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the era of the dirty thirties with its mass unemployment poverty and despair gave rise to new canadian political movements in alberta for example the radio evangelist william bible bill aberhart led his populist social credit party to victory in 1935 three years earlier in calgary alberta social reformers had founded a new political party the co @@ operative commonwealth federation or ccf it advocated democratic socialism and a mixed economy with public ownership of key industries frank underhill one of innis 's colleagues at the university of toronto was a founding member of the ccf innis and underhill had both been members of an earlier group at the university that declared itself dissatisfied with the policies of the two major [ political ] parties in canada and that aimed at forming a definite body of progressive opinion in 1931 innis presented a paper to the group on economic conditions in canada but he later recoiled from participating in party politics denouncing partisans like underhill as hot <unk>
innis maintained that scholars had no place in active politics and that instead they should devote themselves first to research on public problems and then to the production of knowledge based on critical thought he saw the university with its emphasis on dialogue open @@ mindedness and skepticism as an institution that could foster such thinking and research the university could provide an environment he wrote as free as possible from the biases of the various institutions that form the state so that its intellectuals could continue to seek out and explore other perspectives
although sympathetic to the plight of western farmers and urban unemployed workers innis did not embrace socialism eric havelock a left @@ leaning colleague explained many years later that innis distrusted political solutions imported from elsewhere especially those based on marxist analysis with its emphasis on class conflict he worried too that as canada 's ties with britain weakened the country would fall under the spell of american ideas instead of developing its own based on canada 's unique circumstances havelock added
he has been called the radical conservative of his day not a bad designation of a complex mind clear sighted cautious perhaps at bottom pessimistic in areas where thinkers we would label ' progressive ' felt less difficulty in taking a stand never content to select only one or two elements in a complicated equation in order to build a quick @@ order policy or program far ranging enough in intellect to take in the whole sum of the factors and comprehend their often contradictory effects

= = = late career and death = = =

in the 1940s harold innis reached the height of his influence in both academic circles and canadian society in 1941 he helped establish the american @@ based economic history association and its journal of economic history he later became the association 's second president innis played a central role in founding two important sources for the funding of academic research the canadian social science research council ( 1940 ) and the humanities research council of canada ( 1944 )
in 1944 the university of new brunswick awarded innis an honorary degree as did his alma mater mcmaster university université laval the university of manitoba and the university of glasgow would also confer honorary degrees in 1947 48
in 1945 innis spent nearly a month in the soviet union where he had been invited to attend the 220th anniversary celebrations marking the founding of the country 's academy of sciences later in his essay reflections on russia he mused about the differences between the soviet producer economy and the west 's consumer ethos
[ a ] n economy which emphasizes consumer 's goods is characterized by communication industries largely dependent on advertising and by constant efforts to reach the largest number of readers or listeners an economy emphasizing producer 's goods is characterized by communications industries largely dependent on government support as a result of this contrast a common public opinion in russia and the west is hard to achieve
innis 's trip to moscow and leningrad came shortly before us soviet rivalry led to the hostility of the cold war innis lamented this rise in international tensions he saw the soviet empire as a stabilizing counterbalance to the american empire 's emphasis on commercialism the individual and constant change for innis russia was a society within the western tradition not an alien civilization he abhorred the nuclear arms race seeing it as the triumph of force over knowledge a modern form of the medieval inquisition the middle ages burned its heretics he wrote and the modern age threatens them with atom bombs
in 1946 innis was elected president of the royal society of canada the country 's senior body of scientists and scholars that same year he served on the manitoba royal commission on adult education and published political economy in the modern state a collection of his speeches and essays that reflected both his staples research and his new work in communications in 1947 innis was appointed the university of toronto 's dean of graduate studies in 1948 he delivered lectures at the university of london and nottingham university he also gave the prestigious beit lectures at oxford later published in his book empire and communications in 1949 innis was appointed as a commissioner on the federal government 's royal commission on transportation a position that involved extensive travel at a time when his health was starting to fail the last decade of his career during which he worked on his communications studies was an unhappy time for innis he was academically isolated because his colleagues in economics could not fathom how this new work related to his pioneering research in staples theory biographer john watson writes that the almost complete lack of positive response to the communications works contributed to his sense of overwork and depression
innis died of prostate cancer in 1952 a few days after his 58th birthday in commemoration innis college at the university of toronto and innis library at mcmaster university were named in his honour
following his premature death innis ' significance increasingly deepened as scholars in several academic disciplines continued to build upon his writings marshall poe 's general media theory that proposes two sub @@ theories were inspired by innis douglas c north expanded on of innis ' vent for surplus theory of economic development by applying it to regional development in the united states and underdeveloped countries in addition james w carey adopted innis as a reference point in his conception of two models of communication

= = innis and mcluhan = =

marshall mcluhan was a colleague of innis 's at the university of toronto as a young english professor mcluhan was flattered when he learned that innis had put his book the mechanical bride on the reading list of the fourth @@ year economics course mcluhan built on innis 's idea that in studying the effects of communications media technological form mattered more than content biographer paul heyer writes that innis 's concept of the bias of a particular medium of communication can be seen as a less flamboyant precursor to mcluhan 's legendary phrase ' the medium is the message ' innis for example tried to show how printed media such as books or newspapers were biased toward control over space and secular power while engraved media such as stone or clay tablets were biased in favour of continuity in time and metaphysical or religious knowledge mcluhan focused on what may be called a medium 's sensory bias arguing for example that books and newspapers appealed to the rationality of the eye while radio played to the irrationality of the ear the differences in the <unk> and <unk> approaches were summarized by the late james w carey
both mcluhan and innis assume the centrality of communication technology where they differ is in the principal kinds of effects they see deriving from this technology whereas innis sees communication technology principally affecting social organization and culture mcluhan sees its principal effect on sensory organization and thought mcluhan has much to say about perception and thought but little to say about institutions innis says much about institutions and little about perception and thought
biographer john watson notes that innis 's work was profoundly political while mcluhan 's was not he writes that the mechanization of knowledge not the relative sensual bias of media is the key to innis 's work this also underlies the politicization of innis 's position vis @@ a @@ vis that of mcluhan watson adds that innis believed very different media could produce similar effects for innis the yellow press of the united states and the nazi loudspeaker had the same form of negative effect they reduced men from thinking beings to mere automatons in a chain of command watson argues that while mcluhan separated media according to their sensory bias innis examined a different set of interrelationships the dialectic of power and knowledge in specific historical circumstances for watson innis 's work is therefore more flexible and less deterministic than mcluhan 's
as scholars and teachers innis and mcluhan shared a similar dilemma since both argued that book culture tended to produce fixed points of view and homogeneity of thought yet both produced many books in his introduction to the 1964 reprint of the bias of communication mcluhan marvelled at innis 's technique of juxtaposing his insights in a mosaic structure of seemingly unrelated and <unk> sentences and aphorisms mcluhan argued that although this made reading innis 's dense prose difficult a pattern of insights that are not packaged for the consumer palate innis 's method approximated the natural form of conversation or dialogue rather than of written discourse best of all it yielded insight and pattern recognition rather than the classified knowledge so overvalued by print @@ trained scholars how exciting it was to encounter a writer whose every phrase invited prolonged meditation and exploration mcluhan added mcluhan 's own books with their reliance on aphorisms puns quips probes and oddly juxtaposed observations also employ this mosaic technique
innis 's theories of political economy media and society remain highly relevant he had a profound influence on critical media theory and communications and in conjunction with mcluhan offered groundbreaking canadian perspectives on the function of communication technologies as key agents in social and historical change together their works advanced a theory of history in which communication is central to social change and transformation


= hurricane lorenzo ( 2007 ) =

hurricane lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the mexican state of veracruz in late september 2007 the twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 atlantic hurricane season it formed in the southwestern gulf of mexico from a tropical wave after meandering for two days without development the storm began a steady westward track as its structure became better organized in an 18 ‑ hour period lorenzo 's winds increased from 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) or from a tropical depression to a hurricane on september 28 it struck near tecolutla veracruz a month after hurricane dean affected the same area before it quickly dissipated over land
the most significantly affected area was veracruz where damage reached over $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 usd ) most of it came from road damage in the state 's northern portion although there were also hundreds of damaged houses between veracruz and neighboring hidalgo there were 123 @@ 320 people affected across 112 municipalities overall there were six deaths in the country one in veracruz and five in puebla in the latter state a family of three perished in a landslide

= = meteorological history = =

the origins of hurricane lorenzo were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of africa on september 11 after moving across the tropical atlantic ocean it traversed much of the caribbean sea before developing an area of thunderstorms on september 21 the system developed a low pressure area on september 23 after the northern portion of the wave broke off and crossed the yucatán peninsula initially a hurricane hunters flight was scheduled to investigate the system although the low became disorganized over the southeastern gulf of mexico due to high wind shear however the wind shear decreased and late on september 25 another hurricane hunters flight indicated the development of a closed low @@ level circulation based on that observation along with sufficient persistence of the thunderstorms the system developed into tropical depression thirteen about 190 mi ( 305 km ) east of tampico tamaulipas
upon developing the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents resulting in an erratic movement generally to the south in its formative stages the depression executed a small loop as it did so it moved into an area of very warm waters and decreasing wind shear the depression 's convection gradually organized although the winds were slower to increase an anticyclone became established over the system and the depression intensified into tropical storm lorenzo at around 1200 utc on september 27 at the time it was located about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of tuxpan veracruz moving steadily westward under the influence of a building ridge to its east as it approached the coast lorenzo rapidly intensified unexpectedly and within 12 hours of attaining tropical storm status it strengthened into a hurricane
hurricane lorenzo quickly developed a closed eyewall which was observed on radar and provided a peak intensity estimate of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0000 utc on september 28 the cyclone maintained vigorous and symmetric convection across the center although the structure deteriorated slightly before lorenzo crossed the coast near tecolutla veracruz at 0500 utc that day with winds estimated around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) after making landfall the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical depression intensity progressing inland the circulation became difficult to locate as the convection diminished to rainbands along the coast within 19 hours after moving ashore the circulation of lorenzo dissipated therefore ending its duration as a tropical cyclone

= = preparations and impact = =

about 26 hours before landfall the mexican government issued a tropical storm watch from palma sola to la cruz in veracruz about 14 hours before landfall a tropical storm warning was put into place from palma sola to cabo rojo which in turn was upgraded to a hurricane warning six hours later mexico 's civilian protection officials declared a red alert for much of the state of veracruz along the coast of veracruz officials canceled school classes officials opened 315 shelters in veracruz along with six in neighboring hidalgo which housed 45 @@ 164 people during the storm the government of veracruz provided buses for people to transport from their houses to the shelters ports in tecolutla tuxpan and nautla were forced to close lorenzo 's formation caused gas prices to rise due to its potential to disrupt oil facilities in the gulf of mexico
hurricane lorenzo made landfall in veracruz the same region of east @@ central mexico as hurricane dean did one month prior the hurricane primarily affected small fishing villages along the coast where strong winds knocked down power lines leaving about 85 @@ 000 people without electricity to prevent the danger of fallen wires officials shut off the power grid in several municipalities in northern veracruz the winds also destroyed the roofs of several houses in nautla in addition to the high winds lorenzo dropped heavy rainfall along the coast and further inland peaking at 12 @@ 83 in ( 326 mm ) in el <unk> veracruz the rains caused flash flooding and mudslides that killed at least four people including a family of three in puebla state landslides also closed portions of three highways in some locations floodwaters reached about 1 foot ( 300 mm ) in depth the combination of winds and rains damaged 169 houses in puebla while in hidalgo the san lorenzo river overflowed its banks and forced the evacuation of over 200 people <unk> rivers in veracruz forced about 25 @@ 000 people to leave their houses along the <unk> river more than 1 @@ 000 houses were flooded resulting in local police officials to assist in evacuations damage in veracruz was estimated at $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 usd ) much of it from road damage in the northern portion of the state
overall the hurricane affected 123 @@ 320 people across veracruz and hidalgo prompting the declaration of a state of emergency in 112 municipalities the declaration allowed the usage of emergency resources for the affected people there were a total of six deaths in the country five of which in puebla by about three days after the storm all schools were reopened the mexican government distributed food water and construction materials for the areas most affected in veracruz following the storm about 500 power workers were dispatched in veracruz to restore electricity in the affected areas


= cadmium =

cadmium is a chemical element with symbol cd and atomic number 48 this soft bluish @@ white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 zinc and mercury like zinc it demonstrates oxidation state + 2 in most of its compounds and like mercury it has a lower melting point than other transition metals cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states the average concentration of cadmium in earth 's crust is between 0 @@ 1 and 0 @@ 5 parts per million ( ppm ) it was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by stromeyer and hermann both in germany as an impurity in zinc carbonate
cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion @@ resistant plating on steel and cadmium compounds are used as red orange and yellow pigments to colour glass and to stabilize plastic cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic ( it is specifically listed in the european restriction of hazardous substances ) and nickel @@ cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel @@ metal hydride and lithium @@ ion batteries one of its few new uses is cadmium telluride solar panels
although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms a cadmium @@ dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms

= = characteristics = =


= = = physical properties = = =

cadmium is a soft malleable ductile bluish @@ white divalent metal it is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds unlike most other metals cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals as a bulk metal cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable however in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes

= = = chemical properties = = =

although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of + 2 it also exists in the + 1 state cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide ( <unk> ) the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated similar to zinc oxide hydrochloric acid sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride ( <unk> ) cadmium sulfate ( <unk> ) or cadmium nitrate ( cd ( no3 ) 2 ) the oxidation state + 1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride forming the <unk> + cation which is similar to the <unk> + cation in mercury ( i ) chloride
cd + <unk> + 2 alcl3 → <unk> ( <unk> ) 2
the structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases amino acids and vitamins have been determined

= = = isotopes = = =

naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes two of them are radioactive and three are expected to decay but have not done so under laboratory conditions the two natural radioactive isotopes are <unk> ( beta decay half @@ life is 7 @@ 7 × 1015 years ) and <unk> ( two @@ neutrino double beta decay half @@ life is 2 @@ 9 × 1019 years ) the other three are <unk> <unk> ( both double electron capture ) and <unk> ( double beta decay ) only lower limits on these half @@ lives have been determined at least three isotopes <unk> <unk> and <unk> are stable among the isotopes that do not occur naturally the most long @@ lived are <unk> with a half @@ life of 462 @@ 6 days and <unk> with a half @@ life of 53 @@ 46 hours all of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @@ lives of less than 2 @@ 5 hours and the majority have half @@ lives of less than 5 minutes cadmium has 8 known meta states with the most stable being <unk> ( t1 / 2
= 14 @@ 1 years ) <unk> ( t1 / 2 =
44 @@ 6 days ) and <unk> ( t1 / 2 = 3 @@ 36 hours )
the known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @@ 950 u ( <unk> ) to 131 @@ 946 u ( <unk> ) for isotopes lighter than 112 u the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 ( silver ) heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 ( indium )
one isotope of cadmium <unk> absorbs neutrons with high selectivity with very high probability neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut @@ off will be absorbed those higher than the cut @@ off will be transmitted the cadmium cut @@ off is about 0 @@ 5 ev and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons
cadmium is created via the long s @@ process in low @@ medium mass stars with masses of 0 @@ 6 to 10 solar masses taking thousands of years in that process a silver atom captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay

= = history = =

cadmium ( latin cadmia greek <unk> meaning calamine a cadmium @@ bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the greek mythological character <unk> cadmus the founder of thebes ) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by friedrich stromeyer and karl samuel leberecht hermann both in germany as an impurity in zinc carbonate stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate ( calamine ) and for 100 years germany remained the only important producer of the metal the metal was named after the latin word for calamine because it was found in this zinc compound stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not he was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide the potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s but the lack of cadmium limited this application
even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations the british pharmaceutical codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat enlarged joints scrofulous glands and chilblains
in 1907 the international astronomical union defined the international ångström in terms of a red cadmium spectral line ( 1 wavelength = <unk> @@ <unk> å ) this was adopted by the 7th general conference on weights and measures in 1927 in 1960 the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton
after the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion in 1944 62 and in 1956 59 of the cadmium in the united states was used for plating in 1956 24 of the cadmium in the united states was used for a second application in red orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium
the stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium <unk> and cadmium stearate on pvc led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s the demand for cadmium in pigments coatings stabilizers and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s in 2006 only 7 of to total cadmium consumption was used for plating and only 10 was used for pigments at the same time these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel @@ cadmium batteries which accounted for 81 of the cadmium consumption in the united states in 2006

= = occurrence = =

cadmium makes up about 0 @@ 1 mg kg − 1 ( ppm ) of earth 's crust typical background concentrations in other environmental media are atmosphere < 5 ng m − 3 soil < 2 mg kg − 1 vegetation < 0 @@ 5 mg kg − 1 freshwater < 1 ug l − 1 seawater < 50 ng l − 1 sediment < 2 mg kg − 1 compared with the more abundant 65 ppm zinc cadmium is rare no significant deposits of cadmium @@ containing ores are known <unk> ( cds ) the only cadmium mineral of importance is nearly always associated with sphalerite ( zns ) this association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium with no geological process likely to separate them thus cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining smelting and refining sulfidic ores of zinc and to a lesser degree lead and copper small amounts of cadmium about 10 of consumption are produced from secondary sources mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap production in the united states began in 1907 but not until after world war i did cadmium come into wide use
metallic cadmium can be found is the vilyuy river basin in siberia
rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg / kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium which ends up mostly in flue dust

= = production = =

the british geological survey reports that in 2001 china was the top producer of cadmium with almost one @@ sixth of the world 's production closely followed by south korea and japan
cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1 @@ 4 of cadmium in the 1970s the output of cadmium was 6 @@ 5 pounds per ton of zinc zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution

= = applications = =

cadmium is a common component of electric batteries pigments coatings and electroplating

= = = batteries = = =

in 2009 86 of cadmium was used in batteries predominantly in rechargeable nickel @@ cadmium batteries nickel @@ cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1 @@ 2 v the cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte ( potassium hydroxide ) the european union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0 @@ 01 with some exceptions and reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0 @@ 002

= = = <unk> = = =

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