father,\" Chekhov recalled, \"but our soul from our mother.\"
Young Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and The Taganrog Boys Gymnasium (since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium). There he was held back for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father\'s choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word \"suffering\" to describe his childhood and recalled:
Later, in his adulthood, Chekhov criticized his brother Alexander\'s treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of their father Pavel\'s tyranny: \"Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother\'s youth. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it\'s sickening and frightening to think about it. Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool.\"
In 1876, Chekhov\'s father Pavel was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, having been cheated by a contractor named Mironov. To avoid debtor\'s prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow. Chekhov\'s mother was physically and emotionally broken by the experience.
Chekhov was left behind to sell the family\'s possessions and finish his education. He remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man by the name of Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in *The Cherry Orchard*, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers, among other jobs. He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up.
As a teenager Chekhov fell in love with the Taganrog Theatre. He attended the theatre on a regular basis and became enchanted and inspired by productions of vaudevilles, Italian operas and popular comedies.
During that time, Chekhov read widely and analytically, including the works of Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer, and wrote a full-length comic drama, *Fatherless*, which his brother Alexander dismissed as \"an inexcusable though innocent fabrication.\" Chekhov also experienced a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling in Taganrog and moved in with his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University.
### Early writings {#early_writings}
Chekhov then assumed responsibility for the whole family. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as \"Antosha Chekhonte\" (Антоша Чехонте) and \"Man Without Spleen\" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for *Oskolki* (*Fragments*), owned by Nikolai Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Chekhov\'s tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction. thumb\|upright=.7\|left\|Anton Chekhov in 1880s
In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge.
In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened, but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends. He confessed to Leykin, \"I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues.\" He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations.
Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, *Novoye Vremya* (*New Times*), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid a rate per line double Leykin\'s and allowed Chekhov three times the space. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov\'s closest.
Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story \"The Huntsman\" that \"You have *real* talent, a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation.\" He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality.
Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him \"like a thunderbolt\" and confessed, \"I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires---mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself.\" The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Grigorovich\'s advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1888, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection *At Dusk* (*V Sumerkakh*) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize \"for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth.\"
### Turning points {#turning_points}
In 1887, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine, which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. On his return, he began the novella-length short story \"*The Steppe*\", which he called \"something rather odd and much too original\", and which was eventually published in *Severny Vestnik* (*The Northern Herald*). In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, and his companions, a priest and a merchant. \"The Steppe\" has been called a \"dictionary of Chekhov\'s poetics\", and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.
In autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being *Ivanov*, written in a fortnight and produced that November. Though Chekhov found the experience \"sickening\" and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov\'s bemusement, as a work of originality.
Although Chekhov did not fully realise it at the time, Chekhov\'s plays, such as *The Seagull* (written in 1895), *Uncle Vanya* (written in 1897), *The Three Sisters* (written in 1900), and *The Cherry Orchard* (written in 1903) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day: an effort to recreate and express the realism of how people truly act and speak with each other. This realistic manifestation of the human condition may engender in audiences reflection upon what it means to be human.
This philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast, but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day. Mikhail Chekhov considered *Ivanov* a key moment in his brother\'s intellectual development and literary career. From this period comes an observation of Chekhov\'s that has become known as *Chekhov\'s gun*, a dramatic principle that requires that every element in a narrative be necessary and irreplaceable, and that everything else be removed.
The death of Chekhov\'s brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced *A Dreary Story*, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose. Mikhail Chekhov recorded his brother\'s depression and restlessness after Nikolai\'s death. Mikhail was researching prisons at that time as part of his law studies. Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform.
### Sakhalin
In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer across Siberia to the Russian Far East and the *katorga*, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan. He spent three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half-month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best. His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.
Chekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. He wrote, \"There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man\'s degradation.\" He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example:
Chekhov later concluded that charity was not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as *Ostrov Sakhalin* (*The Island of Sakhalin*), a work of social science, not literature. Chekhov found literary expression for the \"Hell of Sakhalin\" in his long short story \"The Murder\", the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home. Chekhov\'s writing on Sakhalin, especially the traditions and habits of the Gilyak people, is the subject of a sustained meditation and analysis in Haruki Murakami\'s novel *1Q84*. It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney, \"Chekhov on Sakhalin\" (collected in the volume *Station Island*). Rebecca Gould has compared Chekhov\'s book on Sakhalin to Katherine Mansfield\'s *Urewera Notebook* (1907). In 2013, the Wellcome Trust-funded play \'A Russian Doctor\', performed by Andrew Dawson and researched by Professor Jonathan Cole, explored Chekhov\'s experiences on Sakhalin Island.
### Melikhovo
Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother\'s medical commitments:
Chekhov\'s expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. However, Chekhov\'s work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants\' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story \"Peasants\". Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: \"Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women.\" In 1893/1894 he worked as a Zemstvo doctor in Zvenigorod, which has numerous sanatoriums and rest homes. A local hospital is named after him.
In 1894, Chekhov began writing his play *The Seagull* in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since he had moved to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended the orchard and the pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he \"looked after \... as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his *Three Sisters*, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years.\"
The first night of *The Seagull*, at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on 17 October 1896, was a fiasco, as the play was booed by the audience, stinging Chekhov into renouncing the theatre. But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Konstantin Stanislavski to direct a new production for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898. Stanislavski\'s attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text, and restored Chekhov\'s interest in playwriting. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged *Uncle Vanya*, which Chekhov had completed in 1896. In the last decades of his life he became an atheist.
### Yalta
In March 1897, Chekhov suffered a major haemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow. With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic, where doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.
After his father\'s death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa (The White Dacha), into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his \"hot Siberia\" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he \"wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now\". He took a year each over *Three Sisters* and *The Cherry Orchard*.
On 25 May 1901, Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly, owing to his horror of weddings. She was a former protégée and sometime lover of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for *The Seagull*. Up to that point, Chekhov, known as \"Russia\'s most elusive literary bachelor\", had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment. He had once written to Suvorin:
thumb\|upright=.7\|Chekhov and Olga, 1901, on their honeymoon The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov\'s marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple\'s letters, that conception occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although other Russian scholars have rejected that claim. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski\'s directing methods and Chekhov\'s advice to Olga about performing in his plays.`{{page needed |date=October 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, \"The Lady with the Dog\" (also translated from the Russian as \"Lady with Lapdog\"), which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a cynical married man and an unhappy married woman who meet while holidaying in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter. Unexpectedly though, they gradually fall deeply in love and end up risking scandal and the security of their family lives. The story masterfully captures their feelings for each other, the inner transformation undergone by the disillusioned male protagonist as a result of falling deeply in love, and their inability to resolve the matter by either letting go of their families or of each other.
### Death
In May 1903, Chekhov visited Moscow; the prominent lawyer Vasily Maklakov visited him almost every day. Maklakov signed Chekhov\'s will. By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that \"everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer \[he\] was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it\". On 3 June, he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest in Germany, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha, describing the food and surroundings, and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way German women dressed. Chekhov died on 15 July 1904 at the age of 44 after a long fight with tuberculosis, the same disease that killed his brother.
Chekhov\'s death has become one of \"the great set pieces of literary history\"`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}retold, embroidered, and fictionalized many times since, notably in the 1987 short story \"Errand\" by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband\'s last moments:
Chekhov\'s body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway-car meant for oysters, a detail that offended Gorky. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.
## Legacy
A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin that he thought people might go on reading his writings for seven years. \"Why seven?\", asked Bunin. \"Well, seven and a half\", Chekhov replied. \"That\'s not bad. I\'ve got six years to live.\" Chekhov\'s posthumous reputation greatly exceeded his expectations. The ovations for the play *The Cherry Orchard* in the year of his death served to demonstrate the Russian public\'s acclaim for the writer, which placed him second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years. Tolstoy was an early admirer of Chekhov\'s short stories and had a series that he deemed \"first quality\" and \"second quality\" bound into a book. In the first category were: *Children*, *The Chorus Girl*, *A Play*, *Home*, *Misery*, *The Runaway*, *In Court*, *Vanka*, *Ladies*, *A Malefactor*, *The Boys*, *Darkness*, *Sleepy*, *The Helpmate*, and *The Darling*; in the second: *A Transgression*, *Sorrow*, *The Witch*, *Verochka*, *In a Strange Land*, *The Cook\'s Wedding*, *A Tedious Business*, *An Upheaval*, *Oh! The Public!*, *The Mask*, *A Woman\'s Luck*, *Nerves*, *The Wedding*, *A Defenceless Creature*, and *Peasant Wives.*
Chekhov\'s work also found praise from several of Russia\'s most influential radical political thinkers. If anyone doubted the gloom and miserable poverty of Russia in the 1880s, the anarchist theorist Peter Kropotkin responded, \"read only Chekhov\'s novels!\" Raymond Tallis further recounts that Vladimir Lenin believed his reading of the short story Ward No. 6 \"made him a revolutionary\". Upon finishing the story, Lenin is said to have remarked: \"I absolutely had the feeling that I was shut up in Ward 6 myself!\"
In Chekhov\'s lifetime, British and Irish critics generally did not find his work pleasing; E. J. Dillon thought \"the effect on the reader of Chekhov\'s tales was repulsion at the gallery of human waste represented by his fickle, spineless, drifting people\" and R. E. C. Long said \"Chekhov\'s characters were repugnant, and that Chekhov revelled in stripping the last rags of dignity from the human soul\". After his death, Chekhov was reappraised. Constance Garnett\'s translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, whose story \"The Child Who Was Tired\" is similar to Chekhov\'s \"Sleepy\". The Russian critic D. S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov\'s popularity in that country by his \"unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values\". In Russia itself, Chekhov\'s drama fell out of fashion after the revolution, but it was later incorporated into the Soviet canon. The character of Lopakhin, for example, was reinvented as a hero of the new order, rising from a modest background so as eventually to possess the gentry\'s estates.
thumb\|upright=.7\|Osip Braz, *Anton Chekhov*, 1898, oil on canvas; Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Despite Chekhov\'s reputation as a playwright, William Boyd asserts that his short stories represent the greater achievement. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story \"Errand\" about Chekhov\'s death, believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers:
According to literary critic Daniel S. Burt, Chekhov was one of the greatest and most influential writers of all time.
### Style
One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov\'s plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his *Heartbreak House* \"A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes\", and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: \"the same nice people, the same utter futility\".
Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: \"Chekhov wrote about six good stories. But he was an amateur writer.\" Comparing Chekhov to Tolstoy, Vladimir Nabokov wrote, \"I do love Chekhov dearly. I fail, however, to rationalize my feeling for him: I can easily do so in regard to the greater artist, Tolstoy, with the flash of this or that unforgettable passage \[...\], but when I imagine Chekhov with the same detachment all I can make out is a medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions, doctors, unconvincing vamps, and so forth; yet it is *his* works which I would take on a trip to another planet.\" Nabokov called \"The Lady with the Dog\" \"one of the greatest stories ever written\" in its depiction of a problematic relationship, and described Chekhov as writing \"the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice\".
For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov\'s historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the \"event plot\" for something more \"blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life\".
Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in *The Common Reader* (1925):
Michael Goldman has said of the elusive quality of Chekhov\'s comedies: \"Having learned that Chekhov is comic \... Chekhov is comic in a very special, paradoxical way. His plays depend, as comedy does, on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward---inappropriate speeches, missed connections, *faux pas*, stumbles, childishness---but as part of a deeper pathos; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized, graceful dissolution of purpose.\"
### Influence on dramatic arts {#influence_on_dramatic_arts}
In the United States, Chekhov\'s reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski\'s system of acting, with its notion of subtext: \"Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches\", wrote Stanislavski, \"but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word \... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak.\" The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg\'s Actors Studio and the \"Method\" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted *The Seagull* as *The Notebook of Trigorin*. One of Anton\'s nephews, Michael Chekhov, would also contribute heavily to modern theatre, particularly through his unique acting methods which developed Stanislavski\'s ideas further.
Alan Twigg, the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine *B.C. BookWorld* wrote:
Chekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio, Yōji Sakate, and Ai Nagai. Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humour as well as an intense depictions of longing. Sakate adapted several of Chekhov\'s plays and transformed them in the general style of *nō*. Nagai also adapted Chekhov\'s plays, including *Three Sisters*, and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai\'s style of satirical realism while emphasising the social issues depicted in the play.
Chekhov\'s works have been adapted for the screen, including Sidney Lumet\'s *Sea Gull* and Louis Malle\'s *Vanya on 42nd Street*. Laurence Olivier\'s final effort as a film director was a 1970 adaptation of *Three Sisters* in which he also played a supporting role. His work has also served as inspiration or been referenced in numerous films. In Andrei Tarkovsky\'s 1975 film *The Mirror*, characters discuss his short story \"Ward No. 6\". Woody Allen has been influenced by Chekhov and references to his works are present in many of his films including *Love and Death* (1975), *Interiors* (1978) and *Hannah and Her Sisters* (1986). Plays by Chekhov are also referenced in François Truffaut\'s 1980 drama film *The Last Metro*, which is set in a theatre. *The Cherry Orchard* has a role in the comedy film *Henry\'s Crime* (2011). A portion of a stage production of *Three Sisters* appears in the 2014 drama film *Still Alice*. The 2022 Foreign Language Oscar winner, *Drive My Car*, is centered on a production of *Uncle Vanya*.
Several of Chekhov\'s short stories were adapted as episodes of the 1986 Indian anthology television series *Katha Sagar*. Another Indian television series titled *Chekhov Ki Duniya* aired on DD National in the 1990s, adapting different works of Chekhov.
Nuri Bilge Ceylan\'s Palme d\'Or winner *Winter Sleep* was adapted from the short story \"The Wife\" by Anton Chekhov.
## Publications
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Action Against Hunger
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**Action Against Hunger** (*Action Contre La Faim - ACF*) is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children and provides communities with access to safe water and sustainable solutions to hunger.
Action Against Hunger worked in 56 countries around the world with more than 8,990 employees helping 28 million people in need.
Action Against Hunger was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Alfred Kastler served as the organization\'s first chairman. Currently, Mumbai-based businessman and philanthropist Ashwini Kakkar serves as International President of Action Against Hunger network.
The group initially provided assistance to Afghan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. It expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans, and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. Action Against Hunger\'s Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. Early results showed that treatment with F100 has the capacity to reduce the mortality rate of severely malnourished children to below 5%, with a median hospital fatality rate quoted of 23.5%. A few years later, the therapeutic milk was repackaged as ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs), a peanut-based paste packaged like a power bar. These bars allow for the treatment of malnutrition at home and do not require any preparation or refrigeration.
The international network currently has headquarters in eight countries -- France, Germany, Spain, the United States, Canada, Italy, India, and the UK. Its four main areas of work include nutrition, food security, water and sanitation, and advocacy.
The integrated approaches with various sectors of intervention are:
- Nutrition and Health
- Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
- Food Security & Livelihoods
- Emergency Response
In 2022, Action Against Hunger USA is leading a USAID-funded project to address health and nutrition challenges associated with policy, advocacy, financing, and governance in communities around the world, and will work in partnership with leading organizations such as Pathfinder International, Amref Health Africa, Global Communities, Humanity & Inclusion, Kupenda for the Children, and Results for Development.
## Restaurants against hunger {#restaurants_against_hunger}
Action Against Hunger partners with leaders from the food and beverage industry to bring attention to global hunger. Each year, several campaigns are run by the network to raise funds and support the organisation\'s programs : Restaurants Against Hunger and Love Food Give Food.
## Countries of intervention {#countries_of_intervention}
In 2022, Action Against Hunger International Network is present in 56 countries:
### Africa
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Chad, Zimbabwe, Zambia
### Asia
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, South Caucasus
### Caribbean
Haïti
### Europe
Turkey, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Poland
### Middle East {#middle_east}
Afghanistan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestinian Occupied Territories, Yemen, Jordan, Iraq
### Latin America {#latin_america}
Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Honduras, Venezuela
## Action Against Hunger international network {#action_against_hunger_international_network}
Since 1995 Action Against Hunger developed an international network to have a bigger global impact.
The Network has headquarters around the world: France, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, and Italy.
Action Against Hunger has also a West Africa Regional Office (WARO) located in Dakar, a Horn and Eastern Africa Regional Office in Nairobi, and five logistic platforms (Lyon, Paris, Barcelona, Dubai, Panama).
This network increases the human and financial capacities and enables specialisation per headquarter.
- Action Against Hunger in France, Spain and the USA are the operational headquarters. They manage the interventions directly on the field. In order to maximize efficiency and coherence, these three operational headquarters work under the principle of one headquarter per country of intervention.
- Action Against Hunger UK focuses on research, monitoring and evaluation, notably with Hunger Watch. The UK headquarters also plays an intermediary role with DFID.
- Action Against Hunger Canada raises public and private funds in North America and plays an increasing role on the national level.
- Action Against Hunger / Azione contro la Fame Italia raises private funds and promotes important campaigns in order to sensitize the Italian public opinion on hunger and malnutrition.
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Anal sex
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**Anal sex** or **anal intercourse** principally means the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person\'s anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include anal fingering, the use of sex toys, anilingus, and pegging. Although *anal sex* most commonly means penile`{{endash}}`{=mediawiki}anal penetration, sources sometimes use *anal intercourse* to exclusively denote penile`{{endash}}`{=mediawiki}anal penetration, and *anal sex* to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.
While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all homosexual men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration -- by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area in the vagina (sometimes called *the G-spot*) in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be due to psychological factors in some cases.
As with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex can facilitate the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissue are delicate and do not, unlike the vagina, provide lubrication. They can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.
Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, often because of religious prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. It may be considered taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment. By contrast, anal sex may also be considered a natural and valid form of sexual activity as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions, and can be an enhancing or primary element of a person\'s sex life.
## Anatomy and stimulation {#anatomy_and_stimulation}
The abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men and women. The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex. *Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia* states that \"the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure\" and that \"the rectum is a curved tube about 8 or long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand\".
Research indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors, but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in anal fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation, figging or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is one of the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.
In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the object of insertion rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene\'s glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.
General statistics indicate that 70--80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris (which has many nerve endings specifically intended for orgasm), and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women. The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head). The vagina, for example, is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal legs of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused.
- Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare. Stimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity. By contrast, each person\'s sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum, unlike the vagina, do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum. Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.
## Male to female {#male_to_female}
### Behaviors and views {#behaviors_and_views}
The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis. Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration.
While some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse.
In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, *anal intercourse* is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and *anal sex* is used to denote any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that \"for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex\".
Anal intercourse is sometimes used as a substitute for vaginal intercourse during menstruation. The likelihood of pregnancy occurring during anal sex is greatly reduced, as anal sex alone cannot lead to pregnancy unless sperm is somehow transported to the vaginal opening. Because of this, some couples practice anal intercourse as a form of contraception, often in the absence of a condom.
Some couples may practice anal sex as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; this has been reported in Christian communities in the United States. A person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse may be regarded as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes called as *technical virginity.*
Heterosexuals may view anal sex as \"fooling around\" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view \"dates to the late 1600s, with explicit \'rules\' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as \'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse.\" One study found US teens who pledged to not have sex until marriage were more likely to engage in anal sex without vaginal sex than teens who had not made a sexual abstinence pledge, and found pledge-takers were just as likely to test positive for an STI five years after taking the pledge as those who had not pledged to abstinence.
### Prevalence
Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride\'s 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n=1,299) and women (n=1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral--anal sex, manual--anal sex, or anal sex toy use. The report states the majority of men (n=631) and women (n=856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively. The review added that because \"relatively little attention \[is\] given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners\", this means that it is \"quite rare\" to have research \"that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics. As a result, we do not know the extent to which anal intercourse differs qualitatively from coitus.\"
According to a 2010 study from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) that was authored by Debby Herbenick et al., although anal intercourse is reported by fewer women than other partnered sex behaviors, partnered women in the age groups between 18 and 49 are significantly more likely to report having anal sex in the past 90 days. Women engaged in anal intercourse less commonly than men. Vaginal intercourse was practiced more than insertive anal intercourse among men, but 13% to 15% of men aged 25 to 49 practiced insertive anal intercourse.
With regard to adolescents, limited data also exists. This may be because of the taboo nature of anal sex and that teenagers and caregivers subsequently avoid talking to one another about the topic. It is also common for subject review panels and schools to avoid the subject. A 2000 study found that 22.9% of college students who self-identified as non-virgins had anal sex. They used condoms during anal sex 20.9% of the time as compared with 42.9% of the time with vaginal intercourse.
Anal sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis. Seidman et al. argued that \"cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography,\" and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men.
## Male to male {#male_to_male}
### Behaviors and views {#behaviors_and_views_1}
Anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, not all homosexual men engage in anal sex. Oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the *top* and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the *bottom*. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as *versatile*. Men who don't partake in anal sex at all can be called *sides*. Though some men who have sex with men may find that being a receptive partner during anal sex makes them question their masculinity, playing bottom in sexual intercourse is at least as common as playing top among western gay and bisexual men and, among committed male couples, anal intercourse is rated as providing the most satisfying orgasms.
### Prevalence {#prevalence_1}
Reports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among men who have sex with men vary. According to 2011 research from the Journal of Sexual Medicine, in the most recent sexual intercourse between homosexual men, the most common behavior was kissing the partner on the mouth, followed by oral sex, and mutual masturbation. Anal sex occurred in less than half of the sexual relationships between homosexual men.
A survey publish by *The Advocate* in 1994 indicated that 46% of homosexual men who have anal sex, preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner. Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of homosexual men have had anal sex at least one time, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms. In a 2012 sex survey conducted by the NSSHB in the U.S., among homosexual men who have anal sex, 83.3% report ever having anal sex in the insertive position, and 90% in the receptive position.
According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is more popular among homosexual male couples than among heterosexual couples, but \"it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation\" among both sexual orientations in prevalence. Wellings et al. reported that \"the equation of \'homosexual\' with \'anal\' sex among men is common among lay and health professionals alike\" and that \"yet an Internet survey of 180,000 MSM across Europe (EMIS, 2011) showed that oral sex was most commonly practised, followed by mutual masturbation, with anal intercourse in third place\". Though anal sex is less common than oral sex and handjobs among committed male couples, they rate orgasms derived from anal intercourse as more satisfying than that of any other sexual practice.
## Female to male {#female_to_male}
Women may sexually stimulate a man\'s anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used. The practice of a woman penetrating a man\'s anus with a strap-on dildo for sexual activity is called pegging.
Reece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that \"an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse\".
*The BMJ* stated in 1999:`{{Blockquote|There are little published data on how many heterosexual men would like their anus to be sexually stimulated in a heterosexual relationship. Anecdotally, it is a substantial number. What data we do have almost all relate to penetrative sexual acts, and the superficial contact of the anal ring with fingers or the tongue is even less well documented but may be assumed to be a common sexual activity for men of all sexual orientations.<ref name="Robin Bell">{{cite journal|first=Robin|last=Bell|title=ABC of sexual health: Homosexual men and women|publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]]/[[BMJ]]|pmc=1114912|pmid=9974466|volume=318|issue=7181|date=February 1999|journal=BMJ|pages=452–5|doi=10.1136/bmj.318.7181.452}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
## Female to female {#female_to_female}
With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes anal fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus.
There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo). A 2014 study of partnered lesbian women in Canada and the U.S. found that 7% engaged in anal stimulation or penetration at least once a week; about 10% did so monthly and 70% did not at all.`{{Primary source inline|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Anilingus is also less often practiced among female same-sex couples.
## Health risks {#health_risks}
### General risks {#general_risks}
Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers which are infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as *barebacking*, carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing, and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STIs. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction.
Unprotected receptive anal sex (with an HIV positive partner) is the sex act most likely to result in HIV transmission.
As with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not \"real sex\" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people who are unaware of the risks of the anal sex may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse, and they also may believe that an STI can only result from vaginal intercourse. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.
Although anal sex alone does not lead to pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with anal sex or other forms of sexual activity if the penis is near the vagina (such as during intercrural sex or other genital-genital rubbing) and its sperm is deposited near the vagina\'s entrance and travels along the vagina\'s lubricating fluids; the risk of pregnancy can also occur without the penis being near the vagina because sperm may be transported to the vaginal opening by the vagina coming in contact with fingers or other non-genital body parts that have come in contact with semen.
There are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier than vaginal intercourse for women, including the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse. The risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is also significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues. Additionally, if a man abruptly changes from anal intercourse to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina or urinary tract due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys.
Pain during receptive anal sex is formally known as *anodyspareunia.* Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex. The prevalence of anodyspareunia is difficult to measure; in two population studies of men receiving anal sex, 18% and 14% reported experiencing anodyspareunia. In a study of 2002 women, 8.7% of those who had engaged in anal sex reported experiencing severe pain.
### Damage
Anal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum\'s lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible.
By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death.
Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence). Rectal prolapse is very uncommon, and its causes are not well understood. Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence.
### Cancer
Most cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). The risk of anal cancer through anal sex is attributed to HPV infection, which is often contracted through unprotected anal sex.\*
- Anal cancer is significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society estimates that in 2023 there were approximately 9,760 new cases (6,580 in women and 3,180 in men) and approximately 1,870 deaths (860 women and 1,010 men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, \"with an average age being in the early 60s\" and it \"affects women somewhat more often than men.\"
## Cultural views {#cultural_views}
### General
Different cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others. Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished. In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation.
Anal sex has been more accepted in modern times; it is often considered a natural, pleasurable form of sexual expression. The buttocks and anus have become more eroticized in modern culture, including via pornography. Engaging in anal sex is still, however, punished in some societies. For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran\'s Penal Code states in Article 109 that \"both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished\" and \"Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge\".
### Ancient and non-Western cultures {#ancient_and_non_western_cultures}
From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and did not regard anal sex as taboo. *Entu* priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man \"keeps saying to his wife: \'Bring your backside.{{\' \"}} Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse. The *gala\]\]*, a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities. The Sumerian sign for *gala* was a ligature of the signs for \'penis\' and \'anus\'. One Sumerian proverb reads: \"When the *gala* wiped off his ass \[he said\], \'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress \[i.e., Inanna\].\'\" The term *Greek love* has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, \"doing it the Greek way\" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, \"Most citizens are *europroktoi* (\'wide-arsed\') now.\" The terms *kinaidos*, *europroktoi*, and *katapygon* were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a \"clean\" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris. Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the *eromenos*) did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being \'feminine\'.
In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with \"eligible\" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.
A male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse (*paedicatio* in Latin) was condemned in Rome as an act of *impudicitia* (\'immodesty\' or \'unchastity\'); free men, however, could take the active role with a young male slave, known as a *\[\[catamite\]\]* or *puer delicatus*. The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to \"take it like a woman\" (*muliebria pati* \'to undergo womanly things\') when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy\'s role. Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo. The passive partner in any of these cases was always considered a woman or a boy because being the one who penetrates was characterized as the only appropriate way for an adult male citizen to engage in sexual activity, and he was therefore considered unmanly if he was the one who was penetrated; slaves could be considered \"non-citizen\". Although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others for anal intercourse, Roman comedies and plays presented Greek settings and characters for explicit acts of anal intercourse, and this may be indicative that the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically \"Greek\".
In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males. Evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased.
### Religion
Further information: Sodomy `{{See also|Buddhism and sexual orientation|LGBT topics and Hinduism}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Judaism
The *Mishneh Torah*, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects, states \"since a man\'s wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally \[traditionally, *unnaturally* refers to anal and oral sex\], provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse.\"
#### Christianity
Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the *peccatum contra naturam* (\'the sin against nature\', after Thomas Aquinas) or *Sodomitica luxuria* (\'sodomitical lusts\', in one of Charlemagne\'s ordinances), or *peccatum illud horribile, inter christianos non nominandum* (\'that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named\').
#### Islam
, or the sin of Lot\'s people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to \"unnatural\" sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. Same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called *luti* or *lutiyin* in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.
## Other animals {#other_animals}
As a form of non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals, anal sex has been observed in a few other primates, both in captivity and in the wild.
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Aarau
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**Aarau** (`{{IPA|de-CH|ˈaːraʊ|lang}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|gsw|ˈɑːræu̯|gsw}}`{=mediawiki}) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The town is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aare, on the river\'s right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains, and is west of Zurich, 58 km south of Basel and 65 km northeast of Bern. The municipality borders directly on the canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the largest town in Aargau. At the beginning of 2010 Rohr became a district of Aarau.
The official language of Aarau is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
## Geography and geology {#geography_and_geology}
The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcrop at a narrowing of the Aare river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains. Newer districts of the city lie to the south and east of the outcrop, as well as higher up the mountain, and in the valley on both sides of the Aare. The neighboring municipalities are Küttigen to the north and Buchs to the east, Suhr to the south-east, Unterentfelden to the south, and Eppenberg-Wöschnau and Erlinsbach to the west. Aarau and the nearby neighboring municipalities have grown together and now form an interconnected agglomeration. The only exception is Unterentfelden whose settlements are divided from Aarau by the extensive forests of Gönhard and Zelgli. Approximately nine-tenths of the city is south of the Aare, and one tenth is to the north. It has an area, `{{as of|2006|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}, of 8.9 km2. Of this area, 6.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 34% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 55.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (4.5%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes). The lowest elevation, 365 m, is found at the banks of the Aar, and the highest elevation, at 471 m, is the Hungerberg on the border with Küttigen.
### Climate
## History
### Prehistory
A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aare found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times.
### Middle Ages {#middle_ages}
Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg. Aarau is first mentioned in 1248 as *Arowe*. Around 1250 it was mentioned as *Arowa*. However the first mention of a city sized settlement was in 1256. The town was ruled from the \"Rore\" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall.
In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family\'s lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283. In the 14th century the city was expanded in two stages, and a second defensive wall was constructed. A deep ditch separated the city from its \"suburb;\" its location is today marked by a wide street named \"Graben\" (meaning Ditch).
In 1415 Bern invaded lower Aargau with the help of Solothurn. Aarau capitulated after a short resistance, and was forced to swear allegiance to the new rulers. In the 16th century, the rights of the lower classes were abolished. In March 1528 the citizens of Aarau allowed the introduction of Protestantism at the urging of the Bernese. A growth in population during the 16th Century led to taller buildings and denser construction methods. Early forms of industry developed at this time; however, unlike in other cities, no guilds were formed in Aarau.
On 11 August 1712, the Peace of Aarau was signed into effect. This granted each canton the right to choose their own religion thereby ending Catholicism\'s control. Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city\'s favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for educational reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau.
### 1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic {#capital_of_the_helvetic_republic}
On 27 December 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops.
On 22 March 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic. It is therefore the first capital of a unified Switzerland. Parliament met in the city hall. On 20 September, the capital was moved to Lucerne.
### Aarau as canton capital {#aarau_as_canton_capital}
In 1803, Napoleon ordered the fusion of the cantons of Aargau, Baden and Fricktal. Aarau was declared the capital of the new, enlarged canton of Aargau. In 1820 the city wall was torn down, with the exception of the individual towers and gates, and the defensive ditches were filled in.
The wooden bridge, dating from the Middle Ages, across the Aare was destroyed by floods three times in thirty years, and was replaced with a steel suspension bridge in 1851. This was replaced by a concrete bridge in 1952. The city was linked up to the Swiss Central Railway in 1856.
The textile industry in Aarau broke down in about 1850 because of the protectionist tariff policies of neighboring states. Other industries had developed by that time to replace it, including the production of mathematical instruments, shoes and cement. Beginning in 1900, numerous electrical enterprises developed. By the 1960s, more citizens worked in service industries or for the canton-level government than in manufacturing. During the 1980s many of the industries left Aarau completely.
In 1802 the Canton School was established; it was the first non-parochial high school in Switzerland. It developed a good reputation, and was home to Nobel Prize winners Albert Einstein, Paul Karrer, and Werner Arber, as well as several Swiss politicians and authors.
The purchase of a manuscript collection in 1803 laid the foundation for what would become the Cantonal Library, which contains a Bible annotated by Huldrych Zwingli, along with the manuscripts and incunabula. More newspapers developed in the city, maintaining the revolutionary atmosphere of Aarau. Beginning in 1820, Aarau has been a refuge for political refugees.
The urban educational and cultural opportunities of Aarau were extended through numerous new institutions. A Theatre and Concert Hall was constructed in 1883, which was renovated and expanded in 1995--96. The Aargau Nature Museum opened in 1922. A former cloth warehouse was converted into a small theatre in 1974, and the alternative culture center KIFF (Culture in the fodder factory) was established in a former animal fodder factory.
## Origin of the name {#origin_of_the_name}
The earliest use of the place name was in 1248 (in the form Arowe), and probably referred to the settlement in the area before the founding of the city. It comes, along with the name of the River Aare (which was called Arula, Arola, and Araris in early times), from the German word *Au*, meaning floodplain.
### Old town {#old_town}
The historic old town forms an irregular square, consisting of four parts (called *Stöcke*). To the south lies the Laurenzenvorstadt, that is, the part of the town formerly outside the city wall. One characteristic of the city is its painted gables, for which Aarau is sometimes called the \"City of beautiful Gables\". The old town, Laurenzenvorstadt, government building, cantonal library, state archive and art museum are all listed as heritage sites of national significance.
The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the \"suburb\" date from this time.
The \"Schlössli\" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The \"Schlössli\" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515.
The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was installed in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau.
The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The \"Justice fountain\" (Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of French limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic.
## Economy
`{{as of|2007|In 2007}}`{=mediawiki}, Aarau had an unemployment rate of 2.35%. `{{as of|2005}}`{=mediawiki}, there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 4,181 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 164 businesses in this sector. 20,186 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,461 businesses in this sector. This is a total of over 24,000 jobs, since Aarau\'s population is about 16,000 it draws workers from many surrounding communities. `{{as of|2000}}`{=mediawiki} there were 8,050 total workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 4,308 or about 53.5% of the residents worked outside Aarau while 17,419 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 21,161 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.`{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
The largest employer in Aarau is the cantonal government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. One of the two head offices of the *Aargauer Zeitung*, Switzerland\'s fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations.
Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991.
The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the \"Golden Triangle\" between Zurich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in the hope of arresting the slowly progressing losses.
Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, cutlery, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Aarau is famous for the quality of their instruments, cutlery and their bells.
### Markets and fairs {#markets_and_fairs}
Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the *Graben* at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, with regional companies selling their products. The \"Rüeblimärt\" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring.
## Transport
Aarau railway station is a terminus of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11.
The town is also served with public transport provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG.
### Routes
Number Start point End point
-------- ------------- -----------
1 Küttigen Buchs
2 Barmelweid Rohr
3 Gretzenbach Aarau
4 Biberstein Suhr
5 Goldern Aarau
6 Damm Suhr
7 Zelgli Aarau
## Population
The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Thirdly, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the 21st century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty.
Aarau has a population (as of `{{Swiss populations date|CH-AG}}`{=mediawiki}) of `{{Swiss populations|CH-AG|4001}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{Swiss populations ref|CH-AG}}`{=mediawiki} `{{as of|2008}}`{=mediawiki}, 19.8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1%. Most of the population (`{{as of|2000|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}) speaks German (84.5%), with Italian being second most common ( 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 2.9%).
The age distribution, `{{as of|2008|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}, in Aarau is; 1,296 children or 8.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,334 teenagers or 8.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,520 people or 15.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,518 people or 15.8% are between 30 and 39, 2,320 people or 14.6% are between 40 and 49, and 1,987 people or 12.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,588 people or 10.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,219 people or 7.7% are between 70 and 79, there are 942 people or 5.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 180 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older.
, there were 1,365 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 3,845 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 2,119 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 1.99 individuals. `{{as of|2008|alt=In 2008}}`{=mediawiki} there were 1,594 single family homes (or 18.4% of the total) out of a total of 8,661 homes and apartments.`{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
In Aarau about 74.2% of the population (between age 25--64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a *\[\[Fachhochschule\]\]*). Of the school age population (`{{as of|2009|alt=in the 2008/2009 school year}}`{=mediawiki}), there are 861 students attending primary school, there are 280 students attending secondary school, there are 455 students attending tertiary or university level schooling, there are 35 students who are seeking a job after school in the municipality.
Population Growth
-------------------
year
1558
1764
1798
1850
1880a
1910
1930
1950
1970
1987
1990
1993
2010
2016
## Sport
The football club FC Aarau play in the Stadion Brügglifeld. From 1981 until 2010 they played in the top tier of the Swiss football league system when they were relegated to the Swiss Challenge League. In the 2013/2014 they climbed back to the highest tier only to be relegated again. In the 2016/17 season they will play in the Swiss Challenge League. They won the Swiss Cup in 1985 and were three times Swiss football champions, in 1912, in 1914 and in 1993.
The Argovia Stars play in the MySports League, the third highest league of Swiss ice hockey. They play their home games in the 3,000-seat KeBa Aarau Arena.
BC Alte Kanti Aarau plays in the Swiss Women\'s Basketball Championship, the country\'s top division.
## Sites
### Heritage sites of national significance {#heritage_sites_of_national_significance}
Aarau is home to a number of sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. The list includes three churches; the Christian Catholic parish house, the Roman Catholic parish house, and the Reformed *City Church*. There are five government buildings on the list; the Cantonal Library, which contains many pieces important to the nation\'s history, and Art Gallery, the old Cantonal School, the Legislature, the Cantonal Administration building, and the archives. Three gardens or parks are on the list; *Garten Schmidlin*, *Naturama Aargau* and the *Schlossgarten*. The remaining four buildings on the list are; the former Rickenbach Factory, the Crematorium, the *Haus zum Erker* at Rathausgasse 10 and the *Restaurant Zunftstube* at Pelzgasse.
### Tourist sites {#tourist_sites}
The Bally Shoe company has a unique shoe museum in the city. There is also the Trade Museum which contain stained glass windows from Muri Convent and paintings.
### Annual events {#annual_events}
Each May, Aarau plays host to the annual [Jazzaar Festival](https://www.jazzaar.com/) attracting the world\'s top jazz musicians.
## Religion
From the `{{as of|2000|alt=2000 census}}`{=mediawiki}, 4,473 or 28.9% are Roman Catholic, while 6,738 or 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 51 individuals (or about 0.33% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic i.e. Old Catholic faith.`{{full citation needed|date=November 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
## Government
### Legislative
In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (*Einwohnerrat*) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation:
Party 2001 2018
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------ ------
FDP 13 11
SP 12 14
SVP 11 10
Die Mitte (Formerly Christian Democratic People\'s Party of Switzerland, CVP) 4 3
Pro Aarau 4 3
Green 2 5
EVP 3 2
GLP 0 2
At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative.
### Executive
The executive authority is the town council (*Stadtrat*). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments.
The seven members (and their party) are:
- Hanspeter Hilfiker (FDP) (City President)
- Werner Schib (Die Mitte) (City Vice President)
- Angelica Cavegn Leitner (Pro Aarau)
- Franziska Graf (SP)
- Daniel Siegenthaler (SP)
- Hanspeter Thür (Grüne)
- Suzanne Marclay-Merz (FDP)
### National elections {#national_elections}
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (22.1%), the FDP (17.5%) and the Green Party (11.8%).
## Coat of arms {#coat_of_arms}
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is *Argent an Eagle displayed Sable beaked langued and membered Gules and a Chief of the last.*
## Notable people {#notable_people}
### Born in Aarau {#born_in_aarau}
- Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770--1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey
- Hans Herzog (1819--1894), Swiss army General.
- Carl Feer-Herzog (1820--1880), politician, President of the Swiss National Council 1874
- Friedrich Mühlberg (1840--1915), a Swiss geologist
- Hans Renold (1852--1943), a Swiss/British engineer, inventor and industrialist in Britain
- Friedrich Zschokke (1860--1936), zoologist and parasitologist, grandson of Heinrich Zschokke
- Emil Hassler (1864--1937), physician, ethnographer, naturalist and botanist
- Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867--1939), physician, pioneer nutritionist popularised muesli
- Frederick Sutermeister (1873--1934), a Swiss theologian and pastor
- Martha Burkhardt (1874--1956), painter and photographer
- Otto Hunziker (1879--1940), politician and author
- Eugen Bircher (1882--1956), politician
- Edmund Heuberger (1883--1962), art director, screenwriter and film director
- Karl Ballmer (1891--1958), painter, anthroposophical philosopher and writer
- Felix Hoffmann (1911--1975), graphic designer, illustrator and stained glass artist
- Erika Burkart (1922--2010), writer and poet
- Fritz Vogelsang (born 1932), decathlete, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
- Hansruedi Jost (1934--2016), hammer thrower, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
- Klaus Merz (born 1945), writer
- Martin Schlumpf (born 1947), musician, composer, conductor, improviser and academic teacher
- (born 1947), author
- Charlotte Walter (born 1951), figure skater, competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics
- Jürg Frey (born 1953), composer and clarinettist
- Jörg Müller (born 1961), retired track cyclist and road bicycle racer, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics
- Christian Reich (born 1967), bobsledder, competed in four Winter Olympics, winning silver
- Andreas Hilfiker (born 1969), former international footballer, 376 club caps
- Daniel Wermelinger (born 1971), football referee, president of the Swiss Referees Union
- Ivan Benito (born 1976), retired professional football goalkeeper, 327 club caps
- Marisa Brunner (born 1982), retired football goalkeeper, 75 caps for Switzerland women\'s national football team
- Stefan Eichenberger (born 1984), film director and film producer
- Ricardo Feller (born 2000), racing driver and ADAC GT Masters champion
### Lived in Aarau {#lived_in_aarau}
- (1753--1807), politician
- (1754--1786), author and actor
- (1768--1841), politician, physician
- Heinrich Zschokke (1771--1848), German, later Swiss, author and reformer
- Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780--1866), physician, politician, philosopher
- Johann Rudolph Rengger (1795--1832), naturalist and doctor
- Albert Einstein (1879--1955), scientist, professor, physicist, and technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office
- (1899--1982), writer
- Bruno Hunziker (1930--2000), a Swiss attorney and politician
- Sylvia Flückiger-Bäni (born 1952), politician
- David Hönigsberg (1959--2005), a South African classical composer, conductor and musicologist
- Nicolas Müller (born 1982), a Swiss snowboarder
- Nivin Pauly (born 1984), an Indian actor
- Alexander Estis (born 1986), a Swiss author, translator and journalist
## International relations {#international_relations}
### Twin towns -- sister cities {#twin_towns_sister_cities}
Aarau is twinned with:
+------------------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
| - Delft, Netherlands | - Neuchâtel, Switzerland | - Reutlingen, Germany |
+------------------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,472 |
American Quarter Horse
|
The **American Quarter Horse**, or **Quarter Horse**, is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name is derived from its ability to outrun other horse breeds in races of 1/4 mi or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to 44 mph. The development of the Quarter Horse traces to the 1600s.
The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost three million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014. The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows, and as a working ranch horse.
The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well suited for the intricate and quick maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also used in English disciplines, driving, show jumping, dressage, hunting, and many other equestrian activities.
The Texas Legislature designated the American Quarter Horse as the official \"State Horse of Texas\" in 2009, and Oklahoma also designated the Quarter Horse as its official state horse in 2022.
## Breed history {#breed_history}
### Colonial era {#colonial_era}
In the 1600s, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted local horses on the Eastern seaboard of colonial America.
One of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756. The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial \"Quarter Horse\". The resulting horse was small, hardy, quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends.
As flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England. These courses were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When competing against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won. As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books. This began a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the \"Quarter Horse\", named after the 1/4 mile race distance at which it excelled. Some Quarter Horses have been clocked at up to 44 mph.
### Westward expansion {#westward_expansion}
In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which became the Southwestern United States and Mexico.
The horses of the West included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes. As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate \"cow sense\", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.
### Development as a distinct breed {#development_as_a_distinct_breed}
Early foundation sires of Quarter Horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock\'s Rondo, one of many \"Rondo\" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy---again, one of many \"Billy\" horses---foaled c. 1880; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889; and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree. Another early foundation sire for the breed was Copperbottom, foaled in 1828, who tracks his lineage through the Byerley Turk, a foundation sire of the Thoroughbred horse breed.
The main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills required by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. The Quarter Horse dominates in events that require speed as well as the ability to handle cattle.
Sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan, and even Standardbred bloodlines.
In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the Southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses. After winning the 1941 Fort Worth Exposition and Fat Stock Show grand champion stallion, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy, a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner\'s Rainy Day P-13. The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed. Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge.
## \"Appendix\" and \"Foundation\" horses {#appendix_and_foundation_horses}
Since the American Quarter Horse was formally established as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An \"Appendix\" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a \"numbered\" American Quarter Horse and an \"appendix\" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the \"appendix\" of the American Quarter Horse Association\'s studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration.
Since Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders argue that the continued addition of Thoroughbred bloodlines are beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard. Some favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register \"Foundation\" Quarter Horses.
## Modern American Quarter Horse {#modern_american_quarter_horse}
The American Quarter Horse is a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses are commonly used in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping; and gymkhana or O-Mok-See. Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but are dominated by American Quarter Horse.
The breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with earnings in the millions. Quarter Horses have also been trained to compete in dressage and show jumping. They are also used for recreational trail riding and in mounted police units.
The American Quarter Horse has also been exported worldwide. European nations such as Germany and Italy have imported large numbers of Quarter Horses. Next to the American Quarter Horse Association (which also encompasses Quarter Horses from Canada), the second largest registry of Quarter Horses is in Brazil, followed by Australia. In the UK the breed is also becoming very popular, especially with the two Western riding Associations, the Western Horse Association and The Western Equestrian Society. The British American Quarter Horse breed society is the AQHA-UK. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with nearly 3 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide in 2014.
## Breed characteristics {#breed_characteristics}
The Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between `{{hands|14|and|16}}`{=mediawiki} high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as `{{hands|17}}`{=mediawiki}.
There are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well-muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred.
Quarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white. In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered.
### Stock type {#stock_type}
A stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline -- though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse.
### Halter type {#halter_type}
Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is `{{hands|15.2|to|16}}`{=mediawiki} and weighs in at over 1200 lb when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse\'s skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in descendants of the stallion Impressive (see Genetic diseases below).
### Racing and hunter type {#racing_and_hunter_type}
Quarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter Horses race primarily against other Quarter Horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, \"the world\'s fastest athlete.\" The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.
## Genetic diseases {#genetic_diseases}
Several genetic diseases are of concern to Quarter Horse breeders. Most can now be identified by DNA testing so that breeders do not inadvertently produce foals with these conditions:
- Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene originally linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis. Because it is a dominant gene, only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring. There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA has barred registration of horses that possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is periodically discussed. Additionally, all Quarter Horses born in 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, there have been some rule changes for show competition, including the creation of a \"Performance Halter class\" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit in performance or racing before it can compete.
- Myosin-heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) is a genetic muscle disease added to the AQHA genetic testing panel in 2022. It is a genetic dominant condition, though not all horses that inherit the gene will show clinical signs of being affected and the environmental triggers are not well understood at present. An estimated 7% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. There are two forms, each linked to the same genetic variant. Affected horses may exhibit one or both forms of the condition. The first is Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM). It may occur in response to a vaccination or infection, following which the immune system misinterprets the muscle cells as foreign and rapidly attacks them. Horses initially experience stiffness, weakness, and a decreased appetite followed by the rapid loss of 40% of muscle mass within 72 hours. The second form of MYHM is Nonexertional Rhabdomyolysis (compare to PSSM, below), which often presents as stiffness and possible swelling of muscles along the back and haunches without exercise. Clinical signs include pain, muscle cramping, and muscle damage, which may or may not result in muscle loss. When the condition is triggered, horses can recover but may have more frequent episodes. Horses that are homozygous (My/My) may have more severe symptoms.
- Malignant hyperthermia (MH) causes a horse\'s body to release uncontrolled amounts of calcium into the bloodstream when subjected to certain stressors, resulting in painful muscle cramps, extremely high temperature up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit, irregular heart rhythm, excessive sweating, and shallow breathing. It manifests when horses receive certain anesthesia drugs or in response to stressors such as overwork or excitement. Caused by a mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution, it is inherited as an autosomal dominant. Horses that carry PSSM or MYHM along with MH have more severe episodes.
- Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), also known as hyperelastosis cutis (HC). This is caused by an autosomal recessive gene, and thus produces affected offspring only when both parents transmit the gene, but may produce unaffected carriers if only one copy is transmitted. Horses affected by this disease have a collagen defect that results in the layers of skin not being held firmly together. Thus, when the horse is ridden under saddle or suffers trauma to the skin, the outer layer of the skin often splits or separates from the deeper layer, or can tear off completely. It rarely heals without disfiguring scars. Sunburn can also be a concern. In dramatic cases, the skin can split along the back and even roll down the sides, with the horse literally being skinned alive. Most horses with HERDA are euthanized for humane reasons between the age of two and four years. Researchers at Cornell University and Mississippi State University have theorized that the sire line of the foundation stallion Poco Bueno is linked to the disease. In 2007, researchers working independently at Cornell University and at the University of California, Davis announced that a DNA test for HERDA has been developed. Over 1,500 horses were tested during the development phase of the test, which is now available to the general public through both institutions. Approximately 3.5% of all Quarter Horses are carriers, as are as many as 28% of horses in cutting and related working cow horse disciplines.
- Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a recessive genetic disease in which the horse lacks an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen. In affected horses the heart and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease manifests in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease. A DNA blood test is available. Roughly 10% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene.
- Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder. There are two forms, PSSM-1 and PSSM-2. PSSM-1 is found in Quarter Horses and has a genetic test available. PSSM-2, which is primarily found in other breeds, has no genetic test available but can be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy. PSSM-1 has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. 11% of the Quarter Horse population carries PSSM, and 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM. To some extent the disease can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population.
- Lethal White Syndrome (LWS) is fatal when homozygous. Affected foals are born pure white in color with an underdeveloped intestinal tract that prevents them from defecating, thus dying within days if not euthanized first. Although \"cropout\" Quarter Horses with pinto markings were not allowed to be registered for many years because white markings were thought to be a result of undesirable crossbreeding, the gene that causes the condition also creates the frame overo color pattern when heterozygous, and the color pattern was not always visibly expressed. Thus, the condition has continued to appear periodically in Quarter Horse foals. There is a DNA test for this condition, and in part because DNA testing can verify parentage and because the genetic mechanism of LWS is now understood, AQHA has repealed its cropout rules, allowing horses with white patterns to be registered.
- Cleft Palate: a birth defect linked to multiple causative factors including genetics, hormones, mineral deficiency, tranquilizers, and steroids. Cleft palates are extremely uncommon, but as most of the research done on the condition has utilized Quarter Horses, the defect is linked to the breed. The surgery to repair a cleft palate has about a 20% success rate. Clinical signs include: lifting head high when eating, dropping head low to drink, coughing when beginning of exercise, and taking an extremely long time to fully administer oral medications placed in the side of the jaw.
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Abae
|
**Abae** (*Ἄβαι*, **Abai**) was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age, and sites protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Mardonius, among others. The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times`{{r|pierattini2022|p=31}}`{=mediawiki}. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore, and continuous occupation from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period`{{r|pierattini2022|p=31}}`{=mediawiki}.
## History
Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480 BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346 BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes.
## Oracle
Despite destruction of the town, the oracle was still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355--346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.
The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.
Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.
The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis:
\"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. \[150 m\] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found.\"
The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex.
## Attribution
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2,477 |
Abakan
|
\| representative_body = Council of Deputies \| representative_body_ref = \| elevation_m = \| area_km2 = \| area_km2_ref = \| pop_2010census = 165214 \| pop_2010census_rank = 109th \| pop_2010census_ref = \| pop_density = \| pop_latest = 173200 \| pop_latest_date = January 2014 \| pop_latest_ref = \| population_demonym = \| established_date = 1675 \| established_title = \| established_date_ref = \| current_cat_date = 30 April 1931 \| current_cat_date_ref = \| abolished_date = \| abolished_date_ref = \| postal_codes = 655000--655012, 655014--655019, 655022, 655400, 655899, 655961, 655965, 655966 \| postal_codes_ref = \| dialing_codes = 3902 \| dialing_codes_ref = \| website = <http://абакан.рф> }} **Abakan** (*Абака́н* `{{IPA|ru|ɐbɐˈkan|}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ағбан* `{{Transliteration|kjh|Ağban}}`{=mediawiki}, *Абахан* `{{Transliteration|kjh|Abaxan}}`{=mediawiki}) is the capital city of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of the Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165,214---a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.`{{Historical populations|3=1926|4=3000|5=1939|6=36652|7=1959|8=56416|9=1970|10=90136|11=1979|12=128311|13=1989|14=154092|15=2002|16=165197|17=2010|18=165214|19=2021|20=184769|type=|footnote=Source: Census data}}`{=mediawiki}
## History
Abakansky *ostrog* (*Абаканский острог*), also known as **Abakansk** (*Абаканск*), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the *selo* of **Ust-Abakanskoye** (*Усть-Абаканское*) was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931.
In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941--1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC--220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire\'s borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist Lidiya Yevtyukhova surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by Aleksey Kovalyov (archaeologist) as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.
### Lithuanian and Polish exiles {#lithuanian_and_polish_exiles}
In the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830--1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin\'s death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.
Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University.
## Administrative and municipal status {#administrative_and_municipal_status}
Abakan is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the **City of Abakan**---an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as **Abakan Urban Okrug**.
## Economy
The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.
### Transportation
Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.
The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.
## Military
The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.
## Sites
Abakan\'s sites of interest include:
- Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral'nyy sobor))
- \"Good Angel of Peace\" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul'ptura «Dobryy angel mira»))
- Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva))
- Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional\'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova))
## Sports
Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012--13 season but was relegated for the 2013--14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. The Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.
## Geography
### Climate
Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification *Dwb*)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen *BSk*). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains. `{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location=Abakan
|single line=yes
|metric first=yes
|Jan record high C=7.2
|Feb record high C=9.1
|Mar record high C=20.2
|Apr record high C=33.5
|May record high C=37.6
|Jun record high C=37.1
|Jul record high C=38.5
|Aug record high C=36.3
|Sep record high C=34.3
|Oct record high C=24.5
|Nov record high C=15.6
|Dec record high C=7.5
|year record high C=
|Jan avg record high C = 0.1
|Feb avg record high C = 1.8
|Mar avg record high C = 11.6
|Apr avg record high C = 22.5
|May avg record high C = 30.1
|Jun avg record high C = 32.3
|Jul avg record high C = 33.7
|Aug avg record high C = 31.5
|Sep avg record high C = 25.9
|Oct avg record high C = 18.3
|Nov avg record high C = 8.3
|Dec avg record high C = 1.8
|year avg record high C = 34.5
|Jan high C=−12.3
|Feb high C=−8.6
|Mar high C=1.0
|Apr high C=11.5
|May high C=19.9
|Jun high C=24.7
|Jul high C=26.8
|Aug high C=24.1
|Sep high C=17.0
|Oct high C=8.5
|Nov high C=-2.4
|Dec high C = −9.7
|year high C =
|Jan mean C = -17.8
|Feb mean C = -15.2
|Mar mean C = -5.4
|Apr mean C = 4.4
|May mean C = 12.3
|Jun mean C = 17.8
|Jul mean C = 20.4
|Aug mean C = 17.6
|Sep mean C = 10.7
|Oct mean C = 2.9
|Nov mean C = -7.2
|Dec mean C = -14.8
|year mean C =
|Jan low C = −23.3
|Feb low C = −21.8
|Mar low C = −11.8
|Apr low C = -2.7
|May low C = 4.6
|Jun low C = 10.9
|Jul low C = 13.9
|Aug low C = 11.0
|Sep low C = 4.3
|Oct low C = -2.7
|Nov low C = −11.9
|Dec low C = −19.9
|year low C =
|Jan avg record low C = -34.9
|Feb avg record low C = -33.5
|Mar avg record low C = -25.7
|Apr avg record low C = -11.6
|May avg record low C = -5.0
|Jun avg record low C = 3.3
|Jul avg record low C = 8.4
|Aug avg record low C = 4.3
|Sep avg record low C = -3.3
|Oct avg record low C = -12.1
|Nov avg record low C = -24.5
|Dec avg record low C = -32.7
|year avg record low C = -37.4
|Jan record low C = −47.6
|Feb record low C = −45.1
|Mar record low C = −38.7
|Apr record low C = −23.2
|May record low C = −11.1
|Jun record low C = -3.6
|Jul record low C = 1.2
|Aug record low C = 0.2
|Sep record low C = −9.5
|Oct record low C = −22.9
|Nov record low C = −37.6
|Dec record low C = −43.8
|year record low C =
|Jan precipitation mm = 7.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 5.6
|Mar precipitation mm = 4.6
|Apr precipitation mm = 12.3
|May precipitation mm = 27.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 55.8
|Jul precipitation mm = 66.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 61.5
|Sep precipitation mm = 35.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 16.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 10.1
|Dec precipitation mm = 8.0
|year precipitation mm =
|Jan precipitation days = 2.6
|Feb precipitation days = 2.0
|Mar precipitation days = 1.4
|Apr precipitation days = 3.4
|May precipitation days = 5.9
|Jun precipitation days = 9.3
|Jul precipitation days = 8.8
|Aug precipitation days = 9.4
|Sep precipitation days = 7.2
|Oct precipitation days = 3.8
|Nov precipitation days = 3.1
|Dec precipitation days = 2.4
|year precipitation days =
|source 1= Météo climat stats<ref>{{cite web |url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/listenormale-1981-2010-2-p239.php|title=Moyennes 1981-2010 Russie (Asie)|language=fr|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>
|source 2= Météo Climat<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=2393|title=Météo Climat stats for Abakan |publisher=Météo Climat|access-date=8 November 2019}}</ref>
|date=November 2019
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Local government {#local_government}
The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows:
- council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality;
- the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality;
- the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality;
- auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality.
Council of Deputies
The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018.
Party Number of deputies
---------------------------- -------------------- ------------
By okrug By lists
United Russia 11 5 (28.83%)
CPRF 2 3 (23.97%)
LDPR 0 3 (22.19%)
Party of Pensioners 0 1 (7.11%)
A Just Russia -- For Truth 0 1 (6.93%)
Communists of Russia 0 1 (6.83%)
Self-nominated 1 \-\--
**14** **14**
: Composition of the City Council
Head of the city (head of the municipality)
- Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin
Chairman of the Council of Deputies
- Albert Yuryevich Tupikin
Nikolai Bulakin Prize
In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city\'s development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma.
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2,483 |
April 21
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|
2,487 |
Amazonite
|
**Amazonite**, also known as **amazonstone**, is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline. Its chemical formula is KAlSi~3~O~8~, which is polymorphic to orthoclase.
Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite. Although it has been used for jewellery for well over three thousand years, as attested by archaeological finds in Middle and New Kingdom Egypt and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century.
Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite. It has been described as a \"beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green\" and as possessing a \"lively green colour\". It is occasionally cut and used as a gemstone.
## Occurrence
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, 50 mi southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks.
Amazonite is now known to occur in various places around the world. Those places are, among others, as follows:
Australia:
- Eyre Peninsula, Koppio, Baila Hill Mine (Koppio Amazonite Mine)
China:
- Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite
Libya:
- Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks
Mongolia:
- Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite
Ethiopia:
- Konso Zone
South Africa:
- Mogalakwena, Limpopo Province
- Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape
- Kakamas, Northern Cape
- Ceres Valley, Western Cape
Sweden:
- Skuleboda mine, Västra Götaland County: found in pegmatite
United States:
- Colorado:
- Deer Trail, Arapahoe County^:233^
- Custer County^:234^
- Devils Head, Douglas County^:234^
- Pine Creek, Douglas County^:234^
- Crystal Park, El Paso County^:234^
- Pikes Peak, El Paso County: found in coarse granites or pegmatite
- St. Peter\'s Dome, El Paso County^:234^
- Tarryall Mountains, Park County^:235^
- Crystal Peak, Teller County^:235^
- Wyoming
- Virginia:
- Morefield Mine, Amelia County: found in pegmatite
- Rutherford Mine, Amelia County
- Pennsylvania:
- Media, Delaware County^:244^
- Middletown, Delaware County^:244^
## Color
For many years, the source of amazonite\'s color was a mystery. Some people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors. A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar. Subsequent 1998 theoretical studies by A. Julg expand on the potential role of aliovalent lead in the color of microcline.
Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature. A 2010 study also implicated the role of divalent iron in the green coloration. These studies and associated hypotheses indicate the complex nature of the color in amazonite; in other words, the color may be the aggregate effect of several mutually inclusive and necessary factors.
## Health
A 2021 study by the German Institut für Edelsteinprüfung (EPI) found that the amount of lead that leaked from an 11 g sample of amazonite into an acidic solution simulating saliva exceeded European Union standard DIN EN 71-3:2013\'s recommended amount by five times. This experiment was to simulate a child swallowing amazonite, and could also apply to new alternative medicine practices such as inserting the mineral into oils or drinking water for days.
## Gallery
<File:Microcline-Quartz-Albite-48224.jpg%7CDeep> robins-egg blue color amazonite crystal on smoky quartz and albite, from Teller County, Colorado. Size: 3.4 x. <File:Amazonite>, quartz 300-3-7927.JPG\|Amazonite crystal on smoky quartz, from Pikes Peak, El Paso County, Colorado <File:Microcline-179612.jpg%7CLarge> deep-turquoise amazonite crystal with attached stark-white microcline, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Size: 16.4 x. <File:Microcline-Quartz-206935.jpg%7CTwo> smoky quartz crystals surrounded by amazonite crystals, from Smoky Hawk Mine, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: 11.0 x. <File:Amazonite> 1.jpg\|Amazonite crystals on orthoclase, from Konso, SNNPR, Ethiopia. <File:Microcline-20436.jpg%7CDeep> lustrous crystal of amazonite, from Take 5 Claim, Crystal Peak, Teller County, Colorado. Size: 4.4 x. <File:Landsverk-1> amazonite+ordførerkjede.jpg\|Amazonite from the Landsverk 1 mine with the livery collar of the mayor of Evje, Norway. Size: 21 x. <File:LANDSVERK-1> mikroklien-verdringt-amazoniet.jpg\|Amazonite partly altered to brown microcline from the Landsverk 1 mine in Evje, Norway. <File:Amazonite> specimen (polished) arp.jpg\|Polished Amazonite specimen. Height 13 cm.
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2,490 |
Ambrosius Bosschaert
|
**Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder** (18 January 1573 -- 1621) was a Flemish-born Dutch still life painter and art dealer. He is recognised as one of the earliest painters who created floral still lifes as an independent genre. He founded a dynasty of painters who continued his style of floral and fruit painting and turned Middelburg into the leading centre for flower painting in the Dutch Republic.
## Biography
He was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587--1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A). At the age of twenty-one, he joined the city\'s Guild of Saint Luke and later became dean. Not long after, Bosschaert married and established himself as a leading figure in the fashionable floral painting genre.
He had three sons who all became flower painters: Ambrosius II, Johannes and Abraham. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast also lived and worked in his workshop and accompanied him on his travels. Bosschaert later worked in Amsterdam (1614), Bergen op Zoom (1615--1616), Utrecht (1616--1619), and Breda (1619). In 1619 when he moved to Utrecht, his brother-in-law van der Ast entered the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke, where the renowned painter Abraham Bloemaert had just become dean. The painter Roelandt Savery (1576--1639) entered the St. Luke\'s guild in Utrecht at about the same time. Savery had considerable influence on the Bosschaert dynasty.
After Bosschaert died in The Hague while on commission there for a flower piece, Balthasar van der Ast took over his workshop and pupils in Middelburg.
## Style
His bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper. They sometimes included symbolic and religious meanings. At the time of his death, Bosschaert was working on an important commission in the Hague. That piece is now in the collection in Stockholm.
Bosschaert was one of the first artists to specialize in flower still life painting as a stand-alone subject. He started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses, and inspired the genre of Dutch flower painting. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests. His works commanded high prices although he never achieved the level of prestige of Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Antwerp master who contributed to the floral genre.
### Legacy
His sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century.
It may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after.
Although he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer.
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2,499 |
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
|
**Asynchronous Transfer Mode** (**ATM**) is a telecommunications standard defined by the American National Standards Institute and International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly CCITT) for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s, and designed to integrate telecommunication networks. It can handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic and real-time, low-latency content such as telephony (voice) and video. ATM is a cell switching technology, providing functionality that combines features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using asynchronous time-division multiplexing. ATM was seen in the 1990s as a competitor to Ethernet and networks carrying IP traffic as, unlike Ethernet, it was faster and designed with quality-of-service in mind, but it fell out of favor once Ethernet reached speeds of 1 gigabits per second.
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are called *frames*. In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets) called *cells*. This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) (OSI layer 3) or Ethernet (also layer 2) that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the data exchange begins. These virtual circuits may be either permanent (dedicated connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider), or switched (set up on a per-call basis using signaling and disconnected when the call is terminated).
The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI model: physical layer, data link layer, and network layer. ATM is a core protocol used in the synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH) backbone of the public switched telephone network and in the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.
## Protocol architecture {#protocol_architecture}
To minimize queuing delay and packet delay variation (PDV), all ATM cells are the same small size. Reduction of PDV is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analog audio signal is an inherently real-time process. The decoder needs an evenly spaced stream of data items.
At the time of the design of ATM, `{{nowrap|155 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} synchronous digital hierarchy with `{{nowrap|135 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to `{{nowrap|45 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} in the US, and 2 to `{{nowrap|34 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} in Europe.
At `{{nowrap|155 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki}, a typical full-length 1,500 byte Ethernet frame would take 77.42 μs to transmit. On a lower-speed `{{nowrap|1.544 Mbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} T1 line, the same packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over. This was considered unacceptable for speech traffic.
The design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. Cells were introduced to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all data packets and voice streams into 48-byte pieces, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. Being 1/30th the size reduced cell contention jitter by the same factor of 30.
The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice. Parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (4 ms of voice data) would avoid the need for echo cancellation on domestic voice calls. The United States, due to its larger size, already had echo cancellers widely deployed. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length.
48 bytes was chosen as a compromise, despite having all the disadvantages of both proposals and the additional inconvenience of not being a power of two in size. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information.
### Cell structure {#cell_structure}
An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. ATM defines two different cell formats: user--network interface (UNI) and network--network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Diagram of a UNI ATM cell** | **Diagram of an NNI ATM cell** |
| | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | 7 | | | 4 | 3 | | | 0 | | | 7 | | | 4 | 3 | | | 0 | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | GFC | | | | VPI\ | | | | | | VPI\ | | | | | | | | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | VPI\ | | | | VCI\ | | | | | | VPI\ | | | | VCI\ | | | | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | VCI\ | | | | | | | | | | VCI\ | | | | | | | | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | VCI | | | | PT | | | CLP | | | VCI | | | | PT | | | CLP | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | HEC | | | | | | | | | | HEC | | | | | | | | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
| | \ | | | | | | | | | | \ | | | | | | | | |
| | \ | | | | | | | | | | \ | | | | | | | | |
| | Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\ | | | | | | | | | | Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes)\ | | | | | | | | |
| | \ | | | | | | | | | | \ | | | | | | | | |
| +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ | +----------------------------------------------+---+---+---+------+---+---+-----+ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
GFC
: The generic flow control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized, and the field is always set to 0000.
VPI
: Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI)
VCI
: Virtual channel identifier (16 bits)
PT
: Payload type (3 bits)
: Bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply:
: Bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced
: Bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries.
CLP
: Cell loss priority (1-bit)
HEC
: Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X^8^ + X^2^ + X + 1)
ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit (MSB) of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general-purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the MSB is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type: network management segment, network management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use.
Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found.
A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control and sub-multiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.
The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 2^12^ VPs of up to almost 2^16^ VCs each.
### Service types {#service_types}
ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.
Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a `{{nowrap|10 Gbit/s}}`{=mediawiki} network, reducing the motivation for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. The increased link speeds by themselves do not eliminate jitter due to queuing.
ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP, Ethernet VLANs, VxLAN, MPLS, and multi-protocol support over SONET.
## Virtual circuits {#virtual_circuits}
An ATM network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. This is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. *Call admission* is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection.
### Motivation
ATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using VCs. This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16-bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on a user-network interface (at the edge of the network), or if it is sent on a network-network interface (inside the network).
As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit *is* consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI/VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in Frame Relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X.25.
Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths.
### Types
ATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes.
PVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service *contract*) and the two endpoints.
ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end station. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are interconnected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.
### Routing
Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI is a link-state routing protocol like OSPF and IS-IS. PNNI also includes a very powerful route summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.
## Traffic engineering {#traffic_engineering}
Another key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which quality of service (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.
1. CBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Constant bit rate: a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is specified, which is constant.
2. VBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Variable bit rate: an average or Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is specified, which can peak at a certain level, a PCR, for a maximum interval before being problematic.
3. ABR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Available bit rate: a minimum guaranteed rate is specified.
4. UBR `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} Unspecified bit rate: traffic is allocated to all remaining transmission capacity.
VBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and serves for bursty traffic. Non-real-time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr-nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of cell-delay variation tolerance (CDVT), which defines the *clumping* of cells in time.
### Traffic policing {#traffic_policing}
To maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user--network interfaces (UNIs) and network-to-network interfaces (NNIs) using usage/network parameter control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU-T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVT alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVT and an SCR and maximum burst size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR-SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells.
If the traffic on a virtual circuit exceeds its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or set the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit, allowing the cells to be dropped at a congestion point. Basic policing works on a cell-by-cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic as discarding a single cell will invalidate a packet\'s worth of cells. As a result, schemes such as partial packet discard (PPD) and early packet discard (EPD) have been developed to discard a whole packet\'s cells. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM user-to-ATM user (AUU) indication bit in the payload-type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR-SDU.
### Traffic shaping {#traffic_shaping}
Traffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface controller (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate.
## Reference model {#reference_model}
The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI reference model. It specifies the following layers:
- At the physical network level, ATM specifies a layer that is equivalent to the OSI physical layer.
- The ATM layer 2 roughly corresponds to the OSI data link layer.
- The OSI network layer is implemented as the ATM adaptation layer (AAL).
## Deployment
ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price--performance ratio of Internet Protocol-based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real-time and bursty network traffic. Additionally, among cable companies using ATM there often would be discrete and competing management teams for telephony, video on demand, and broadcast and digital video reception, which adversely impacted efficiency. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot-com bubble, some still predicted that \"ATM is going to dominate\". However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum.
## Wireless or mobile ATM {#wireless_or_mobile_atm}
Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM, consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as a *crossover switch*, which is similar to the mobile switching center of GSM networks.
The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and high-speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high-speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs.
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2,500 |
Anus
|
In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the **anus** (`{{plural form}}`{=mediawiki}: **anuses** or **ani**; from Latin, \'ring\' or \'circle\') is the external body orifice at the *exit* end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e. the opposite end from the mouth. Its function is to facilitate the expulsion of wastes that remain after digestion.
Bowel contents that pass through the anus include the gaseous flatus and the semi-solid feces, which (depending on the type of animal) include: indigestible matter such as bones, hair pellets, endozoochorous seeds and digestive rocks; residual food material after the digestible nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; excreted metabolites like bilirubin-containing bile; and dead mucosal epithelia or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts. Passage of feces through the anus is typically controlled by muscular sphincters, and failure to stop unwanted passages results in fecal incontinence.
Amphibians, reptiles and birds use a similar orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.
The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals. It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes. This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated \"modules\" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.
In comb jellies, there are species with one and sometimes two permanent anuses, species like the warty comb jelly grows an anus, which then disappear when it is no longer needed.
## Development
In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (*proto--* meaning \"first\") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut. Research from 2001 shows the edges of the dent close up in the middles of protosomes, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouths and anuses.
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Acantharia
|
The **Acantharia** are a group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their strontium sulfate skeletons. Acantharians are heterotrophic marine microplankton that range in size from about 200 microns in diameter up to several millimeters. Some acantharians have photosynthetic endosymbionts and hence are considered mixotrophs.
## Morphology
thumb\|upright=1.1\| Celestine crystal
Acantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate, SrSO~4~, in the form of mineral celestine crystal. Celestine is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals, and is the heaviest mineral in the ocean. The denseness of their celestite ensures acantharian shells function as mineral ballast, resulting in fast sedimentation to bathypelagic depths. High settling fluxes of acantharian cysts have been observed at times in the Iceland Basin and the Southern Ocean, as much as half of the total gravitational organic carbon flux.
The strontium sulfate crystals are secreted by vacuoles surrounding each spicule or spine. Acantharians are unique among marine organisms for their ability to biomineralize strontium sulfate as the main component of their skeletons. However, unlike other radiolarians whose skeletons are made of silica, acantharian skeletons do not fossilize, primarily because strontium sulfate is very scarce in seawater and the crystals dissolve after the acantharians die. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law in terms of lines of latitude and longitude -- the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two *tropical* spines or one *equatorial* and two *polar* spines, in alternation.
The cell cytoplasm is divided into two regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm. The endoplasm, at the core of the cell, contains the main organelles, including many nuclei, and is delineated from the ectoplasm by a capsular wall made of a microfibril mesh. In symbiotic species, the algal symbionts are maintained in the endoplasm. The ectoplasm consists of cytoplasmic extensions used for prey capture and also contains food vacuoles for prey digestion. The ectoplasm is surrounded by a periplasmic cortex, also made up of microfibrils, but arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spicule projects. The cortex is linked to the spines by contractile myonemes, which assist in buoyancy control by allowing the ectoplasm to expand and contract, increasing and decreasing the total volume of the cell.
## Taxonomy
The way that the spines are joined at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acantharians are classified. The skeletons are made up of either ten diametric or twenty radial spicules. Diametric spicules cross the center of the cell, whereas radial spicules terminate at the center of the cell where they either form a tight or flexible junction depending on species. Acantharians with diametric spicules or loosely attached radial spicules are able to rearrange or shed spicules and form cysts.
- Holacanthida -- 10 diametric spicules, simply crossed, no central junction, capable of encystment
- Chaunacanthida -- 20 radial spicules, loosely attached, capable of encystment
- Symphiacanthida -- 20 radial spicules, tight central junction
- Arthracanthida -- 20 radial spines, tight central junction
The morphological classification system roughly agrees with phylogenetic trees based on the alignment of ribosomal RNA genes, although the groups are mostly polyphyletic. Holacanthida seems to have evolved first and includes molecular clades A, B, and D. Chaunacanthida evolved second and includes only one molecular clade, clade C. Arthracanthida and Symphacanthida, which have the most complex skeletons, evolved most recently and constitute molecular clades E and F.
## Symbiosis
Many acantharians, including some in clade B (Holacanthida) and all in clades E & F (Symphiacanthida and Arthracanthida), host single-celled algae within their inner cytoplasm (endoplasm). By participating in this photosymbiosis, acantharians are essentially mixotrophs: they acquire energy through both heterotrophy and autotrophy. The relationship may make it possible for acantharians to be abundant in low-nutrient regions of the oceans and may also provide extra energy necessary to maintain their elaborate strontium sulfate skeletons. It is hypothesized that the acantharians provide the algae with nutrients (N & P) that they acquire by capturing and digesting prey in return for sugar that the algae produces during photosynthesis. It is not known, however, whether the algal symbionts benefit from the relationship or if they are simply being exploited and then digested by the acantharians.
Symbiotic Holacanthida acantharians host diverse symbiont assemblages, including several genera of dinoflagellates (*Pelagodinium, Heterocapsa, Scrippsiella, Azadinium*) and a haptophyte (*Chrysochromulina*). Clade E & F acantharians have a more specific symbiosis and primarily host symbionts from the haptophyte genus *Phaeocystis*, although they sometimes also host *Chrysochromulina* symbionts. Clade F acantharians simultaneously host multiple species and strains of *Phaeocystis* and their internal symbiont community does not necessarily match the relative availability of potential symbionts in the surrounding environment. The mismatch between internal and external symbiont communities suggests that acantharians can be selective in choosing symbionts and probably do not continuously digest and recruit new symbionts, and maintain symbionts for extended periods of time instead.
## Life cycle {#life_cycle}
Adults are usually multinucleated. Earlier diverging clades are able to shed their spines and form cysts, which are often referred to as reproductive cysts. Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as \"spores\"), which may be flagellate, and cysts have been observed to release these swarmers. Non-encysted cells have also been seen releasing swarmers in laboratory conditions. Not all life cycle stages have been observed, however, and no one has witnessed the fusion of swarmers to produce a new acantharian. Cysts are often found in sediment traps and it is therefore believed that the cysts help acantharians sink into deep water. Genetic data and some imaging suggests that non-cyst-forming acantharians may also sink to deep water to release swarmers. Releasing swarmer cells in deeper water may improve the survival chances of juveniles. Study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to \"close the lifecycle\" and maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations.
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Asynchronous communication
|
In telecommunications, **asynchronous communication** is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols.
The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time. In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits.
## Physical layer {#physical_layer}
In asynchronous serial communication in the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits. A variable length space can be inserted between the code words. No bit synchronization signal is required. This is sometimes called character oriented communication. Examples include MNP2 and modems older than V.2.
## Data link layer and higher {#data_link_layer_and_higher}
Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). In this case, the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells. The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH.
The packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times. Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication. Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols.
## Application layer {#application_layer}
An asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate. Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web. An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IPTV and video conferencing.
## Electronically mediated communication {#electronically_mediated_communication}
Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently. Examples include email and bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times than they read them. The term \"asynchronous communication\" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations.
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2,519 |
Adelaide of Italy
|
**Adelaide of Italy** (*Adelheid*; 931 -- 16 December 999 AD), also called **Adelaide of Burgundy**, was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great. She was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962. She was the first empress designated *consors regni*, denoting a \"co-bearer of royalty\" who shared power with her husband. She was essential as a model for future consorts regarding both status and political influence. She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991--995.
## Life
### Early life {#early_life}
Adelaide was born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), to Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.
Adelaide was involved from the outset in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy. The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar\'s death, enabling Rudolf to claim the throne.
Not happy with this, the inhabitants of Lombardy appealed to another ally, Hugh of Provence, who had long considered Rudolf an enemy. Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide\'s father died in 937. So as to control Upper Burgundy, Hugh decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy, to the 15-year-old Adelaide (in 947, before 27 June).
The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948. Emma became Queen of West Francia by marrying King Lothair of France.
### Marriage and alliance with Otto I {#marriage_and_alliance_with_otto_i}
The calendar of saints states that Lothair was poisoned on 22 November 950 in Turin by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy.
There were some suspicions amongst the people of Lombardy that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself. Berengar attempted to thwart this and cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son Adalbert. Adelaide refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como. However, she was quickly tracked down and was imprisoned for four months at Garda.
According to Adelaide\'s contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a \"certain impregnable fortress,\" likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio. She was able to send an emissary to the East Frankish king Otto I asking for his protection. Adelaide met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951. Early in their marriage, Adelaide and Otto had two children, Henry and Bruno, both of whom died before reaching adulthood.
A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto\'s son by his first marriage, instigated a big revolt that was quelled by his father. As a consequence, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title. This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court. Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry.
After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. He then extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obotrites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz on 16 October 955. That same year, Adelaide gave birth to Otto II. In 955 or 956, she gave birth to a daughter who would become Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg.
### Holy Roman Empress {#holy_roman_empress}
Adelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII. In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII. Breaking new ground, Pope John XII also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress. In 960, a new *ordo* was created for her coronation and anointing, including prayers to biblical female figures, especially Esther. The *ordo* presents a theological and political concept that legitimizes the empress\'s status as a divinely ordained component of the earthly rule. In 966, Adelaide and the eleven-year-old Otto II, travelled again with Otto on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him). Crucial to Otto\'s establishing legitimacy in his conquest of Italy and in bringing the imperial crown to the couple, was the support of Adelaide and her extensive network of relations. As heir to the Italian throne, Adelaide established for late Carolingian traditions the legitimate claim over Italy by the imperial throne.
Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy and ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband returned to Germany, where Otto I died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.
After her coronation, which increased her power as she was now *consors regni* and able to receive people from the entire Empire, Adelaide\'s interventions in political decisions increased. According to Buchinger, \"Between 962 and 972 Adelheid appears as intervenient in seventy-five charters. Additionally Adelheid and Otto I are named together in Papal bulls\". She often protected the ecclesiastic institutions, seemingly to gain a sphere of influence separate from that of her husband. Between 991 and 993, the brothers of Feuchtwang wrote to her and requested to be \"protected by the shadow of your rule from now on, we may be safe from the tumults of secular attacks\". They promised they would pray for her so that her reign would be long and stable.
Adelaide wielded a great amount of power during her husband\'s reign, as evidenced by several requests made to her. A letter, written in the 980s by her daughter Emma demanded that Adelaide intervene against Emma\'s enemies and mobilize forces in the Ottonian Empire. She also asked that Adelaide capture Hugh Capet, who was already elected king of West Frankia in 987. Another enemy of Emma\'s was Charles, the brother of Emma\'s deceased consort Lothar, who had accused his sister-in-law of adultery. Another pleader was Gerbert of Aurillac, at that time archbishop of Reims (the later Pope Sylvester II), who wrote to Adelaide to ask for protection against his enemies. Buchinger remarks that, \"These examples are remarkable, because they imply that Adelheid had the possibilities to help in both cases or at least Emma and Gerbert do believe that she could have intervened and succeeded. Both are themselves important political figures in their realm and still they rely on Adelheid. Adelheid's power and importance must have been extremely stable and reliable to do as wished by the pleaders.\"
### Otto II\'s era {#otto_iis_era}
In the years following Otto I\'s death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court. However, Adelaide was in conflict with her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, as only one woman could be queen and hold the associated functions and powers at court. Adelaide was able to maintain the title *imperatrix augusta* even though Theophanu now also used it. Moreover, Theophanu opposed Adelaide in the use of her dowry lands, which Adelaide wanted to continue to use and donate to ecclesiastical institutions, ensuring her power base. Adelaide had the right to make transactions of her Italian lands as she pleased, but she needed the permission of the emperor to use her Ottonian lands. Adelaide also sided with her extended kin against Otto II. Wilson compares this action with those of other royal women: \"Royal women possessed agency and did not always do the bidding of male relatives. Engelberge greatly influenced her husband, Emperor Louis II, in his attempts to extend imperial control to southern Italy in the 870s. Matilda's favouritism for her younger son Heinrich caused Otto I considerable trouble, while Adelaide sided with her extended kin against her own son, Otto II, until he temporarily exiled her to Burgundy in 978. Agency was clearest during regencies, because these lacked formal rules, offering scope for forceful personalities to assert themselves.\" After being expelled from court by Otto II in 978, she divided her time between living in Italy in the royal palace of Pavia and Arles with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son. In 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy.
### Regency
In 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by Adelaide\'s grandson Otto III under the regency of Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy. For some time, Adelaide and Theophanu were able to put aside their separate interests and work together to ensure Otto III\'s succession. This is seen through their joint appearance in the charters. According to the *Annales Quedlinburgenses*, after Otto II\'s death, Henry, duke of Bavaria kidnapped Otto III. The narrative claims that Adelaide returned from Lombardy to join with Theophanu, Matilda, and other leaders of Europe and reclaim the child.
When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of Otto III until he reached legal majority four years later. Adelaide\'s role in establishing Otto\'s position can be seen in a letter Otto III wrote to his grandmother in 996: \"According to your \[Adelheid's\] wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us \[Otto III\] with a happy outcome\".
Troubles in the East continued under Adelaide, as Boleslaus of Bohemia wavered in his loyalty. In 992, there was war between Bohemia and Poland, and again like in Theophanu\'s time, the Ottonian regime sided with Poland. Jestice comments that, \"Christianity was not re-established in the land of the Liutizi during their lifetimes. But there were territorial gains, and by 987 it was possible to begin rebuilding destroyed fortresses along the Elbe\". A Saxon army, with Otto III\'s presence, took Brandenburg in 991. The Hildesheim annal reports that there was another expedition in 992.
Thietmar of Merseburg reports that Otto III dismissed his grandmother after his mother\'s death, but Althoff doubts this story. Even after Otto attained majority, Adelaide often accompanied him in his travels and influenced him, along with other women.
In Burgundy, Adelaide\'s homeland, the counts and castellans behaved increasingly independently from their king Rudolph III. Just before her death in 999, she had to intervene in Burgundy to restore peace.
### Later years {#later_years}
Adelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared to be of the legal majority in 995. From then on, she devoted herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses, i.e. monasteries, churches and abbeys.
Adelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace.
On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097. After serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, Adelaide\'s relics were moved elsewhere. A goblet reputed to have belonged to Saint Adelaide has long been preserved in Seltz.; it was used to give potions to people with fever and the healings were said to have been numerous. Adelaide constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent --- almost an embodiment --- of the work of the pre-schism Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe. Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses.
## Issue
In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy. The union produced one child:
- Emma of Italy (948 -- after 987), queen of France and wife of Lothair of France
In 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor. The union produced four children:
- Henry (952 -- 7 April 954)
- Bruno (953 -- 8 September 957)
- Matilda (early 955 -- † 6 February 999), the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg
- Otto II (end 955 -- 7 December 983), later Holy Roman Emperor.
## Historiography and cultural depictions {#historiography_and_cultural_depictions}
### Historiography
Adelaide was one of the most important and powerful medieval female rulers. Historically, as empress and saint, she has been described as powerful, with both male attributes (like strength, justness and prudence) and female attributes (piety, self denying). Modern German historiography tends to focus on her contributions to the Ottonian dynasty and the development of the Holy Roman Empire.
### Depictions in art {#depictions_in_art}
Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown. Since the 14th century, she is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (by which she is said to have escaped from captivity).
The most famous representation of Adelaide in German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260. She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her.
#### Operas
- Adelaide of Burgundy is the main character of the opera *l\'Adelaide* (1672) by Antonio Sartorio.
- Adelaide is the subject of a 1723 opera by Nicola Porpora, where she was played by the great castrato Farinelli en travesti.
- *Lotario* is a 1729 opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel. It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adelaide.
- Adelaide is the heroine of *Adelaide di Borgogna*, an opera with two acts (1817) by Gioachino Rossini (music) and Giovanni Schmidt (libretto).
- Adelaide is the heroine of William Bernard McCabe\'s 1856 novel *Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown*.
#### Books and novels {#books_and_novels}
- *Adelheid, Mutter der Königreiche (*Adelaide, Mother of Kingdoms) published in 1936 by Gertrud Bäumer.
- *Die fremde Königin* (The Foreign Queen), published in 2017, Adelaide is one of the central characters in Rebecca Gablé\'s novel.
- *Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda: medieval female rulership and the foundations of European society* by Penelope Nash (2017).
- *Imperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany* by Phyllis G. Jestice (2018)
- *God\'s Maidservant: The story of Adelaide of Italy (Women of the Dark Ages)* by Anna Chant (2017)
#### Artwork
- *San Giuseppe con Gesù Bambino tra Sant\'Adelaide, Sant\'Antonio da Padova, San Lupo e San Michele arcangelo* by Francesco Coghetti, 1828
- Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago\'s installation piece *The Dinner Party*, being represented as one of the 999 names on the *Heritage Floor,* with the related place setting of Theodora (wife of Justinian I).
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Agostino Carracci
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**Agostino Carracci** (`{{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|tʃ|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|kə|RAH|chee}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|UKalso|k|ə|ˈ|r|æ|t|ʃ|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|kə|RATCH|ee}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|aɡoˈstiːno karˈrattʃi|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; also **Caracci**; 16 August 1557 -- 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter, printmaker, tapestry designer, and art teacher. He was, together with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the Progressives) in Bologna. Intended to devise alternatives to the Mannerist style favored in the preceding decades, this teaching academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence.
## Life
Agostino Carracci was born in Bologna as the son of a tailor. He was the elder brother of Annibale Carracci and the cousin of Ludovico Carracci. He initially trained as a goldsmith. He later studied painting, first with Prospero Fontana, who had been Lodovico\'s master, and later with Bartolomeo Passarotti. He traveled to Parma to study the works of Correggio. Accompanied by his brother Annibale, he spent a long time in Venice, where he trained as an engraver under the renowned Cornelis Cort. Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings.
He traveled to Venice (1582, 1587--1589) and Parma (1586--1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (*Histories of Jason and Medea*, 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (*Histories of Romulus*, 1590--1592). In 1592 he also painted the *Communion of St. Jerome*, now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. In 1620, Giovanni Lanfranco, a pupil of the Carracci, famously accused another Carracci student, Domenichino, of plagiarizing this painting. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the *Madonna with Child and Saints*, in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598 to 1600 is a *triple Portrait*, now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished. His friend the poet Claudio Achillini composed an epitaph, which was later published by Carlo Cesare Malvasia in the life of the Carracci.
Agostino\'s son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father\'s Academy.
An engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting *Love in the Golden Age* by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse\'s *Le bonheur de vivre* (Joy of Life).
## Critical evaluation {#critical_evaluation}
While his undoubted value in the graphic field is widely recognised, Agostino, as a painter, although admired by his contemporaries, ended up being overshadowed by the fame of his brother Annibale. Perhaps even his long practice of engraving ended up putting him at disadvantage, since he might have been perceived as more inclined to copy than to create.
Even Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who included Agostino Carracci in his selective collection of biographies of artists (*Vite de\' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni*, 1672), described his activity as a painter, with the sole exception of the *Communion of Saint Jerome*, a work that he praises, almost entirely limited to the role of supporting his younger brother Annibale, and reproaches him for having dedicated too much of his work to graphic production.
The modern critical evaluation of the painter Agostino Carracci probably still suffers from the negative legacies of the past. The fact that there is still only one important monograph dedicated to him published (Stephen E. Ostrow, from the United States, 1966, never translated into Italian), and that an individual exhibition on this artist has yet to be held, are probably significant factors that show that he remains an underrated artist.
However, there have been a positive critical reevaluation of the painter, since there is now a better awareness of his artistic role, alongside his more famous relatives, and the knowledge of his personal work is now greater.
## Works
*Oil on canvas unless otherwise noted*
- 1573 -- *Pietà* (Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia)
- 1586 -- *Madonna and Child with Saints* (Galleria nazionale di Parma)
- -- *Lamentation* or *Pietà* (Hermitage, St. Petersburg)
- -- *Reciprico Amore* (engraving, Baltimore Museum of Art)
- -- *Annunciation* (Musée du Louvre, Paris)
- 1590--1595 -- *Portrait of a Woman as Judith* (private collection)
- -- *Assumption* (Ss. Salvatore church, Bologna)
- 1592--1597 -- *The Last Communion of Saint Jerome* (Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna)
- -- *Head of a Faun in a Concave* (drawing in roundel, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
- 1598--1600 -- *Triple Portrait of Arrigo, Pietro and Amon* (National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples)
### Fresco collaborations with Annibale and Ludovico {#fresco_collaborations_with_annibale_and_ludovico}
- *Life of Aeneas* (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
- *Lives of Jason and Medea* (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)
- *Scenes from the Foundation of Rome* (Palazzo Magnani, Bologna)
- *Life of Hercules* (Palazzo Sampieri Talon, Bologna)
### Undated
- *The Penitent Magdalen* (private collection)
- Carracci\'s erotic work (prints)
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Alexandra
|
**Alexandra** (*Ἀλεξάνδρα*) is a female given name of Greek origin. It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander (*Ἀλέξανδρος*, *Aléxandros*). Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb *ἀλέξειν* (*alexein*; meaning \'to defend\') and *ἀνήρ* (*anēr*; GEN *ἀνδρός*, *andros*; meaning \'man\'). Thus it may be roughly translated as \"defender of man\" or \"protector of man\". The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\". The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek *𐀀𐀩𐀏𐀭𐀅𐀨* (*a-re-ka-sa-da-ra* or /*aleksandra*/), written in the Linear B syllabic script. Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken.
## Variants
- Alejandra, Alejandrina (diminutive) (Spanish)
- Aleksandra (Александра) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian)
- Alessandra (Italian)
- Alessia (Italian)
- Alex (various languages)
- Alexa (English, Romanian, Spanish)
- Alexandra (English, German, Dutch, French, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Greek, Portuguese, Romanian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Ukrainian, Ancient Greek)
- Alexis (English)
- Alexandra, Alexa, Alexis, Sandra, Sandy, Sasha (Indonesian)
- Aliaksandra (Belarusian)
- Alikhandra /اليخاندرا (Egyptian Arabic)
- Alissandra/Alyssandra (Sicilian, Greek)
- Allie (English)
- Ally (English)
- Alya (Russian)
- Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali)
- Αλεξάνδρα (Greek)
- Leska (Czech)
- Lesya (Ukrainian)
- Lexa (English)
- Lexie (English)
- Lexine (English)
- Lexi (English)
- Lexy (English)
- Ola (Polish)
- Oleksandra (Ukrainian)
- Sacha (French)
- Sanda (Romanian)
- Sandie (English)
- Sandra (Danish, Dutch, English, Polish, Estonian, Italian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Swedish)
- Sandy (English)
- Sascha (German)
- Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Spanish)
- Saskia (Slavic)
- Saundra (English, Lowland Scottish)
- Saša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene)
- Saška (Serbian)
- Shura (Russian)
- Sondra (English)
- Szandra (Hungarian)
## People with the name {#people_with_the_name}
### Royalty
- Alexandra of Russia (disambiguation), various grand duchesses and royal consorts
- Empress Alexandra (disambiguation), various empresses
- Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872--1918), last empress consort of Russia by marriage to Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia.
- Princess Alexandra (disambiguation), various princesses
- Queen Alexandra (disambiguation), various queens
- Alexandra of Denmark (1844--1925), queen consort of the United Kingdom by marriage to Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom
- Alexandra the Maccabee (63 BCE -- 28 BCE), only child of Hyrcanus II, King of Judaea
- Duchess Alexandra of Oldenburg (1838--1900), eldest child of Duke Constantine Frederick Peter of Oldenburg
### Alexandra
- Alexandra of Antioch (`{{fl.|4th century}}`{=mediawiki}), Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch
- Alexandra of Lithuania (`{{died-in|1434}}`{=mediawiki}), duchess consort of Masovia
- Alexandra of Rome (`{{died-in|314}}`{=mediawiki}), Christian saint and martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions
- Alexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian--Australian linguist
- Alexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer
- Alexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor
- Alexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler
- Alexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer
- Alexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician
- Alexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian--born Italian water polo player
- Alexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician
- Alexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player
- Alexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek--Swiss choreographer and visual artist
- Alexandra Backford (1942--2010), Aleut--American painter
- Alexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer
- Alexandra Balashova (1942--1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer
- Alexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian--born Canadian sprint kayaker
- Alexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress
- Alexandra Bastedo (1946--2014), English actress
- Alexandra Beaton (born `{{c.|1994}}`{=mediawiki}), Canadian actress
- Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian--American mathematician
- Alexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player
- Alexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler
- Alexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist
- Alexandra Beukes, South African politician
- Alexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer, and newspaper editor
- Alexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovakian sprinter
- Alexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist
- Alexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovakian--Hungarian actress
- Alexandra Botez (born 1995), American--Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer
- Alexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian--Bulgarian actress, model, and singer
- Alexandra Boyko (1916--1996), Russian tank commander
- Alexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author
- Alexandra Bradshaw (1888--1981), Canadian--American art professor and watercolor artist
- Alexandra Branitskaya (1754--1838), Russian courtier
- Alexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen
- Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer
- Alexandra Brewis Slade (born 1965), New Zealand-American anthropologist
- Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer
- Alexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player
- Alexandra Brushtein (1884--1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist
- Alexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist
- Alexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat
- Alexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian--German sabre fencer
- Alexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player
- Alexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter
- Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer
- Alexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist
- Alexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer
- Alexandra Cardenas (born 1976), Colombian composer
- Alexandra Carlisle (1886--1936), English actress and suffragist
- Alexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player
- Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player
- Alexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker
- Alexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean--Canadian actress and dancer
- Alexandra Chalupa (born 1976 or 1977), American lawyer and pro--Ukrainian activist
- Alexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player
- Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress
- Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner
- Alexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer
- Alexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer
- Alexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist
- Alexandra Cheron (1983--2011), Dominican--American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite
- Alexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer
- Alexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur
- Alexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author
- Alexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier
- Alexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker
- Alexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican--born Portuguese marine biologist
- Alexandra Cunningham (born 1972 or 1973), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer
- Alexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen
- Alexandra Čvanová (1897--1939), Ukrainian--born Czech operatic soprano
- Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress
- Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress
- Alexandra Dane (born 1940), South African--born English actress
- Alexandra Danilova (1903--1997), Russian ballet dancer
- Alexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist
- Alexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player
- Alexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier
- Alexandra David-Néel (1868--1969), French explorer and spiritualist
- Alexandra Davies (born 1977), English--born Australian actress
- Alexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress
- Alexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist
- Alexandra Denisova (1922--2018), Canadian ballet dancer
- Alexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French--Canadian operatic soprano
- Alexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete
- Alexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer
- Alexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress
- Alexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter
- Alexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player
- Alexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician
- Alexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress
- Alexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder
- Alexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer
- Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player
- Alexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer
- Alexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast
- Alexandra Eala (born 2005), Filipino tennis player
- Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer
- Alexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter
- Alexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist
- Alexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter
- Alexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater
- Alexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka
- Alexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress
- Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete
- Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano
- Alexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player
- Alexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer
- Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower
- Alexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer
- Alexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host
- Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player
- Alexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer
- Alexandra Gajda (born 1979), English historian
- Alexandra Pavlovna Galitzine (1905--2006), Russian noblewoman
- Alexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist
- Alexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer
- Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English--South African artist
- Alexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist
- Alexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African--born Hungarian--Canadian ice hockey player
- Alexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka
- Alexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist
- Alexandra Gripenberg (1857--1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher
- Alexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player
- Alexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower
- Alexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player
- Alexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player
- Alexandra Hasluck (1908--1993), Australian author and historian
- Alexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer
- Alexandra Heidrich, German canoeist
- Alexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan--born Swiss Paralympic athlete
- Alexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer
- Alexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director
- Alexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovakian--Czech ice dancer
- Alexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter
- Alexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan--American documentarian
- Alexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist
- Alexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger
- Alexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen
- Alexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player
- Alexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player
- Alexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress
- Alexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovakian football player
- Alexandra van Huffelen (born 1968), Dutch politician
- Alexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter
- Alexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete
- Alexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player
- Alexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player
- Alexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian--Canadian speed skater
- Alexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player
- Alexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model
- Alexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish--English swimmer
- Alexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress
- Alexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player
- Alexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer
- Alexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer
- Alexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player
- Alexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete
- Alexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater
- Alexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model
- Alexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player
- Alexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician
- Alexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player
- Alexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist
- Alexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress
- Alexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian--born Argentine sprint canoer
- Alexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker
- Alexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor
- Alexandra Kiroi-Bogatyreva (born 2002), Australian Olympic rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Kim (1885--1918), Russian--Korean revolutionary political activist
- Alexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer
- Alexandra Kluge (1937--2017), German actress
- Alexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor
- Alexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player
- Alexandra Kollontai (1872--1952), Russian politician
- Alexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist
- Alexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian
- Alexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer
- Alexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner
- Alexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster
- Alexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist
- Alexandra Kropotkin (1887--1966), Russian--American writer
- Alexandra Krosney, American actress
- Alexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovakian figure skater
- Alexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model
- Alexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer
- Alexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress
- Alexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player
- Alexandra Lapierre, French author
- Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian--German actress
- Alexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer
- Alexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish--Argentine model
- Alexandra Lazarowich, Cree--Canadian director and producer
- Alexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman
- Alexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter
- Alexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra
- Alexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician
- Alexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast
- Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress
- Alexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong--born English photographer
- Alexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer
- Alexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower
- Alexandra London (born 1973), French actress
- Alexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovakian archer
- Alexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player
- Alexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician
- Alexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician
- Alexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player
- Alexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player
- Alexandra Lydon, American actress
- Alexandra Măceșanu (2003--2019), Romanian murder victim
- Alexandra Makovskaya (1837--1915), Russian landscape painter
- Alexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist
- Alexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier
- Alexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress
- Alexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast
- Alexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer
- Alexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician
- Alexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter
- Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605--1684), Greek intellectual
- Alexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen
- Alexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer
- Alexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician
- Alexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model
- Alexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician
- Alexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator
- Alexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer
- Alexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist
- Alexandra Mitsotaki (born 1956), Greek activist and entrepreneur
- Alexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist
- Alexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver
- Alexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer
- Alexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist
- Alexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist
- Alexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player
- Alexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player
- Alexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier
- Alexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater
- Alexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player
- Alexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German--born Kenyan épée fencer
- Alexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian--American cubist painter and philanthropist
- Alexandra Nekvapilová (1919--2014), Czech alpine skier
- Alexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress
- Alexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer
- Alexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor
- Alexandra Nessmar (born 1994), Swedish racing cyclist
- Alexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor
- Alexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player
- Alexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress
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- Alexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player
- Alexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician
- Alexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet
- Alexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer
- Alexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower
- Alexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player
- Alexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek--Canadian actress
- Alexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player
- Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player
- Alexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower
- Alexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress
- Alexandra Parks (born 1984), English singer-songwriter
- Alexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek--Swedish author and columnist
- Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912--2010), Greek architect
- Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek--American music supervisor
- Alexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist
- Alexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist
- Alexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player
- Alexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer
- Alexandra Petrova (1980--2000), Russian beauty queen and model
- Alexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress
- Alexandra Pierce (1934--2021), American composer and pianist
- Alexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian--American tennis player
- Alexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka
- Alexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer
- Alexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress
- Alexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player
- Alexandra Potter (born 1970), English author
- Alexandra Poulovassilis, Greek--English computer scientist
- Alexandra Powers, American actress
- Alexandra Pringle (born 1953), British publisher
- Alexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress
- Alexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer
- Alexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler
- Alexandra Raffé (born 1955), Canadian film and television producer
- Alexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter
- Alexandra Rapaport (born 1971), Swedish actress
- Alexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete
- Alexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka
- Alexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer
- Alexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovakian blind alpine skier
- Alexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model
- Alexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress
- Alexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican--born English Paralympic sailor
- Alexandra Ridout (born 1998), English jazz trumpeter
- Alexandra Ripley (1934--2004), American writer
- Alexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress
- Alexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer
- Alexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist
- Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player
- Alexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder
- Alexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator
- Alexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model
- Alexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter
- Alexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater
- Alexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian--born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter
- Alexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor
- Alexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player
- Alexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter
- Alexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player
- Alexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovakian author
- Alexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian--born Ecuadorian soccer player
- Alexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter
- Alexandra Schepisi, Australian actress
- Alexandra Schörghuber (born 1958), German entrepreneur
- Alexandra Seceleanu, Romanian mathematician
- Alexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player
- Alexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist
- Alexandra Shimo, Canadian writer
- Alexandra Shipp, American actress and singer
- Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player
- Alexandra Shiva, American documentarian
- Alexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist
- Alexandra Sicoe (1932--2019), Romanian sprinter
- Alexandra Sidorovici (1906--2000), Romanian politician
- Alexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer
- Alexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress
- Alexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian--born French pianist
- Alexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist
- Alexandra Slade, American actress
- Alexandra Smirnoff (1838--1913) Finnish pomologist
- Alexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player
- Alexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress
- Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter
- Alexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast
- Alexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer
- Alexandra Sorina (1899--1973), Belarusian actress
- Alexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian--born French violinist
- Alexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian
- Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer
- Alexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer
- Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player
- Alexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress
- Alexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist
- Alexandra Styron, American author and professor
- Alexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer
- Alexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian
- Alexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player
- Alexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter
- Alexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower
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- Alexandra Techet, American marine engineer
- Alexandra Tegleva (1894--1955), Russian nursemaid
- Alexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player
- Alexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician
- Alexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer
- Alexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast
- Alexandra Tolstaya (1884--1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy
- Alexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer
- Alexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player
- Alexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player
- Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater
- Alexandra Truwit (born 2000), American Paralympic swimmer
- Alexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower
- Alexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder
- Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress
- Alexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian--Czech politician
- Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player
- Alexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician
- Alexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress
- Alexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater
- Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician
- Alexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor
- Alexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower
- Alexandra Vinogradova (born 1988), Russian volleyball player
- Alexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician
- Alexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano
- Alexandra von Dyhrn (1873--1945), German author and genealogist
- Alexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong--born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite
- Alexandra Voronin (1905--1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling
- Alexandra Vydrina (1988--2021), Russian linguist
- Alexandra Wager (born `{{c.|1950}}`{=mediawiki}), American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager
- Alexandra Wallace (born 1975 or 1976), American news media executive
- Alexandra Walsham (born 1966), English--Australian historian
- Alexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist
- Alexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model
- Alexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian
- Alexandra Wejchert (1921--1995), Polish--Irish sculptor
- Alexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer
- Alexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress
- Alexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian--born German long jumper
- Alexandra Williams, American rugby player
- Alexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist
- Alexandra Worden (born 1970), American genome scientist and microbial ecologist
- Alexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer
- Alexandra Zabelina (1937--2022), Soviet fencer
- Alexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher
- Alexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor
- Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer
- Alexandra Zarini (born 1985), Italian--American daughter of Patricia Gucci
- Alexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian--born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter
- Alexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer
- Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1842--1899), Russian--German lady-in-waiting
- Alexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist
- Alexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer
### Aleksandra
- Aleksandra Antonova, various people
- Aleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player
- Aleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player
- Aleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player
- Aleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player
- Aleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master
- Aleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer
- Aleksandra Fedoriva (born 1988), Russian athlete
- Aleksandra Izmailovich (1878--1941), Belarusian revolutionary
- Aleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder
- Aleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854--1941), Polish novelist
- Aleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player
- Aleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master
- Aleksandra Melnichenko (born 1977), Serbian billionaire, former singer, and model who is the wife of the Russian billionaire Andrey Melnichenko
- Aleksandra Perišić (born 2002), Serbian taekwondo practitioner
- Aleksandra Prijović (born 1995), Serbian pop-folk singer
- Aleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist
- Aleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player
- Aleksandra Shchekoldina (born 2002), retired Russian gymnast
- Aleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player
- Aleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player
- Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player
- Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer
## Fictional characters {#fictional_characters}
- Princess Alexandra, a character in *The Swan*, played by Grace Kelly
- Alexandra, a character from the game *Mystic Defender*
- Alexandra, *Nikita* character
- Alexandra, the main antagonist in *The Wildwood Chronicles*
- Alexandra the Royal Baby Fairy, character in the British book series *Rainbow Magic*
- Alexandra \"Alex\" Bailey, a main character in Chris Colfer\'s *The Land of Stories*
- Alexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse
- Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a. Lexie Carver, character in the NBC soap opera *Days of Our Lives*
- Alexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March
- Alexandra \"Alex\" Cahill, character in the 1990s television series *Walker, Texas Ranger*
- Alexandra Cross, a.k.a. Lexy Cross, a character in the USA/Syfy TV series, *Chucky*, based on the *Child\'s Play* media franchise
- Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a. Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers\' sister in *Supergirl*
- Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a. Alex Dunphy, character in the popular television series *Modern Family*
- Alexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe
- Alexandra Finch, sister of Atticus Finch in the 1960 novel *To Kill A Mockingbird*
- Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series *Kuroko\'s Basketball*
- Alexandra Grey, a.k.a. Lexie Grey, character in the ABC medical drama *Grey\'s Anatomy*
- Alexandra Vladimirovna Litvyak, a.k.a. Sanya V. Litvyak, a character from the anime/manga franchise *Strike Witches*
- Alexandra Mack, a.k.a. Alex Mack, titular lead character in the popular television series *The Secret World of Alex Mack*
- Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a. Alex Nuñez, character in the Canadian television drama *Degrassi: The Next Generation*
- Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a. Alex Russo, character in the Disney Channel television series *Wizards of Waverly Place*, played by Selena Gomez
- Alexandra Vause, a.k.a. Alex Vause, imprisoned drug dealer and love interest to protagonist to Piper Chapman in Netflix\'s *Orange Is The New Black*
- Aleksandra Billewicz, a character in *Deluge* by Henryk Sienkiewicz
- Aleksandra \'Zarya\' Zaryanova, a Russian weightlifter turned soldier in the video game *Overwatch*
- Alexandra \"Lex\" Foster, the main protagonist of *Team StarKid*\'s Black Friday (musical)
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,536 |
Articolo 31
|
**Articolo 31** is a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms. They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups.
## Band history {#band_history}
Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini). In the spoken intro of the album *Strade di Città* (\"City Streets\"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press. They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act.
Articolo 31 released one of the first Italian hip hop records, *Strade di città*, in 1993. Soon, they signed with BMG Ricordi and started to mix rap with pop music -- a move that earned them great commercial success but that alienated the underground hip hop scene, who perceived them as traitors. In 1997, DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in a track titled *1 vs 2* on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, starting a feud that would go on for years.
In 2001, Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album *XChé SI!*. In the same year, they made the film *Senza filtro* (in English, *\"Without filter\"*). Their producer was Franco Godi, who also produced the music for the *Signor Rossi* animated series.
Their 2002 album *Domani smetto* represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples. Several of their songs rotate around the theme of soft drugs legalization in Italy (pointing strongly in favour).
Following their 2003 album \"Italiano medio\", the band took a break. Both J-Ax and DJ Jad have been involved with solo projects. In 2006, the group declared an indefinite hiatus.
Their posse, *Spaghetti Funk*, includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi.
On 4 December 2022, it was officially announced Articolo 31 participation in the Sanremo Music Festival 2023. \"Un bel viaggio\" was later announced as their entry for the Sanremo Music Festival 2023.
## Band members {#band_members}
- J-Ax -- vocals
- DJ Jad -- turntables
## Discography
Year Title Label
------ -------------------- ------------
1993 *Strade di città* Best Sound
1994 *Messa di vespiri* Best Sound
1996 *Così com\'è* Best Sound
1998 *Nessuno* Best Sound
2001 *Xché sì!* Best Sound
2002 *Domani smetto* Best Sound
2003 *Italiano medio* Best Sound
2024 *Protomaranza* Columbia
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,546 |
Automated theorem proving
|
**Automated theorem proving** (also known as **ATP** or **automated deduction**) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs. Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major motivating factor for the development of computer science.
## Logical foundations {#logical_foundations}
While the roots of formalized logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalized mathematics. Frege\'s *Begriffsschrift* (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic. His *Foundations of Arithmetic*, published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential *Principia Mathematica*, first published 1910--1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim--Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.
In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.
However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published *On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems* (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system, there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions.
## First implementations {#first_implementations}
In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger\'s algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, \"Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even\". More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the *Principia Mathematica*, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the *Principia*.
The \"heuristic\" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle. In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore\'s program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious.
## Decidability of the problem {#decidability_of_the_problem}
Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel\'s completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, *invalid* formulas (those that are *not* entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.
The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel\'s incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).
## Related problems {#related_problems}
A simpler, but related, problem is *proof verification*, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.
Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover\'s output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.
Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.
Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference. Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).
There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program\'s calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player.
## Applications
Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.
Other uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification. Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL.
Applications of theorem provers are also found in natural language processing and formal semantics, where they are used to analyze discourse representations.
## First-order theorem proving {#first_order_theorem_proving}
In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson\'s resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the *Notices of the American Mathematical Society* before solutions were formally published.
First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling *fully* automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.
### Relationship with SMT {#relationship_with_smt}
There is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers. Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols). ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers. The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC.
## Popular techniques {#popular_techniques}
- First-order resolution with unification
- Model elimination
- Method of analytic tableaux
- Superposition and term rewriting
- Model checking
- Mathematical induction
- Binary decision diagrams
- DPLL
- Higher-order unification
- Quantifier elimination
## Software systems`{{anchor|Comparison}}`{=mediawiki} {#software_systems}
Name License type Web service Library Standalone Last update `{{small|([[strftime|YYYY-mm-dd format]])}}`{=mediawiki}
------------------------------ ----------------------------- ------------- --------- ------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------
ACL2 3-clause BSD
Prover9/Otter Public Domain
Jape GPLv2
PVS GPLv2
EQP
PhoX
E GPL
SNARK Mozilla Public License 1.1
Vampire Vampire License
Theorem Proving System (TPS) TPS Distribution Agreement
SPASS FreeBSD license
IsaPlanner GPL
KeY GPL
Z3 Theorem Prover MIT License
: Comparison
### Free software {#free_software}
- Alt-Ergo
- Automath
- CVC
- E
- IsaPlanner
- LCF
- Mizar
- NuPRL
- Paradox
- Prover9
- PVS
- SPARK (programming language)
- Twelf
- Z3 Theorem Prover
### Proprietary software {#proprietary_software}
- CARINE
- Wolfram Mathematica
- ResearchCyc
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2,551 |
Astronomical year numbering
|
**Astronomical year numbering** is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).
The prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year *n* BC/BCE is numbered \"−(*n* − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − *n*). The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general *n* AD/CE is simply *n* or +*n*. For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.
The system is so named due to its use in astronomy. Few other disciplines outside history deal with the time before year 1, some exceptions being dendrochronology, archaeology and geology, the latter two of which use \'years before the present\'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.
## Usage of the year zero {#usage_of_the_year_zero}
In his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled *Christi* (Christ\'s) between years labeled *Ante Christum* (Before Christ) and *Post Christum* (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled `{{nowrap|''Christum 0''}}`{=mediawiki} at the end of years labeled *ante Christum* (BC), and immediately before years labeled *post Christum* (AD) on the mean motion pages in his *Tabulæ Astronomicæ*, thus adding the designation *0* to Kepler\'s *Christi*. Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini `{{nowrap|(Cassini II)}}`{=mediawiki}, who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his *Tables astronomiques*, simply labeling this year *0*, which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled *avant Jesus-Christ* (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled *après Jesus-Christ* (after Jesus Christ or AD).
Cassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0: `{{Blockquote|The year 0 is that in which one supposes that Jesus Christ was born, which several chronologists mark 1 before the birth of Jesus Christ and which we marked 0, so that the sum of the years before and after Jesus Christ gives the interval which is between these years, and where numbers divisible by 4 mark the leap years as so many before or after Jesus Christ.|Jacques Cassini}}`{=mediawiki}
Fred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time. Jean Meeus gives the following explanation: `{{Blockquote|There is a disagreement between astronomers and historians about how to count the years preceding year 1. In [''Astronomical Algorithms''], the 'B.C.' years are counted astronomically. Thus, the year before the year +1 is the year zero, and the year preceding the latter is the year −1. The year which historians call 585 B.C. is actually the year −584.
The astronomical counting of the negative years is the only one suitable for arithmetical purpose. For example, in the historical practice of counting, the rule of divisibility by 4 revealing Julian leap-years no longer exists; these years are, indeed, 1, 5, 9, 13, ... B.C. In the astronomical sequence, however, these leap-years are called 0, −4, −8, −12, ..., and the rule of divisibility by 4 subsists.|Jean Meeus, ''Astronomical Algorithms''}}`{=mediawiki}
## Signed years without the year zero {#signed_years_without_the_year_zero}
Although he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel (1890--1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.
Version 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes **date** and **dateTime**. Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero. Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility.
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2,552 |
Adam of Bremen
|
**Adam of Bremen** (*Adamus Bremensis*; *Adam von Bremen*; before 1050 -- 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle *Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum* (*Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church*). He was \"one of the foremost historians and early ethnographers of the medieval period\".
In his chronicle, he included a chapter mentioning the Norse outpost of Vinland, and was thus the first European to write about the New World.
## Life
Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from Meissen, then its own margravate. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085). From his chronicles, it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of *Magister Adam* shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the *Magdeburger Domschule*.
In 1066 or 1067, he was invited by Archbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen to join the Church of Bremen. Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the Bremen Cathedral\'s school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his *Gesta*.
His position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history and the geography of Northern Germany. A stay at the court of Sweyn II of Denmark gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark and the other Scandinavian countries. Among other things he wrote about in Scandinavia were the sailing passages across Øresund such as today\'s Helsingør--Helsingborg ferry route.
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2,559 |
Arapaoa Island
|
**Arapaoa Island** (formerly spelled **Arapawa Island**) is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north-east tip of the South Island of New Zealand. The island has a land area of 75 km². Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route between Wellington in the North Island to Picton. Cook Strait\'s narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island\'s Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island.
## History
According to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.
It was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, and confirmed that what the indigenous people had told him was correct -- Aotearoa is composed of two main islands. Cook is not known for naming places after himself, and it is speculated that Joseph Banks bestowed the name Cook Strait. This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis. A monument at Cook\'s Lookout was erected in 1970.
From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827, however initially could only salvage baleen until the station was equipped to process whale oil from 1830 onwards, targeting right whales. Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand). The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation. In the 2000s the former whalers from the Perano and Heberley families, who live on Arapawa, joined a Department of Conservation whale spotting programme to assess how the humpback whale population has recovered since the end of whaling.
An Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft struck the 11,000-volt power lines linking the island and the mainland over Tory Channel in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family died, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other family from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.
In August 2014, the spelling of the island\'s name was officially changed from *Arapawa* to *Arapaoa*.
## Conservation
Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island. Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow. About 200 ha at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.
Arapaoa Island is known for the breeds of domestic animals found only on the island -- the Arapawa pig, Arapawa sheep and Arapawa goat. They became established in the 19th century, but the origin of the breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers. These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.
The small Brothers Islands, which lie off the northeast coast of Arapaoa Island, are a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara.
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2,563 |
Arthur Phillip
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**Arthur Phillip** (11 October 1738 -- 31 August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales.
Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753. He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship *Fortune*. With the outbreak of the Seven Years\' War against France, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain\'s servant to Michael Everitt aboard `{{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}}`{=mediawiki}. With Everitt, Phillip also served on `{{HMS|Union|1756|6}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}}`{=mediawiki}. Phillip was promoted to lieutenant on 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763. Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, he served in the war against Spain. Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip, in command of `{{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}`{=mediawiki}, was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before he reached his destination. In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe.
In 1786, Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales. On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson -- the site of Sydney, Australia, today. Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts. However, his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet\'s voyage had been rejected. Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply. Phillip wanted harmonious relations with the local indigenous peoples, in the belief that everyone in the colony was a British citizen and was protected by the law as such; therefore the indigenous peoples had the same rights as everyone under Phillip\'s command. Eventually, cultural differences between the two groups of people led to conflict. The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources. By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place.
On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones. He had planned to return to Australia, but medical advisors recommended he resign from the governorship. His health recovered and he returned to active duty in the Navy in 1796, holding a number of commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles. He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805. He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814. As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools.
## Early life {#early_life}
Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London. He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman. His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard `{{HMS|Tartar|1702|6}}`{=mediawiki} on 13 August 1732. At the time of Arthur Phillip\'s birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.
There are no surviving records of Phillip\'s early childhood. His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income. Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel aged nine. On 22 June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In accordance with the school\'s curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography. His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was \"unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes\".
Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year. At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard *Fortune*, a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead. Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1 December, and spent the next few months aboard the *Fortune*, awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season.
Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes. A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his \"smooth pear of a skull\" as quoted by Robert Hughes.
## Early maritime career {#early_maritime_career}
### Whaling and merchant expeditions {#whaling_and_merchant_expeditions}
In April 1754 *Fortune* headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea. As an apprentice Phillip\'s responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce, and *Fortune*{{\'}}s 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird\'s eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754. The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. Phillip remained aboard as *Fortune* undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year\'s whale hunt. Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July.
### Royal Navy and the Seven Years\' War {#royal_navy_and_the_seven_years_war}
upright=1.5\|thumb\|HMS *Buckingham*, Phillip\'s first posting after joining the Navy in 1755. Vessel pictured on the stocks at Deptford Dockyard on the River Thames, c. 1751. Painting by John Cleveley the Elder. National Maritime Museum, London.
On 16 October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain\'s servant aboard the 68-gun `{{HMS|Buckingham|1751|6}}`{=mediawiki}, commanded by his mother\'s cousin, Captain Michael Everitt. As a member of *Buckingham*{{\'}}s crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng\'s Mediterranean fleet. The *Buckingham* was Rear-Admiral Temple West\'s flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20 May 1756.
Phillip moved on 1 August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun `{{HMS|Union|1756|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5--12 June 1758. Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28 December 1758 to the 64-gun `{{HMS|Stirling Castle|1742|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana. On 7 June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service. With the coming of peace on 25 April 1763, he was retired on half-pay.
### Retirement and the Portuguese Navy {#retirement_and_the_portuguese_navy}
In July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison (`{{nee|Tibbott}}`{=mediawiki}), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there. The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy. Margaret Phillip died in August 1792 and is buried at Llanycil, Bala, North Wales with her companion, Mrs Cane. The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard `{{HMS|Egmont|1768|6}}`{=mediawiki}, a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.
In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain. While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, *Nossa Senhora do Pilar*. On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there. The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia. During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences. A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney. Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship *San Agustín*, on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina. The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the *Santo Agostinho*, under Phillip\'s command. The action was reported in the English press:
> Madrid, 28 Aug. Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.
### Recommissioned into Royal Navy {#recommissioned_into_royal_navy}
In 1778, with Britain again at war, Phillip was recalled to Royal Navy service and on 9 October was appointed first lieutenant of the 74-gun `{{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} as part of the Channel fleet. Promoted to commander on 2 September 1779 and given command of the 8-gun fireship HMS *Basilisk*. With Spain\'s entry into the conflict, Phillip had a series of private meetings with the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich, sharing his charts and knowledge about the South American coastlines.
Phillip was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun `{{HMS|Ariadne|1776|6}}`{=mediawiki}. *Ariadne* was sent to the Elbe to escort a transport ship carrying a detachment of Hanoverian troops, arriving at the port of Cuxhaven on 28 December, the estuary froze over trapping *Ariadne* in the harbour. In March 1782, Phillip arrived in England with the Hanoverian troops. In the following months *Ariadne* got a new lieutenant, Philip Gidley King, whom Phillip took under his wing. *Ariadne* was used to patrol the Channel where on 30 June, she captured the French frigate *Le Robecq*.
With a change of government on 27 March 1782, Sandwich retired from the Admiralty, Lord Germain was replaced as Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs by Earl of Shelburne, before 10 July 1782, in another change of government Thomas Townshend replaced him, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America. Like Sandwich and Germain, he turned to Phillip for planning advice. The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy\'s East India squadron for an attack on Manila. On 27 December 1782, Phillip, took charge of the 64-gun `{{HMS|Europa|1765|6}}`{=mediawiki}. The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun `{{HMS|Grafton|1771|6}}`{=mediawiki}, the 74-gun `{{HMS|Elizabeth|1769|6}}`{=mediawiki}, *Europa*, and the 32-gun frigate `{{HMS|Iphigenia|1780|6}}`{=mediawiki}, sailed on 16 January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill. Shortly after the ships\' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain. Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro. Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.
### Survey work in Europe {#survey_work_in_europe}
After his return to England in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean. From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France, and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports. There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands.
## Colonial service {#colonial_service}
Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales. Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Under Banks\' guidance, Matra rapidly produced \"A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales\" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia. This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion.
In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet. His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay. Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony. A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island\'s native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes.
### Voyage to Colony of New South Wales {#voyage_to_colony_of_new_south_wales}
On 25 October 1786, the 20-gun `{{HMS|Sirius|1786|6}}`{=mediawiki}, lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip. The armed tender HMAT *Supply* (often confused with `{{HMS|Supply|1793|6}}`{=mediawiki}), under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition. On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to *Sirius* to command in the absence of Phillip, who as governor of the colony, would be where the seat of government was to be fixed.
The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip\'s command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787; `{{HMS|Hyaena|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} provided an escort out of British waters. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents. The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month to resupply. The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay. On 25 November, Phillip transferred from the *Sirius* to the faster *Supply*, and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet. However, this \"flying squadron\", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. *Supply* reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including *Sirius*, arrived on 20 January. thumb\|upright=1.35\|The landing of the First Fleet in Port Jackson, Australia in 1788
Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source. Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip\'s differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, \"custodian of over a thousand convicts\" for whom he was responsible. After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney. This date later became Australia\'s national day, Australia Day. Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7 February 1788 in Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: \"being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World \[\...\] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security.\"
### Establishing a settlement {#establishing_a_settlement}
On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George III. The next day, sailors from *Sirius*, a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents. The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days. Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp. His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west. During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement\'s provisions. On 29 January, the governor\'s portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day. The female convicts disembarked on 6 February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor\'s house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins. On 7 February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated.
On 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of 23, including 15 convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony.
### Governor of New South Wales {#governor_of_new_south_wales}
When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent. Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately.
Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement. Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the *Alexander*, for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued. Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables\' possessions.
Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony. In one paragraph he wrote: \"The laws of this country \[England\] will of course, be introduced in \[New\] South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty\'s forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves.\" Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences. The settlement\'s supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males\' rations. In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies. They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day. Phillip gave the rest a reprieve. They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water.
The governor also expanded the settlement\'s knowledge of the landscape. Two officers from *Sirius*, Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove. Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay.
The fleet\'s ships left over the next months, with *Sirius* and *Supply* remaining in the colony under command of the governor. They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways. Scurvy broke out, so *Sirius* left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies. The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony.
As an experienced farmhand, Phillip\'s appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better. James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791. When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony\'s first land grant.
In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but `{{HMS|Guardian|1784|6}}`{=mediawiki}, carrying more supplies, was disabled en route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again. *Supply*, the only ship left under colonial command after *Sirius* was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies. The colony\'s isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London.
In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps. On 11 December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the *Atlantic*, which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet. Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23 July 1793.
### Military personnel in colony {#military_personnel_in_colony}
The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps. As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition. Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen.
Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO\'s, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay. In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship\'s Complement of Marines aboard *Sirius* and *Supply*, bringing the total to 246 who departed England.
Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor\'s actions to the Home Office. Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities. Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect. In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there.
Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of `{{HMS|Gorgon|1785|6}}`{=mediawiki} on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps. On 18 December 1791, *Gorgon* left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines. There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip\'s aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps. Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers. The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, with Governor Phillip on *Atlantic*.
Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain.
### Relations with indigenous peoples {#relations_with_indigenous_peoples}
Phillip\'s official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to \"conciliate their affections\", to \"live in amity and kindness with them\", and to punish anyone who should \"wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations\". The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay. When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do. Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished.
After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement. Part of Phillip\'s early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora\'s language, beliefs, and customs.
By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors. The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs. Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population. Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained. Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped.
Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly. Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way. Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering. He ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it. Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family.
Even though there were now friendly relations with the Indigenous people around Sydney Cove, the same couldn\'t be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists. Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, \"to put to death ten \... \[and\] cut off the heads of the slain \... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief\". Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended.
On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the *Atlantic*.
## Later life and death {#later_life_and_death}
Phillip\'s estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno\'s Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire. Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Parish Church, in the Church of England on 8 May 1794.
His health recovered, he was reappointed in March 1796 to command the 74-gun `{{HMS|Alexander|1778|6}}`{=mediawiki} as part of the Channel fleet. In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun `{{HMS|Swiftsure|1787|6}}`{=mediawiki}. In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun `{{HMS|Blenheim|1761|6}}`{=mediawiki}, command of which he held until December of that year. During 1798--99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts.
In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801. Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814.
Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed. He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath. He was buried nearby at St Nicholas\'s Church, Bathampton. His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location. An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip\'s birthdate by the Britain--Australia Society.
In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson alleged that Phillip\'s remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: \"Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost. But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies.\"
## Legacy
A number of places in Australia bear Phillip\'s name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, and St Phillip\'s Church, Sydney.
A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937. Another was unveiled at St Mildred\'s Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul\'s Cathedral, in 1968. A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow. There is a memorial fountain honouring him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney. There is a 1786 portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London, and another by the same painter painted in 1787 in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his *Dictionary of Australian Biography*:
### 200th anniversary {#th_anniversary}
As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014. In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: \"This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton.\" A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James\' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014. A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney, and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Phillip has been played by a number of actors in movies and television programs, including:
- Sir Cedric Hardwicke in *Botany Bay* (1953)
- Edward Hepple in *The Hungry Ones* (1963)
- Wynn Roberts in *Prelude to Harvest* (1963)
- Peter Collingwood in *The Timeless Land* (1980)
- Sam Neill in *The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant* (2005)
- David Wenham in *Banished* (2015)
He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker\'s play *Our Country\'s Good*, in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of *The Recruiting Officer*. He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers.
His life was the focus of *I\'ll Meet You in Botany Bay*, a 1945 radio play.
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Angus, Scotland
|
**Angus** (*Angus*; *Aonghas*) is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross. Main industries include agriculture and fishing. Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the east of the county.
Angus was historically a province, and later a sheriffdom and county (called **Forfarshire** or the **County of Forfar** until 1928), bordering Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west; southwards it faced Fife across the Firth of Tay. The county included Dundee until 1894, when it was made a county of a city. The pre-1894 boundaries of Angus continue to be used as a registration county. Between 1975 and 1996 Angus was a lower-tier district within the Tayside region. The district took on its modern form and powers in 1996, since when the local authority has been Angus Council.
## History
### Etymology
The name \"Angus\" indicates the territory of the eighth-century Pictish king, Óengus I.
### Prehistory
The area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period. Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC. The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.
Bronze Age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area. Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town. These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet. Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan, as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.
### Medieval and later history {#medieval_and_later_history}
The county is traditionally associated with the Pictish territory of Circin, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns. Bordering it were the kingdoms of Cé (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South. The most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus. Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.
Angus is first recorded as one of the provinces of Scotland in 937, when Dubacan, the Mormaer of Angus, is recorded in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* as having died at the Battle of Brunanburh.
The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotland\'s establishment as an independent nation. Partly on this basis, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland. It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards. Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Lighthouse, described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World.
During the 16th and 17th century, several witch trials took place in Forfar, the last of which took place in 1662 and in which 52 people were accused. At the time, Forfar was a town of around 1,000 inhabitants, with an additional 2,000 people residing in the county.
### Administrative history {#administrative_history}
Angus was one of the ancient provinces of Scotland, under the authority of the Mormaer or Earl of Angus. From at least the thirteenth century the area formed the basis for a shire (the area administered by a sheriff) based in Forfar: the Sheriff of Forfar.
Over time, Scotland\'s shires became more significant than the old provinces, with more administrative functions being given to the sheriffs. The older territory called Angus was therefore gradually eclipsed in legal importance by the shire of Forfar (or Forfarshire) which covered the same area. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were established for each shire, which would serve as the main administrative body for the area until the creation of county councils in 1890. Following the Acts of Union in 1707, the English term \'county\' came to be used interchangeably with the older term \'shire\'.
Elected county councils were established in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, taking most of the functions of the commissioners (which were eventually abolished in 1930). The county\'s five largest burghs, being Arbroath, Brechin, Dundee, Forfar, and Montrose, were deemed capable of managing their own affairs and so were excluded from the administrative area of the county council. The county council held its first official meeting on 22 May 1890 at the County Buildings (now known as Forfar Sheriff Court), the county\'s main courthouse, which also served as the meeting place for the commissioners of supply. Robert Haldane-Duncan, 3rd Earl of Camperdown, a Liberal peer, was appointed the first chairman of the county council.
The 1889 Act also led to a review of boundaries, with exclaves being transferred to a county they actually bordered, and parishes which straddled more than one county being adjusted such that each parish was entirely in a single county. There were several such changes affecting the boundaries of Forfarshire.
Dundee was subsequently made a county of itself in 1894, also removing the city from Forfarshire for judicial and lieutenancy purposes. Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose were brought within the administrative area of the county council in 1930, although Arbroath was classed as a large burgh, allowing its council to continue to deliver most local government functions itself.
In May 1928 the county council resolved to use the name \'Angus\' for the area rather than the \'County of Forfar\'. The council petitioned the government to officially change the name too. The government responded by directing all departments to use Angus, but noted that the legal name would remain Forfar until such time as it could be changed by statute. The statutory change of name from Forfar to Angus eventually took place in 1947 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1947.
Angus County Council was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, which replaced Scotland\'s counties, burghs and landward districts with a two-tier structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. A new Angus district was created covering most of the pre-1975 county, with the exceptions being that Monifieth and a number of villages immediately north of Dundee were transferred to an enlarged City of Dundee district, and Kettins was transferred to Perth and Kinross. Angus District Council was a lower-tier district level authority subordinate to the Tayside Regional Council. A lieutenancy area covering the same area as the new district was created at the same time.
Further local government reforms in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994 saw the regions and districts created in 1975 abolished and replaced with council areas providing all local government services. Angus district became one of the new council areas, taking on the functions of the abolished Tayside Regional Council. The council area regained Monifieth and the villages north of Dundee as part of the same reforms. The Angus lieutenancy area was adjusted to match the new council area in 1996. The Lord Lieutenant of Angus is appointed by the monarch. The boundaries of the historic county of Angus (as it was prior to the removal of Dundee in 1894) are still used for some limited official purposes connected with land registration, being a registration county.
## Geography
Angus can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the Grampian Mountains, Mounth hills and Five Glens of Angus, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill farming. Glas Maol -- the highest point in Angus at 1,068 m -- can be found here, on the tripoint boundary with Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills (such as the Sidlaws) bordering the sea; this area is well populated, with the larger towns. In between lies Strathmore (*the Great Valley*), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Aberdeen Angus cattle.
Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin and wildlife. Angus\'s coast is fairly regular, the most prominent features being the headlands of Scurdie Ness and Buddon Ness. The main bodies of water in the county are Loch Lee, Loch Brandy, Carlochy, Loch Wharral, Den of Ogil Reservoir, Loch of Forfar, Loch Fithie, Rescobie Loch, Balgavies Loch, Crombie Reservoir, Monikie Reservoirs, Long Loch, Lundie Loch, Loch of Kinnordy, Loch of Lintrathen, Backwater Reservoir, Auchintaple Loch, Loch Shandra.
## Demography
### Population structure {#population_structure}
In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400. 20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.
Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to \'O\' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.
### Language in Angus {#language_in_angus}
The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population. This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%. These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.
Category Number Percentage
-------------------------------------------------------------- --------- ------------
All people 108,400 100
Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it 351 0.32
Speaks reads and writes Gaelic 238 0.22
Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic 188 0.17
Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic 59 0.05
Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic 61 0.06
Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic 13 0.01
Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic 22 0.02
Other combination of skills in Gaelic 7 0.01
No knowledge of Gaelic 107,461 99.13
Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%. This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.
Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century. Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century. It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.
Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing.
## Government
## Community council areas {#community_council_areas}
Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council. The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing.
## Parliamentary representation {#parliamentary_representation}
### UK Parliament {#uk_parliament}
Angus is represented by two MPs for the UK Parliament.
- Angus and Perthshire Glens -- covers the following wards: Kirriemuir and Dean, Brechin and Edzell, Forfar and District, and Montrose and District, and parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw; currently represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party, who was also the MP for the old Angus constituency.
- Arbroath and Broughty Ferry -- cover parts of Monifieth and Sidlaw and Carnoustie and District from the old Dundee East constituency, and Arbroath East and Lunan, Arbroath West, Letham and Friockheim, and Monifieth and Sidlaw, and a part of Carnoustie and District from the now-abolished Angus constituency; currently represented by Stephen Gethins of the Scottish National Party.
### Scottish Parliament {#scottish_parliament}
Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.
- Angus North and Mearns -- covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.
- Angus South -- covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.
In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region.
## Transport
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.
There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast.
## Settlements
Arbroath is the largest town in the modern county, followed by Forfar, the county town and administrative centre, and Montrose.
Largest settlements by population:
Settlement Population (`{{Scottish settlement population citation|year}}`{=mediawiki})
------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arbroath
Forfar
Montrose
Carnoustie
Monifieth
Brechin
Kirriemuir
Birkhill
Letham
Ferryden
## Historic parishes {#historic_parishes}
Forfarshire was divided into parishes, some of which share the name with current settlements:
## Education
Secondary schools in Angus:
- Arbroath Academy
- Arbroath High School
- Brechin High School
- Carnoustie High School
- Forfar Academy
- Monifieth High School
- Montrose Academy
- Webster\'s High School
## Places of interest {#places_of_interest}
- Aberlemno Sculptured Stones
- Arbroath Abbey
- Barry Mill
- Brechin Cathedral
- Brechin Castle
- Brechin Round Tower
- Caledonian Railway (Brechin)
- Cairngorms National Park
- Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve
- Eassie Stone
- Edzell Castle
- Glamis Castle
- Glenesk Folk Museum
- House of Dun
- Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve
- Meffan Institute
- Monboddo House
- Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
- Montrose Basin Nature Reserve
- Montrose Museum
## Sister areas {#sister_areas}
- -- Yantai, Shandong, China.
## Surnames
Most common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the 1881 United Kingdom census:
1. Smith
2. Robertson
3. Anderson
4. Stewart
5. Scott
6. Mitchell
7. Brown
8. Duncan
9. Milne
10. Thomson
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Adrastea (moon)
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**Adrastea** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|d|r|ə|ˈ|s|t|iː|ə}}`{=mediawiki}), also known as **`{{nowrap|Jupiter XV}}`{=mediawiki}**, is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in photographs taken by *Voyager 2* in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope. It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus---the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.
Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet\'s day. It orbits at the edge of Jupiter\'s main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter. Despite observations made in the 1990s by the *Galileo* spacecraft, very little is known about the moon\'s physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter.
## Discovery and observations {#discovery_and_observations}
Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in *Voyager 2* probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation **`{{nowrap|S/1979 J 1}}`{=mediawiki}**. Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft. Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by *Voyager 1*. The *Galileo* spacecraft was able to determine the moon\'s shape in 1998, but the images remain poor. In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.
Although the *Juno* orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself. However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea.
## Physical characteristics {#physical_characteristics}
Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across. A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (\~1,200) km^2^. This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons. The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm^3^, its mass can be estimated at 2`{{E-sp|15}}`{=mediawiki} kg. Amalthea\'s density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10--15%, and Adrastea may be similar.
No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images.
## Orbit
Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family. It orbits Jupiter at 70,200 mph at a radius of about 129,000 km (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet\'s main ring. Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter\'s equator of 0.03°, respectively.
Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.
The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter\'s synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis\'s), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter. If its density is similar to Amalthea\'s then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit. However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit.
## Relationship with Jupiter\'s rings {#relationship_with_jupiters_rings}
Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter\'s rings. This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter\'s four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts. It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space. This is due to the satellites\' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.
It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea\'s orbit. More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter\'s main ring. The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea\'s orbit.
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Arbroath Abbey
|
**Arbroath Abbey**, in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey. It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court. It was William\'s only personal foundation --- he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.
The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews. The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge). The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
## History
King William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey\'s monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.
The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Scottish Independence believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.
The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation. From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath. This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.
On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny went missing from Westminster Abbey. On 11 April 1951 the stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey\'s altar.
Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration\'s signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. This is not an annual event. However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.
In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched. The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland\'s most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath. Campaigners believe that the Abbey\'s historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status. MSP Alex Johnstone wrote \"Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination\" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining \"We\'re simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations. Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it.\"
## Architectural description {#architectural_description}
The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly \'Early English\' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work. The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The cruciform church measured 276 ft long by 160 ft wide. What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland\'s largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway. The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners. It is known locally as the \'Round O\', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as \'Reid Lichties\' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot\'s House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland. In the summer of 2001, a new visitors\' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey\'s west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive \'wave-shaped\' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated \'fly-through\' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors\' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons\' yard while the Abbey was being built.
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Adversarial system
|
The **adversarial system** (also **adversary system**, **accusatorial system**, or **accusatory system**) is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties\' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly. It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e. those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.
The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense.
## Basic features {#basic_features}
Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features. The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury. The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party\'s case, usually by lawyers. The third is a highly structured procedure.
The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand. Peter Murphy in his *Practical Guide to Evidence* recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, \"Am I never to hear the truth?\" \"No, my lord, merely the evidence\", replied counsel.
### Parties
Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question---rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances. Lord Devlin in *The Judge* said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.\"
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners\' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century. During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today. In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier. Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases. It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts. See *Gideon v. Wainwright*, `{{ussc|372|335|1963}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Criminal proceedings {#criminal_proceedings}
In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence. Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury. As the election to maintain an accused person\'s right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person\'s position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer\'s manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused\'s failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense. In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant\'s invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition. However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant. The concept of \"cross\"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law.
## Comparison with inquisitorial systems {#comparison_with_inquisitorial_systems}
The name \"adversarial system\" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains. Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries.
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Abated
|
: *See also, Abatement.*
**Abated**, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.
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2,605 |
Abati
|
**Abati** is a surname. It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.
Notable people with the surname include:
- Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet
- Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist
- Joaquín Abati (1865--1936), Spanish writer
- Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player
- Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet
- Niccolò dell\'Abbate (1509 or 1512 -- 1571), Italian painter
- Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist
## Other uses {#other_uses}
- The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H. Rider Haggard\'s adventure novel *Queen Sheba\'s Ring*
- Abati, Iran, village
- Abatipoçanga, 16th-century Tamoio chief
- *Marauna abati*, species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae
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Abatis
|
An **abatis**, **abattis**, or **abbattis** is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy. The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire. Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.
## History
Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks. He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis. He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.
A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years\' War. The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis. The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties. Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh.
## Construction
An important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire. Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.
An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas. This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy. An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down.
## Modern use {#modern_use}
Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles. However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply. A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle.
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2,608 |
Abba Mari
|
**Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph**, was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century. He is also known as **Yarhi** from his birthplace (Hebrew *Yerah*, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the name **Astruc**, **Don Astruc** or **En Astruc of Lunel** from the word \"astruc\" meaning lucky.
The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the *Talmud*.
In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title *Minhat Kenaot*, i.e., \"Offering of Zealotry\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.
Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.
## Defender of Law and Tradition {#defender_of_law_and_tradition}
Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303--1306; born at Lunel---hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses.
## Opponent of Rationalism {#opponent_of_rationalism}
Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of *Minḥat Ḳenaot* (*Jealousy Offering*), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret\'s aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari\'s letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon\'s leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.
Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the *nasi* of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, *Guide for the Perplexed* part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305. When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Mallorca. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.
## *Minchat Kenaot* {#minchat_kenaot}
Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called *Minchat Kenaot*, several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin). Some of these are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called *Sefer ha-Yarḥi,* included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of *The Guide* and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.
As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God\'s existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the *Ten Commandments*; (2) the world\'s creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of *creatio ex nihilo* and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of *Minḥat Ḳenaot.*
The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In *Sefer haYarchi*, Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi. A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz mentions a *ḳinah* composed by Abba Mari.
*Minchat Kenaot* is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.
At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel.
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2,609 |
Abbas II of Egypt
|
**Abbas Helmy II** (also known as *ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā*, *عباس حلمي باشا*; 14 July 1874 -- 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8`{{Spaces}}`{=mediawiki}January 1892 to 19 December 1914.`{{refn|group=nb|name=death|Sources give different dates for the deposition of Abbas. Some state that date as 20 or 21 December 1914.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|pp=8–9}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the *de jure* end of Egypt\'s four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874. In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp. As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English. In a profile of Abbas II, the boys\' annual, *Chums*, gave a lengthy account of his education. His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik. An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training. He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva, in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna. In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German.
## Reign
Abbas II succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892. He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father. He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not willingly cooperate with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882. As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later created the Earl of Cromer. Lord Cromer initially supported Abbas but the new Khedive\'s nationalist agenda and association with the anti-colonial nationalist movements in Egypt put him in direct conflict with British colonial officers, and Cromer later interceded on behalf of Lord Kitchener (British commander in the Sudan) in an ongoing dispute with Abbas about Egyptian sovereignty and influence in that territory.
At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist. At Cromer\'s behest, Lord Rosebery, the British Foreign Secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments. In January 1894 Abbas II made an inspection tour of Sudanese and Egyptian frontier troops stationed near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of the Sudan. At Wadi Halfa the Khedive made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers. The British *Sirdar* of the Egyptian Army, the then Sir Herbert H. Kitchener, immediately threatened to resign. Kitchener further insisted on the dismissal of a nationalist under-secretary of war appointed by Abbas II and that an apology be made for the Khedive\'s criticism of the army and its officers.
By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels. Also in 1899, British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan. He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a significant reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft. His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of Alexandria. He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. Muhammad Abdul Moneim, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899.
Although Abbas II no longer *publicly* opposed the British, he secretly created, supported and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha. He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu\'ayyad. As Kamil\'s thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a nationalist political party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists and was labeled as being against Islam by said nationalists. The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco. Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates. However, in general, he had no real political power. When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.
His relations with Cromer\'s successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa\'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party. The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated. Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party, often complained about \"that wicked little Khedive\" and wanted to depose him.
On 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not promptly returning home. The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule, as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British. So when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II. During the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt. Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts. This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights. Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated. He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote *The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement* (1930). He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70, 30 years to the day after the end of his reign as Khedive.`{{refn|group = nb|name=death}}`{=mediawiki}
## Marriages and issue {#marriages_and_issue}
His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanim (Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, 22 October 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Istanbul, 10 February 1941). They divorced in 1910 and had six children, two sons and four daughters:
- Princess Emina (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 -- 1954), unmarried and without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *31 May 1895*;
- Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 -- 1971), married twice and had issue, three sons, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Princess Fathiya (27 November 1897 -- 30 November 1923), married without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *1 October 1904*;
- Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan, (20 February 1899 -- 1 December 1979), married and had issue, a son and a daughter;
- Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Cairo, 29 September 1900 -- 1975), married and had issue, two daughters, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, *20 July 1907*;
- Prince Muhammad Abdul Kadir (4 February 1902 -- Montreux, 21 April 1919);
His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 28 February 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Javidan Hanim (born May Torok de Szendro, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 August 1968). They divorced in 1913 without issue.
## Honours
Ribbon bar Country Honour Date Notes
------------ --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------- -------
Sweden Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star 1890
Austria-Hungary Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph 1891
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George 23 July 1891
France Grand Cross of the Légion d\'honneur 1892
Denmark Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog 6 April 1892
United Kingdom Honorary Knight Grand Cross (Civil) of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath 10 June 1892
Spain Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III 4 August 1892
Netherlands Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion 1892
Ottoman Empire 1st Class of the Order of the Medjidie 1895
Ottoman Empire 1st Class of the Order of Osmanieh 1895
Austria-Hungary Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold 1897
Siam Knight Grand Cross (Special Class) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao 1897
United Kingdom Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order 28 June 1900
Russia Knight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky 1902
Hesse Grand Cross of the Order of Ludwig 26 March 1903
United Kingdom Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain 15 June 1905
Oldenburg Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis 1905
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order 1905
Saxony Grand Cross of the Order of Albert 1905
Greece Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer 1905
Montenegro Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I 1905
Romania Grand Cross of the Order of Carol I 1905
Vatican Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX 1905
Austria-Hungary Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen 1905
Russia Knight 1st Class of the Order of Saint Stanislaus 1908
Siam Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Royal House of Chakri 1908
Italy Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus 1911
Belgium Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold 1911
Ethiopia Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia 1911
Morocco Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite 1913
Albania Grand Cross of the Order of the Black Eagle 1914
Prussia Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Red Eagle 1914
Zanzibar Grand Cordon of the Order of the Exalted 1914
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George Abbot (bishop)
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**George Abbot** (29 October 1562`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 August 1633) was an English bishop who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633. He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.
*Chambers Biographical Dictionary* describes him as \"\[a\] sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist\". Among his five brothers, Robert became Bishop of Salisbury and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London. He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
### Early years {#early_years}
Born at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford. According to an eighteenth-century biographical dictionary, when Abbot\'s mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence. Some time afterwards, she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey, and it \"being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour\". He later studied and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.
### Archbishop of Canterbury {#archbishop_of_canterbury}
On 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury by King James I. As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of Anglican bishops and the validity of the church\'s priesthood in 1614. In consequence of the Nag\'s Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved. It was agreed by all parties that:
Despite his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king\'s daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna. This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king\'s court, although the king himself never forsook Abbot.
In July 1621, while hunting in Lord Zouch\'s park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting that had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that \"an angel might have miscarried after this sort\". The commission was equally divided, and the king voted in Abbot\'s favour, though also signing a formal pardon or dispensation. Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the \"only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being\".
After this, Abbot seldom appeared at the council, chiefly because of his infirmities. In 1625, he attended the king constantly; however, in his last illness, he performed the coronation ceremony of King Charles I as king of England. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king\'s demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. However, the need to summon parliament soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop\'s powers. His presence was unwelcome at court, and he lived from that time on retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633 and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot\'s Hospital with lands valued at £300 a year.
## Legacy
Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote many works, the most interesting being his discursive *Exposition on the Prophet Jonah* (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His *Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World* (1599) passed through numerous editions. The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot\'s Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Abbot had an extensive private library of over 8000 volumes, most of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library. Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.
Guildford remembers Abbot with his hospital and a statue in the High Street. A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him. His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church.
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Aeacus
|
**Aeacus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|ə|k|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; also spelled **Eacus**; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a king of the island of Aegina in Greek mythology. He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon. According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in the underworld alongside Minos and Rhadamanthus. In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.
He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour.
## Mythology
### Birth and early days {#birth_and_early_days}
Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax (aka Ajax the Greater). In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth. Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off. Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.
These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus. While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves. He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it. Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased. Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to *Zeus Panhellenius* on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble. Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.
### Later adventures {#later_adventures}
A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy. When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus\'s descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon\'s rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).
Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates. Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid. By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.
### In the afterlife {#in_the_afterlife}
After his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld. In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades. Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.
In *The Frogs* (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles. Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons.
## Family
Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia. In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax. In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris. Aeacus\' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him. When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon. Aeacus\' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae (*Αἰακίδαι*). Several times in the *Iliad*, Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.). The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage.
### Family tree of Aeacidae {#family_tree_of_aeacidae}
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2,620 |
Aedesius
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**Aedesius** (*Αἰδέσιος*, died shortly before 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic. He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled *Lives of the Sophists*. Aedesius\'s philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.
The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus\' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in a dream represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples compelled him to resume his instructions. Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple, he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra.
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Aedui
|
The **Aedui** or **Haedui** (Gaulish: \**Aiduoi*, \'the Ardent\'; *Aἴδουοι*) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.
The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes. In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges. During the Gallic Wars (58--50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52. Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire.
## Name
They are mentioned as *Ardues* (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), *Haedui* by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), *Haeduos* by Livy (late 1st c. BC), *Aedui* by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), *Aidúōn* (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as *Aídouoi* (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).
The ethnonym *Aedui* is a Latinized form of Gaulish \**Aiduoi* (sing. \**Aiduos*), which means \'the Ardent ones\'. It derives from the Celtic stem *\*aidu-* (\'fire, ardour\'; cf. Old Irish *áed* \'fire\', Welsh *aidd* \'ardour\'; also the Irish deity *Aéd* or *Aodh*), itself from *\*h₂eydʰos* (\'firewood\'; cf. Sanskrit *édhas* \'bonfire\', Latin *aedes* \'building, temple\'; cf. also Ancient Greek *Aether* \'god of the upper sky\' and *Aethra* \'bright sky\', from *aíthō* \'to ignite, to kindle\').
## Geography
### Territory
The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes. It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d\'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.
### Settlements
Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.
During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum (\'fortress of Augustus\'; modern-day Autun).
### Ancient sources {#ancient_sources}
The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward).
## History
### Pre-Roman period {#pre_roman_period}
Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave). By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.
### Roman period {#roman_period}
Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.
According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar\'s time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Aedui|volume=1|pages=244–245}}`{=mediawiki} This cites:
- A. E. Desjardins, *Géographie de la Gaule*, ii. (1876--1893)
- T. R. Holmes, *Caesar\'s Conquest of Gaul* (1899).
After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (*B. G.* vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).
In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus *Ann.* iii. 43--46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of *jus honorum*, thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.
Until Claudius (41--54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.
The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar\'s time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.
## Religion
The Temple of Janus was located just outside the Aedian town of Augustodunum. It probably dates back to the second half of the 1st century AD.
At the end of the La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani).
## Political organization {#political_organization}
According to Julius Caesar, the Aedui were one of the strongest Gallic tribes, in rivalry with the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni. Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome.
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Aegadian Islands
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thumb\|upright=1.2\|A map showing the Aegadian Islands The **Aegadian Islands** (*Isole Egadi*; *Ìsuli Ègadi*; *Aegates Insulae*; *Αιγάδες Νήσοι*; `{{literally|the islands of goats}}`{=mediawiki}) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of 37.45 km2.
The island of Favignana (*Aegusa*), the largest, lies 16 km southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (*Phorbantia*) lies 13 km west; and Marettimo, the ancient *Hiera Nesos*, 24 km west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also two minor islands, Formica (which hosts the Isolotto Formica Lighthouse) and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily. For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the *comune* of Favignana in the province of Trapani.
The overall population in 2017 was 4,292. Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there.
## History
There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.
The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War. After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.
The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them.
## Island views {#island_views}
<File:Mare> Favignana.JPG\|Cala Rossa, Favignana <File:Favignana> cala azzurra.jpg\|Cala azzurra, Favignana <File:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg%7CA> view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo. On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible.
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Aegean civilization
|
**Aegean civilization** is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The Cycladic civilization converges with the mainland during the Early Helladic (\"Minyan\") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period. From c. 1450 BC (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete, probably by military conquest. The earlier Aegean farming populations of Neolithic Greece brought agriculture westward into Europe before 5000 BC.
## Early European Farmers (\"EEFs\") {#early_european_farmers_eefs}
Around 5,000 BC, peoples descending from migrant Greek Neolithic populations reached the northern European plain in modern-day France and Germany; they reached Britain some 1000 years later.
Once in the Balkans, the Aegean EEFs appear to have divided into two wings: one which expanded further north into Europe along the Danube (Linear Pottery culture), and another which headed west along the Mediterranean (Cardial Ware) into the Iberian Peninsula. Descendants of this latter group eventually migrated into Britain. Previously, these areas were populated by Western Hunter-Gatherer represented by the Cheddar Man.
The Chalcolithic (Copper Age) began in Europe around 5500 BC. Chalcolithic Europeans began to erect megaliths in this period.
## Periodization
### Mainland
- Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100--2050/2001 BC
- Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900--1550 BC
- Late Helladic (LH): 1550--1050 BC
### Crete
- Early Minoan (EM): 3200--2160 BC
- Middle Minoan (MM): 2160--1600 BC
- Late Minoan (LM): 1600--1100 BC
### Cyclades
- Early Cycladic (EC): 3300--2000 BC
- Kastri (EH II--EH III): c. 2500--2100 BC
- Convergence with MM from ca. 2000 BC
## Commerce
Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is shown by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area. Cretan vessels appeared to be exported to Melos, Egypt, and the Greek mainland. In particular, Melian vases, eventually, found their way to Crete. After 1600 BC, there was commerce with Egypt, and Aegean goods found their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have come to light, excluding certain axeheads. These axeheads were too small for practical use. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet been proven (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans, and vases. These vases feature ships of low free-board, with masts and oars. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration. The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the \'ship fresco\' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.
Discoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture.
## Evidence
For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.
### Internal evidence {#internal_evidence}
- **Structures**: Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.
- **Structural decoration**: Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.
- **Furniture**: (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.
- **Art products**: for example, plastic objects, carved in stone, or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors\' smaller work. Vases of many kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
- **Weapons, tools and implements**: In stone, clay, and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.
- **Articles of personal use**: for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.
- **Written documents**: for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).
- **Excavated tombs**: Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.
- **Public works**: Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.
### External evidence {#external_evidence}
- **Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations**: for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.
- **Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations**: Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.
- **Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.**: In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.
Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks.
## Discovery
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great \"Treasury of Atreus\" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann\'s time. However, they were regarded as a crude precursor of later Greek culture. It was not until Schliemann\'s excavations that Mycenaean culture attracted serious scholarly attention.`{{Better source needed|reason=Source is from 1911, when barely anything was known about prehistoric Greece!|date=March 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. For instance, scholars had noted that tributaries appearing in Egyptian art resembled modern Greeks, but were unable to definitely recognize them as such. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.
Ludwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works. When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found. These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.
Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth \"Mycenaean\"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut \"bee-hive\" grave near the Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann\'s initial excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise. However, the \"Burnt City\" now known as Troy II, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse curiosity both among scholars and the general public. With Schliemann\'s excavations at Mycenae, interest in prehistoric Greece exploded. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any previously known style. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. Many scholars were struck by potential resemblances between objects described by Homer and Mycenaean artifacts.
Schliemann resumed excavations at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his \"Lydian\" city now known as Late Bronze Age Troy. These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann\'s assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after Schliemann\'s death. But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas\'s discovery of the palace at Mycenae. Schliemann\'s work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.
From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas\'s exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann\'s princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths\' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.
In 1890 and 1893, Staes `{{who|date=April 2024}}`{=mediawiki} cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut \"bee-hives\" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating). The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.
Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.
A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.
In Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.
Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cádiz and from Saragossa.
One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages--- Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn). But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr. Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897--1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.
Thus the \"Aegean Area\" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt. Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed.
## End
The final collapse of the Mycenaean civilisation appears to have occurred about 1200 BC. Iron took the place of bronze, cremation took the place of burial of the dead, and writing was lost.
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Aegeus
|
thumb\|upright=1.3\|*Theseus Recognized by his Father* by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832) **Aegeus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|i|.|ə|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Aegeus.wav}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|dʒ|uː|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Aigeús*) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions.
## Family
Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.`{{AI-generated source|date=November 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
Aegeus\' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children. He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea. In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus. The latter was also said to fathered Megareus, eponymous founder of Megara.
Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus.
## Mythology
### Reign
Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.
The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:
> \... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea. Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain. Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea\'s garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron\'s shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.
Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus\' son Theseus.
### Heirless King {#heirless_king}
Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.
The cryptic words of the oracle were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.
When Theseus grew up, he found his father\'s belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals. Medea, Aegeus\' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children\'s inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.
### Conflict with Crete {#conflict_with_crete}
While visiting in Athens, King Minos\' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos\' daughter.
After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus\' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.
### Theseus and the Minotaur {#theseus_and_the_minotaur}
In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father\'s weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.
When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus\' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.
Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.
Sophocles\' tragedy *Aegeus* has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides\' *Medea*.
## Legacy
At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.
There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον).
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Aegina
|
**Aegina** (`{{IPAc-en||ɪ|'|dʒ|aɪ|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αίγινα* `{{IPA|el|ˈeɣina|pron}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγῑνα*) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, 27 km from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king.
## Administration
### Municipality
The municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets. It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region. The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2021 in parentheses):
- Aegina (6,976)
- Kypseli (2,166)
- Mesagros (1,473)
- Perdika (847)
- Vathy (1,449)
The regional capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island. Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island. The buildings of the island are examples of Neoclassical architecture with a strong folk element, built in the 19th century.
### Province
The province of Aegina (*Επαρχία Αίγινας*) was one of the provinces of the Attica Prefecture and was created in 1833 as part of Attica and Boeotia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri until its abolishment in 2006.
## Geography
Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately 15 km from east to west and 10 km from north to south, with an area of 87.41 km2.
An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina. The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio. Economically, the sponge fisheries are of importance. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren. Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.
The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction. Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour. There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina. Portes is a fishing village on the east coast. `{{Wide image|Aegina_island_panorama.jpg|1000px|A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea.
|alt=A panorama of the island of Aegina, from the Mediterranean sea
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Climate
Aegina island has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: *BSh*) with an average annual temperature of around 20.0 °C and an average annual precipitation of less than 340 mm.
## History
Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.
### Early Bronze {#early_bronze}
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site. The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.
Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists.
### Middle Bronze {#middle_bronze}
Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of c. 2000 BC. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.
Archaeological excavations at Cape Kolonna revealed a purple dye workshop dating back to the 16th century BC.
### Late Bronze {#late_bronze}
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.
At Mount Ellanio, a Mycenaean refuge has been found dating to the end of the Late Bronze Age.
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.
One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC. This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae. It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.
Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian League during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.
#### Coinage and sea power (7th--5th centuries BC) {#coinage_and_sea_power_7th5th_centuries_bc}
Its early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater. One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700 BC. Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (c. 630 BC), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world. The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.2 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC. The Aeginetic stater was divided into two drachmae of 6.1 grams of silver. Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC. During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.
During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina\'s fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina. During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory. At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.
Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.
#### Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC) {#rivalry_with_athens_5th_century_bc}
The known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the 6th century BC. Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica. The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79--89; vi. 49--51, 73, 85--94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.
The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was frustrated miraculously (according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees) and only a single survivor returned to Athens. There he became victim to the fury of his comrades\' widows who pierced him with their peplos brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this \"old feud\"; writers such as J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, c. 570 BC. It is possible that the whole episode is mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), such as of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women\'s dress at Athens from the Dorian peplos to the Ionian style chiton.
In the early years of the 5th century BC the Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.
In 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (\"earth and water\") to Achaemenid Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated. Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.
All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94).
There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:
- Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC
- It is only for two years (491 and 490 BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,
- It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.
- There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens. As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes \"for the war against Aegina\" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the *Constitution of Athens* as 483--482 BC.
It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.
Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 BC, but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of \"sending the Aeacidae.\" The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.
It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490--480 BC.
### Decline
In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 BC). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.
By the terms of the Thirty Years\' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective. During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.
It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina\'s greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Aegina\'s medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire. It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine. The loss of the state\'s power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle\'s estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.
### Hellenistic period and Roman rule {#hellenistic_period_and_roman_rule}
Aegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322--229 BC), the Achaeans (229--211 BC), Aetolians (211--210 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210--133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC). A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community was established in Aegina \"at the end of the second and during the 3rd century AD\" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece. However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century. The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD. Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century. There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879. The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese. No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
### Byzantine period {#byzantine_period}
Aegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395. It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th--8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions. Indeed, according to the *Chronicle of Monemvasia*, the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions. The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete. Various hagiographies, such as those of Athanasia of Aegina or Theodora of Thessalonica, record a large-scale raid c. 830, that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland. During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island\'s hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.
According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates. This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough\'s graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.
### Frankish rule after 1204 {#frankish_rule_after_1204}
After the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice. In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens. The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians, when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic\'s protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid. The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies. He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct. Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.
### Venetians in Aegina (1451--1537) {#venetians_in_aegina_14511537}
In 1451, Aegina became Venetian. The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello\'s uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension. A Venetian governor (*rettore*) was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia. After Arnà\'s death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it. He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.
In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea. Peace was concluded in 1479. Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos. Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.
#### Administration {#administration_1}
Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans. In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander. In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.
In 1519, the government was reformed. The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns. The Bailie\'s authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.
Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures. The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.
Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule. Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island. In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid. inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora). The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest. They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs. To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor\'s decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice. The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra). The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.
#### 16th century {#th_century}
After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.
In 1502--03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea. And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants. This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521. All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.
In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina. On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared. Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves. Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.
With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia. For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.
### First Ottoman period (1540--1687) {#first_ottoman_period_15401687}
Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537. In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians. The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.
The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).
### Second Venetian period (1687--1715) {#second_venetian_period_16871715}
In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic. In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica. The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women. The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes. The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina. In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor. This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute. He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.
In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan. Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.
### Second Ottoman period (1715--1821) {#second_ottoman_period_17151821}
During the early part of the Ottoman--Venetian War of 1714--1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina. Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century. The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as *Old Athenian*, which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.
### Greek Revolution {#greek_revolution}
During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities. Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here.
## Landmarks
*Main article: Temple of Aphaea*
- **Temple of Aphaea**, dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece. It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.
- **Monastery of Agios Nectarios**, dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.
- A statue in the principal square commemorates **Ioannis Kapodistrias** (1776--1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.
- **The Orphanage of Kapodistrias** is a large building, known locally as *The Prison* (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828--29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence. The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra. From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967--1974) - hence its local name. There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.
- **The Tower of Markellos** was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687--1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege. A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time. The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802. In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state. It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century. It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.
- **Temple of Zeus Hellanios**, near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC. The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.
- **Colona**, Located to the north of the town of Aegina. Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement. The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation. The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved. The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill. It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens. Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases.
## Economy
In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island. By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time. As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris. The quality of \"*Fistiki Aeginis*\" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil\'s volcanic characteristics. Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world. Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina\'s Pistachio Producers. It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year. In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name \"*Fistiki Fest*\".
## Culture
### Mythology
In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope. She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island\'s name was Aegina.
Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained. Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place. So he changed some ants (*Μυρμύγια*, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour. Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.
### Famous Aeginetans {#famous_aeginetans}
- Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated
- Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor
- Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant
- Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor
- Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor
- Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher
- Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician
- Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint
- Theodora of Thessaloniki (9th century), nun and saint
- Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople
- Nectarios of Aegina (1846--1920), bishop and saint
- Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918
- Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45Lewis, Grover (June 4--10, 1993). \"The Killing of Gus Hasford\". *LA Weekly*. BronxBanter blog. Retrieved March 16, 2014
## Historical population {#historical_population}
Year Town population Municipal/Island population
------ ----------------- -----------------------------
1981 6,730 11,127
1991 6,373 11,639
2001 7,410 13,552
2011 7,253 13,056
2021 6,633 12,911
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,628 |
Aegis
|
The **aegis** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|i:|dʒ|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|EE|jis}}`{=mediawiki}; *αἰγίς* *aigís*), as stated in the *Iliad*, is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, *Astronomica* 2. 13).
The modern concept of doing something \"under someone\'s *aegis*{{-\"}} means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word *aegis* is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word *aegis* is applied by extension.
## Etymology
The Greek *αἰγίς* *aigis* has many meanings, including:
1. \"violent windstorm\", from the verb *ἀίσσω* *aïssō* (word stem *ἀιγ-* *aïg-*) = \"I rush or move violently\". Akin to *καταιγίς* *kataigis*, \"thunderstorm\".
2. The shield of a deity as described above.
3. \"goatskin coat\", from treating the word as meaning \"something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat\": Greek *αἴξ* *aix* (stem *αἰγ-* *aig-*) = \"goat\" + suffix *-ίς* *-is* (stem *-ίδ-* *-id-*).
The original meaning may have been the first, and *Ζεὺς Αἰγίοχος* *Zeus Aigiokhos* = \"Zeus who holds the aegis\" may have originally meant \"Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm\". The transition to the meaning \"shield\" or \"goatskin\" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield.
## In Greek mythology {#in_greek_mythology}
The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the *Iliad*. \"It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (*Iliad*, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle \... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen.\"
Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus\'s forge, who \"busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods---a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess\'s breast---a severed head rolling its eyes\", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the *Gorgoneion* (Medusa\'s head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and \"re-born\" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.
When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear.`{{tone inline|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki} \"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the *Iliad*, sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena. In the *Iliad* when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton\'s *Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes*, the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\". However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.
In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton\'s daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled. Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend.
## In classical poetry and art {#in_classical_poetry_and_art}
Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena. It was supposed by Euripides (*Ion*, 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the *Gorgoneion* was *added* to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.
In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.
John Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.
In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (*Poetical Astronomy* ii. 13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (*aigis* \"goat-skin\") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.
The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal\'s skin thrown over Athena\'s shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the *gorgoneion*. In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena\'s dress. It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on coins, cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon.
## Interpretations
Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks. \"Athene\'s garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.\"
Robert Graves in *The Greek Myths* (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.
One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (*kursas*), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock, was a source of the aegis.
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Aegisthus
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**Aegisthus** (`{{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|dʒ|ɪ|s|θ|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴγισθος* ; also transliterated as **Aigisthos**, `{{IPA|el|ǎi̯ɡistʰos|}}`{=mediawiki}) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer\'s *Odyssey*, believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, written in the 5th century BC. Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides\'s **Electra** (c. 420 BC), although his character remains offstage.
## Family
Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes\'s own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father\'s rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus\'s son Agamemnon. In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother\'s children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.
While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king\'s return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon\'s son Orestes.
## Mythology
### Early life {#early_life}
Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus\'s wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes\'s sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons\' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.
Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from *αἴξ*, male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby\'s origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.
### Death of Atreus {#death_of_atreus}
In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.
### Power struggle over Mycenae {#power_struggle_over_mycenae}
Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus\'s sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.
After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen\'s abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon\'s return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.
Following Agamemnon\'s death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen). In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus\'s daughter Erigone.
## In culture {#in_culture}
Homer gives no information about Aegisthus\'s antecedents. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.
In Aeschylus\'s *Oresteia*, Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, *Agamemnon*, he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In *The Libation Bearers* he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\" Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in *Agamemnon* revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical \'tyrant figure\' in embryo.\"
Aeschylus\'s portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca\'s *Agamemnon*, enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss\'s and Hugo von Hofmannsthal\'s opera, *Elektra* his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\" In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene\...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.\"
An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the \"Tomb of Aegisthus\". It dates from around 1510 BC.
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Aegospotami
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**Aegospotami** (*Αἰγὸς Ποταμοί*, *Aigos Potamoi*) or **Aegospotamos** (i.e. *Goat Streams*) is the ancient Greek name for a small river or rivers issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish *Çanakkale Boğazı*), northeast of Sestos.
Aegospotami is plural, which suggests that the name may have referred to multiple rivers. As is often the case, interpretation of geography described by ancient sources has difficulties, not the least of which is evolution of the terrain, and the river or rivers have been identified with both the modern Karakova Dere and Büyük Dere (\"Big Creek\", now called Münipbey Deresi). Körpe and Yavuz concurred with both Bommelaer and Strauss that the latter stream is the more likely candidate and additionally identified the probable site of the associated settlement as a rise on the left bank of the Münipbey Deresi known as Kalanuro Tepesi, based on geographical features and archaeological remnants.
Aegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, near the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.
At its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War. The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.
According to ancient sources including Pliny the Elder and Aristotle, in 467 BC a large meteorite landed near Aegospotami. It was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load. A comet, tentatively identified as Halley\'s Comet, was reported at the time the meteorite landed. This is possibly the first European record of Halley\'s comet.
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2,634 |
Aelianus Tacticus
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**Aelianus Tacticus** (*Αἰλιανὸς ὀ Τακτικός*; fl. 2nd century AD), also known as **Aelian** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ən}}`{=mediawiki}), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome.
## Work
Aelian\'s military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled *On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks* (*Περὶ Στρατηγικῶν Τάξεων Ἑλληνικῶν*), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian\'s work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.
Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time. The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus\'s house at Formiae. He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.
Critics of the 18th century --- Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne --- were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use). The author of the *Strategikon* ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian\'s work as a conceptional model, especially its preface. Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian\'s text in his own *Taktika*. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. It was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza, published at Rome in 1487. The Greek editio princeps was edited by Francesco Robortello and published at Venice in 1552.
In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organisers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.
The first significant reference to the influence of Aelian in the 16th century is a letter to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange from his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg on December 8, 1594. The letter is influential in supporting the thesis of the early-modern Military Revolution. In the letter, William Louis discusses the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian\'s Tactica. Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilum. William Louis in a \'crucial leap\' realised that the same technique could work for men with firearms.
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2,635 |
Agarose
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**Agarose** is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red algae. It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose. Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar\'s other component, agaropectin.
Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose. Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification.
## Structure
Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge. Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.
Each agarose chain contains \~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm). The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration. When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to \>200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state.
## Properties
Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools. Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e. it gels and melts at different temperatures. The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose. Standard agaroses derived from *Gelidium* has a gelling temperature of 34 - and a melting temperature of 90 -, while those derived from *Gracilaria*, due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of 40 - and melting temperature of 85 -. The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%. The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.
Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature. Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature. A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.
The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added. On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.
Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis. Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis. The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate. These negatively charged groups can slow down the movement of DNA molecules in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO).
**Low EEO (LE) agarose** is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids. Zero EEO agaroses are also available but these may be undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups that can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
**LE agarose** is said to be better for preparative electrophoresis, i.e. when DNA needs to be extracted from an agarose gel.
### Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses {#low_melting_and_gelling_temperature_agaroses}
The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses. The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at 30 - range. This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture. The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.
Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (\~90 nm) than standard agaroses. Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis. Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at 8 -.
## Applications
Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules. Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis. Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes \>200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments \>100 basepairs. Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.
### Agarose gel electrophoresis {#agarose_gel_electrophoresis}
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50--20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.
The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel. The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size.
Agarose gels are cast in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution. Tris-acetate-EDTA and Tris-Borate-EDTA buffers are commonly used, but other buffers such as Tris-phosphate, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or Tris-barbiturate buffers may be used in other applications. The DNA is normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide and then viewed under a UV light, but other methods of staining are available, such as SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, and crystal violet. If the separated DNA fragments are needed for further downstream experiment, they can be cut out from the gel in slices for further manipulation.
### Protein purification {#protein_purification}
Agarose gel matrix is often used for protein purification, for example, in column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. It is however not used as a continuous gel, rather it is formed into porous beads or resins of varying fineness. The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads. These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures. The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.
Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl. Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), *Praesto* and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).
For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein. The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer. Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted. The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.
### Solid culture media {#solid_culture_media}
Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling. It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, *Caenorhabditis elegans*, other organisms and various cell lines.
### Motility assays {#motility_assays}
Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility. Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized. The gel\'s porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell\'s swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility. Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis. A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant. As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient.
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Arthur St. Clair
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Major-General **Arthur St. Clair** (`{{OldStyleDateDY|March 23,|1737<ref name="ANB" />|1736<!--OS New Year began March 25-->}}`{=mediawiki} -- August 31, 1818) was a Scottish-born American military officer and politician. Born in Thurso, Caithness, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in the Province of Pennsylvania. During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.
After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance. He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, which was further enlarged by the portion that would become Ohio in 1800. In 1791, he commanded an American army in St. Clair\'s Defeat, which became the greatest victory achieved by Native Americans against the United States. Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802 and died in obscurity.
## Early life and career {#early_life_and_career}
St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness. Little is known of his early life. Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737. His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour. He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.
In 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army\'s Royal American Regiment and came to North America with Admiral Edward Boscawen\'s fleet for the French and Indian War. He served under General Jeffery Amherst during the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia, on July 26, 1758. On April 17, 1759, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City.
## Settler in America {#settler_in_america}
On April 16, 1762, St. Clair resigned his commission, and by 1764 had settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and went into business as an operator of flour and grist mills. The fortune he amassed soon made him the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.
In 1770, St. Clair entered politics when he was elected as a justice of both the Court of Quarter Sessions and of Common Pleas. He subsequently served as a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans\' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.
In 1774, during Lord Dunmore\'s War, the colony of Virginia illegally took claim of the area around present-day Pittsburgh. A militia was quickly raised to drive off the Virginians and St. Clair, in his capacity as a magistrate, issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. The boundary dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania wasn\'t settled until 1780, when both sides agreed to extend the Mason--Dixon line westward from Maryland to 80° 31′ west, the current western border of Pennsylvania. (see: District of West Augusta)
## Revolutionary War {#revolutionary_war}
By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject. In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. He first saw service in the final days of the failed Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières. He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776 and was tasked by George Washington to help train and equip newly arrived recruits from New Jersey. He took part in George Washington\'s crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25--26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington\'s capture of Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777. St. Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.
In April 1777, St. Clair was given command of Fort Ticonderoga. His outnumbered garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne\'s larger force in the Saratoga campaign; thus, St. Clair was forced to retreat at the resulting siege on July 5, 1777. He successfully evacuated his men, but choosing not to stand and fight permanently damaged his sterling reputation. In 1778, he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him and approved his return to duty, but he would never hold a command again during the Revolution. He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to Washington, who retained a high opinion of him. St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army. During his military service, St. Clair was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1780.
## President of the United States in Congress Assembled {#president_of_the_united_states_in_congress_assembled}
Following his discharge from the Army, St. Clair was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783 and served as a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787. Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays\'s Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle their disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government. On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress. Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during his tenure. Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however; during St. Clair\'s presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress. St. Clair is the only foreign-born \"president\" of the United States.
## Northwest Territory {#northwest_territory}
Under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. He named Cincinnati, Ohio, to honor his membership in the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he decided to relocate his home.
As governor, he formulated \"Maxwell\'s Code\" (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory. He also worked with Josiah Harmar, Senior Officer of the United States, to resolve the issue of Native American tribes refusing to leave their lands, which the federal government had seized as punishment for their support of the British during the Revolution. In 1789, the two men succeeded in getting several Native American tribal leaders to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but the treaty was never fully implemented and the tribes rejected it outright as illegitimate.
Supported with intelligence, supplies, and weapons funneled to them by British agents, the tribes decided to wage full-scale war against the Americans in what came to be called the \"Northwest Indian War\" (or \"Little Turtle\'s War\"). Harmar was ordered by President Washington\'s administration to crush the Indians with a force mainly composed of ill-disciplined and inexperienced state militiamen; he suffered a humiliating defeat in October 1790.
### Army commander {#army_commander}
In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded the disgraced Harmar as Senior Officer of the new United States Army and was restored to his previous rank of major general. He personally led a punitive expedition, this time with two full Army regiments and a large contingent of militia. St. Clair had far more experience commanding troops than Harmar and his force was properly supplied and organized; unfortunately, like Harmar, St. Clair was also devoid of any practical experience in frontier warfare and generally dismissive of the Indians as fighters. In October 1791, he ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson to serve as the advance post for his campaign. Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named \"Fort Deposit\".
### St. Clair\'s defeat {#st._clairs_defeat}
In November 1791, near modern-day Fort Recovery, St. Clair advanced on the main Indian settlements at the head of the Wabash River. On November 4, they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket with the support of British agents Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. More than 600 American soldiers and scores of camp followers were killed in the battle, which came to be known as \"St. Clair\'s Defeat\"; other names include the \"Battle of the Wabash\", the \"Columbia Massacre,\" or the \"Battle of a Thousand Slain\". It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. army by Native Americans in history, with a total of 623 fallen Americans compared to just 50 fallen Native Americans. The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt. Robert Benham.
### Continued as Governor 1788-1802 {#continued_as_governor_1788_1802}
Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair surrendered his commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington before resuming his previous office as territorial governor.
A Federalist, St. Clair refocused his energies on carving up the Northwest Territory into two states that would strength Federalist control of Congress. However, he was opposed by Ohio Democrat-Republicans for what they perceived as his shameless partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office. In 1802, he declared that his constituents \"are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France.\" This, coupled with the gradual collapse of Federalist influence in Washington D.C., led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him as governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.
The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, largely as a reaction to St. Clair\'s method of governance.
## Family life {#family_life}
St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760. Miss Bayard\'s mother\'s maiden name was Bowdoin, and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, a colonial governor of Massachusetts. His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.
Like many of his Revolutionary-era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout due to poor diet, as noted in his correspondence with John Adams.
## Death
In retirement, St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.
Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81. His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg. St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova Caesarea Lodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791. This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2. His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him.
## Legacy
A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair\'s home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.
An American Civil War steamer was named USS *St. Clair*.
Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, `{{ws|[[s:Moral Pieces, in Prose and Verse/General St. Clair|General St. Clair]]}}`{=mediawiki} in her first poetry collection of 1815.
The site of Clair\'s inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the *National Start Westward Memorial of The United States*, commemorating the settlement of the territory.
Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:
In Pennsylvania:
- Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania
- St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
- East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania
- The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- St. Clair Hospital, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania
In Ohio:
- St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio
- St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,
- St. Clairsville, Ohio
- St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio
- St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio
- Fort St. Clair in Eaton, Ohio
Other States:
- St. Clair County, Illinois
- St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana
- St. Clair County, Missouri
- St. Clair County, Alabama
- St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital. The street\'s north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.
In Scotland:
- The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him.
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2,641 |
Ajaigarh
|
**Ajaigarh** or **Ajaygarh** is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India. Ajaygarh is the administrative headquarters of tehsil in Panna district,
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh.
## History
Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of 771 sqmi, and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of *sawai maharaja*. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868--69 and 1896--97.
The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.
## Geography
Ajaygarh is located on 24.54 N 80.16 E. It has an average elevation of 344 metres (1128 feet).
## Demographics
As of the 2011 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 16,656. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.
## Ajaigarh Fort {#ajaigarh_fort}
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region. It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho. The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River. This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.
The fort is visited by both history and art lovers. This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate. These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna.
Ajaygarh Fort, also known as [Ajaypal](https://www.bundelkhand24x7.com/2025/04/ajaygarh-fort.html) Fort, is an ancient and mysterious fort located in the Panna district of Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Chandela kings and stands atop a high hill. At the main entrance of the fort, there is an old inscription that no one has been able to decipher till today. It is believed that this inscription holds the secret path to a hidden treasure.
## Gallery
{{ wide image\|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace.jpg\|700px\|Panoramic view of Ajaygarh Palace}}
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2,646 |
Ajmer-Merwara
|
**Ajmer-Merwara** (also known as **Ajmir Province**, and **Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri**) was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region. The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818. It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1861 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces. Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri. It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.
The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwara, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana. Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.
In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company. Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India\'s agent for the Rajputana Agency.
## Extent and geography {#extent_and_geography}
The area of the province was 2710 sqmi. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north. The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.
The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.
The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Kutch are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries (now the majority of this region is in Gujarat state within independent India), and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. The rainfall of the district depends on the varying strength of these two monsoons. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.
### British rule {#british_rule}
Part of the Ajmer region, the territory of the future province was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior State as part of a treaty dated 25 June 1818. Then in May 1823 the Merwara (Mewar) part was ceded to Britain by Udaipur State. Thereafter Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British East India Company. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in 1858 the powers of the company were transferred to the British Crown and the Governor-General of India. His administration of Ajmer-Merwara was controlled by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the British agent for the Rajputana Agency.
#### Superintendents for Ajmer {#superintendents_for_ajmer}
- 9 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}17 Jul 1818 Nixon
- 18 Jul 1818`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785--1849)
- 16 Dec 1824`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)
- 22 Apr 1825`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}23 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton
- 24 Oct 1827`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish
- 29 Nov 1831`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)
- 2 Jul 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}16 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs
- 17 Apr 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}30 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813--1864)
- 1 Jul 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}25 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807--1886)
- 26 Jul 1837`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1842 J.D. Macnaghten
#### Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara) {#superintendents_for_merwara_from_feb_1842_ajmer_merwara}
- 1823`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1836 Henry Hall (1789--1875)
- 1836`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)
#### Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency {#agents_of_the_governors_general_for_the_rajputana_agency}
- 1832`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}29 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781--1834)
- 29 Nov 1833`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs
- Jun 1834`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves
- 1 Feb 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788--1880)
- Apr 1839`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848)
- Jan 1844`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)
- Dec 1847`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Jan 1853 John Low (1788--1880)
- 25 Jun 1848`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}19 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)
- 8 Sep 1851`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1851 D.A. Malcolm (acting for Low)
- 1852`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804--1884) (1st time)
- 5 Mar 1853`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806--1857)
- 15 Mar 1857`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 10 Apr 1859`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}24 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814--1867) (acting for Lawrence)
- Apr 1864`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.)
- 1867`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825--1904)
- 15 Jun 1870`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818--1899) (acting for Keatinge)
#### Chief Commissioners {#chief_commissioners}
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.)
- 1 Apr 1871`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)
- 21 Jun 1873`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825--1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)
- 6 Apr 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}6 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (c. lk=no`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1903)
- 6 Jul 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Nov 1874`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835--1911)
- 18 Aug 1876`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}5 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (1st time)(acting)
- 5 Mar 1877`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 12 Dec 1878`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836--1911) (1st time)
- 17 Mar 1881`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)
- 28 Nov 1882`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 27 Mar 1887`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833--1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)
- 20 Mar 1890`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}27 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840--1927)
- 27 Aug 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}2 Dec 1891 P.W. Powlett (acting)
- 2 Dec 1891`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.)
- 22 Nov 1893`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}11 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840--1914)
- 11 Jan 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}20 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.)
- 20 Mar 1895`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}10 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841--1917)
- 10 Mar 1898`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854--1942) (1st time)
- 1 May 1900`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848--1909)
- 1 Apr 1901`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}3 Feb 1902 A.P. Thornton (acting)
- 3 Feb 1902`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time)
- 1 Apr 1905`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}4 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861--1940)
- 4 Jan 1918`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}22 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864--1920)
- 22 Dec 1919`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}7 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873--1965)
- 7 Aug 1925`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}18 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872--1942)
- 18 Mar 1927`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}14 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874--1946)
- 14 Oct 1932`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}28 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882--1966)
- 28 Oct 1937`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887--1962)
- May 1939`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893--1980) (acting for Lothian)
- 1 Dec 1944`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}15 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904--1949)
### Post-independence {#post_independence}
From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India. In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.
The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region.
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2,654 |
Abatement of debts and legacies
|
**Abatement of debts and legacies** is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.
Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.
The order of abatement is usually:
1. Intestate property
2. The residuary of the estate
3. General Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts
4. Demonstrative Devises---*i.e.*, cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.
5. Specific Devises---*i.e.*, specified items of personal property, real property, etc.
Non-probate property---*i.e.*, life insurance policies---do not abate.
## Definitions
A **specific devise**, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving his \$500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.
A **general devise**, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James\'s will states that he is leaving \$500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.
A **demonstrative devise**, is money given from a particular account. For example, \"\$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock.\"
A **residual devise** is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example, James\'s will might say: \"I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly.\" Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James\'s residuary estate.
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2,662 |
Affiliation (family law)
|
In law, **affiliation**(from Latin **affiliare**, \"to adopt as a son\") was previously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity. The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document.
## Affiliation procedures in England {#affiliation_procedures_in_england}
In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act 1845 (8 & 9 Vict. c. 10), and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts 1872 and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child\'s support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother\'s evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances) may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age.
An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King\'s Bench by rule *nisi* or *certiorari*. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.
Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case, the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over 14 years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in a discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins, it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 (42 & 43 Vict. c. 49) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 58), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier\'s pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the Royal Navy.
## Affiliation procedures in other countries {#affiliation_procedures_in_other_countries}
In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (except for California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).
On the continent of Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Serbia and the Canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.
Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.
In India, affiliation cases are decided by section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code. According to this section - among other things - if a person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his illegitimate child, a magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of such child.
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Affray
|
`{{Wiktionary}}`{=mediawiki}
In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, **affray** is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in *à l\'effroi*) of ordinary people. Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.
## Australia
In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety. A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence. The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.
In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Section 72 says \"Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour. Maximum penalty---1 year's imprisonment.\"
In Victoria, Affray was a common law offence until 2017, when it was abolished and was replaced with the statutory offence that can be found under section 195H of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). The section defines Affray as the use or threat of unlawful violence by a person in a manner that would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to be terrified. However, a person who commits this conduct may only be found guilty of Affray if the use or threat of violence was intended, or if the person was reckless as to whether the conduct involves the use or threat of violence. If found guilty, the maximum penalty that may be imposed for Affray is imprisonment for 5 years or, if at the time of committing the offence the person was wearing a face covering used primarily to conceal their identity or to protect them from the effects of crowd-controlling substances, imprisonment for 7 years.
## India
The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of \"actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the *lieges*\".
## New Zealand {#new_zealand}
In New Zealand affray has been codified as \"fighting in a public place\" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981.
## South Africa {#south_africa}
Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of *vis publica*.
## United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
The common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way. It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:
The term \"violence\" is defined by section 8.`{{clarify|date=February 2015}}`{=mediawiki}
Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.
The *mens rea* of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.
The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.
In *R v Childs & Price* (2015), the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.
### Northern Ireland {#northern_ireland}
Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008.
## United States {#united_states}
In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states.
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Afghan Turkestan
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**Afghan Turkestan** is a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. In the 19th century, there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan with Mazar-e Sharif as provincial capital. The province incorporated the territories of the present-day provinces of Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-e Pol, and Faryab. In 1890, Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was separated from Turkestan Province. It was later abolished by Abdur Rahman.
The whole territory of Afghan Turkestan, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some 500 mi in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 183 km. It thus comprised about 147,000 km^2^ (57,000 sq mi) or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan.
## Geography
The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.
The province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or *Chahar Wilayat* (\"four domains\") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhoy (city), and Maymana in the west.
## Demographics
The bulk of the people are Uzbeks and Turkmens with large concentrations of Hazaras, Qizilbashs, Tatars, Tajiks, and Pashtuns.
## History
Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria--Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians. In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire. About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur Shah. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur\'s sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mohammad, the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. Dost Mohammad\'s earliest campaigns begin in the 1830s in the Afghan Turkestan Campaign of 1838-39. The sovereignty over Andkhoy, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maymana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.In 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul.
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Abba Arikha
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**Rav Abba bar Aybo** (*Aramaic\]\]*; 175--247 CE), commonly known as **Abba Arikha** (*label=none*) or simply as **Rav** (*label=none*), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.
In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud. With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues.
## Biography
His surname, **Arikha** (English: ***the Tall***), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading **Arekha**, consider it an honorary title, like \"Lecturer\". In the traditional literature, he is referred to almost exclusively as **Rav**, \"the Master\" (both by contemporaries and latter generations), just as his teacher, Judah ha-Nasi, was known simply as *Rabbi*. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the *tannaitic* literature, wherein a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the *Tannaim* and the *Amoraim* and is accorded the right---rarely conceded to one who is only an *amora*---of disputing the opinion of a *tanna*.
Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family that claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David. His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah ha-Nasi. From his associations in his uncle\'s house and later as his uncle\'s disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia. While Judah ha-Nasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as a teacher with certain restrictions, returned to Asoristan, referred to as \"Babylonia\" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.
In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era. For the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him *agoranomos* (market-master), and Rav Shela made him lecturer (*amora*) of his college. Then he moved to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel of Nehardea, another disciple of Judah ha-Nasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav\'s activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine and gave it that predominant position it was destined to occupy for several centuries.
Little is known of Rav\'s personal life. That he was rich seems probable, for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture. He is referred to as the son of noblemen, but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi tells us that he is described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship that existed between him and the last Parthian, Artabanus IV. He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so.
Rav became closely related to the exilarch\'s family through the marriage of one of his daughters. Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav\'s disciple Rav Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied the office of exilarch in succession.
Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism.
According to some opinions, Rav lived for 300 years. *Pesach Einayim* comments that Rav\'s prayer, as told in the Talmud, merited him long life.
## Legacy
The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other *tannaitic* traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav\'s name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud. His numerous disciples---some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel---amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as \"our great master.\" Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.
Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in.
## Teachings
He gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue. The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav. He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah. For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner. He also composed the prayer recited on Shabbat before the start of a new month, Birkat ha-Hodesh.
The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability. The greatest aggadist among Babylonian *Amoraim*, he is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian *Midrashim* also contain many of his *aggadot*. Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues. He especially loved to discuss in his homilies the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations. His *aggadah* is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these teachings may be quoted here:
- \"The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men\'s morals\"
- \"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber\"
- \"In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat.\"
- \"Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham\"
- \"Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one\'s fellow man.\"
- \"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: \'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\'\"
- \"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result.\"
- \"While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!\" \[Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive\]
- \"Receive the payment. Deliver the goods!\" \[i.e. do not sell on credit\]
- \"\[Better to come\] under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e. the Arabs) than \[the displeasure of\] Rome; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of Rome than \[the displeasure of\] a Persian; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a Persian than \[the displeasure of\] a disciple of the Sages; \[better to come\] under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than \[the displeasure of\] an orphan and widow.\"
- \"A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake. For eventually he will do it for their own sake\"
- \"A man ought always to look about in search of a \[good\] city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is \[relatively\] new, its iniquities are also few.\"
- \"A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, \[and no more\].\"
Rav loved the *Book of Ecclesiasticus* (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.
To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: `{{Blockquote|Nothing on earth compares with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence.<ref>Berakhot 17a</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction. `{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abba 'Arika}}`{=mediawiki}
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Abbreviator
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An **abbreviator** (plural \"abbreviators\" in English, *abbreviatores* in Latin) or **breviator** was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out *in extenso* by the *scriptores*.
They are first mentioned in the Papal bull *Extravagantes* of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.
After the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those *de Parco majori* of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery. By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery. Over time they obtained many important privileges.
## Roman lay origin {#roman_lay_origin}
Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase. The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the *Digest* and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.
## Ecclesiastical *abbreviatores* {#ecclesiastical_abbreviatores}
In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The *Abbreviatores* were officials of the Roman Curia.
The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic---or Roman---Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, *Praelectiones Jur. Can.*, 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of *Abbreviatores* necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the *Dataria Apostolica* and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of *Abbreviatores*.
According to Ciampini (*Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc.*, Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name \"*abbreviatores*\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (*Extravag. Joan.*, Tit. 13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.
Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.
## Institution of the College of Abbreviators {#institution_of_the_college_of_abbreviators}
In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"**College of Abbreviators**\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (*Abbreviatores de Parco Majori*; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (*Abbreviatores de Parco Minori*); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.
Pope Paul II suppressed the college, but Pope Sixtus IV (*Constitutio* 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.
Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (*Curia Romana*, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the college consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his *Constitutio Universae Eccles.* of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.
## Titles and privileges {#titles_and_privileges}
Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as *Comes palatinus* (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (*Militiae Aureae*), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (*Acta Pont. Greg. XVI*, Vol. 3, 178--179--180).
Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.
They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature *in capella*. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and *cappa*, as also rochet *in capella*. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.
These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.
As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.
## Suppression
Pope Pius X abrogated the college in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the *protonotarii apostolici participantes*.
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Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
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**ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī** (*عبداللطيف البغدادي*; 1162, Baghdad -- 1231, Baghdad), short for **Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī** (*موفق الدين محمد عبد اللطيف بن يوسف البغدادي*), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.
## Biography
Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah\'s literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil\'s patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu\'l-Qasim al-Shari\'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.
In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207--1208, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala'-al-Din Da'ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). 'Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.
## *Account of Egypt* {#account_of_egypt}
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed *Account of Egypt* (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.
In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.
### Archeology
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:
- \"monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies\";
- \"they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur\'an mentions them and their people\";
- \"they are reminders of human endurance and fate\";
- \"they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought\".
While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.
### Egyptology
His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author\'s residence in Egypt. The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to 'Abd al-Latif\'s detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism. He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.
### Autopsy
Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw \[mandible\], coccyx and sacrum.
### Translation
Al-Baghdādī\'s Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke\'s complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful. Pococke\'s complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.
## Philosophy
As far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers' ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle\'s Metaphysics (*Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa*). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author\'s acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (*Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn*) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the "golden age of Arabic philosophy" (Gutas, 20).
## Alchemy
ʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf\'s view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29--62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301--17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203--5; Stern, 66--7; Allemann).
## Spiritualism
During the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\'s name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid-1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221--9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8--9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story 'Ghost Writer', as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person.
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Abd ar-Rahman II
|
**Abd ar-Rahman II** (*عبد الرحمن الأوسط*; 792--852) was the fourth *Umayyad* Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.
Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo in 792. He was the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.
He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.
In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids. Another embassy was sent which may have either gone to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.
In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.
He responded to William of Septimania\'s requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.
Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque--Cathedral of Córdoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba.
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2,679 |
Abd al-Rahman IV
|
**Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik** (*translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik*), commonly known as **Abd al-Rahman IV**, was the Caliph of the Umayyad state of Córdoba in Al-Andalus, succeeding Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of Abd al-Rahman V
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2,680 |
Abd al-Rahman V
|
**Abd ar-Rahman V** (*ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Hishām al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh*) was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.
During the decline of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, Abd-ar-Rahman IV Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-Rahman V Mostadir (1023--1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.
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2,684 |
Abdera, Spain
|
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ `{{Infobox ancient site
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|type =
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}}`{=mediawiki} **Abdera** was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.
## Name
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription `{{sc|ʾbdrt}}`{=mediawiki} (*𐤏𐤁𐤃𐤓𐤕*). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for \"servant\" or \"slave\"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.
It appears in Greek sources as *tà Ábdēra* (*τὰ Ἄβδηρα*) and *Aúdēra* (*Αὔδηρα*), *Ábdara* (*Ἄβδαρα*), and *tò Ábdēron* (*τὸ Ἄβδηρον*).
## History
Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony. It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.
## Coins
The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town\'s main temple with two erect tunas as its columns. Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town.
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Abdera, Thrace
|
**Abdera** (*Άβδηρα*) is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek *polis* on the Thracian coast.
The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor. The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization. The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece. After the 4th century AD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.
During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city. It was called Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*), and later considered as the New Abdera (*Νέα Άβδηρα*). In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements. The ancient site remains in it as a ruin. The municipality of Abdera has 17,610 inhabitants (2021). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.
## Name
The name *Abdera* is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. It was variously Hellenized as *Ἄβδηρα* (*Ábdēra*), *Αὔδηρα* (*Aúdēra*), *Ἄβδαρα* (*Ábdara*), *Ἄβδηρον* (*Ábdēron*), and *Ἄβδηρος* (*Ábdēros*), before being Latinized as *Abdera*. Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules\'s founding of a city at the location.
The present-day town is written **Avdira** (*Άβδηρα*) and pronounced `{{IPA|el|ˈavðira|}}`{=mediawiki} in modern Greek.
## History
### Antiquity
The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.
The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654 BC. (Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera\'s failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios\'s having left Klazomenai.
Strabo describes Abdera as \"a Thracian city\" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area. The successful colonisation occurred in 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian invasion of their homeland. The chief coin type, a *griffon*, is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abdera (Thrace)|display=Abdera|volume=1|page=33}}`{=mediawiki} Endnotes:
- *Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens*, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel);
- *Mém. de l\'Acad. des Inscriptions*, xxxix. 211;
- K. F. Hermann, *Ges. Abh.* 90-111, 370 ff.
In 513 and 512 BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.
Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom. In 408 BC, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.
A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.
The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn\'t silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). The *Philogelos*, a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about Abderans, who are stereotyped as stupid, superstitious, and literal-minded. Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon. Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.
Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.
The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56\'1.02\"N 24°58\'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon (*Πολύστυλον*). Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi. By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.
### Modern
Avdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928. The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. At the 2011 local government reform it merged with the former municipalities Selero and Vistonida, and the town Genisea became its seat.
The municipality has an area of 352.047 km^2^, the municipal unit 161.958 km^2^. The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.
## Landmarks
Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, the Kütüklü Baba Tekke, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also *Paralia Avdiron*) near the village Lefkippos.
## Famous people {#famous_people}
- Democritus
- Protagoras
- Hecateus
- Nicaenetus
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Apollos
|
**Apollos** (*Ἀπολλώς*) was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.
## Biblical account {#biblical_account}
### Acts of the Apostles {#acts_of_the_apostles}
Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\". Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:
: \"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately.\"
The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\". Later, during Apollos\' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus: `{{blockquote|And he said to them, "Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?" And they said, "No, we have not even heard that there is a Holy Spirit." And he said, "Into what then were you baptized?" They said, "Into John's baptism." And Paul said, "John baptized with the baptism of repentance, telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus." On hearing this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had laid his hands on them, the Holy Spirit came on them, and they began speaking in tongues and prophesying.<ref>{{Bibleref|Acts|19:2-6}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Before Paul\'s arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.
### 1 Corinthians
Paul\'s First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos\' role at Corinth:
: *I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.*
Paul\'s Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. \"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul \[\...\] alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence \'I am for Cephas\'. \[\...\] What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; \'I am for Christ\'.\" Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians\' immaturity in faith.
Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Apollos\' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O\'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew \... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader \... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.\"
There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.
### Epistle to Titus {#epistle_to_titus}
Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\".
## Extrabiblical information {#extrabiblical_information}
Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul\'s letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
Pope Benedict XVI suggested that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus. He also suggested there were those in Corinth \"\...fascinated by \[Apollos'\] way of speaking\....\"
## Significance
Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas. Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority. The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos\' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.
Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.
Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25. Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great).
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2,690 |
Antidiarrheal
|
Antidiarrheals are a class of medication used primarily to manage and reduce the frequency of diarrhea. This class of medication predominantly works by slowing digestion, reducing fluid loss, or improving absorption. There are four main classes: opiates, 5-HT~3~ receptor antagonists, adsorbents, and bulk-forming agents. Commonly used medications include loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate, bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol), Cholestyramine, and Octreotide. Although not considered an antidiarrheal, oral rehydration solutions are also an important aspect of managing diarrhea.
## Medical use {#medical_use}
### Acute diarrhea {#acute_diarrhea}
Acute diarrhea is a common condition that typically resolves on its own with oral rehydration therapy. Most cases of acute diarrhea are caused by infections from contaminated food or water and usually go away on their own within a week. The most common causes of acute diarrhea in children are the viral agents norovirus and rotavirus, accounting for about 70% of cases. Travelers' diarrhea (TD) is one of the most common illnesses affecting people of all ages abroad, with up to 70% of travelers developing symptoms within two weeks. While traditional advice like avoiding uncooked or unpeeled foods was once thought to be effective, poor sanitation and food handling practices---especially in local eateries---remain major risk factors.
Anti-motility medications like loperamide and diphenoxylate can help manage the symptoms of travelers' diarrhea by reducing the frequency of bowel movements, which can be helpful when needing to travel, but are not curative. Loperamide and diphenoxylate should be avoided in people with bloody diarrhea or a fever, and loperamide is typically not recommended for children under six. Additionally, zinc supplements, particularly in children, can reduce diarrheal duration by up to 25% and reduce stool volume by up to 30%.
### Dehydration and oral replacement therapy {#dehydration_and_oral_replacement_therapy}
The primary risk from diarrhea is dehydration and electrolyte loss, making fluid and electrolyte replacement the top treatment priority. Drinking fluids orally is typically as effective as IV fluids and more cost-efficient for most patients. Thus, rehydration is essential when managing acute diarrhea, especially in vulnerable groups like young children, older adults, and those with chronic conditions. Oral rehydration solutions are made with clean water, salt, and sugar. These solutions are ideal for severe cases, while milder dehydration can be managed with safe, preferred fluids---though overly sugary drinks should be avoided.
Dehydration is categorized into three levels: **severe, some, or none**. **Severe dehydration** includes signs like lethargy, sunken eyes, little to no urine output, and confusion. **Some dehydration** may present with dry mouth, restlessness, thirst, and slightly sunken eyes. If these signs are absent or insufficient, the person is not considered dehydrated.
### Chronic diarrhea {#chronic_diarrhea}
Chronic diarrhea often persists for greater than a week and may require further work-up from a medical professional. When the underlying cause cannot be directly addressed, long-term symptom management using antidiarrheals is often necessary.
## Adverse effects {#adverse_effects}
### Opiates
Loperamide is effective and safe for treating chronic diarrhea. Diphenoxylate and difenoxin work similarly but can affect the brain at high doses, so they\'re combined with atropine to reduce misuse risks. Stronger opiates like morphine or codeine can treat severe diarrhea, but they\'re rarely prescribed due to the risk of misuse, and careful monitoring is needed. While generally safe, even when combined with antibiotics, the use of opiates may slightly increase the risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
### Bismuth subsalicylate {#bismuth_subsalicylate}
Bismuth subsalicylate is commonly used for diarrhea, but long-term use raises safety concerns and should be monitored. Bismuth can cause common side effects such as nausea, a bitter taste, diarrhea, and darkened stools. Since it is a heavy metal, in may cause encephalopathy in rare cases.
### Bile acid resins {#bile_acid_resins}
Bile acid binding resins like cholestyramine, colestipol, and colesevelam are effective but can cause constipation and may interfere with the absorption of other medications, so they should be taken at least two hours apart from other drugs.
### Alpha-2 (α~2~) adrenergic agonists {#alpha_2_α2_adrenergic_agonists}
Clonidine, used for diabetic diarrhea, is often limited by its ability to lower blood pressure.
### 5-HT~3~ antagonists {#ht3_antagonists}
Alosetron, often used for IBS-related diarrhea, poses a risk of colonic ischemia and severe constipation, which makes it infrequently used.
## Available forms {#available_forms}
Inhibition of Intestinal Transit
--------------------------------------------------------
Opiates
Enkephalinase inhibitor
5-HT₃ receptor antagonist
α₂-Adrenergic agonist
Somatostatin and analogs
Calcium channel blocker
Pro-absorptive Agents
Glucose, amino acids
Oral rehydration solution
α₂-Adrenergic agonist
Antisecretory Drugs
Somatostatin and analogs
Enterocyte apical membrane chloride channel inhibitors
Calcium channel blockers
Calmodulin inhibitors
Calcium-sensing receptor ligands
Lithium
Zinc
Bismuth
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Corticosteroids
Teduglutide
Intraluminal Agents
Adsorbents
Bile acid-binding resins
Fiber
: Antidiarrheal Medications
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,691 |
Áed mac Cináeda
|
**Áed mac Cináeda** (Modern Scottish Gaelic: *Aodh mac Choinnich*; *Ethus*; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin). He became king of the Picts in 877 when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed **Áed of the White Flowers**, **the wing-footed** (*alipes*) or **the white-foot** (*albipes*).
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,692 |
Abdul Hamid I
|
**Abdulhamid I** or **Abdul Hamid I** (*عبد الحميد اول*, *\`Abdü'l-Ḥamīd-i evvel*; *I. Abdülhamid*; 20 March 1725 -- 7 April 1789) was the 27th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789. A devout and pacifist sultan, he inherited a bankrupt empire and sought military reforms, including overhauling the Janissaries and navy. Despite internal efforts and quelling revolts in Syria, Egypt, and Greece, his reign saw the critical loss of Crimea and defeat by Russia and Austria. The 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca granted Russia territorial and religious influence. He died soon after the fall of Ochakov in 1788.
## Early life {#early_life}
Abdul Hamid was born on 20 March 1725, in Constantinople. He was a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703--1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın. Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed\'s elder son Mustafa III. As a potential heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, which was customary. His imprisonment lasted until 1767. During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy.
## Reign
### Accession
On the day of Mustafa\'s death on 21 January 1774, Abdul Hamid ascended to the throne with a ceremony held in the palace. The next day Mustafa III\'s funeral procession was held. The new sultan sent a letter to the Grand Vizier Serdar-ı Ekrem Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha on the front and informed him to continue with the war against Russia. On 27 January 1774, he went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was given the Sword of Osman.
### Rule
Abdul Hamid\'s long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.\"
Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire\'s armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy. He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.
Abdul Hamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt and Iraq. However, small successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774 but was in practice actually controlled by Russia.
Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire. Ultimately, the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787. Austria soon joined Russia. Turkey initially held its own in the conflict, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred). Upon hearing this, Abdul Hamid I had a stroke, which resulted in his death.
In spite of his failures, Abdul Hamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a *Veli* (\"saint\"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.
Abdul Hamid I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended. He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.
In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road. On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved. Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.
### Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca {#treaty_of_küçük_kaynarca}
Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Ottoman defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.
With the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the territory left, as well as Russia\'s ambassador at the Istanbul level and an authorised representative, this ambassador\'s participation in other ceremonies at the state ceremonies, the right to pass through the Straits to Russia, as the envoys of the Russian envoy were given immunity. Marketing opportunities for all kinds of commodities in Istanbul and other ports, as well as the full commercial rights of England and France, were given. It was also in the treaty that the Russian state had a church built in Galata. Under the circumstances, this church would be open to the public, referred to as the Russo-Greek Church, and forever under the protection of Russian ambassadors in Istanbul.
### Relations with Tipu Sultan {#relations_with_tipu_sultan}
In 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdul Hamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysore ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria.
## Architecture
Abdul Hamid I, left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul. The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77. He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building. The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building. During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret, the fountain, removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.
In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square. He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one`{{clarify|date=July 2022}}`{=mediawiki} for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed. In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş.
## Character
He wrote down the troubles he saw before, to the grand vizier or to the governor of his empire. He accepted the invitations of his grand vizier and went to his mansions, followed by the reading of the Quran. He was humble and a religious Sultan.
It is known that Abdul Hamid I was fond of his children, was interested in family life, and spent the summer months in Karaağaç, Beşiktaş with his consorts, sons and daughters. His daughter Esma Sultan\'s dressing styles, her passion for entertainment, and her journey to the objects with her journeymen and concubines have set an example for Istanbul ladies.
## Family
Abdülhamid I is famous for having concubines even during the period of confinement in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. From these relationships at least one daughter was conceived, secretly born and raised outside the Palace until the enthronement of Abdülhamid, when she was accepted at court as the sultan\'s \"adopted daughter\".
### Consorts
Abdülhamid I had at least fourteen consorts:
- Ayşe Kadın. BaşKadin (first consort) until her death in 1775. She was buried in Yeni Cami.
- Hace Hatice Ruhşah Kadın. BaşKadin after Ayşe\'s death. She was Abdulhamid\'s most beloved consort. She was his concubine even before he became sultan. Five incredibly intense love letters that the sultan wrote to her around that time have been preserved. Mother of at least a son. After Abdülhamid\'s death she made the pilgrimage to Mecca by proxy, which earned her the name \"*Hace*\". She died in 1808 and was buried in mausoleum Abdülhamid I.
- Binnaz Kadın (c. 1743 - May/June 1823), also known as Beynaz Kadın. She had previously been the consort of Abdulhamid\'s predecessor, Mustafa III. With no children of either of them, after Abdülhamid\'s death she married Çayırzade İbrahim Ağa. She was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
- Nevres Kadın. Before she became a consort she was the treasurer of the harem. She died in 1797.
- Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She is the mother of at least two sons, including Mustafa IV, and two daughters. She was Valide sultan for less than a year before the deposition of her son, and spent the rest of her life in her daughter\'s palace. She died on 11 December 1828.
- Mehtabe Kadın. Initially a Kalfa (servant) of the harem, she became consort through the favour of kızları agasi Beşir Ağa. She died in 1807.
- Muteber Kadın. Called also Mutebere Kadın. Mother of at least a son. Her personal seal read: "*Devletlü beşinci Muteber Kadın Hazretleri*". She died on 16 May 1837 and was buried in the Abdülhamid I mausoleum.
- Fatma Şebsefa Kadın. Also called Şebisefa, Şebsafa or Şebisafa Kadin. Mother of at least a son and three daughters. She owned farms in Thessaloniki, which she left to her daughter when she died in 1805. She was buried near the Zeyrek Mosque.
- Nakşidil Kadın. Originally Georgian or Circassian, she became famous for the disproved legend that she was actually the disappeared Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, distant cousin of the Empress Josephine Bonaparte. She is a mother of two sons and a daughter, including Mahmud II. She died on 22 August 1817 and was buried in her mausoleum inside her Fatih Mosque.
- Hümaşah Kadın. Mother of at least a son, she built a fountain near Dolmabahçe and another in Emirgân. She died in 1778 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Dilpezir Kadın. She died in 1809 and was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.
- Mislinayab Kadın. She was buried in the Nakşıdil Valide Sultan mausoleum.
- Mihriban Kadın. Misidentified by Oztüna as Esma Sultan\'s mother, she died in 1812 and was buried in Edirne.
- Nükhetseza Hanım. BaşIkbal, she was the youngest consort. She died in 1851.
### Sons
Abdülhamid I had at least eleven sons:
- Şehzade Abdüllah (1 January 1776 - 1 January 1776). Born dead, he was buried in Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Mehmed (22 August 1776 - 20 February 1781) - with Hümaşah Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Ahmed (8 December 1776 - 18 November 1778) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Abdürrahman (8 September 1777 - 8 September 1777). Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Süleyman (13 March 1778 - 19 January 1786) - with Muteber Kadın. Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Ahmed (1779 - 1780). He was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Şehzade Abdülaziz (19 June 1779 - 19 June 1779) - with Ruhşah Kadin. Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Mustafa IV (8 September 1779 - 16 November 1808) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. 29th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, was executed after less than a year.
- Şehzade Mehmed Nusret (20 September 1782 - 23 October 1785) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her mother dedicated a mosque to his memory. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Şehzade Seyfullah Murad (22 October 1783 - 21 January 1785) - with Nakşidil Kadin. He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Mahmud II (20 July 1785 - 1 July 1839) - with Nakşidil Kadin. 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
### Daughters
Abdülhamid I had at least sixteen daughters:
- Ayşe Athermelik Dürrüşehvar Hanım (c. 1767 - 11 May 1826). Called also Athermelek. She was conceived while her father was still Şehzade and confined in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. Her mother was smuggled out of the palace and her birth kept secret, otherwise both would have been killed. When Abdülhamid, who adored her, ascended the throne, he returned her to court with the status of \"adopted daughter\", which gave her the rank of imperial princess as the other daughters, but he could not grant her the title of \"Sultan\", so she never came. fully equal to the stepsisters. She married once and had two daughters.
- Hatice Sultan (12 January 1776 - 8 November 1776). First daughter born after her father\'s accession to the throne, her birth was celebrated for ten days. She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Ayşe Sultan (30 July 1777 - 9 September 1777). She was buried in the Yeni Cami.
- Esma Sultan (17 July 1778 - 4 June 1848) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. She nicknamed Küçük Esma (Esma *the younger*) to distinguish her from her aunt, Esma *the eldest*. Close to her brother Mustafa IV, she attempted to put him back on the throne with the help of their half-sister Hibetullah Sultan, but eventually she became the new sultan\'s favorite sister, his half-brother Mahmud II, which gave her a degree of freedom never before granted to a princess. She married once but had no children.
- Melekşah Sultan (19 February 1779 - 1780).
- Rabia Sultan (20 March 1780 - 28 June 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Aynışah Sultan (9 July 1780 - 28 July 1780). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Melekşah Sultan (28 January 1781 - 24 December 1781). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Rabia Sultan (10 August 1781 - 3 October 1782). She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Fatma Sultan (12 December 1782 - 11 January 1786) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın. Died of smallpox, she was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum. A fountain was dedicated to her memory.
- Hatice Sultan (6 October 1784 - 1784).
- Alemşah Sultan (11 October 1784 - 10 March 1786) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her birth was celebrated for three days. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Saliha Sultan (27 November 1786 - 10 April 1788) - with Nakşidil Kadin. She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Emine Sultan (4 February 1788 - 9 March 1791) - with Şebsefa Kadın. Her father strongly hoped she would live and showered her with gifts, including the properties of her later aunt Esma Sultan and a court of Chechen entertainers. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
- Zekiye Sultan (? - 20 March 1788). She died in infancy.
- Hibetullah Sultan (16 March 1789 - 19 September 1841) - with Şebsefa Kadın. She married once but had no children. She collaborated with her half-sister Esma Sultan to restore Mustafa IV, Esma\'s brother and Hibetullah\'s half-brother, to the throne, but she was discovered by Mahmud II, the new sultan and also their half-brother, and placed under house arrest for life, unable to communicate with anybody.
## Death
Abdul Hamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Istanbul. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.
He bred Arabian horses with great passion. One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named \"Küheylan Abdülhamid\" after him.
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2,696 |
Abencerrages
|
*Zegris* (genus)}} The **Abencerrages** or **Abencerrajes** (`{{IPA|es|aβenθeˈraxes|label=Modern Spanish:}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|osp|aβent͡s̻eˈraʒes̺|lang|link=yes}}`{=mediawiki}; from the Arabic *label=none*, `{{pl.}}`{=mediawiki} *label=none*) were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.
The name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370--1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.
Little is known of the family with certainty. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Pérez de Hita, *Guerras civiles de Granada*, which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Benedin (Arabic banu Edin), and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian\'s *Gonsalve de Cordoue* and Chateaubriand\'s *Le dernier des Abencerrages* are adaptations of Pérez de Hita\'s story.
The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The assassinations were ordered by Ibrahim Benedin, who had a feud with the family. He was enraged and shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and gave orders to kill them all. The apartment where this is said to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.
Washington Irving in *Tales of the Alhambra* (1832) disagrees, saying the massacre was a fiction, but that a number of Abencerrages were killed in one of the battles at the time. Nonetheless, many poems and plays, including *Romance de la pérdida de Alhama*, the novella *The Abencerraje*, and two operas (*Les Abencérages*, by Luigi Cherubini, and *L\'esule di Granata*, by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,699 |
Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)
|
**Aberavon** (*Aberafan*) was a constituency in Wales in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was represented from 1922 until 2024 by the Welsh Labour Party. It included the town of Aberavon, although the largest town in the constituency was Port Talbot.
The constituency was abolished as part of the 2023 periodic review of Westminster constituencies and under the June 2023 final recommendations of the Boundary Commission for Wales for the 2024 general election. Its area was split between Aberafan Maesteg and Neath and Swansea East.
## History
The constituency was created for the 1918 general election by the dividing of the Swansea District. With the exception of the first term, it has always been held by the Labour Party. Ramsay MacDonald, who became Labour\'s first Prime Minister in 1924, held the seat from 1922 to 1929. Its final MP, Stephen Kinnock, is the son of Neil Kinnock, who was Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 to 1992.
It was one of the most consistently safe seats for Labour; since the end of the Second World War, the Labour candidate had always won Aberavon with a majority at least 33%, and with the exception of 2015, the Labour candidate has also always won an overall majority of the vote in the seat. In 2015, Kinnock only won 48.9% of the vote in Aberavon, against a surge in the vote for the UKIP candidate; however, in 2017, Kinnock\'s vote share rose by 19.2 percentage points, the biggest increase in the Labour vote in the seat\'s history, and his majority increased to 50.4%, the highest for an Aberavon MP since 2001. The 2017 result also made Aberavon the safest Labour seat in Wales, however the seat saw a significant swing against Labour in 2019.
## Boundaries
**1918--1950**: The Borough of Aberavon, the Urban Districts of Briton Ferry, Glencorwg, Margam, and Porthcawl and part of the Rural Districts of Neath and Penybont.
**1950--1983**: The Borough of Port Talbot, the Urban Districts of Glyncorrwg and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural District of Penybont.
**1983--1997**: The Borough of Afan, and the Borough of Neath wards nos. 3 and 6.
**1997--2010**: The Borough of Port Talbot; and the Borough of Neath wards of Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, and Coedffranc West.
**2010--2024**: The Neath Port Talbot County Borough electoral divisions of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West, and Tai-bach.
The constituency was in South Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay.
Commenting on the 1983 boundary changes to the constituency when moving the 2000 Loyal Address of the Blair Government in Parliament, the seat\'s then-MP Sir John Morris, who would retire at the 2001 general election, said:
## Members of Parliament {#members_of_parliament}
Election Member
---------- ------ --------------------------
1918 Jack Edwards
1922 Rt Hon. Ramsay MacDonald
1929 William Cove
1959 Sir John Morris
2001 Hywel Francis
2015 Stephen Kinnock
2024 *Constituency abolished*
## Elections
### Elections in the 1910s {#elections_in_the_1910s}
- Jones withdrew in favour of Edwards on 13 December 1918.
### Elections in the 1920s {#elections_in_the_1920s}
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Ramsay MacDonald
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Henry Williams
### Elections in the 1930s {#elections_in_the_1930s}
### Elections in the 1940s {#elections_in_the_1940s}
### Elections in the 1950s {#elections_in_the_1950s}
### Elections in the 1960s {#elections_in_the_1960s}
### Elections in the 1970s {#elections_in_the_1970s}
### Elections in the 1980s {#elections_in_the_1980s}
### Elections in the 1990s {#elections_in_the_1990s}
`{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Plaid Cymru
|candidate = David W. J. Saunders
|votes = 1,919
|percentage = 4.8
|change = +2.0
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box candidate|
|party = Real Bean
|candidate = [[Captain Beany]]
|votes = 707
|percentage = 1.8
|change = ''N/A''
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box majority|
|votes = 21,310
|percentage = 53.2
|change = +2.4
}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 40,069
|percentage = 77.6
|change = −0.1
}}`{=mediawiki}
`{{Election box end}}`{=mediawiki}
### Elections in the 2000s {#elections_in_the_2000s}
### Elections in the 2010s {#elections_in_the_2010s}
Of the 44 rejected ballots:
- 29 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 14 voted for more than one candidate.
- 1 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified.
thumb\|upright=0.55\|Stephen Kinnock
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
- 37 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 20 voted for more than one candidate.
Of the 57 rejected ballots:
- 41 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 16 voted for more than one candidate.
Of the 82 rejected ballots:
- 61 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.
- 19 voted for more than one candidate.
- 2 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,701 |
Aberdare
|
**Aberdare** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ər|ˈ|d|ɛər}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ab-ər|DAIR|'}}`{=mediawiki}; *Aberdâr* `{{audio|LL-Q9309 (cym)-Jason.nlw-Aberdâr.wav|}}`{=mediawiki}) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon. Aberdare has a population of 39,550 (mid-2017 estimate). Aberdare is 4 mi south-west of Merthyr Tydfil, 20 mi north-west of Cardiff and 22 mi east-north-east of Swansea. During the 19th century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre.
## Etymology
The name *Aberdare* means \"mouth/confluence of the river Dare\", as the town is located where the Dare river (*Afon Dâr*) meets the Cynon (*Afon Cynon*). While the town\'s Welsh spelling uses formal conventions, the English spelling of the name reflects the town\'s pronunciation in the local Gwenhwyseg dialect of South East Wales.
*Dâr* is an archaic Welsh word for oaks (*derwen* is the singulative), and the valley was noted for its large and fine oaks as late as the 19th century. In ancient times, the river may have been associated with *Daron*, an ancient Celtic goddess of oak. As such, the town would share an etymology with Aberdaron and the Daron river. As with many Welsh toponyms, it is likely that the locality was known by this name long before the development of the town.
## History
### Early history {#early_history}
There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. This may have led to the mountain itself being named *Bryn-y-Beddau* (hill of graves) although other local traditions associate the name with the Battle of Hirwaun Wrgant.
### Middle Ages {#middle_ages}
Aberdare lies within the commote (cwmwd) of Meisgyn, in the cantref of Penychen. The area is traditionally given as the scene of the *battle of Hirwaun Wrgant*, where the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan, defeated Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed. The battle is thought to have started at Aberdare, with the areas now known as Upper and Lower *Gadlys* (The battle Court(s)), traditionally given as each armies\' headquarters.
The settlement of Aberdare dates from at least this period, with the first known reference being in a monastic chapter`{{clarify|date=September 2023}}`{=mediawiki} of 1203 concerning grazing right on Hirwaun Common. It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from at least 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains.
### Industrial Aberdare {#industrial_aberdare}
Aberdare grew rapidly in the early 19th century through two major industries: first iron, then coal. A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was opened to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff. With the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan\'s (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, Aberdare had 12 Anglican churches and one Catholic church, built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys monastery; and at one time there were over 50 Nonconformist chapels (including those in surrounding settlements such as Cwmaman and Llwydcoed). The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses. The former urban district included what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon.
## Population growth {#population_growth}
In 1801, the population of the parish of Aberdare was just 1,486, but the early 19th century saw rapid industrial growth, first through the ironworks, and later through the iron and steam coal industries. By the 1840s the parish population was increasing by 1,000 people every year, almost exclusively migrant workers from west Wales, which was suffering from an agricultural depression. This growth was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town. The population of the Aberdare District (centred on the town) was 9,322 in 1841, 18,774 in 1851, and 37,487 in 1861.
Despite a small decline in the 1870s, population levels continued to increase, with the first decade of the 20th century seeing a notably sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911. The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry. The Aberdare population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales). By 2011 it was 29,748, though the figure includes the surrounding populations of Aberaman, Abercwmboi, Cwmbach and Llwydcoed.
## Language
Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing. A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.
In his controversial evidence to the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales (the report of which is known in Wales as the *Brad y Llyfrau Gleision*, *Treason of the Blue Books*), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was \"generally understood\" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire. Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh-speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.
This evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as \"ignorant\", \"lazy\" and \"immoral\" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as \"evil\". The controversial reports allowed the local nonconformist minister Thomas Price of Calfaria to arrange public meetings, from which he would emerge as a leading critic of the vicar\'s evidence and, by implication, a defender of both the Welsh language and the morality of the local population. It is still contended that Griffiths was made vicar of Merthyr in the neighbouring valley to escape local anger, even though it was over ten years before he left Aberdare. The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly nonconformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.
By 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911. The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men. A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil. English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town. This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education. Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.
According to the 2011 Census, 11.6%`{{clarify|date=July 2018}}`{=mediawiki}`{{Fix|text=Please explain what is unclear}}`{=mediawiki} of Aberdare residents aged three years and over could speak Welsh, with 24.8% of 3- to 15-year-olds stating that they could speak it.
## Industry
### Iron industry {#iron_industry}
Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. The iron industry began to expand in a significant way around 1818 when the Crawshay family of Merthyr purchased the Hirwaun ironworks and placed them under independent management. In the following year, Rowland Fothergill took over the ironworks at Abernant and a few years later did the same at Llwydcoed. Both concerns later fell into the hands of his nephew Richard Fothergill. The Gadlys Ironworks was established in 1827 by Matthew Wayne, who had previously managed the Cyfarthfa ironworks at Merthyr. The Gadlys works, now considered an important archaeological site, originally comprised four blast furnaces, inner forges, rowing mills and puddling furnaces. The development of these works provided impetus to the growth of Aberdare as a nucleated town. The iron industry was gradually superseded by coal and all the five iron works had closed by 1875, as the local supply of iron ore was inadequate to meet the ever-increasing demand created by the invention of steel, and as a result the importing of ore proved more profitable.
### Coal industry {#coal_industry}
The iron industry had a relatively small impact upon the economy of Aberdare and in 1831 only 1.2% of the population was employed in manufacturing, as opposed to 19.8% in neighbouring Merthyr Tydfil. In the early years of Aberdare\'s development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks. Although the Gadlys works was small in comparison with the other ironworks it became significant as the Waynes also became involved in the production of sale coal. In 1836, this activity led to the exploitation of the \"Four-foot Seam\" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession.
In 1840, Thomas Powell sank a pit at Cwmbach, and during the next few years he opened another four pits. In the next few years, other local entrepreneurs now became involved in the expansion of the coal trade, including David Williams at Ynysgynon and David Davis at Blaengwawr, as well as the latter\'s son David Davis, Maesyffynnon. They were joined by newcomers such as Crawshay Bailey at Aberaman and, in due course, George Elliot in the lower part of the valley. This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff. The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies described it as \"the most dynamic place in Wales\". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare\'s product and launched a huge international export market. Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from 177000 LT in 1844 to 477000 LT in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.
The growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield. Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857--8. The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages. The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.
Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry\'s Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon\'s Navigation and Powell Duffryn.
During the early years of the twentieth century, the Aberdare valley became the focus of increased militancy among the mining workforce and an unofficial strike by 11,000 miners in the district from 20 October 1910 until 2 February 1911 attracted much attention at the time, although it was ultimately overshadowed by the Cambrian dispute in the neighbouring Rhondda valley which became synonymous with the so-called Tonypandy Riots.
In common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare\'s coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively.
On 11 May 1919, an extensive fire broke out on Cardiff Street, Aberdare.
With the decline of both iron and coal, Aberdare has become reliant on commercial businesses as a major source of employment. Its industries include cable manufacture, smokeless fuels, and tourism.
## Government
As a small village in the upland valleys of Glamorgan, Aberdare did not play any significant part in political life until its development as an industrial settlement. It was part of the lordship of Miskin, and the ancient office of High Constable continued in ceremonial form until relatively recent times.
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
In 1832, Aberdare was removed from the Glamorgan county constituency and became part of the parliamentary borough (constituency) of Merthyr Tydfil. For much of the nineteenth century, the representation was initially controlled by the ironmasters of Merthyr, notably the Guest family. From 1852 until 1868 the seat was held by Henry Austen Bruce whose main industrial interests lay in the Aberdare valley. Bruce was a Liberal but was viewed with suspicion by the more radical faction which became increasingly influential within Welsh Liberalism in the 1860s. The radicals supported such policies as the disestablishment of the Church of England and were closely allied to the Liberation Society.
#### 1868 general election {#general_election}
Nonconformist ministers played a prominent role in this new politics and, at Aberdare, they found an effective spokesman in the Rev Thomas Price minister of Calfaria, Aberdare. Following the granting of a second parliamentary seat to the borough of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867, the Liberals of Aberdare sought to ensure that a candidate from their part of the constituency was returned alongside the sitting member, Henry Austen Bruce. Their choice fell upon Richard Fothergill, owner of the ironworks at Abernant, who was enthusiastically supported by the Rev Thomas Price. Shortly before the election, however, Henry Richard intervened as a radical Liberal candidate, invited by the radicals of Merthyr. To many people\'s surprise, Price was lukewarm about his candidature and continued to support Fothergill. Ultimately, Henry Richard won a celebrated victory with Fothergill in second place and Bruce losing his seat. Richard thus became one of the-first radical MPs from Wales.
#### 1874--1914
At the 1874 General Election, both Richard and Fothergill were again returned, although the former was criticised for his apparent lack of sympathy towards the miners during the industrial disputes of the early 1870s. This led to the emergence of Thomas Halliday as the first labour or working-class candidate to contest a Welsh constituency. Although he polled well, Halliday fell short of being elected. For the remainder of the nineteenth century, the constituency was represented by industrialists, most notably David Alfred Thomas. In 1900, however, Thomas was joined by Keir Hardie, the ILP candidate, who became the first labour representative to be returned for a Welsh constituency independent of the Liberal Party.
#### 20th century {#th_century}
The Aberdare constituency came into being at the 1918 election. The first representative was Charles Butt Stanton, who had been elected at a by-election following Hardie\'s death in 1915. However, in 1922, Stanton was defeated by a Labour candidate, and Labour has held the seat ever since. The only significant challenge came from Plaid Cymru at the 1970 and February 1974 General Elections, but these performances have not since been repeated. From 1984 until 2019 the parliamentary seat, now known as Cynon Valley, was held by Ann Clwyd of Labour.
### Local government {#local_government}
Aberdare was an ancient parish within Glamorgan. Until the mid-19th century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen annually. However, with the rapid industrial development of the parish, these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities. During the early decades of the 19th century the ironmasters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs, and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836. During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers. A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price. The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.
In the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply, and mortality rates were high. Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace. Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which recommended that a local board of health be established. The whole parish of Aberdare was formally declared a local board district on 31 July 1854, to be governed by the Aberdare Local Board of Health. Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (*Alaw Goch*), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev. Thomas Price. It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871. The Old Town Hall was erected in 1831 although it was not converted for municipal use until the second half of the century.
By 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments: these included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital. The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.
Later, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1894, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley. At the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists, and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners\' agent David Morgan (Dai o\'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative. From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards. The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.
Aberdare Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The area became part of the borough of Cynon Valley within the new county of Mid Glamorgan. The area of the former urban district was made a community, later being subdivided in 1982 into five communities: Aberaman, Cwmbach, Llwydcoed, Penywaun, and a smaller Aberdare community. The Aberdare community was further divided in 2017 into two communities called Aberdare East and Aberdare West. Aberdare East includes Aberdare town centre and the village of Abernant. Aberdare West includes Cwmdare, Cwm Sian and Trecynon. No community council exists for either of the Aberdare communities.
Cynon Valley Borough Council and Mid Glamorgan County Council were both abolished in 1996, since when Aberdare has been governed by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council. The town lies mainly in the Aberdare East ward, represented by two county councillors. Nearby Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon are represented by the Aberdare West/Llwydcoed ward. Both wards have been represented by the Labour Party since 2012.
## Culture
Aberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated. The town erected a monument in the local park to commemorate the occasion. A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park, where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair. From the mid 19th century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language. A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys. From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman\'s Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills. *Y Darian*, as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys. The miners\' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism. The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.
The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare\'s main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners\' subscriptions.
The Second World War poet Alun Lewis was born near Aberdare in the village of Cwmaman; there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem *The Mountain over Aberdare*.
The founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners\' strike.
Griffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the conductor of the famous \'Côr Mawr\' (\"great choir\") of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town\'s most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.
Aberdare was culturally twinned with the German town of Ravensburg.
## Religion
### Anglican Church {#anglican_church}
The original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189. Some of its original architecture is still intact.
With the development of Aberdare as an industrial centre in the nineteenth century it became increasingly apparent that the ancient church was far too small to service the perceived spiritual needs of an urban community, particularly in view of the rapid growth of nonconformity from the 1830s onwards. Eventually, John Griffith, the rector of Aberdare, undertook to raise funds to build a new church, leading to the rapid construction of St Elvan\'s Church in the town centre between 1851 and 1852. This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since it was built. The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.
John Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan\'s, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan\'s, Trecynon. Other churches in the parish are St Luke\'s (Cwmdare), St James\'s (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew\'s (1891) (Abernant).
In the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret\'s Church, with a beautiful old pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also in this parish is St Joseph\'s Church, Cwmaman. St Joseph\'s has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre, surrounded by a beautiful floral garden and leading to the Cwmaman Sculpture Trail. However, regular church services still take place. Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.
In 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare. A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels.
### Nonconformity
The Aberdare Valley was a stronghold of Nonconformity from the mid-nineteenth century until the inter-war years. In the aftermath of the 1847 Education Reports nonconformists became increasingly active in the political and educational life of Wales and in few places was this as prevalent as at Aberdare. The leading figure was Thomas Price, minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.
Aberdare was a major centre of the 1904--05 Religious Revival, which had begun at Loughor near Swansea. The revival aroused alarm among ministers for the revolutionary, even anarchistic, impact it had upon chapel congregations and denominational organisation. In particular, it was seen as drawing attention away from pulpit preaching and the role of the minister. The local newspaper, the *Aberdare Leader*, regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the \'abnormal heat\' which it engendered. Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were said to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself. The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.
Once the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early 20th century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels. This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language. There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.
Of the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number have closed since the turn of the millennium. Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished. Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).
#### Independents
The earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, Trecynon, although meetings had been held from the late 18th century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun. During the 19th century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897. By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612. Siloa Chapel was the largest of the Independent chapels in Aberdare and is one of the few that remain open today, having been \'re-established\' as a Welsh language chapel. The Independent ministers of nineteenth-century Aberdare included some powerful personalities, but none had the kind of wider social authority which Thomas Price enjoyed amongst the Baptists.
Of the other Independent chapels in the valley, Saron, in Davis Street, Aberaman, was used for regular services by a small group of members until 2011. For many years, these were held in a small side-room, and not the chapel itself. The chapel has a large vestry comprising rows of two-way-facing wooden benches and a stage, with a side entrance onto Beddoe Street and back entrance to Lewis Street. Although the building is not in good repair, the interior, including pulpit and balcony seating area (back and sides), was in good order but the chapel eventually closed due to the very small number of members remaining. In February 1999, Saron became a Grade II Listed Building.
#### Baptists
The Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev. Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel. In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh. By 1910 the number of chapels had increased to 30, with a total membership of 7,422. Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales. The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.
#### Calvinistic Methodists {#calvinistic_methodists}
By 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879. The most prominent of these was Bethania, Aberdare, once the largest chapel in Aberdare. Derelict for many years, it was demolished in 2015. The Methodists were numerically powerful and while some of their ministers such as William James of Bethania served on the Aberdare School Board and other public bodies, their constitution militated against the sort of active political action which came more naturally to the Baptists and Independents.
#### Other denominations {#other_denominations}
In 1878 Mother Shepherd, a native Welsh speaker, was sent to Aberdare by the Salvation Army at the start of a period of growth for their mission. After five years she had created seven new stations before she was recalled to London. Shepherd would return to Aberdare working for the community. In 1930 she was given a public funeral.
The Wesleyan Methodists had 14 places of worship by 1910. There was also a significant Unitarian tradition in the valley and three places of worship by 1910. Highland Place Unitarian Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2010, with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there. The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services. The current `{{when|date=January 2023}}`{=mediawiki} organist is Grace Jones, the sister of the former organist Jacob Jones. The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.
### Judaism
Seymour Street was once home to a synagogue which opened its doors in the late 1800s but closed in 1957. The site now has a blue plaque.
## Education
The state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period, as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports. Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners. However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally. In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers\' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools. At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population. Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils. Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (*Alaw Goch*).
Much energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education. The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries. School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds. Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones. By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.
In common with other public bodies at the time (see \'Local Government\' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen. Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (*Dai o\'r Nant*), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.
### Colleges
- Coleg y Cymoedd
### Secondary schools {#secondary_schools}
- Aberdare Community School
- St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)
- Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun
## Transport
The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre. The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012--13.
## Sports
Aberdare was noted as \"very remarkable\" for its traditions of *Taplasau Hâf* (summer games/dances), races and *gwrolgampau* (\"manly sports\") which were said to have been a feature of the area since at least the 1640s. The town is also home to *Yr Ynys*, an historic sports ground which has the distinction of hosting the first Rugby League international, a professional Rugby League team, a football League side and an All Blacks\' tour match. Today the Ynys hosts the town\'s Rugby union and cricket teams, as well as the Sobell Leisure Centre and the Ron Jones Athletics Stadium, a 263-seat stadium with crumb rubber track and field sports facilities, home to Aberdare Valley AAC.
### Cricket
A cricket club was re-established at the Ynys in 1968 and was named Riverside Cricket Club in reference to its location near the banks of the river. The club would later be renamed Dare Valley CC, before finally changing its name to Aberdare CC. In 2008 the club was granted a 25-year lease on the land outside the boundary of the Ynys\' pitch 1, where a club house and training nets were soon constructed. This was followed by the building of a Community Hub and Café in the 2010s. Today, the club runs 3 adult teams and 4 junior sides.
### Rugby League {#rugby_league}
The Northern Union hired the Ynys on 1 January 1908 to host what would be the first ever international rugby league match. Played on a near frozen pitch, the match between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds proved to be a close and exciting game. The decisive score came from local star and former Aberdare RFC player, Dai \"Tarw\" Jones, who scored a try just minutes before the final whistle, giving Wales a 9--8 victory.
The match attracted 15,000 paying spectators, with the gate receipts of £560 highlighting the commercial potential of rugby league at the Ynys. This took place at a time when the Northern Union was looking to establish professional teams across south Wales and just months after the Welsh Rugby Union had sanctioned Aberdare RFC for professionalism (banning Jones for life). As such, discussions on the establishment of a Rugby League club in Aberdare advanced quickly and on 21 July 1908, Aberdare RLFC were admitted to the Northern Union\'s Rugby League. On 5 September 1908 the new team played their first match against Wigan in front of a crowd of 3,000 at the Ynys.
The potential for crowd support was again demonstrated on 10 November 1908, when the Ynys hosted its second international side as 5,000 spectators watched Aberdare take on the first touring Australian team. However the Aberdare club side could not replicate the heroics of the Welsh team, losing the match 10--37. Indeed, Aberdare struggled under Northern Union rules and initially high crowd numbers deteriorated with the poor results, which saw Aberdare finishing their only season in the Rugby Football League as the bottom club. Finally on 10 July 1909, Aberdare reported \'unexpected difficulties\' in its finances and resigned from the Northern Rugby League.
### Rugby Union {#rugby_union}
A rugby club representing Aberdare was recorded as early as 1876, but the modern Aberdare RFC traces its history back to a foundation of 1890. The club had great success in the early twentieth century with local star Dai \'Tarw\' Jones captaining the club from 1905 to 1907. Jones gained recognition as a player in club, representative and international games. Most notably, Jones played an important part in the \"*Match of the century*\", when Wales defeated the New Zealand All Blacks. In 1907, Jones and the Aberdare club played a pivotal role in the professionalism scandal, with the Welsh Rugby Union permanently suspending the club\'s entire committee and a number of players (including a lifetime ban for Jones). These events would quickly lead to many of the town\'s players and fans switching to rugby league, with the first ever rugby league international and the founding of Aberdare RLFC in 1908.
Despite the suspensions, rugby union continued in the town as the club (renamed Aberaman RFC) moved to Aberaman Park. The Ynys Stadium would host its first international rugby union side on 12 December 1935, when the 1935-36 All Blacks played a tour match against a Mid-Districts side. The All Blacks won the match 31--10 in front of a crowd of 6,000.
Aberaman RFC returned to the Ynys in the 1960s. In February 1971, a clubhouse was opened at the old Crown Hotel in Gloucester Street, this was followed by the construction of a grand stand at the Ynys costing £20,000. Following the advent of professionalism in rugby union, the WRU sanctions against Aberdare were no longer applicable. As such, the club took the name Aberdare RUFC once again. Aberdare is also home to Abercwmboi RFC and Hirwaun RFC.
### Association Football {#association_football}
The Ynys stadium was also home to Aberdare Athletic F.C., members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927. Aberdare finished bottom in their final season and folded in 1928 after failing to be re-elected to the league.
Aberaman Athletic F.C. continued to play until World War II, and was succeeded by Aberdare & Aberaman Athletic in 1945 and Aberdare Town F.C. in 1947. The club continue to play in the Welsh Football League. Today, Aberdare Town plays in the South Wales Alliance League and are based at Aberaman Park.
## In fiction {#in_fiction}
The town is the location for the Christianna Brand novel, The Brides of Aberdar.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
: *See also :Category:People from Aberdare*
### Arts and broadcasting {#arts_and_broadcasting}
- Ieuan Ddu ap Dafydd ab Owain -- 15th century bard
- Edward Evans - 18th century bard
- Ioan Gruffudd -- actor, born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
- Caradog (Griffith Rhys Jones) -- conductor of the famous choirs *Côr Caradog* and *Côr Mawr* who won first prize at The Crystal Palace choral competitions in 1872 and 1873.
- Alaw Goch (David Williams) - coal-owner and bard who helped establish The National Eisteddfod of Wales
- Alun Lewis -- war poet
- Mihangel Morgan -- Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon whose works often feature Aberdare
- John Morgan -- comedian, most notably with Royal Canadian Air Farce
- Roy Noble -- writer and broadcaster who has lived much of his life in Llwydcoed, Aberdare
- Ieuan Rhys -- actor from Trecynon
- Rhian Samuel -- composer and professor of music
- Stereophonics -- all three original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable were brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare
- Jo Walton -- fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec
### Politicians
- Henry Austin Bruce -- 1st Baron Aberdare & Home Secretary (1868--1873)
- Rose Davies -- Labour politician and feminist
- Patrick Hannan -- political journalist, author and a presenter on television and radio.
- Rhys Hopkin Rhys -- 19th century industrialist and prominent local politician
- Bethan Sayed -- Member of the Senedd for South Wales West
### Religion {#religion_1}
- R. Ifor Parry -- Congregationalist Minister and schoolteacher
- Thomas Price (Baptist minister) -- Baptist Minister and radical politician
### Science
- Lyn Evans -- particle physicist and project leader of the Large Hadron Collider
### Sportspeople
- Jon Bryant -- Wales international rugby union player
- Les Cartwright -- Wales international association footballer
- Isaak Davies -- association Footballer
- Neil Davies -- Wales rugby league international
- Amy Evans -- Wales international rugby union player
- Ian Evans -- Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
- Rosser Evans -- Wales international rugby union player
- David \"Tarw\" Jones -- dual code rugby international for Wales rugby league and Wales rugby union international teams
- Arthur Linton -- cyclist
- Dafydd Lockyer -- rugby union player for Pontypridd RFC and Neath RFC
- Jimmy Michael -- world cycling champion
- \'Big\' Jim Mills -- Wales & Great Britain rugby league international
- Teddy Morgan -- Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
- William Llewellyn Morgan -- Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
- Darren Morris -- Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player
- Jason Price -- association footballer
- Martin Roberts -- Wales international rugby union player
- Rees Thomas -- association footballer
- Lee Williams -- Wales rugby league international
- Dai Young -- Wales international rugby union player and coach and three times British & Irish Lions tourist
- Thomas Young -- Wales international rugby union player
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2,707 |
Arthur William à Beckett
|
**Arthur William à Beckett** (25 October 1844 -- 14 January 1909) was an English journalist and intellectual.
## Biography
He was a younger son of Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and Mary Anne à Beckett, brother of Gilbert Arthur à Beckett and educated at Felsted School. Besides fulfilling other journalistic engagements, Beckett founded The Tomahawk which ran from 1867 to 1870 Beckett was on the staff of *Punch* from 1874 to 1902, edited the *Sunday Times* 1891--1895, and the *Naval and Military Magazine* in 1896.
He gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in *The à Becketts of Punch* (1903). A childhood friend (and distant relative) of W. S. Gilbert, Beckett briefly feuded with Gilbert in 1869, but the two patched up the friendship, and Gilbert even later collaborated on projects with Beckett\'s brother. He was married to Suzanne Frances Winslow, daughter of the noted psychiatrist Forbes Benignus Winslow. He is buried in the churchyard at St Mary Magdalen, Mortlake.
## Works
He published:
- *Comic Guide to the Royal Academy*, with his brother Gilbert (1863--64)
- *Fallen Amongst Thieves* (1869)
- *Our Holiday in the Highlands* (1874)
- *The Shadow Witness* and *The Doom of Saint Quirec*, with Francis Burnand (1875--76)
- *The Ghost of Greystone Grange* (1877)
- *The Mystery of Mostyn Manor* (1878)
- *Traded Out*; *Hard Luck*; *Stone Broke*; *Papers from Pump Handle Court, by a Briefless Barrister* (1884)
- *Modern Arabian Nights* (1885)
- *The Member for Wrottenborough* (1895)
- *Greenroom Recollections* (1896)
- *The Modern Adam* (1899)
- *London at the End of the Century* (1900)
- With F. C. Burnand he co-authored:
- *The Doom of St. Querec* (1875)
- *The Shadow Witness* (1876)
He wrote for the theatre two three-act comedies:
- *L.S.D.* (Royalty Theatre, 1872);
- *About Town* (Court Theatre, 1873, it ran for over 150 nights);
and
- *On Strike* (Court Theatre, 1873, a domestic drama in one act) ;
- *Faded Flowers* (The Haymarket);
- *Long Ago* (Royalty Theatre, 1882);
- *From Father to Son* (Liverpool, 1881, a dramatised version of his novel *Fallen among Thieves* written in 3 acts in cooperation with J. Palgrave Simpson).
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2,716 |
Abersychan
|
**Abersychan** is a town and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.
Abersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.
The town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.
Abersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (member of parliament for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.
## History
Like many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production. After the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the London and North Western Railway\'s Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork\'s main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo. The works passed to the New British Iron Company in 1843 and to the Ebbw Vale Company in 1852, before closing in 1889. On 6 February 1890, an underground explosion at Llanerch Colliery killed 176.
The site of the former ironworks today is a core site of 71 hectare, and a total land area of 526 hectare, includes a number of listed buildings:
- Abersychan Limestone Railway: built c. 1830 to carry limestone from Cwm Lascarn quarry to the British Ironworks.
- Air Furnace at British Ironworks
- British Colliery Pumping Engine House: a Cornish beam pumping engine house built by the British Iron Company. Built of sandstone with a slate roof, and retains several fixtures
- Cwmbyrgwm Colliery: Site of former colliery including remains of a water-balance headgear, chimney, oval shafts, water power dams, tramroad routes, and waste tips.
Various proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.
## Local government {#local_government}
Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.
In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.
The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.
## Local transport {#local_transport}
The nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:
- Abersychan and Talywain railway station
- Abersychan Low Level railway station
## Places nearby {#places_nearby}
### Pentwyn
*Pentwyn*, Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pontnewynydd CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland.
### Victoria Village {#victoria_village}
*Victoria Village* is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school\'s boundaries. Victoria Village primary school was opened in 1903 and closed by the council in 2018. The last head of the school was Miss Joy Dando.
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2,717 |
Abertillery
|
**Abertillery** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|b|ər|t|ᵻ|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|}}`{=mediawiki}; *Abertyleri*) is a town and community in Blaenau Gwent County Borough, Wales. It is located in the Ebbw Fach valley, and the historic county of Monmouthshire.
The surrounding landscape borders the Brecon Beacons National Park and the Blaenavon World heritage Site. Formerly a major coal mining centre the Abertillery area was transformed in the 1990s using EU and other funding to return to a greener environment.
Situated on the A467 the town is 15 mi north of the M4 and 5 mi south of the A465 \"Heads of the Valleys\" trunk road. It is about 25 mi by road from Cardiff and 47 mi from Bristol.
According to the 2011 Census, 4.8% of the ward\'s 4,416 (212 residents) resident-population can speak, read, and write Welsh. This is below the county\'s figure of 5.5% of 67,348 (3,705 residents) who can speak, read, and write Welsh.
## Etymology
The name of the community means \"the mouth of the River Tyleri\", which flows into the town. The name **Tyleri** is probably derived from a personal name.
## Town centre {#town_centre}
Abertillery\'s traditional-style town centre mainly developed in the late 19th century and as such has some interesting Victorian architecture. Spread over 4 main streets the town in its heyday had two department stores and a covered Victorian arcade linking two of the main shopping areas. These were all included in a Blaenau Gwent Borough Council remodelling and modernisation project using European Union funding in a £13 million programme spread over a 5-year period ending in 2015.
The project included a new multi-storey car park, a revamp of public areas and the town\'s Metropole Theatre. This building provides production, exhibition, conference and meeting facilities as well as housing Abertillery museum. In March 2014 Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, officiated at the launch of Jubilee Square, a public facility in the town centre next to St Michael\'s Church.
## Coal mining {#coal_mining}
Major industry came to the area in 1843 when the locality\'s first deep coal mine was sunk at Tir Nicholas Farm, Cwmtillery. The town developed rapidly thereafter and played a major part in the South Wales coalfield. Its population rose steeply, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. The population peaked just short of 40,000 around the beginning of the 1930s. Eventually there were six deep coal mines, numerous small coal levels, a tin works, brick works, iron foundry and light engineering businesses in the area. Just one of the coal mines, Cwmtillery, produced over 32 million tons of coal in its lifetime and at its height employed 2760 men and boys.
In 1960 an underground explosion at Six Bells Colliery resulted in the loss of life of 45 local miners. Fifty years later the archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams officiated at the launch of the *Guardian* mining memorial. This artistically acclaimed monument standing at 20m tall overlooks Parc Arael Griffin, the now reclaimed and landscaped former colliery site. The adjoining Ty Ebbw Fach visitor centre provides conference facilities, a restaurant and a \"mining valley\" experience room. Not long after the disaster the renowned artist L. S. Lowry visited the area and recorded the scene. The resultant landscape painting now hangs in National Museum Cardiff.
The coal mines remained the predominant economic emphasis until the general run down of the industry in the 1980s.
## Abertillery Conurbation {#abertillery_conurbation}
Away from the town centre, the often steep sided nature of the landscape, imposes its own demands on development. Whilst this sounds limiting it has helped provide the almost amphitheatre nature of Abertillery Park, often described as one of the most attractive rugby grounds in world rugby.
The street plan and housing stock flow uninterrupted from Cwmtillery in the north to Six Bells in the south, forming the town that is Abertillery. Prior to 1974 local government was provided by Abertillery Urban District Council (AUDC). Its area included the small neighbouring villages of Aberbeeg, Llanhilleth and Brynithel. Historical data relating to Abertillery occasionally refers to this AUDC area meaning that it can be difficult to compare like with like. For example, the 2014 population for the wider conurbation area is around 20,000 rather than the 11,000 often quoted for Abertillery itself.
Whilst in the main the area has an older housing stock there are several developments of modern, often large homes, generally found on the outskirts of the town with views out over the surrounding area. These apart, terraced council tax band A and B properties predominate, meaning that average house prices are among the most affordable in the UK.
## Local history {#local_history}
### Early history {#early_history}
There are very few written historical records relating to the area before the town developed in the middle of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are facts that you can use to outline important events.
- Abertillery museum has locally discovered artefacts dating as far back as the Bronze Age.
- St Illtyd\'s Church overlooking the town dates to the 13th century -- probably with 6th century origins.
- St Illtyd\'s Motte lies just to the south west of the church. A Norman castle mound, it was probably destroyed in 1233.
- The ruins of two more recent, probably 14th century, castles lie on private land to the northeast of St Illtyd\'s Church.
- There are several ruined mediaeval farmhouses in the Abertillery area.
- The Local Blaenau Gwent Baptist church can trace its roots back to Tŷ Nest Llewellyn, a ruined 17th-century dwelling place often used by non-conformists to escape from the religious persecution of the times.
Before the coming of major industry, Abertillery was little more than an area of scattered farms in the ancient parish of Aberystruth. In 1779 the parish minister Edmund Jones described the area thus: \"The valley of Tyleri \... is the most delightful. The trees \... especially the beech trees, abounding about rivers great and small, the hedges and lanes make these places exceeding pleasant and the passing by them delightful and affecting \... in these warm valleys, with the prospect of the grand high mountains about them would make very delightful habitations.\" In 1799 clergyman and historian Archdeacon William Coxe toured the area and in writing a diary of his travels described it as \"\... richly wooded, and highly cultivated\...we looked down with delight upon numerous valleys \... with romantic scenery\". The entire population of Aberystruth parish at the turn of the 19th century was just a little over 800. It is not known what the population of Abertillery was at the time but it was probably in the very low hundreds, all of whom would have spoken Welsh only.
### From the mid-nineteenth century {#from_the_mid_nineteenth_century}
#### Industrialisation
The area\'s first deep coal mine was sunk in 1843.
##### Collieries in Abertillery {#collieries_in_abertillery}
- Six Bells Colliery
#### Abertillery Institute {#abertillery_institute}
The first reading rooms were set up in Abertillery in 1856. However, when Thomas Powell took over the Tillery Colliery in 1882 he made a commitment to establish educational facilities for his workers.
#### Local government {#local_government}
Formed in 1877, Abertillery Urban District Council incorporated the adjoining smaller communities of Six Bells, Cwmtillery, Brynithel, Aberbeeg and Llanhilleth. The population of this conurbation climbed to almost 40,000 in 1931 making it the second largest town in Monmouthshire. The council was abolished in 1974 as part of major UK wide local government reorganisation.
## Transport
The reopening of Abertillery railway station has been identified as a future development of the Ebbw Valley Railway.
## Education
Abertillery Learning Community provides all-through education for the town and neighbouring areas. Until the 1970s the town had its own local authority-run Grammar school providing education up to the age of eighteen. Tertiary education is now provided by Coleg Gwent at Ebbw Vale -- opened in 2013.
## Industry
There are several small and medium-sized business parks in the area offering a range of business premises. In 2014 the largest employer was Tyleri Valley Foods, which closed in 2023. Many local people commute outside the area to work.
## Sport, leisure and tourism {#sport_leisure_and_tourism}
Abertillery Town cricket club and Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC formed in the 1880s. Both have their playing headquarters at \"the Park\" one of the most picturesque sporting complexes in the UK.
The town supports two local Saturday football teams: Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. There are numerous other sports activities running on an organized basis such as bowls, badminton, squash etc.
The surrounding landscape provides hill walking opportunities and walker led groups are thriving in the area. One example is Ebbw Fach Trekkers walking group.
The local museum has displays showing what life was like in the area in its heyday. It also has its own \"valleys\" Italian café complete with original furnishings.
The Metropole theatre holds musical and drama events -- from Blues to amateur dramatics and dance.
The 20 m *Guardian* memorial is a destination for visitors to South Wales and amateur photographers. The visitor centre Tŷ Ebbw Fach stands nearby and provides cafe and visitor \"mining valley\" experience facilities.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
: *See also :Category:People from Abertillery*.
Local people of note in the fields of civil engineering, sport, science, medicine, religion and art:
- Beatrice Green, labour activist and orator
- Chris Hill, professional tennis player
- Harold Jones (murderer), the 15-year old killer committed 2 murders in 1921.
- Jack Shore (MMA fighter), competes in the UFC
- Thora Silverthorne, leading activist within the Communist Party of Great Britain, Labour Party MP for Reading, veteran of the Spanish Civil War, founder of the Association of Nurses, and former president of the Socialist Medical Association
- Jake Blackmore, international rugby forward who played rugby union for Abertillery and represented his country in the rugby union and in the rugby league.
## International relations {#international_relations}
Abertillery is twinned with Royat in France.
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2,724 |
Autocorrelation
|
**Autocorrelation**, sometimes known as **serial correlation** in the discrete time case, measures the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself. Essentially, it quantifies the similarity between observations of a random variable at different points in time. The analysis of autocorrelation is a mathematical tool for identifying repeating patterns or hidden periodicities within a signal obscured by noise. Autocorrelation is widely used in signal processing, time domain and time series analysis to understand the behavior of data over time.
Different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance.
Various time series models incorporate autocorrelation, such as unit root processes, trend-stationary processes, autoregressive processes, and moving average processes.
## Autocorrelation of stochastic processes {#autocorrelation_of_stochastic_processes}
In statistics, the autocorrelation of a real or complex random process is the Pearson correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. Let $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ be a random process, and $t$ be any point in time ($t$ may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). Then $X_t$ is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time $t$. Suppose that the process has mean $\mu_t$ and variance $\sigma_t^2$ at time $t$, for each $t$. Then the definition of the **autocorrelation function** between times $t_1$ and $t_2$ is
where $\operatorname{E}$ is the expected value operator and the bar represents complex conjugation. Note that the expectation may not be well defined.
Subtracting the mean before multiplication yields the **auto-covariance function** between times $t_1$ and $t_2$:
Note that this expression is not well defined for all-time series or processes, because the mean may not exist, or the variance may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite (for processes with distribution lacking well-behaved moments, such as certain types of power law).
### Definition for wide-sense stationary stochastic process {#definition_for_wide_sense_stationary_stochastic_process}
If $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ is a wide-sense stationary process then the mean $\mu$ and the variance $\sigma^2$ are time-independent, and further the autocovariance function depends only on the lag between $t_1$ and $t_2$: the autocovariance depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. This further implies that the autocovariance and autocorrelation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag $\tau=t_2-t_1$. This gives the more familiar forms for the **autocorrelation function**
and the **auto-covariance function**:
In particular, note that
$\operatorname{K}_{XX}(0) = \sigma^2 .$
### Normalization
It is common practice in some disciplines (e.g. statistics and time series analysis) to normalize the autocovariance function to get a time-dependent Pearson correlation coefficient. However, in other disciplines (e.g. engineering) the normalization is usually dropped and the terms \"autocorrelation\" and \"autocovariance\" are used interchangeably.
The definition of the autocorrelation coefficient of a stochastic process is
$\rho_{XX}(t_1,t_2) = \frac{\operatorname{K}_{XX}(t_1,t_2)}{\sigma_{t_1}\sigma_{t_2}} = \frac{\operatorname{E}\left[(X_{t_1} - \mu_{t_1}) \overline{(X_{t_2} - \mu_{t_2})} \right]}{\sigma_{t_1}\sigma_{t_2}} .$
If the function $\rho_{XX}$ is well defined, its value must lie in the range $[-1,1]$, with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation.
For a wide-sense stationary (WSS) process, the definition is
$\rho_{XX}(\tau) = \frac{\operatorname{K}_{XX}(\tau)}{\sigma^2} = \frac{\operatorname{E} \left[(X_{t+\tau} - \mu)\overline{(X_{t} - \mu)}\right]}{\sigma^2}$.
The normalization is important both because the interpretation of the autocorrelation as a correlation provides a scale-free measure of the strength of statistical dependence, and because the normalization has an effect on the statistical properties of the estimated autocorrelations.
### Properties
#### Symmetry property {#symmetry_property}
The fact that the autocorrelation function $\operatorname{R}_{XX}$ is an even function can be stated as $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_1,t_2) = \overline{\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_2,t_1)}$ respectively for a WSS process: $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \overline{\operatorname{R}_{XX}(-\tau)} .$
#### Maximum at zero {#maximum_at_zero}
For a WSS process: $\left|\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau)\right| \leq \operatorname{R}_{XX}(0)$ Notice that $\operatorname{R}_{XX}(0)$ is always real.
#### Cauchy--Schwarz inequality {#cauchyschwarz_inequality}
The Cauchy--Schwarz inequality, inequality for stochastic processes: $\left|\operatorname{R}_{XX}(t_1,t_2)\right|^2 \leq \operatorname{E}\left[ |X_{t_1}|^2\right] \operatorname{E}\left[|X_{t_2}|^2\right]$
#### Autocorrelation of white noise {#autocorrelation_of_white_noise}
The autocorrelation of a continuous-time white noise signal will have a strong peak (represented by a Dirac delta function) at $\tau=0$ and will be exactly $0$ for all other $\tau$.
#### Wiener--Khinchin theorem {#wienerkhinchin_theorem}
The Wiener--Khinchin theorem relates the autocorrelation function $\operatorname{R}_{XX}$ to the power spectral density $S_{XX}$ via the Fourier transform:
$\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty S_{XX}(f) e^{i 2 \pi f \tau} \, {\rm d}f$
$S_{XX}(f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) e^{- i 2 \pi f \tau} \, {\rm d}\tau .$
For real-valued functions, the symmetric autocorrelation function has a real symmetric transform, so the Wiener--Khinchin theorem can be re-expressed in terms of real cosines only:
$\operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty S_{XX}(f) \cos(2 \pi f \tau) \, {\rm d}f$
$S_{XX}(f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{R}_{XX}(\tau) \cos(2 \pi f \tau) \, {\rm d}\tau .$
## Autocorrelation of random vectors`{{anchor|Matrix}}`{=mediawiki} {#autocorrelation_of_random_vectors}
The (potentially time-dependent) **autocorrelation matrix** (also called second moment) of a (potentially time-dependent) random vector $\mathbf{X} = (X_1,\ldots,X_n)^{\rm T}$ is an $n \times n$ matrix containing as elements the autocorrelations of all pairs of elements of the random vector $\mathbf{X}$. The autocorrelation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.
For a random vector $\mathbf{X} = (X_1,\ldots,X_n)^{\rm T}$ containing random elements whose expected value and variance exist, the **autocorrelation matrix** is defined by
\\triangleq\\ \\operatorname{E} \\left\[ \\mathbf{X} \\mathbf{X}\^{\\rm T} \\right\] \|cellpadding= 6 \|border \|border colour = #0073CF \|background colour=#F5FFFA}}
where ${}^{\rm T}$ denotes the transposed matrix of dimensions $n \times n$.
Written component-wise:
$\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} =
\begin{bmatrix}
\operatorname{E}[X_1 X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_1 X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_1 X_n] \\ \\
\operatorname{E}[X_2 X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_2 X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_2 X_n] \\ \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \\
\operatorname{E}[X_n X_1] & \operatorname{E}[X_n X_2] & \cdots & \operatorname{E}[X_n X_n] \\ \\
\end{bmatrix}$
If $\mathbf{Z}$ is a complex random vector, the autocorrelation matrix is instead defined by
$\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} \triangleq\ \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z} \mathbf{Z}^{\rm H}] .$
Here ${}^{\rm H}$ denotes Hermitian transpose.
For example, if $\mathbf{X} = \left( X_1,X_2,X_3 \right)^{\rm T}$ is a random vector, then $\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}}$ is a $3 \times 3$ matrix whose $(i,j)$-th entry is $\operatorname{E}[X_i X_j]$.
### Properties of the autocorrelation matrix {#properties_of_the_autocorrelation_matrix}
- The autocorrelation matrix is a Hermitian matrix for complex random vectors and a symmetric matrix for real random vectors.
- The autocorrelation matrix is a positive semidefinite matrix, i.e. $\mathbf{a}^{\mathrm T} \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} \mathbf{a} \ge 0 \quad \text{for all } \mathbf{a} \in \mathbb{R}^n$ for a real random vector, and respectively $\mathbf{a}^{\mathrm H} \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} \mathbf{a} \ge 0 \quad \text{for all } \mathbf{a} \in \mathbb{C}^n$ in case of a complex random vector.
- All eigenvalues of the autocorrelation matrix are real and non-negative.
- The *auto-covariance matrix* is related to the autocorrelation matrix as follows:\<!\--
\--\>$\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} = \operatorname{E}[(\mathbf{X} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}])(\mathbf{X} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}])^{\rm T}] = \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{X}} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}] \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{X}]^{\rm T}$ Respectively for complex random vectors: $\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} = \operatorname{E}[(\mathbf{Z} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}])(\mathbf{Z} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}])^{\rm H}] = \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{Z}\mathbf{Z}} - \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}] \operatorname{E}[\mathbf{Z}]^{\rm H}$
## Autocorrelation of deterministic signals {#autocorrelation_of_deterministic_signals}
In signal processing, the above definition is often used without the normalization, that is, without subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance. When the autocorrelation function is normalized by mean and variance, it is sometimes referred to as the **autocorrelation coefficient** or autocovariance function.
### Autocorrelation of continuous-time signal {#autocorrelation_of_continuous_time_signal}
Given a signal $f(t)$, the continuous autocorrelation $R_{ff}(\tau)$ is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of $f(t)$ with itself, at lag $\tau$.
where $\overline{f(t)}$ represents the complex conjugate of $f(t)$. Note that the parameter $t$ in the integral is a dummy variable and is only necessary to calculate the integral. It has no specific meaning.
### Autocorrelation of discrete-time signal {#autocorrelation_of_discrete_time_signal}
The discrete autocorrelation $R$ at lag $\ell$ for a discrete-time signal $y(n)$ is
The above definitions work for signals that are square integrable, or square summable, that is, of finite energy. Signals that \"last forever\" are treated instead as random processes, in which case different definitions are needed, based on expected values. For wide-sense-stationary random processes, the autocorrelations are defined as
$\begin{align}
R_{ff}(\tau) &= \operatorname{E}\left[f(t)\overline{f(t-\tau)}\right] \\
R_{yy}(\ell) &= \operatorname{E}\left[y(n)\,\overline{y(n-\ell)}\right] .
\end{align}$
For processes that are not stationary, these will also be functions of $t$, or $n$.
For processes that are also ergodic, the expectation can be replaced by the limit of a time average. The autocorrelation of an ergodic process is sometimes defined as or equated to
$\begin{align}
R_{ff}(\tau) &= \lim_{T \rightarrow \infty} \frac 1 T \int_0^T f(t+\tau)\overline{f(t)}\, {\rm d}t \\
R_{yy}(\ell) &= \lim_{N \rightarrow \infty} \frac 1 N \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} y(n)\,\overline{y(n-\ell)} .
\end{align}$
These definitions have the advantage that they give sensible well-defined single-parameter results for periodic functions, even when those functions are not the output of stationary ergodic processes.
Alternatively, signals that *last forever* can be treated by a short-time autocorrelation function analysis, using finite time integrals. (See short-time Fourier transform for a related process.)
### Definition for periodic signals {#definition_for_periodic_signals}
If $f$ is a continuous periodic function of period $T$, the integration from $-\infty$ to $\infty$ is replaced by integration over any interval $[t_0,t_0+T]$ of length $T$:
$R_{ff}(\tau) \triangleq \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} f(t+\tau) \overline{f(t)} \,dt$
which is equivalent to
$R_{ff}(\tau) \triangleq \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} f(t) \overline{f(t-\tau)} \,dt$
### Properties {#properties_1}
In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases. These properties hold for wide-sense stationary processes.
- A fundamental property of the autocorrelation is symmetry, $R_{ff}(\tau) = R_{ff}(-\tau)$, which is easy to prove from the definition. In the continuous case,
- the autocorrelation is an even function $R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}(\tau)$ when $f$ is a real function, and
- the autocorrelation is a Hermitian function $R_{ff}(-\tau) = R_{ff}^*(\tau)$ when $f$ is a complex function.
- The continuous autocorrelation function reaches its peak at the origin, where it takes a real value, i.e. for any delay $\tau$, $|R_{ff}(\tau)| \leq R_{ff}(0)$. This is a consequence of the rearrangement inequality. The same result holds in the discrete case.
- The autocorrelation of a periodic function is, itself, periodic with the same period.
- The autocorrelation of the sum of two completely uncorrelated functions (the cross-correlation is zero for all $\tau$) is the sum of the autocorrelations of each function separately.
- Since autocorrelation is a specific type of cross-correlation, it maintains all the properties of cross-correlation.
- By using the symbol $*$ to represent convolution and $g_{-1}$ is a function which manipulates the function $f$ and is defined as $g_{-1}(f)(t)=f(-t)$, the definition for $R_{ff}(\tau)$ may be written as:\<!\--
\--\>$R_{ff}(\tau) = (f * g_{-1}(\overline{f}))(\tau)$
## Multi-dimensional autocorrelation {#multi_dimensional_autocorrelation}
Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be
$R(j,k,\ell) = \sum_{n,q,r} x_{n,q,r}\,\overline{x}_{n-j,q-k,r-\ell} .$
When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function.
## Efficient computation {#efficient_computation}
For data expressed as a discrete sequence, it is frequently necessary to compute the autocorrelation with high computational efficiency. A brute force method based on the signal processing definition $R_{xx}(j) = \sum_n x_n\,\overline{x}_{n-j}$ can be used when the signal size is small. For example, to calculate the autocorrelation of the real signal sequence $x = (2,3,-1)$ (i.e. $x_0=2, x_1=3, x_2=-1$, and $x_i = 0$ for all other values of `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki}) by hand, we first recognize that the definition just given is the same as the \"usual\" multiplication, but with right shifts, where each vertical addition gives the autocorrelation for particular lag values: $\begin{array}{rrrrrr}
& 2 & 3 & -1 \\
\times & 2 & 3 & -1 \\
\hline
&-2 &-3 & 1 \\
& & 6 & 9 & -3 \\
+ & & & 4 & 6 & -2 \\
\hline
& -2 & 3 &14 & 3 & -2
\end{array}$
Thus the required autocorrelation sequence is $R_{xx}=(-2,3,14,3,-2)$, where $R_{xx}(0)=14,$ $R_{xx}(-1)= R_{xx}(1)=3,$ and $R_{xx}(-2)= R_{xx}(2) = -2,$ the autocorrelation for other lag values being zero. In this calculation we do not perform the carry-over operation during addition as is usual in normal multiplication. Note that we can halve the number of operations required by exploiting the inherent symmetry of the autocorrelation. If the signal happens to be periodic, i.e. $x=(\ldots,2,3,-1,2,3,-1,\ldots),$ then we get a circular autocorrelation (similar to circular convolution) where the left and right tails of the previous autocorrelation sequence will overlap and give $R_{xx}=(\ldots,14,1,1,14,1,1,\ldots)$ which has the same period as the signal sequence $x.$ The procedure can be regarded as an application of the convolution property of Z-transform of a discrete signal.
While the brute force algorithm is order `{{math|''n''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, several efficient algorithms exist which can compute the autocorrelation in order `{{math|''n'' log(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}. For example, the Wiener--Khinchin theorem allows computing the autocorrelation from the raw data `{{math|''X''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} with two fast Fourier transforms (FFT):`{{page needed|date=March 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
$\begin{align}
F_R(f) &= \operatorname{FFT}[X(t)] \\
S(f) &= F_R(f) F^*_R(f) \\
R(\tau) &= \operatorname{IFFT}[S(f)]
\end{align}$
where IFFT denotes the inverse fast Fourier transform. The asterisk denotes complex conjugate.
Alternatively, a multiple `{{mvar|τ}}`{=mediawiki} correlation can be performed by using brute force calculation for low `{{mvar|τ}}`{=mediawiki} values, and then progressively binning the `{{math|''X''(''t'')}}`{=mediawiki} data with a logarithmic density to compute higher values, resulting in the same `{{math|''n'' log(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} efficiency, but with lower memory requirements.
## Estimation
For a discrete process with known mean and variance for which we observe $n$ observations $\{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_n\}$, an estimate of the autocorrelation coefficient may be obtained as
$\hat{R}(k)=\frac{1}{(n-k) \sigma^2} \sum_{t=1}^{n-k} (X_t-\mu)(X_{t+k}-\mu)$
for any positive integer $k<n$. When the true mean $\mu$ and variance $\sigma^2$ are known, this estimate is **unbiased**. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are several possibilities:
- If $\mu$ and $\sigma^2$ are replaced by the standard formulae for sample mean and sample variance, then this is a **biased estimate**.
- A periodogram-based estimate replaces $n-k$ in the above formula with $n$. This estimate is always biased; however, it usually has a smaller mean squared error.
- Other possibilities derive from treating the two portions of data $\{X_1,\,X_2,\,\ldots,\,X_{n-k}\}$ and $\{X_{k+1},\,X_{k+2},\,\ldots,\,X_n\}$ separately and calculating separate sample means and/or sample variances for use in defining the estimate.
The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of $k$, then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the $X$\'s, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative.
## Regression analysis {#regression_analysis}
In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation in a variable of interest is typically modeled either with an autoregressive model (AR), a moving average model (MA), their combination as an autoregressive-moving-average model (ARMA), or an extension of the latter called an autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). With multiple interrelated data series, vector autoregression (VAR) or its extensions are used.
In ordinary least squares (OLS), the adequacy of a model specification can be checked in part by establishing whether there is autocorrelation of the regression residuals. Problematic autocorrelation of the errors, which themselves are unobserved, can generally be detected because it produces autocorrelation in the observable residuals. (Errors are also known as \"error terms\" in econometrics.) Autocorrelation of the errors violates the ordinary least squares assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated, meaning that the Gauss Markov theorem does not apply, and that OLS estimators are no longer the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE). While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive.
The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin--Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin\'s h statistic. The Durbin-Watson can be linearly mapped however to the Pearson correlation between values and their lags. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch--Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) *k* lags of the residuals, where \'k\' is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is *TR*^2^, where *T* is the sample size and *R*^2^ is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as $\chi^2$ with *k* degrees of freedom.
Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey--West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent).
In the estimation of a moving average model (MA), the autocorrelation function is used to determine the appropriate number of lagged error terms to be included. This is based on the fact that for an MA process of order *q*, we have $R(\tau) \neq 0$, for $\tau = 0,1, \ldots , q$, and $R(\tau) = 0$, for $\tau >q$.
## Applications
Autocorrelation\'s ability to find repeating patterns in data yields many applications, including:
- Autocorrelation analysis is used heavily in fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to provide quantitative insight into molecular-level diffusion and chemical reactions.
- Another application of autocorrelation is the measurement of optical spectra and the measurement of very-short-duration light pulses produced by lasers, both using optical autocorrelators.
- Autocorrelation is used to analyze dynamic light scattering data, which notably enables determination of the particle size distributions of nanometer-sized particles or micelles suspended in a fluid. A laser shining into the mixture produces a speckle pattern that results from the motion of the particles. Autocorrelation of the signal can be analyzed in terms of the diffusion of the particles. From this, knowing the viscosity of the fluid, the sizes of the particles can be calculated.
- Utilized in the GPS system to correct for the propagation delay, or time shift, between the point of time at the transmission of the carrier signal at the satellites, and the point of time at the receiver on the ground. This is done by the receiver generating a replica signal of the 1,023-bit C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code, and generating lines of code chips \[-1,1\] in packets of ten at a time, or 10,230 chips (1,023 × 10), shifting slightly as it goes along in order to accommodate for the doppler shift in the incoming satellite signal, until the receiver replica signal and the satellite signal codes match up.
- The small-angle X-ray scattering intensity of a nanostructured system is the Fourier transform of the spatial autocorrelation function of the electron density.
- In surface science and scanning probe microscopy, autocorrelation is used to establish a link between surface morphology and functional characteristics.
- In optics, normalized autocorrelations and cross-correlations give the degree of coherence of an electromagnetic field.
- In astronomy, autocorrelation can determine the frequency of pulsars.
- In music, autocorrelation (when applied at time scales smaller than a second) is used as a pitch detection algorithm for both instrument tuners and \"Auto Tune\" (used as a distortion effect or to fix intonation). When applied at time scales larger than a second, autocorrelation can identify the musical beat, for example to determine tempo.
- Autocorrelation in space rather than time, via the Patterson function, is used by X-ray diffractionists to help recover the \"Fourier phase information\" on atom positions not available through diffraction alone.
- In statistics, spatial autocorrelation between sample locations also helps one estimate mean value uncertainties when sampling a heterogeneous population.
- The SEQUEST algorithm for analyzing mass spectra makes use of autocorrelation in conjunction with cross-correlation to score the similarity of an observed spectrum to an idealized spectrum representing a peptide.
- In astrophysics, autocorrelation is used to study and characterize the spatial distribution of galaxies in the universe and in multi-wavelength observations of low mass X-ray binaries.
- In panel data, spatial autocorrelation refers to correlation of a variable with itself through space.
- In analysis of Markov chain Monte Carlo data, autocorrelation must be taken into account for correct error determination.
- In geosciences (specifically in geophysics) it can be used to compute an autocorrelation seismic attribute, out of a 3D seismic survey of the underground.
- In medical ultrasound imaging, autocorrelation is used to visualize blood flow.
- In intertemporal portfolio choice, the presence or absence of autocorrelation in an asset\'s rate of return can affect the optimal portion of the portfolio to hold in that asset.
- In numerical relays, autocorrelation has been used to accurately measure power system frequency.
## Serial dependence {#serial_dependence}
**Serial dependence** is closely linked to the notion of autocorrelation, but represents a distinct concept (see Correlation and dependence). In particular, it is possible to have serial dependence but no (linear) correlation. In some fields however, the two terms are used as synonyms.
A time series of a random variable has serial dependence if the value at some time $t$ in the series is statistically dependent on the value at another time $s$. A series is serially independent if there is no dependence between any pair.
If a time series $\left\{ X_t \right\}$ is stationary, then statistical dependence between the pair $(X_t,X_s)$ would imply that there is statistical dependence between all pairs of values at the same lag $\tau=s-t$.
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2,726 |
Atlas Autocode
|
**Atlas Autocode** (**AA**) is a programming language developed around 1963 at the University of Manchester. A variant of the language ALGOL, it was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris for the Atlas computer. The initial AA and AB compilers were written by Jeff Rohl and Tony Brooker using the Brooker-Morris Compiler-compiler, with a later hand-coded non-CC implementation (ABC) by Jeff Rohl.
The word *Autocode* was basically an early term for *programming language*. Different autocodes could vary greatly.
## Features
AA was a block structured language that featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. It omitted some ALGOL features such as *passing parameters by name*, which in ALGOL 60 means passing the memory address of a short subroutine (a *thunk*) to recalculate a parameter each time it is mentioned.
The AA compiler could generate range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at runtime, i.e., an array could be declared as `integer`` ``array`` Thing (i:j)`, where `i` and `j` were calculated values.
AA high-level routines could include machine code, either to make an inner loop more efficient or to effect some operation which otherwise cannot be done easily.
AA included a `complex` data type to represent complex numbers, partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, as complex numbers are used to represent the behavior of alternating current. The imaginary unit square root of -1 was represented by `i`, which was treated as a fixed complex constant = *i*.
The `complex` data type was dropped when Atlas Autocode later evolved into the language Edinburgh IMP. IMP was an extension of AA and was used to write the Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) operating system.
In addition to being notable as the progenitor of IMP and EMAS, AA is noted for having had many of the features of the original *Compiler Compiler*. A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60\'s until almost the year 2000.
Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan computer, a prototype Atlas 2 at Cambridge, and the Ferranti Mercury.
## Syntax
Atlas Autocode\'s syntax was largely similar to ALGOL, though it was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Thus, it allowed symbols like `½` for `.5` and the superscript ^`2`^ for *to the power of 2*. The Flexowriter supported overstriking and thus, AA did also: up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example, the character set had no `↑` symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of `|` and `*`. The aforementioned underlining of reserved words (keywords) could also be done using overstriking. The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual.
Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in AA were: `α` in floating-point numbers, *e.g.*, `3.56α-7` for modern `3.56e-7` ; `β` to mean *the second half of a 48-bit Atlas memory word*; `π` for the mathematical constant pi.
When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). That compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinburgh version of the Atlas Autocode manual.
Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an \"uppercasedelimiters\" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. Second, in some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), it was possible to strop keywords by placing a \"`%`\" sign in front of them, for example the keyword `endofprogramme` could be typed as `%end %of %programme` or `%endofprogramme`. This significantly reduced typing, due to only needing one character, rather than overstriking the whole keyword. As in ALGOL, there were no reserved words in the language as keywords were identified by underlining (or stropping), not by recognising reserved character sequences. In the statement `if`` token=if ``then`` ``result`` = token`, there is both a keyword `if` and a variable named `if`.
As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as `integer`` previous value`. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called \"line reconstruction\". What the compiler would see in the above example would be \"`if``token=if``thenresult``=token`\". Spaces were possible due partly to keywords being distinguished in other ways, and partly because the source was processed by scannerless parsing, without a separate lexing phase, which allowed the lexical syntax to be context-sensitive.
The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., `3a` was treated as `3*a`, and `a(i+j)` was treated as `a*(i+j)` if `a` was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example `ab` was not treated as `a*b`, whether or not `a` and `b` had been declared.
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2,729 |
Arthur J. Stone
|
**Arthur J. Stone** (1847--1938), a leading American silversmith, was born, trained and worked in Sheffield, England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, before travelling to the United States in 1884. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in Gardner, Massachusetts which operated under his name until its sale in 1937 to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in 1945. His sons Henry Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until 1957.
One of the silversmiths in Arthur Stone\'s shop was George Porter Blanchard, father of silversmith Porter Blanchard.
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2,732 |
Au file format
|
The **Au file format** is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer multiples of video clock signal frequencies. Newer files have a header that consists of six unsigned 32-bit words, an optional information chunk which is always of non-zero size, and then the data (in big-endian format).
Although the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the μ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to application programs through the **/dev/audio** device file interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound.
## New format {#new_format}
All fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data.
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| uint32 word | field | Description |
+=============+==============+==========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| 0 | Magic number | The value `{{mono|0x2e736e64}}`{=mediawiki} (four ASCII characters \".snd\") |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1 | Data offset | The offset to the data in bytes. (In the older Sun version, this had to be a multiple of 8.) The minimum valid number is 28 (decimal), since this is the header length (six 32-bit words) plus a minimal annotation size (4 bytes, another 32-bit word). |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 2 | data size | Data size in bytes, not including the header. If unknown, the value `{{mono|0xffffffff}}`{=mediawiki} should be used. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 3 | Encoding | Data encoding format: `{{div col|colwidth=15em}}`{=mediawiki} {{Ordered list\|start=0 |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 4 | Sample rate | The number of samples/second, e.g., 8000, 11025, 22050, 44100, and 48000. NeXT may use 8013. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 5 | Channels | The number of interleaved channels, e.g., 1 for mono, 2 for stereo; more channels possible, but may not be supported by all readers. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 6 | -- | Optional annotation or description string, NULL-terminated. A minimum of 4 bytes must be stored even if unused. |
| | | |
| | | In the older Sun version, its length had to be a non-zero multiple of 8 bytes. In some older implementations, the string is not properly NULL-terminated, but the offset remains reliable. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
The type of encoding depends on the value of the \"encoding\" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy, as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data are discarded. Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually with four bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit input). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.
Note: PCM formats are encoded as signed data, as opposed to unsigned.
The current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.
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2,735 |
April 7
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|
2,739 |
Abhorrers
|
**Abhorrers** is the name given in 1679 to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King Charles II of England to assemble Parliament.
At the time, James, Duke of York and James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth were seen as rival potential heirs to Charles, and an Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons to specifically exclude York from the line of succession. Charles dissolved two parliaments to prevent this bill from becoming law, and briefly attempted to rule with no active parliament. He was deluged with petitions urging him to call for an assembly of the Parliament.
The event served as a new round of political conflict between royalist and parliamentarian factions, and led to the emergence of the Whig and Tory factions as new political parties.
## The Duke of York and the Duke of Monmouth as rivals {#the_duke_of_york_and_the_duke_of_monmouth_as_rivals}
Feeling against Catholics, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, was very great.
## Rivalry between royalist and parliamentarian factions {#rivalry_between_royalist_and_parliamentarian_factions}
To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved the parliament in July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its successor, which became known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament, without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together. This agitation was opposed by Sir George Jeffreys and Francis Wythens, who presented addresses expressing *abhorrence* of the *Petitioners,* and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. \"The frolic went all over England,\" says Roger North; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to English political parties as consequence of this dispute.
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Abigail
|
**Abigail** (`{{hebrew Name|אֲבִיגַיִל|ʾAvīgayīl|ʾĂḇīḡayīl}}`{=mediawiki}) was an Israelite woman in the Hebrew Bible married to Nabal; she married the future King David after Nabal\'s death (1 Samuel `{{Bibleref2-nb|1SAM|25|NIV}}`{=mediawiki}). Abigail was David\'s third wife, after Ahinoam and Saul\'s daughter, Michal, whom Saul later married to Palti, son of Laish, when David went into hiding.
Abigail became the mother of one of David\'s sons, who is listed in the Book of Chronicles under the name *Daniel*, in the Masoretic Text of the Books of Samuel as *Chileab,* and in the Septuagint text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, *Dalouia*. Her name is spelled **Abigal** in `{{Bibleverse|2Samuel|17:25|ASV|2 Samuel 17:25}}`{=mediawiki} in the American Standard Version.
## Name
Derived from the Hebrew word *ab,* \"father\", and the Hebrew root *g-y-l*, \"to rejoice,\" the name Abigail has a variety of possible meanings including \"my father\'s joy\" and \"source of joy\".
## Biblical narrative {#biblical_narrative}
In 1 Samuel 25, Nabal demonstrates ingratitude towards David, the son of Jesse (from the tribe of Judah), and Abigail attempts to placate David, in order to stop the future King from taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to \"have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed\" (verse 31, NIV) and reminding him that God will make him a \"lasting dynasty\" (verse 28). Jon Levenson calls this an \"undeniable adumbration\" of Nathan\'s prophecy in 2 Samuel 7. Alice Bach notes that Abigail pronounces a \"crucial prophecy,\" and the Talmud regards her as one of the Tanakh\'s seven female prophets. Levenson, however, suggests that she \"senses the drift of history\" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.
After Abigail reveals to Nabal what she has done, \"God struck Nabal and he died\" (v. 38), after which David married her. Abigail is described as intelligent and beautiful. The Talmud amplifies this idea, mentioning her as being one of the \"four women of surpassing beauty in the world\" (the other three being Rahab, Sarah, and Esther). Being married to the wealthy Nabal, she is also a woman of high socioeconomic status. Whether David married her because he was attracted to her, or as an astute political move, or both is unclear.
Abigail and David\'s second wife, Ahinoam the Jezreelite, accompany David and his war band as they seek refuge in Philistine territory. While David and his men are encamped near Jezreel, the women are captured by Amalekites who raided the town of Ziklag and carried off the women and children. David led the pursuit, and they were subsequently rescued. Both wives then settle with David in Hebron, where Abigail gives birth to David\'s second son, Chileab (also called Daniel).Abigail is also listed as one of the seven Jewish women prophets, the other six being Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Sarah, Huldah, and Esther. In terms of her moral character, Abraham Kuyper argues that Abigail\'s conduct indicates \"a most appealing character and unwavering faith,\" but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.
Adele Berlin contrasts the story of Abigail with that of Bathsheba. In one, the wife prevents David from murdering her foolish and greedy husband. In the second, David orders the death of a good man because he desires his wife. \"In the Abigail story, David, the potential king, is seen as increasingly strong and virtuous, whereas in the Bathsheba story, the reigning monarch shows his flaws ever more overtly and begins to lose control of his family.\"
Levenson and Halpern suggest that Abigail may, in fact, also be the same person as Abigail, mother of Amasa. Richard M. Davidson, however, points out that \"on the basis of the final form of Old Testament canon, references to Abigail in the biblical accounts indicate two different individuals.\"
## Generic use {#generic_use}
Abigail\'s self-styling as a *handmaid* led to *Abigail* being a traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the \"waiting gentlewoman\" in Beaumont and Fletcher\'s *The Scornful Lady*, published in 1616. Jonathan Swift, Tobias Smollett, and Henry Fielding use *Abigail* in this generic sense, as does Charlotte Brontë. Walter Scott, in *The Abbot*, frequently refers to Lilias, Lady Avenel\'s maid as an \"Abigail\". Anthony Trollope makes two references to \"the abigail\" (all lower case) in *The Eustace Diamonds*, at the beginning of Chapter 42, whilst Thomas Mann makes the same reference at the start of the second chapter of Part 2 in *Buddenbrooks* (published in 1901). William Rose Benet notes the notoriety of Abigail Hill, better known as \"Mrs Masham\", a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. George MacDonald Fraser makes mention of \"an \'abigail\' fussing about the room\" in his novel *Flashman* from *The Flashman Papers* series.
## In art {#in_art}
Abigail, and especially her meeting with David, was a common subject of European artwork in the Renaissance and post-Renaissance period. Artists depicting her, or them, include Antonio Molinari, Juan Antonio Escalante, and Peter Paul Rubens.
Abigail is a featured figure on Judy Chicago\'s installation piece *The Dinner Party*, being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the *Heritage Floor.*
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2,747 |
Arabian Sea
|
The **Arabian Sea** (*baḥr al-ʿarab*) is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea and the Maldives, on the southwest by Somalia. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its maximum depth is 5395 m. The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.
## Geography
The Arabian Sea\'s surface area is about 3862000 km2. The maximum width of the sea is approximately 2400 km, and its maximum depth is 5395 m. The biggest river flowing into the sea is the Indus River.
The Arabian Sea has two important branches: the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian Coast. The Arabian Sea has been crossed by many important marine trade routes since the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE. Major seaports include Kandla Port, Mundra Port, Pipavav Port, Dahej Port, Hazira Port, Mumbai Port, Nhava Sheva Port (Navi Mumbai), Mormugão Port (Goa), New Mangalore Port and Kochi Port in India, the Port of Karachi, Port Qasim, and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Chabahar Port in Iran and the Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra (Yemen), Masirah Island (Oman), Lakshadweep (India) and Astola Island (Pakistan). The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, Iran, India and the Maldives.
### Limits
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:
- On the west: the eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden.
- On the north: a line joining Ràs al Hadd, east point of the Arabian Peninsula (22°32\'N) and Ràs Jiyùni (61°43\'E) on the coast of Pakistan.
- On the south: a line running from the southern extremity of Addu Atoll in the Maldives, to the eastern extremity of Ràs Hafun (the easternmost point of Africa, 10°26\'N).
- On the east: the western limit of the Laccadive Sea a line running from Sadashivgad on the west coast of India (14 48 N 74 07 E) to Cora Divh (13 42 N 72 10 E) and thence down the west side of the Laccadive and Maldive archipelagos to the most southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives.
### Hydrography
The International Indian Ocean Expedition in 1959 was among the first to perform hydrographic surveys of the Arabian Sea. Significant bathymetric surveys were also conducted by the Soviet Union during the 1960s.
#### Hydrographic features {#hydrographic_features}
Significant features in the northern Arabian Sea include the Indus Fan, the second largest fan system in the world. The De Covilhao Trough, named after the 15th century Portuguese explorer Pero de Covilhăo, reaches depths of 4400 m and separates the Indus Fan region from the Oman Abyssal Plain, which eventually leads to the Gulf of Oman.
The southern limits are dominated by the Arabian Basin, a deep basin reaching depths over 4200 m. The northern sections of the Carlsberg Ridge flank the southern edge of the Arabian Basin.
The deepest parts of the Arabian Sea are in the Alula-Fartak Trough on the western edge of the Arabian Sea off the Gulf of Aden. The trough, reaching depths over 5360 m, traverses the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. The deepest known point is in the Arabian Sea limits at a depth of 5395 m. Other significant deep points are part of the Arabian Basin, which include a 5358 m deep point off the northern limit of Calrsberg Ridge.
#### Seamounts
Prominent sea mounts off the Indian west coast include Raman Seamount named after C. V. Raman, Panikkar Seamount, named after N. K. Panikkar, and the Wadia Guyot, named after D. N. Wadia.
Sind\'Bad Seamount, named after the fictional explorer Sinbad the Sailor, Zheng He Seamount, and the Mount Error Guyot are some notable sea mounts in western Arabian Sea.
## Border and basin countries {#border_and_basin_countries}
Border and basin countries:
1. \- 2,500 km coastline
2. \- 1,050 km coastline
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
<File:Bandra> Sea Link aerial.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea above Bombay/Mumbai <File:Arabian> Sea - October 2012.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea seen from space <File:Arabian> Sea in Karachi.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea in Karachi, Pakistan
## Trade routes {#trade_routes}
upright=1.8\|thumb\|Names, routes and locations of the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the *coastal sailing vessels* from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north.
These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh, India with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of modern-day Iran, then split around Hadhramaut, Yemen into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates.
This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today\'s Suez Canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.
### Major ports {#major_ports}
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram and Mormugão.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|International Container Transshipment Terminal at Kochi Port in India
The Port of Karachi, Pakistan\'s largest and busiest seaport lies on the coast of the sea. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar.
The Gwadar Port of Pakistan is a warm-water, deep-sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately 75 km east of Pakistan\'s border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead-shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline.
Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5m teu in 2009.
## Islands
There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and Astola Island (Pakistan).
The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, 200 to off the southwestern coast of India. The archipelago is a union territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. The islands form the smallest union territory of India with their total surface area being just 32 km2. Next to these islands are the Maldives islands. These islands are all part of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands.
Zalzala Koh was an island which was around for only a few years. After the 2013 earthquake in Pakistan, the mud island was formed. By 2016 the island had completely submerged.
Astola Island, also known as *Jezira Haft Talar* in Balochi, or \'Island of the Seven Hills\', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan\'s territorial waters.
Socotra, also spelled *Soqotra*, is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some 240 km east of the Horn of Africa and 380 km south of the Arabian Peninsula.
Masirah and the five Khuriya Muriya Islands are islands off the southeastern coast of Oman.
## Oxygen minimum zone {#oxygen_minimum_zone}
The Arabian Sea has one of the world\'s three largest oceanic oxygen minimum zones (OMZ), or "dead zones," along with the eastern tropical North Pacific and the eastern tropical South Pacific. OMZs have very low levels of oxygen, sometimes so low as to be undetectable by standard equipment. The Arabian Sea\'s OMZ has the lowest levels of oxygen in the world, especially in the Gulf of Oman. Causes of the OMZ may include untreated sewage as well as high temperatures on the Indian subcontinent, which increase winds blowing towards India, bringing up nutrients and reducing oxygen in the Arabian Sea\'s waters. In winter, phytoplankton suited to low-oxygen conditions turn the OMZ bright green.
## Environment and wildlife {#environment_and_wildlife}
The wildlife of the Arabian sea is diverse, and entirely unique because of the geographic distribution.
<File:Karachi> Mangroves.jpg\|Mangrove forests of **Karachi, Pakistan** <File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif%7CCritically> endangered Sea Creatures <File:Dugong.jpg>\|Dugong mother & her offspring in shallow waters <File:Red> Coast of Makoran sea Iran.jpg\|**Makran Coast, Iran**
## Arabian Sea warming {#arabian_sea_warming}
Recent studies by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology confirmed that the Arabian Sea is warming monotonously; it possibly is due to global warming. The intensification and northward shift of the summer monsoon low-level jet over the Arabian Sea from 1979 to 2015, led to increased upper ocean heat content due to enhanced downwelling and reduced southward heat transport.
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Aelbert Cuyp
|
**Aelbert Jacobszoon Cuyp** or **Cuijp** (`{{IPA|nl|ˈɑlbər ˈtɕaːkɔpsoːŋ ˈkœyp}}`{=mediawiki}; 20 October 1620 -- 15 November 1691) was one of the leading Dutch Golden Age painters, producing mainly landscapes. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father, Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp (1594--1651/52), he is especially known for his large views of Dutch riverside scenes in a golden early morning or late afternoon light. He was born and died in Dordrecht.
## Biography
Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, he inherited a considerable fortune. His family were all artists, with his uncle Benjamin and grandfather Gerrit being stained glass cartoon designers. Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist. Cuyp\'s father was his first teacher and they collaborated on many paintings throughout his lifetime. Little is known about Aelbert Cuyp\'s life. Even Arnold Houbraken, a noted historian of Dutch Golden Age paintings and the sole authority on Cuyp for the hundred years following his death, paints a very thin biographical picture.
His period of activity as a painter is traditionally limited to the two decades between 1639 and 1660, fitting within the generally accepted limits of the Dutch Golden Age\'s most significant period, 1640--1665. He is known to have been married to Cornelia Bosman in 1658, a date coinciding so directly with the end of his productivity as a painter that it has been accepted that his marriage played a role in the end of his artistic career.
The year after his marriage, Cuyp became the deacon of the reformed church. Houbraken recalled that Cuyp was a devout Calvinist and the fact that when he died, there were no paintings of other artists found in his home.
## Style
The development of Cuyp, who was trained as a landscape painter, may be roughly sketched in three phases based on the painters who most influenced him during that time and the subsequent artistic characteristics that are apparent in his paintings. Generally, Cuyp learned tone from the exceptionally prolific Jan van Goyen, light from Jan Both and form from his father, Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp.
Cuyp\'s \"van Goyen phase\" can be placed approximately in the early 1640s. Cuyp probably first encountered a painting by van Goyen in 1640 when van Goyen was, as Stephen Reiss points, out \"at the height of \[his\] powers\". This is noticeable in the comparison between two of Cuyp\'s landscape paintings inscribed 1639 where no properly formed style is apparent and the landscape backgrounds he painted two years later for two of his father\'s group portraits that are distinctly van Goyenesque. Cuyp took from van Goyen the straw yellow and light brown tones that are so apparent in his *Dunes* (1629) and the broken brush technique also very noticeable in that same work. This technique, a precursor to impressionism, is noted for the short brush strokes where the colors are not necessarily blended smoothly. In Cuyp\'s *River Scene, Two Men Conversing* (1641) both of these van Goyen-influenced stylistic elements are noticeable.
The next phase in the development of Cuyp\'s increasingly amalgamated style is due to the influence of Jan Both. In the mid-1640s Both, a native and resident of Utrecht, had just returned to his hometown from a trip to Rome. It is around this same time that Cuyp\'s style changed fundamentally. In Rome, Both had developed a new style of composition due, at least in part, to his interaction with Claude Lorrain. This new style was focused on changing the direction of light in the painting. Instead of the light being placed at right angles in relation to the line of vision, Both started moving it to a diagonal position from the back of the picture.
In this new form of lighting, the artist (and viewer of the painting) faced the sun more or less contre-jour. Both, and subsequently Cuyp, used the advantages of this new lighting style to alter the sense of depth and luminosity possible in a painting. To make notice of these new capabilities, much use was made of elongated shadows. Cuyp was one of the first Dutch painters to appreciate this new leap forward in style and while his own Both-inspired phase was quite short (limited to the mid-1640s) he did, more than any other contemporary Dutch artist, maximize the full chromatic scale for sunsets and sunrises.Cuyp\'s third stylistic phase (which occurred throughout his career) is based on the influence of his father. While it is assumed that the younger Cuyp did work with his father initially to develop rudimentary talents, Aelbert became more focused on landscape paintings while Jacob was a portrait painter by profession. As has been mentioned and as will be explained in depth below, there are pieces where Aelbert provided the landscape background for his father\'s portraits. What is meant by stating that Aelbert learned from his father is that his eventual transition from a specifically landscape painter to the involvement of foreground figures is attributed to his interaction with his father Jacob. The evidence for Aelbert\'s evolution to foreground figure painter is in the production of some paintings from 1645 to 1650 featuring foreground animals that do not fit with Jacob\'s style. Adding to the confusion regarding Aelbert\'s stylistic development and the problem of attribution is of course the fact that Jacob\'s style was not stagnant either. Their converging styles make it difficult to exactly understand the influences each had on the other, although it is clear enough to say that Aelbert started representing large scale forms (something he had not done previously) and placing animals as the focus of his paintings (something that was specific to him).
## Paintings
Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant\'s hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp\'s landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be.Cuyp\'s drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of golden brown ink depict a distant view of the city of Dordrecht or Utrecht. A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be a finished work of art, but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures.
Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as Abraham Calraet (1642--1722), whose initials *A.C.* may be mistaken for Cuyp\'s.
However, not everyone appreciates his work and *River Landscape* (1660), despite being widely regarded as amongst his best work, has been described as having \"chocolate box blandness\".
At the Madrid\'s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum most likely, the sole Cuyp\'s painting in Spanish public collections can be seen, a *Landscape with a sunset* ca. 1655 with animals.
## Misattribution of paintings {#misattribution_of_paintings}
In addition to the scarcely documented and confirmed biography of Cuyp\'s life, and even more so than his amalgamated style from his three main influences, there are yet other factors that have led to the misattribution and confusion over Aelbert Cuyp\'s works for hundreds of years. His highly influenced style which incorporated Italianate lighting from Jan Both, broken brush technique and atonality from Jan van Goyen, and his ever-developing style from his father Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp was studied acutely by his most prominent follower, Abraham van Calraet. Calraet mimicked Cuyp\'s style, incorporating the same aspects, and produced similar landscapes to that of the latter. This made it quite difficult to tell whose paintings were whose. Adding to the confusion is the similar initials between the two and the inconsistent signing of paintings which were produced by Cuyp\'s studio.
Although Aelbert Cuyp signed many of his paintings with a script \"A. Cuyp\" insignia, many paintings were left unsigned (not to mention undated) after being painted, and so a similar signature was added later on, presumably by collectors who inherited or discovered the works. Furthermore, many possible Cuyp paintings were not signed but rather initialed \"A. C.\" referring to his name. However, Abraham van Calraet could also have used the same initials to denote a painting. Although this is unlikely (as Calraet would likely have signed his paintings \"A. v.C.\"), this brings up the question of how paintings were signed to show ownership. Most original Cuyp paintings were signed by him, and in the script manner in which his name was inscribed. This would denote that the painting was done almost entirely by him. Conversely, paintings which came out of his workshop that were not necessarily physically worked on by Cuyp but merely overseen by him technically, were marked with A.C. to show that it was his instruction which saw the paintings\' completion. Cuyp\'s pupils and assistants often worked on paintings in his studio, and so most of the work of a painting could be done without Cuyp ever touching the canvas, but merely approving its finality. Hence, the initialed inscription rather than a signature.
Common among the mislabeled works are all of the reasons identified for misattributing Cuyp\'s works: the lack of biography and chronology of his works made it difficult to discern when paintings were created (making it difficult to pinpoint an artist); contentious signatures added to historians\' confusion as to who actually painted the works; and the collaborations and influences by different painters makes it hard to justify that a painting is genuinely that of Aelbert Cuyp; and finally, accurate identification is made extremely difficult by the fact that this same style was copied (rather accurately) by his predecessor. As it turns out, even the historians and expert researchers have been fooled and forced to reassess their conclusions over \"Cuyp\'s\" paintings over the years.
## Later life {#later_life}
After he married Cornelia Boschman in 1658, the number of works produced by him declined almost to nothing. This may have been because his wife was a very religious woman and a not very big patron of the arts. It could also be that he became more active in the church under his wife\'s guidance. He was also active as deacon and elder of the Reformed Church.
## Legacy
Though long lacking a modern biography, and with the chronology of his works rather unclear, his style emerged from various influences and makes his works distinctive, although his collaborations with his father and works by his imitators often make attributions uncertain. His follower Abraham van Calraet represents a particular problem, and the signatures on paintings are not to be relied on. The Rijksmuseum has reattributed many works to other painters; Abraham van Calraet does not even appear in a Museum catalogue until 1926, and even then he was not given his own entry.
## Gallery
<File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Landscape with cattle - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Landscape with cattle*\
(c. 1639--1649)\
National Gallery of Victoria <File:Aelbert> Cuyp (Dutch - A View of the Maas at Dordrecht - Google Art Project.jpg\|*A View of the Maas at Dordrecht*\
(about 1645--1646)\
J. Paul Getty Museum <File:Cuyp>, Aelbert - Herdsmen with Cows - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Herdsmen with Cows*\
(c. 1645)\
Dulwich Picture Gallery <File:Cuyp>, Aelbert - Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance* <File:Aelbert> Cuyp Avenue at Meerdervoort.jpg\|*Avenue at Meerdervoort* <File:Aelbert> Cuyp 012.jpg\|*The Mussel Eater*, c. 1650, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Cows in a River - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Cows in a River*, c. 1654 <File:Aelbert> Cuyp, Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle, c. 1655 at Waddesdon Manor.jpg\|*Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle*, c. 1655, Waddesdon Manor <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht NTIV WADD 2565.jpg\|*A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht*, 1655--1660, Waddesdon Manor. The other canvas that appears to show an event in the end stages of the Eighty Years\' War is now in the National Gallery of Art, Washington. <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Travelers in Hilly Countryside - 1942.637 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg\|*Travelers in Hilly Countryside* (c. 1650), Cleveland Museum of Art <File:Equestrian> Portrait of Cornelis (1639--1680) and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort (1638--1653) with Their Tutor and Coachman (\"Starting for the Hunt\") MET DP146442.jpg\|*Equestrian Portrait of Cornelis and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort with Their Tutor and Coachman* (before 1653), Metropolitan Museum of Art
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2,763 |
Alkyne
|
$\ce{H-C#C}
\ce{-H}$
Acetylene
$\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}$
Propyne
$\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}$
1-Butyne
In organic chemistry, an **alkyne** is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon---carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula `{{chem2|C_{''n''}H_{2''n''-2} }}`{=mediawiki}. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name *acetylene* also refers specifically to `{{chem2|C2H2}}`{=mediawiki}, known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic.
## Structure and bonding {#structure_and_bonding}
In acetylene, the H--C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes are rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne cannot be isolated. The C≡C bond distance of 118 picometers (for C~2~H~2~) is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (132 pm, for C~2~H~4~) or the C--C bond in alkanes (153 pm).
:
The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol. The second pi bond 202 kJ/mol. Bonding is usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes triple bond arising from the overlap of s and p orbitals. In terms of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized which means they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp--sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom. For example, to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.
### Terminal and internal alkynes {#terminal_and_internal_alkynes}
Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne. They may also be asymmetrical, such as in 2-pentyne.
Terminal alkynes have the formula `{{chem2|RC≡CH}}`{=mediawiki}, where at least one end of the alkyne is a hydrogen atom. An example is methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). They are often prepared by alkylation of monosodium acetylide. Terminal alkynes, like acetylene itself, are mildly acidic, with p*K*~a~ values of around 25. They are far more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, which have p*K*~a~ values of around 40 and 50, respectively. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes. The carbanions generated by deprotonation of terminal alkynes are called acetylides. Internal alkynes are also considerably more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, though not nearly as acidic as terminal alkynes. The C--H bonds at the α position of alkynes (propargylic C--H bonds) can also be deprotonated using strong bases, with an estimated p*K*~a~ of 35. This acidity can be used to isomerize internal alkynes to terminal alkynes using the alkyne zipper reaction.
## Naming alkynes {#naming_alkynes}
In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.
In chemistry, the suffix **-yne** is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the \"-ane\" ending with \"-yne\"). \"-diyne\" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. In case of multiple triple bonds, the position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the \"-yne\" suffix, or \'locants\'. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. \"-yne\" is also used as a suffix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.
Sometimes a number between hyphens is inserted before it to state which atoms the triple bond is between. This suffix arose as a collapsed form of the end of the word \"acetylene\". The final \"-e\" disappears if it is followed by another suffix that starts with a vowel.
## Structural isomerism {#structural_isomerism}
Alkynes having four or more carbon atoms can form different structural isomers by having the triple bond in different positions or having some of the carbon atoms be substituents rather than part of the parent chain. Other non-alkyne structural isomers are also possible.
- : acetylene only
- : propyne only
- : 2 isomers: 1-butyne, and 2-butyne
- : 3 isomers: 1-pentyne, 2-pentyne, and 3-methyl-1-butyne
- : 7 isomers: 1-hexyne, 2-hexyne, 3-hexyne, 4-methyl-1-pentyne, 4-methyl-2-pentyne, 3-methyl-1-pentyne, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyne
## Synthesis
### From calcium carbide {#from_calcium_carbide}
Classically, acetylene was prepared by hydrolysis (protonation) of calcium carbide (Ca^2+^\[:C≡C:\]^2--^):
: Ca\^{2+}\[C#C\]\^2- + 2 HOH -\> HC#CH + Ca\^{2+}\[(HO\^{-})2\]
which was in turn synthesized by combining quicklime and coke in an electric arc furnace at 2200 °C:
: CaO + 3 C (amorphous) -\> CaC2 + CO
This was an industrially important process which provided access to hydrocarbons from coal resources for countries like Germany and China. However, the energy-intensive nature of this process is a major disadvantage and its share of the world\'s production of acetylene has steadily decreased relative to hydrocarbon cracking.
### Cracking
Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:
: 4 CH4 + 3 O2 -\> 2 HC#CH + 6 H2O
Propyne, also industrially useful, is also prepared by thermal cracking of hydrocarbons.
### Alkylation and arylation of terminal alkynes {#alkylation_and_arylation_of_terminal_alkynes}
Terminal alkynes (RC≡CH, including acetylene itself) can be deprotonated by bases like NaNH~2~, BuLi, or EtMgBr to give acetylide anions (RC≡C:^--^M^+^, M = Na, Li, MgBr) which can be alkylated by addition to carbonyl groups (Favorskii reaction), ring opening of epoxides, or S~N~2-type substitution of unhindered primary alkyl halides.
In the presence of transition metal catalysts, classically a combination of Pd(PPh~3~)~2~Cl~2~ and CuI, terminal acetylenes (RC≡CH) can react with aryl iodides and bromides (ArI or ArBr) in the presence of a secondary or tertiary amine like Et~3~N to give arylacetylenes (RC≡CAr) in the Sonogashira reaction.
The availability of these reliable reactions makes terminal alkynes useful building blocks for preparing internal alkynes.
### Dehydrohalogenation and related reactions {#dehydrohalogenation_and_related_reactions}
Alkynes are prepared from 1,1- and 1,2-dihaloalkanes by double dehydrohalogenation. The reaction provides a means to generate alkynes from alkenes, which are first halogenated and then dehydrohalogenated. For example, phenylacetylene can be generated from styrene by bromination followed by treatment of the resulting of 1,2-dibromo-1-phenylethane with sodium amide in ammonia:
:
Via the Fritsch--Buttenberg--Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey--Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth--Gilbert homologation.
Vinyl halides are susceptible to dehydrohalogenation.
## Reactions, including applications {#reactions_including_applications}
Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Such use was pioneered by Ralph Raphael, who in 1955 wrote the first book describing their versatility as intermediates in synthesis. In spite of their kinetic stability (persistence) due to their strong triple bonds, alkynes are a thermodynamically unstable functional group, as can be gleaned from the highly positive heats of formation of small alkynes. For example, acetylene has a heat of formation of +227.4 kJ/mol (+54.2 kcal/mol), indicating a much higher energy content compared to its constituent elements. The highly exothermic combustion of acetylene is exploited industrially in oxyacetylene torches used in welding. Other reactions involving alkynes are often highly thermodynamically favorable (exothermic/exergonic) for the same reason.
### Hydrogenation
Being more unsaturated than alkenes, alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are \"doubly unsaturated\". Alkynes are capable of adding two equivalents of `{{chem2|H2}}`{=mediawiki}, whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful: The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene in refineries (the steam cracking of alkanes yields a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst). For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the alkene dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides:
: $\ce{RC#CR' + H2 ->} \text{ cis-}\ce{RCH=CR'H}$
: RCH=CR\'H + H2 -\> RCH2CR\'H2
The addition of one equivalent of `{{chem2|H2}}`{=mediawiki} to internal alkynes gives cis-alkenes.
### Addition of halogens and related reagents {#addition_of_halogens_and_related_reagents}
Alkynes characteristically are capable of adding two equivalents of halogens and hydrogen halides.
: RC#CR\' + 2 Br2 -\> RCBr2CR\'Br2
The addition of nonpolar `{{chem2|E\sH}}`{=mediawiki} bonds across `{{chem2|C\tC}}`{=mediawiki} is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. In the thiol-yne reaction the substrate is a thiol.
Addition of hydrogen halides has long been of interest. In the presence of mercuric chloride as a catalyst, acetylene and hydrogen chloride react to give vinyl chloride. While this method has been abandoned in the West, it remains the main production method in China.
### Hydration
The hydration reaction of acetylene gives acetaldehyde. The reaction proceeds by formation of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to form the aldehyde. This reaction was once a major industrial process but it has been displaced by the Wacker process. This reaction occurs in nature, the catalyst being acetylene hydratase.
Hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone:
: PhC#CH + H2O -\> PhCOCH3
`{{chem2|(Ph3P)AuCH3}}`{=mediawiki} catalyzes hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione:
: HC#C(CH2)5C#CH + 2H2O -\> CH3CO(CH2)5COCH3
### Isomerization to allenes {#isomerization_to_allenes}
Alkynes can be isomerized by strong base or transition metals to allenes. Due to their comparable thermodynamic stabilities, the equilibrium constant of alkyne/allene isomerization is generally within several orders of magnitude of unity. For example propyne can be isomerized to give an equilibrium mixture with propadiene:
: HC#C-CH3 \<=\> CH2=C=CH2
### Cycloadditions and oxidation {#cycloadditions_and_oxidation}
Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. The Diels--Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes gives 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed. Electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The \"cycloadduct\" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the \[2+2+1\]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson--Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:
: RC#CR + R\'C#CR\' \<=\> 2RC#CR\'
Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids.
### Reactions specific for terminal alkynes {#reactions_specific_for_terminal_alkynes}
Terminal alkynes are readily converted to many derivatives, e.g. by coupling reactions and condensations. Via the condensation with formaldehyde and acetylene is produced butynediol:
: 2CH2O + HC#CH -\> HOCH2CCCH2OH
In the Sonogashira reaction, terminal alkynes are coupled with aryl or vinyl halides:
:
This reactivity exploits the fact that terminal alkynes are weak acids, whose typical p*K*~a~ values around 25 place them between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16):
: RC#CH + MX -\> RC#CM + HX
where MX = NaNH~2~, LiBu, or RMgX.
The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. `{{chem2|Ag+}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{chem2|Cu+}}`{=mediawiki} also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide (`{{chem2|Ag(NH3)2OH}}`{=mediawiki}) reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. This reactivity is the basis of alkyne coupling reactions, including the Cadiot--Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling shown below:
: 2R-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-H -\>\[\\ce{Cu(OAc)2}\]\[\\ce{pyridine}\] R-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-R
In the Favorskii reaction and in alkynylations in general, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne.
### Metal complexes {#metal_complexes}
Alkynes form complexes with transition metals. Such complexes occur also in metal catalyzed reactions of alkynes such as alkyne trimerization. Terminal alkynes, including acetylene itself, react with water to give aldehydes. The transformation typically requires metal catalysts to give this anti-Markovnikov addition result.
## Alkynes in nature and medicine {#alkynes_in_nature_and_medicine}
According to Ferdinand Bohlmann, the first naturally occurring acetylenic compound, dehydromatricaria ester, was isolated from an *Artemisia* species in 1826. In the nearly two centuries that have followed, well over a thousand naturally occurring acetylenes have been discovered and reported. Polyynes, a subset of this class of natural products, have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, cultures of higher fungi, bacteria, marine sponges, and corals. Some acids like tariric acid contain an alkyne group. Diynes and triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C--C≡CR′ and RC≡C--C≡C--C≡CR′ respectively, occur in certain plants (*Ichthyothere*, *Chrysanthemum*, *Cicuta*, *Oenanthe* and other members of the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families). Some examples are cicutoxin, oenanthotoxin, and falcarinol. These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne. Biosynthetically, the enediyne natural products are also derived from a polyyne precursor.
Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon--carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral efavirenz and the antifungal terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene (\"ene\") between two alkyne groups (\"diyne\"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a \"warhead\". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.
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AbiWord
|
**AbiWord** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|b|i|w|ɜr|d}}`{=mediawiki}) is a free and open-source word processor. It is written in C++ and since version 3 it is based on GTK+ 3. The name \"AbiWord\" is derived from the root of the Spanish word \"*abierto*\", meaning \"open\".
AbiWord was originally started by SourceGear Corporation as the first part of a proposed AbiSuite but was adopted by open source developers after SourceGear changed its business focus and ceased development. It now runs on Linux, ReactOS, Solaris, AmigaOS 4.0 (through its Cygwin X11 engine), MeeGo (on the Nokia N9 smartphone), Maemo (on the Nokia N810), QNX and other operating systems. Development of a version for Microsoft Windows has temporarily ended due to lack of maintainers (the latest released versions are 2.8.6 and 2.9.4 beta).
The macOS port has remained on version 2.4 since 2005, although the current version does run non-natively on macOS through XQuartz.
AbiWord is part of the AbiSource project which develops a number of office-related technologies.
## Features
AbiWord supports both basic word processing features such as lists, indents and character formats, and more sophisticated features including tables, styles, page headers and footers, footnotes, templates, multiple views, page columns, spell checking, and grammar checking. The Presentation view of AbiWord, which permits easy display of presentations created in AbiWord on \"screen-sized\" pages, is another feature not often found in word processors.
### Interface
AbiWord generally works similarly to classic versions (pre-Office 2007) of Microsoft Word, as direct ease of migration was a high priority early goal. While many interface similarities remain, cloning the Word interface is no longer a top priority. The interface is intended to follow user interface guidelines for each respective platform.
### Collaboration
AbiWord allows users to share and collaborate on documents in a similar manner to Google Docs, using a system known as GOCollab. Users can collaborate using a varitety of different protocols including TCP and XMPP, and formerly over AbiCollab.net, a web based service that facilitated collaboration between users.
### File formats {#file_formats}
AbiWord comes with several import and export filters providing partial support for such formats as HTML, Microsoft Word (.doc), Office Open XML (.docx), OpenDocument Text (.odt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), and text documents (.txt). LaTeX is supported for export only. Plug-in filters are available to deal with many other formats, notably WordPerfect documents. The native file format, .abw, uses XML, so as to mitigate vendor lock-in concerns with respect to interoperability and digital archiving.
### Grammar checking {#grammar_checking}
The AbiWord project includes a US English-only grammar checking plugin using Link Grammar. AbiWord had grammar checking before any other open source word processor, although a grammar checker was later added to OpenOffice.org. Link Grammar is both a theory of syntax and an open source parser which is now developed by the AbiWord project.
## Version history {#version_history}
Version 0.1.0 made public, source only -- August 21st, 1998, demoed at Open Source Developer Day.
Version 0.7.0 -- May 19th, 1999 -- first binary release.
Version 1.0 -- April 19th, 2002.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
2,766 |
Ames test
|
The **Ames test** is a widely employed method that uses bacteria to test whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. More formally, it is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. A positive test indicates that the chemical is mutagenic and therefore may act as a carcinogen, because cancer is often linked to mutation. The test serves as a quick and convenient assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound because standard carcinogen assays on mice and rats are time-consuming (taking two to three years to complete) and expensive. However, false-positives and false-negatives are known.
The procedure was described in a series of papers in the early 1970s by Bruce Ames and his group at the University of California, Berkeley.
## General procedure {#general_procedure}
The Ames test uses several strains of the bacterium *Salmonella typhimurium* that carry mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis. These strains are auxotrophic mutants, i.e. they require histidine for growth, but cannot produce it. The method tests the capability of the tested substance in creating mutations that result in a return to a \"prototrophic\" state, so that the cells can grow on a histidine-free medium.
The tester strains are specially constructed to detect either frameshift (e.g. strains TA-1537 and TA-1538) or point (e.g. strain TA-1531) mutations in the genes required to synthesize histidine, so that mutagens acting via different mechanisms may be identified. Some compounds are quite specific, causing reversions in just one or two strains. The tester strains also carry mutations in the genes responsible for lipopolysaccharide synthesis, making the cell wall of the bacteria more permeable, and in the excision repair system to make the test more sensitive.
Larger organisms like mammals have metabolic processes that could potentially turn a chemical considered not mutagenic into one that is or one that is considered mutagenic into one that is not. Therefore, to more effectively test a chemical compound\'s mutagenicity in relation to larger organisms, rat liver enzymes can be added in an attempt to replicate the metabolic processes\' effect on the compound being tested in the Ames Test. Rat liver extract is optionally added to simulate the effect of metabolism, as some compounds, like \[\[benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo\[*a*\]pyrene\]\], are not mutagenic themselves but their metabolic products are.
The bacteria are spread on an agar plate with a small amount of histidine. This small amount of histidine in the growth medium allows the bacteria to grow for an initial time and have the opportunity to mutate. When the histidine is depleted only bacteria that have mutated to gain the ability to produce its own histidine will survive. The plate is incubated for 48 hours. The mutagenicity of a substance is proportional to the number of colonies observed.
## Ames test and carcinogens {#ames_test_and_carcinogens}
Mutagens identified via Ames test are also possible carcinogens, and early studies by Ames showed that 90% of known carcinogens may be identified via this test. Later studies however showed identification of 50--70% of known carcinogens. The test was used to identify a number of compounds previously used in commercial products as potential carcinogens. Examples include tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate, which was used as a flame retardant in plastic and textiles such as children\'s sleepwear, and furylfuramide which was used as an antibacterial additive in food in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Furylfuramide in fact had previously passed animal tests, but more vigorous tests after its identification in the Ames test showed it to be carcinogenic. Their positive tests resulted in those chemicals being withdrawn from use in consumer products.
One interesting result from the Ames test is that the dose response curve using varying concentrations of the chemical is almost always linear, indicating that there is no threshold concentration for mutagenesis. It therefore suggests that, as with radiation, there may be no safe threshold for chemical mutagens or carcinogens. However, some have proposed that organisms could tolerate low levels of mutagens due to protective mechanisms such as DNA repair, and thus a threshold may exist for certain chemical mutagens. Bruce Ames himself argued against linear dose-response extrapolation from the high dose used in carcinogenesis tests in animal systems to the lower dose of chemicals normally encountered in human exposure, as the results may be false positives due to mitogenic response caused by the artificially high dose of chemicals used in such tests. He also cautioned against the \"hysteria over tiny traces of chemicals that may or may not cause cancer\", that \"completely drives out the major risks you should be aware of\".
The Ames test is often used as one of the initial screens for potential drugs to weed out possible carcinogens, and it is one of the eight tests required under the Pesticide Act (USA) and one of the six tests required under the Toxic Substances Control Act (USA).
## Limitations
*Salmonella typhimurium* is a prokaryote, therefore it is not a perfect model for humans. Rat liver S9 fraction is used to mimic the mammalian metabolic conditions so that the mutagenic potential of metabolites formed by a parent molecule in the hepatic system can be assessed; however, there are differences in metabolism between humans and rats that can affect the mutagenicity of the chemicals being tested. The test may therefore be improved by the use of human liver S9 fraction; its use was previously limited by its availability, but it is now available commercially and therefore may be more feasible. An adapted *in vitro* model has been made for eukaryotic cells, for example yeast.
Mutagens identified in the Ames test need not necessarily be carcinogenic, and further tests are required for any potential carcinogen identified in the test. Drugs that contain the nitrate moiety sometimes come back positive for Ames when they are indeed safe. The nitrate compounds may generate nitric oxide, an important signal molecule that can give a false positive. Nitroglycerin is an example that gives a positive Ames yet is still used in treatment today. Nitrates in food however may be reduced by bacterial action to nitrites which are known to generate carcinogens by reacting with amines and amides. Long toxicology and outcome studies are needed with such compounds to disprove a positive Ames test.
## Fluctuation method {#fluctuation_method}
The Ames test was initially developed using agar plates (the plate incorporation technique), as described above. Since that time, an alternative to performing the Ames test has been developed, which is known as the \"fluctuation method\". This technique is the same in concept as the agar-based method, with bacteria being added to a reaction mixture with a small amount of histidine, which allows the bacteria to grow and mutate, returning to synthesize their own histidine. By including a pH indicator, the frequency of mutation is counted in microplates as the number of wells which have changed color (caused by a drop in pH due to metabolic processes of reproducing bacteria). As with the traditional Ames test, the sample is compared to the natural background rate of reverse mutation in order to establish the genotoxicity of a substance. The fluctuation method is performed entirely in liquid culture and is scored by counting the number of wells that turn yellow from purple in 96-well or 384-well microplates.
In the 96-well plate method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 96 which have changed color. The plates are incubated for up to five days, with mutated (yellow) colonies being counted each day and compared to the background rate of reverse mutation using established tables of significance to determine the significant differences between the background rate of mutation and that for the tested samples.
In the more scaled-down 384-well plate microfluctuation method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 48 which have changed color after 2 days of incubation. A test sample is assayed across 6 dose levels with concurrent zero-dose (background) and positive controls which all fit into one 384-well plate. The assay is performed in triplicates to provide statistical robustness. It uses the recommended OECD Guideline 471 tester strains (histidine auxotrophs and tryptophan auxotrophs).
The fluctuation method is comparable to the traditional pour plate method in terms of sensitivity and accuracy, however, it does have a number of advantages: it needs less test sample, it has a simple colorimetric endpoint, counting the number of positive wells out of possible 96 or 48 wells is much less time-consuming than counting individual colonies on an agar plate. Several commercial kits are available. Most kits have consumable components in a ready-to-use state, including lyophilized bacteria, and tests can be performed using multichannel pipettes. The fluctuation method also allows for testing higher volumes of aqueous samples (up to 75% v/v), increasing the sensitivity and extending its application to low-level environmental mutagens.
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2,769 |
Antianginal
|
An **antianginal** is a drug used in the treatment of *angina pectoris*, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease.
**Myocardial ischemia** arises from the dysfunction of coronary macrovascular or microvascular components, leading to a compromised supply of oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms encompass a range of factors, including atherosclerosis in epicardial coronary arteries, vasospasm in large or small vessels, and microvascular dysfunction---whose clinical significance is increasingly acknowledged. The diverse clinical presentations of myocardial ischemia collectively fall under the term chronic coronary syndromes.
Addressing these conditions involves a multifaceted approach, where the most common antianginal medications alleviate symptoms by inducing coronary vasodilation and modifying the determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption, such as heart rate, myocardial wall stress, and ventricular contractility. Additionally, these medications can alter cardiac substrate metabolism to alleviate ischemia by enhancing the efficiency of myocardial oxygen utilization. While there is consensus on the prognostic importance of lifestyle interventions and preventive measures like aspirin and statin therapy, determining the optimal antianginal treatment for chronic coronary syndrome patients remains less defined.
The majority of individuals experiencing stable angina can effectively address their condition through lifestyle modifications, particularly by embracing **smoking cessation** and **incorporating regular exercise** into their routine. Alongside these lifestyle changes, the use of antianginal drugs is a common approach. However, findings from randomized controlled trials reveal that the efficacy of various antianginal drugs is comparable, with none demonstrating a significant reduction in mortality or the risk of myocardial infarction (MI). Despite this, prevailing guidelines lean towards recommending beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers as the preferred first-line treatment.
The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines for managing stable coronary artery disease provide well-defined classes of recommendation with corresponding levels of evidence. In a parallel vein, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for stable angina management consider cost-effectiveness in their recommendations, designating terms such as first-line and second-line therapy. Notably, both sets of guidelines advocate for the use of low-dose aspirin and statins as disease-modifying agents.
This article aims to critically examine and evaluate the pharmacological recommendations outlined in these guidelines for the management of patients with stable angina. By delving into the nuances of these recommendations, we seek to provide a comprehensive understanding of the rationale behind the suggested pharmacological interventions for stable angina, shedding light on their respective strengths and considerations in clinical practice.
## Political Considerations {#political_considerations}
The 2019 guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) advocate for a personalized approach in which antianginal medications are tailored to an individual patient\'s comorbidities and hemodynamic profile. It\'s noteworthy that, although antianginal medications do not improve survival, their effectiveness in symptom reduction significantly depends on the underlying mechanism of angina.
Key considerations in antianginal therapies involve enhancing coronary vascular oxygen supply to the ischemic myocardium, reducing heart rate, myocardial work, and oxygen consumption, as well as optimizing the energetic efficiency of cardiomyocytes. Despite current guidelines recommending β-blockers and calcium-channel blockers as first-line therapy, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating their superiority over second-line therapies.
In this comprehensive review, it is crucial to emphasize that, thus far, neither drugs nor interventions that reduce ischemia have been shown to prolong survival in patients with chronic coronary syndromes.
## Examples
Drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers.
### Nitrates
Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by stimulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in, the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.
Agents include glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), pentaerythritol tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate and isosorbide mononitrate.
### Beta blockers {#beta_blockers}
Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the myocardial oxygen demand below the level that would provoke an angina attack.
They are contraindicated in variant angina and can precipitate heart failure. They are also contraindicated in severe asthmatics due to bronchoconstriction, and should be used cautiously in diabetics as they can mask symptoms of hypoglycemia.
Agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol.
### Calcium channel blockers {#calcium_channel_blockers}
Calcium ion (Ca^++^) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of chronic stable angina, and most effectively in the treatment of variant angina (directly preventing coronary artery vasospasm). They are not used in the treatment of unstable angina .
In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow. *In vivo*, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore, the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions.
- Class I agents have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure.
- Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility.
- Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex tachycardia.
Examples include Class I agents (*e.g.*, verapamil), Class II agents (*e.g.*, amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem.
Nifedipine is more a potent vasodilator and more effective in angina. It is in the class of dihydropyridines and does not affect refractory period on SA node conduction.
| 2025-06-20T00:00:00 |
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