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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119247/overview	Healthcare Professional Micro-credential Course Files Micro-credential Resources and Guidance Documents Healthcare Professional Micro-credential (Part 2 - Professionalism in Healthcare Series) Overview This micro-credential is designed to equip healthcare professionals with essential skills and knowledge to excel in their roles by emphasizing the importance of professionalism and customer service. Effective time management and organizational strategies will be covered. Students will explore the importance of personal appearance, positive attitude, and ethical behavior in healthcare. The topics of bias, prejudice, ethnocentrism, and cultural competence will be covered, all of which are essential for providing high-quality, patient-centered care. This micro-credential is part 2 of 3 of the Professionalism in Healthcare Series. ( Part 1 – Patient Centered Communicator, Part 3 – Teamwork & Interprofessional Collaborator) Content is accesible in the SCORM file or in the zip file. Reference resource documents such as the course roadmap for manual set up of this course. Micro-credential: Healthcare Professional Course Contents and Documents This micro-credential is designed to equip healthcare professionals with essential skills and knowledge to excel in their roles by emphasizing the importance of professionalism and customer service. Effective time management leading to organizational strategies will be introduced. Students will explore the importance of personal appearance, positive attitude, emotional intelligence, and other professional and ethical behavior in healthcare. The topics of empathy, bias, prejudice, ethnocentrism will be presented, all of which are essential for developing into a patient centered healthcare professional. Skills: Professionalism \| Empathy \| Customer Service \| Task Prioritization & Time Management \| Healthcare Ethical Standards & Conduct Content includes: Powerpoint lectures, supplementary videos (youtube), links to articles, various resources, activities, and assessments. Content can be accessed within the SCORM file or within the zip file - also see guidance documents. Content is delivered in an LMS - fully online, self-led. Micro-credential takes approximately 2-3 hours to complete.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.656043	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119247/overview", "title": "Healthcare Professional Micro-credential (Part 2 - Professionalism in Healthcare Series)", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95303/overview	simple cuboidal epi_surface of ovary_630x, p000129 Overview simple cuboidal epi_surface of ovary_630x \| one layer surface cells top layer is square looking with round nucleus \| simple cuboidal epi_surface of ovary_630x, p000129 simple cuboidal epi_surface of ovary_630x, p000129	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.668934	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95303/overview", "title": "simple cuboidal epi_surface of ovary_630x, p000129", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114857/overview	Breaking the "Golden Handcuffs" That Bind Courses to Commercial Homework Platforms with ADAPT Open Homework and Assessment Platform Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Breaking the "Golden Handcuffs" That Bind Courses to Commercial Homework Platforms with ADAPT Open Homework and Assessment Platform. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract One of the principal limiting factors in large scale adoption of OER is the absence of comparable free or low-cost homework platforms to complement existing and developing OER textbooks. This action lab addresses the LibreTexts efforts to remove this barrier by building and expanding the open-source ADAPT homework system - a central component of the "LibreVerse" ecosystem of courseware technologies - to supplant existing for-profit commercial systems. ADAPT is designed as a centralized OER question bank (>190 k questions) that combines adaptive learning incorporating learning trees with culturally responsive pedagogy for advanced use. We will demonstrate how instructors can use ADAPT to augment existing and newly constructed OER textbooks with summative exercises and embed them in LMSs, LibreTexts textbooks, in a standalone web application, and in-class clickers. Discussions will demonstrate how the ADAPT empowers faculty to build and use existing questions in multiple modalities. Presenter(s) - Delmar Larsen, CEO LibreTexts Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.682263	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114857/overview", "title": "Breaking the \"Golden Handcuffs\" That Bind Courses to Commercial Homework Platforms with ADAPT Open Homework and Assessment Platform", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114858/overview	Collective Wisdom for Adapting OER to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners: Crowdsourcing Top Tips Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Collective Wisdom for Adapting OER to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners: Crowdsourcing Top Tips. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract Adaptation is one of the superpowers of OER: the ability to localize educational materials to fit the unique needs of learners and the communities where they live, work, and learn. Adaptation also empowers educators to engage students more deeply in the learning process and try out innovative pedagogies. Successful adaptation projects carefully consider multiple dimensions: (a) Which learners are we designing for, how well do we understand their needs and the outcomes we seek? (b) Which resources will we adapt, and what shape will adaptation take? (c) What work will be required, who will be involved, and how will work be structured? (d) What technology and technical supports are needed to ensure success? The starting point for this workshop is a “Top Tips” framing document developed by the session presenters and based on their experiences supporting many different adaptation projects and organized according to the dimensions listed above. Using a structured process for hands-on participation, the workshop invites attendees to engage with and add to the “Top Tips” to capture collective wisdom about how to make adaptation projects successful. The result will be a shared CC-BY resource to support educators’ success as they tap into the superpower of adapting OER. Presenter(s) - Julie Curtis, VP Growth & Strategy, Pressbooks - Kaitlin Schilling, Rebus Foundation Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.695863	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114858/overview", "title": "Collective Wisdom for Adapting OER to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners: Crowdsourcing Top Tips", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114856/overview	If You Can't Beat Em Join Em Presentation OER_Library-Licensed Material Reporting Form Report an Access Issue Form Request a Consultation Form If You Can't Beat 'Em, Join 'Em (Kind Of) Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: If You Can't Beat 'Em, Join 'Em (Kind Of). This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, Resources, and Recording Session Abstract Inclusive Access programs threaten the OER movement at universities by claiming affordability, but not being nearly as affordable as a free resource. As more and more institutions join these programs, it is important to still fight for OER use in the classroom, even if students are now getting "cheaper" textbooks. This presentation will show one way to promote true textbook affordability, while staying on the bookstore's good side. Presenter(s) - Amanda Janke, Library Specialist at Winthrop University Resources - Presentation PowerPoint - Course eBook Request Form - OER/Library-Licensed Material Reporting Form - Report an Access Issue Form - Request a Consultation Form Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.718205	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114856/overview", "title": "If You Can't Beat 'Em, Join 'Em (Kind Of)", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114853/overview	Arizona OER Leader Panel Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Arizona OER Leader Panel. This resource includes the session abstract, presenters information, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, and Recording Session Abstract The OER Leader Panel has gathered experts and thought leaders in the field to discuss the current landscape, challenges, and future directions of OER in Arizona. The panelists will provide insights into the importance of OER in education, its impact on accessibility, equity, and affordability, and strategies for sustainability and long term impact. Presenter(s) - Michael Amick, Vice President of Distance Education, Pima Community College - Dr. John Georgas, Sr. Vice Provost, Northern Arizona University - Dean Holbrook, Associate Vice President of Instructional Support, Yavapai College - Dr. Eric Leshinskie, President, Scottsdale Community College - Dr. Lucinda Leugers, Dean of General Education, Mohave Community College - Moderator: Dr. Lisa Young, Faculty Administrator of Open Education Program & Innovation, Maricopa Community College District Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.732009	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114853/overview", "title": "Arizona OER Leader Panel", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91052/overview	Higher Education Syllabus Sharing - Todd Kler Overview This template is for Higher Education courses to share their syllabus, with a focus on opportunities to collaborate. Syllabus Content	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.748830	03/18/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91052/overview", "title": "Higher Education Syllabus Sharing - Todd Kler", "author": "Todd Kler" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119822/overview	Gate Asset 2 Gate Asset 3 Gate Asset 4 Tunnel Asset Building your First Game: An Infinite Runner Overview Course Overview: Building an Endless Runner Game in Unreal Engine This course is designed for aspiring game developers and educators looking to learn Unreal Engine through a hands-on project: building an endless runner game. The course introduces essential game development concepts, focusing on visual scripting using Blueprints, and provides a step-by-step guide to creating an engaging and functional game. Students will build a game where a ball character navigates through a procedurally generated tunnel, avoiding obstacles and passing through gates to score points. By the end of the course, learners will have developed a fully functional endless runner and gained foundational skills to expand their game development knowledge. Course Overview The course is designed to help those without a ton of video game experience to be able to not only get started making video games, but also help the instructors with suggestions for how to teach this. You as the instructor should not have to do a lot of trouble shooting or bug fixing, this game is extremely simple and can be replicated by anyone. I will attach resources that students can use without making their own, such as the tunnel or obstacles, but you can choose to provide those or not if you are also teaching 3D modelling. This beginner-friendly course teaches students to create a fully functional endless runner game in Unreal Engine, no prior experience needed. Starting with basic familiarity with computers, students will learn to build, program, and export a game from scratch using Unreal’s visual scripting system, Blueprints. Course Highlights: - Software Setup: Get familiar with Unreal Engine by setting up the project and learning the essentials of navigation and scene setup. - Creating Gameplay Elements: Use Unreal Engine’s pre-made shapes to represent the player character and obstacles, eliminating the need for external modeling software. - Programming with Blueprints: Dive into Unreal’s Blueprints to set up player movement, controls, and infinite spawning for the tunnel, creating an endless runner effect. - Dynamic Obstacle System: Add randomly changing gates to increase difficulty and create excitement. - Implementing Scoring and Final UI: Set up a scoring system and display it on the screen to track player progress. - Final Export: Package the game into a playable format, allowing students to enjoy and share their game. By course completion, students will have a working endless runner game, gaining practical experience with game mechanics, programming logic, and Unreal Engine’s powerful toolkit. Content Sections If you would like to include a 3D modelling component to this, you could either have the students create objects for the game at the start of the course, or you can introduce it when you reach chapter 4 and begin designing obstacles. Either way should flow naturally. Chapter 1: Setting Up Unreal Engine and Your Project - Learning Objectives: Download, install, and configure Unreal Engine; understand basic navigation and project setup. - Content: Guide to setting up a new project in Unreal Engine, and configuring the environment for an endless runner. Chapter 2: Building Basic Gameplay Elements Using Blueprints - Learning Objectives: Introduction to Unreal’s Blueprints visual scripting system; creating a player character and basic controls. - Content: Setup of a simple player character using Unreal’s built-in shapes and adding controls. Chapter 3: Creating the Infinite Tunnel System - Learning Objectives: Understand procedural generation and use Blueprints to spawn level segments continuously. - Content: Set up Blueprint logic to create an infinitely spawning tunnel effect, enabling the player to progress endlessly. - Hands-On: Adjust movement speed to experiment with gameplay pace. Chapter 4: Adding Obstacles for Dynamic Gameplay - Learning Objectives: Introduce randomly changing gates to add challenge and excitement. - Content: Design Blueprint scripts to spawn gates, configure collision detection, and test obstacle interactions. Chapter 5: Implementing a Scoring System and Final UI - Learning Objectives: Set up a scoring mechanism that rewards player progress or actions. - Content: Build scoring logic in Blueprints, display score on the UI, and add feedback to encourage players. - Try It Out: Adjust scoring to test different ways to incentivize gameplay (e.g., number of points for obstacles avoided). Chapter 6: Packaging and Exporting the Finished Game - Learning Objectives: Export the project as a playable file, allowing students to play and share their game. - Content: Overview of packaging options, adjusting final project settings, and exporting for PC or other platforms. - Wrap-Up: Review the complete game and discuss ways students could expand it on their own. Chapter 1: Setting Up Unreal Engine and Your Project Thankfully when Epic made the switch to Unreal Engine 5, they kept much of how Unreal Engine 4 worked. If you understand Unreal Engine 5, you'll understand 4, and vice versa. Unreal Engine 5 has some new tools, but we won't be using them and they do not interfere with the core concepts. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, students will: - Install Unreal Engine (version 5 or an alternative version if needed). - Create a new project with starter content. - Familiarize themselves with navigating Unreal Engine’s interface. 1.1 Installing Unreal Engine Step 1: Download and Install the Epic Games Launcher - Go to Epic Games’ Unreal Engine page. - Click on Download and install the Epic Games Launcher. Step 2: Install Unreal Engine 5 or an Alternative - Once installed, open the Epic Games Launcher. - Go to the Unreal Engine tab in the left sidebar. - Under Engine Versions, click Install next to the latest version, which should be Unreal Engine 5. - If your computer can’t run UE5, choose Add Versions in the Engine Versions dropdown and select Unreal Engine 4.27 as an alternative. Step 3: Launch Unreal Engine - After installation, click Launch next to your chosen engine version. 1.2 Creating a New Project in Unreal Engine Step 1: Open the New Project Window - When Unreal Engine launches, you’ll see a Project Browser window. This is where you’ll start new projects or open saved ones. - In the Project Browser, go to the Games category, then select Blank to create an empty game project. Step 2: Configure Project Settings - Select Blueprint as the project type, since this course will focus on Unreal’s visual scripting system. - Ensure Starter Content is enabled to have access to basic assets, which will be helpful for beginners. - Leave Ray Tracing disabled for performance, unless you have a high-end PC. - Under Target Platforms, select Desktop/Console and Maximum Quality for graphics settings. Step 3: Name and Save the Project - At the bottom of the window, type in a project name like “EndlessRunner.” - Choose a file location where the project will be saved, and then click Create. 1.3 Navigating the Unreal Engine Interface Once the project opens, you’ll see the Unreal Editor interface. Here’s a quick overview of key sections: Main Interface Areas - Viewport: The large central area where you’ll see the game world. You can rotate, move, and zoom to view your scene from any angle. - Outliner: Located on the right, this lists all objects in your current scene. Think of it as a directory for managing everything in your level. - Content Browser: At the bottom, this is your asset library, where you’ll find textures, models, sounds, and more. - Details Panel: To the right, showing detailed properties of any object you select in the viewport. Basic Navigation Controls - Moving the Camera: - Use the right mouse button to look around. - W, A, S, D keys allow movement like in a first-person game, while holding the right mouse button. - Zooming In and Out: - Use the scroll wheel to zoom in and out. - Adjusting Speed: - You can change the camera speed in the top-right corner of the viewport if movements feel too slow or too fast. 1.4 Saving Your Project - To save, go to File > Save All. Make a habit of saving often as you work! Summary In this chapter, you learned how to install and launch Unreal Engine, create a new game project, and navigate the interface. With these steps complete, you’re ready to start building your endless runner game. Chapter 2: Building Basic Gameplay Elements Using Blueprints Students may comment about how dark their scenes may be, encourage them to play around with the settings within the player character's Point Light. Even without changing object materials or setting up emissive textures, students can achieve fun lighting effects off of this one light. Students can also experiment with changing the size of the player, but this can have additional unintended effects when not scaled with the other objects. 1. Create a New Player Character Blueprint - Open Unreal Engine and navigate to the Content Browser. - Right-click in the Content Browser, select Blueprint Class, and choose Pawn as the base class. - Name this Blueprint BallPlayer. 2. Set Up the Ball Shape for the Player Character - Open the BallPlayer Blueprint. - In the Components panel, click Add Component and select Sphere. - Rename it to BallMesh (or any descriptive name). - Adjust the sphere’s size if needed using the Transform panel on the right. - In the Components panel, click Add Component and select Point Light. - Set the Point Light's Intensity to 50,000, and the Attenuation Radius to 20,000. This can be adjusted to get the area lit up as needed. 3. Add a Camera Component - To give players a view of the ball, add a Camera component: - Click Add Component and select Camera. - Position the Camera Directly Behind the Ball: In the Details panel, set the X-axis to a moderate distance (like -20 – -30) to keep it close behind the ball. - Set the Rotation of the Camera: - Set Pitch to 0 (this keeps the camera level). - Set Yaw to 0 to align it directly behind the ball. - Roll should also be 0. Update the Ball Movement to Move Forward Automatically: - Go back to the Event Graph in the Ball Character Blueprint. - Add a new Tick Event: - Right-click and type Event Tick to place it in the Event Graph. - Connect this to two Branches checking two boolean values that you need to create, Is Started and Is Dead. - Multiply your Delta Seconds from your Event Tick by a float variable you should name Move Speed. - Run the false Branch into a Add Actor World Offset. Run the multiplication result into the Delta Location X. - This will cause the ball to constantly move forward, and the camera will follow right behind, creating the classic endless runner feel. For now, click on the Move Speed variable and set its value to 900. - Click Add Component and select Camera. 4. Set Up Basic Controls for Mouse-Based Movement - We’ll use input from the mouse to control the ball’s movement on the screen. - Unreal Engine allows for input mappings through Project Settings. Set Up Input Mappings: - Go to Edit > Project Settings > Input. - Under Axis Mappings, add two new axes: - Name the first MoveRight. Assign Mouse X to it with a Scale of 1.0. - Name the second MoveUp. Assign Mouse Y to it with a Scale of 1.0. Implement Mouse Controls in Blueprints: - Return to the BallPlayer Blueprint. - In the Event Graph, create two nodes for movement: - InputAxis MoveRight and InputAxis MoveUp. - Connect these to add lateral movement to the ball: - From InputAxis MoveRight, drag out and connect to an Add Movement Input node. - For the Direction vector, get it from a Get Actor Right Vector node. - For the Scale, use the Axis Value from InputAxis MoveRight multiplied by Move Speed. - Repeat this for InputAxis MoveUp, setting the Direction from a Get Actor Up Vector node. - Both of these node can then be ran into Consume Movement Input Vector. This is being done so that player sensitivity can be set. - From that return node, multiply it by a new float variable called Sensitivity. This should be set to 0.05 to start but can be changed for what feels best. - The result from that multiplication and the executable from Consume Movement Input Vector into Add Actor Local Offset. 5. Test and Adjust - Click Compile and Save in the Blueprint Editor. - Place the BallPlayer Blueprint into your level from the Content Browser. - Play the level and test the mouse controls. - Adjust the input sensitivity or camera position if needed to get the movement feel you want. If it gives you any issues, make sure your boolean variables are set to the right state for testing. Chapter 3: Creating the Infinite Tunnel System The measurements in this course are based upon the provided Tunnel Asset. Students are free to use whatever asset they would like for their tunnels, but ensure they understand that numbers will need to be changed for the game to work properly. If students have issues with collision, please make sure they know to remove their Simple Collision and set their objects to Use Complex Collision as Simple. If they continue to have problems, they can delete the Simple Collision. 1. Setting Up the Blueprint for Spawning Segments Blueprint Setup: Create a Blueprint Actor specifically for your tunnel segment: - Name this Actor BP_TunnelSegment . Adding Components: For each BP_TunnelSegment , include: - Tunnel Mesh – A visible tunnel mesh or shape to represent the segment. - Box Collision – Positioned at X = 2532 to detect when the player reaches the end of the segment. This triggers the next tunnel segment to spawn. - Spawn Point (Scene Component) – Position this component at X = 2500 on the X axis at the end of the segment. This will serve as the location from which new tunnel segments will spawn. 2. Building the Infinite Spawning System We’ll now set up Blueprint logic in BP_TunnelSpawn to spawn tunnel segments endlessly as the player progresses. Step 1: Set Up the BP_TunnelSpawn Blueprint Create a Blueprint Class: - Go to the Content Browser, select Blueprint Class, and choose Actor. Name this Blueprint BP_TunnelSpawn . - Go to the Content Browser, select Blueprint Class, and choose Actor. Name this Blueprint Set Up the Initial Spawn Function: Within BP_TunnelSpawn , create a function called Spawn Initial Tunnels.Add a Sequence node at the start to run two processes: - First Sequence Pin: Plug this into Get All Actors of Class and select BP_TunnelSegment . This should flow into a For Each Loop with its loop body connected to a Destroy Actor node, clearing any lingering tunnel segments from previous sessions. - Second Sequence Pin: Connect this to a For Loop with a first index of 0 and last index of 2, ensuring there are always two segments in front of the player to prevent them from seeing the end of the tunnel. - First Sequence Pin: Plug this into Get All Actors of Class and select Create Validity Check and Spawn Function: - Within the For Loop, add an Is Valid node. - Create a variable called NewestTunnel of the actor type BP_TunnelSegment and plug this into the Is Valid node to check if there is an existing tunnel. Step 2: Building Your First Spawn Function - Create the SpawnTunnel Function: - If the Is Valid node is False, create a new function called SpawnTunnel with a vector input named Spawn Location. - Within this function, add Spawn Actor From Class and connect the Spawn Location vector to Spawn Transform Location. Set this to spawn the BP_TunnelSegment class. - Promote the return value of the spawned actor to a variable called NewestTunnel. - In BP_TunnelSegment , create a variable named Tunnel Spawner of actor typeBP_TunnelSpawn . - Return to BP_TunnelSpawn and use NewestTunnel to set Tunnel Spawner to a reference of self. - If the Is Valid node is False, create a new function called SpawnTunnel with a vector input named Spawn Location. Step 3. Spawning Continuous Tunnels - Add Spawn Tunnel at Spawn Point Function: - After checking Is Valid, create another function called Spawn Tunnel at Spawn Point. - Connect this function’s executable to the SpawnTunnel function created earlier. - Use NewestTunnel to get the Spawn Point Scene Component created in BP_TunnelSegment , and use Get World Location to feed into Spawn Location in theSpawnTunnel function. - After checking Is Valid, create another function called Spawn Tunnel at Spawn Point. Step 4. Spawning Tunnels on Overlap On Component Begin Overlap Event: - In BP_TunnelSegment , add an On Component Begin Overlap event to the Box Collision component. - Use Cast To BallPlayer to ensure that it’s the player overlapping with the Box Collision. - If the overlap is valid, use Tunnel Spawner to call Spawn Tunnel at Spawn Point. - After spawning a new segment, connect this executable to a Destroy Actor node to delete the old tunnel segments behind the player. - In Add BP_TunnelSpawn to the Map: - Finally, place the BP_TunnelSpawn Blueprint into the map at the player spawn location. It will now know to spawn the initial tunnels at the start of gameplay. - Finally, place the Chapter 4: Adding Obstacles for Dynamic Gameplay Feel free to add more static meshes as gates, these objects are just a starting point. This would be a great point to pivot into 3D modelling, as they gates can be any kind of an object. Our studio had a lot of success with using abstract objects as the gates, those offer a lot of freedom in creative design. If students have issues with collision, please make sure they know to remove their Simple Collision and set their objects to Use Complex Collision as Simple. If they continue to have problems, they can delete the Simple Collision. Chapter 4: Building and Configuring Gates for Scoring In this chapter, we’ll set up gates within each tunnel segment for players to pass through. These gates will play a central role in the game’s scoring system, as they’ll be used to track player progress and calculate points. We’ll also cover collision detection to handle game-over events and create a simple restart interface for a seamless gameplay experience. 1. Building Obstacle Gates Setting up the Gate Mesh - In the BP_TunnelSegment blueprint, add a newStatic Mesh component and name it “Gate.” Set the default mesh to one of the provided gate meshes. - Position the gate within the segment by setting its X location to 2470 to align it correctly within the tunnel. Randomizing the Gate Appearance - Create a new function within BP_TunnelSegment calledRandomize Wall . - Within this function, reference the Gate static mesh component and add aSet Static Mesh node to it. - Next, add a Random Integer in Range node, setting its minimum to0 and maximum to the total number of gate meshes minus one. - Connect the integer output to a Select node. - Right click one of the Option pins on the Select node and select Change Pin Type. - Select a Static Mesh Object Reference type to change the Option pins to Static Mesh selectors. - Assign each option to one of the different gate meshes available. This will allow the gate to randomly select from multiple designs. - Connect the output of the Select node to theNew Mesh input of theSet Static Mesh node to finalize the randomization. - After the gate mesh is set, add an Add Local Rotation node to apply a random rotation to the gate:- Create a Random Float in Range node with values between0.0 and360.0 . - Use this float output to set the Delta Rotation X in the Add Local Rotation node, giving each gate a unique rotation within the tunnel. - Create a Integrating Randomization with the Spawner - In BP_TunnelSpawner , within theSpawnTunnel function, call theRandomize Wall function from theNewest Tunnel variable reference. This will ensure each spawned tunnel has a unique gate. Adding Continuous Rotation - Return to BP_TunnelSegment and locate or add theEvent Tick node. - Multiply the Delta Seconds value fromEvent Tick by a new float variable calledRotateSpeed , with a default value of30 . This can be modified and randomized later. - Use the result to control the X-axis rotation in an Add Local Rotation node. Connect both the tunnel and gate static mesh references to this node, allowing them to rotate continuously throughout gameplay. 2. Configuring Collision Detection Setting up Collision for Gates - In BP_TunnelSegment , select the static mesh component used for the gate and add anOn Component Begin Overlap event. - To ensure collision only triggers when the player hits the gate, use a Branch node with a condition to check that the overlapping actor is the player character. - When the condition is met, set the player variable Is Dead totrue to stop movement. - Then, use a Set Hidden In Game node to hide the player character model, marking the end of the game-over sequence. 3. Creating the Restart UI Designing the Game-Over Menu - In the Content Browser, create a new Widget Blueprint (e.g., BP_RestartMenu ). - Within the widget, add a Canvas Panel from the Palette in the top right. Then, add a Text component and aButton . - Click on the Text Component and drag the white Anchor to the center of the Canvas Panel. Do this again with the Button. - Drag the Text and Button where you would like them on the Canvas Panel. - Select the Text Component and using the Text option in the Details panel on the right, add a message like "Game Over" to your Text Component. You can use the Font options and the handles around the Text to change the size of the component. - Drag a Text Component from the Palette on top of the Button to nest a new Text Component inside the Button. Change the text of that Text Component to "Restart". - Select the Button and check the box for "Size to Content" to resize the Button to fit around your Restart text. Adding Restart Functionality - Select the button and create an On Clicked event. Within this event, use anOpen Level (by name) node and type in the exact name of your level to reload the current level, resetting the game to its starting state. 4. Displaying the UI on Collision - At the end of the game-over sequence in BP_TunnelSegment , add a Create Widget node and select theBP_RestartMenu widget. - Connect the widget’s return value to an Add to Viewport node, ensuring the game-over screen displays when the player collides with a gate. - At the end of the Add to Viewport node, add a Cast to PlayerController node and add a GetPlayerController node to the Object pin. Drag off As Player Controller and create a node called Set Show Mouse Cursor. Set this to True. NOTE: If your static meshes for the gates are giving you collision problems, be sure to open up the static mesh and ensure it is using Complex Collision and not Simple Collision. Chapter 5: Implementing a Scoring System and Final UI Encourage students to look beyond what they set up in this chapter. This establishes a great framework with the scoring system as well as an easy to use UI that can be expanded upon. See if students can think of ways to track streaks, or multipliers, this can help form more complex math equations to produce more interesting feedback. 1. Setting Up the Gate-Based Scoring System Add a Score Variable - In the player character Blueprint, create an Integer Variable called Score to track the player’s current score. 2. Displaying the Score on the UI Create a Score Widget - In the Content Browser, create a new Widget Blueprint called BP_ScoreUI. - Inside the Widget, add a Canvas Panel and a Horizontal Box for organizing score information. - Add a Text component to the Horizontal Box and set its text to say "Score:". - Add a Spacer immediately after the text component, setting the X size to 10. - Add another Text component after the spacer for displaying the score. - In the Event Graph, create an Event Construct node. - From this node, cast to BallPlayer using Get Player Pawn as the object reference. - Promote the return variable to a variable named PlayerRef. - In the Widget Designer, select the second text component (the one for the score data), scroll to the Text input, and create a binding. - In the binding, use PlayerRef to access the Score variable. Connect the Score variable directly to the Return Node. This automatically converts the integer to text and updates it whenever the score changes. - In the binding, use PlayerRef to access the Score variable. Connect the Score variable directly to the Return Node. This automatically converts the integer to text and updates it whenever the score changes. - Move the Horizontal Box to the top-left corner and set its anchor to the top-left. If needed, enable Size to Content for the Horizontal Box. Add the UI to the Viewport - In the Level Blueprint, create an EventBeginPlay to display BP_ScoreUI at the game start. - Use a Create Widget node to create an instance of BP_ScoreUI, then an Add to Viewport node to show it on screen. 3. Adding Score Functionality for Passing Through Gates - In BP_TunnelSegment, add a Box Collision component named TriggerZone. - Set its Location on the X-axis to 2532 and Box Extent to 32, 500, 500. - In the Event Graph, create an On Component Begin Overlap node for TriggerZone. - Connect the executable and other actor nodes to a Cast to Player Character node. - Use the Score variable to increment the player’s score by 1, then set it using the Set Score node. - At the end, add a reference to the Tunnel Spawner and call the Spawn Tunnel at Spawn Point function. - Run the executable into a Destroy Actor node. 4. Setting Up a Start UI Create the Start Widget - Create a new Widget called Start. - Add a Canvas Panel and a Button in the center of the Widget, setting its anchor to center as well. - Attach a Text component to the Button, and set the text to say "Start". - Resize the Button to fit the "Start" text. Configure Start Button Actions - In the Event Graph, add a Event Construct node. - Cast to the Player Controller and use it to create a Set Show Mouse Cursor node, setting it to True. - Back in the Designer, select the Button component, go to Events, and create an On Clicked event. - From this event, cast to BallPlayer using a GetPlayerPawn node. - From the BallPlayer cast, set the Is Started variable to True. - Reference the Player Controller to create a Set Show Mouse Cursor node, setting it to False. - Finally, add a Remove from Parent node to remove the Start widget from the screen. Display the Start Widget - In the Level Blueprint, add a Create Widget node to display the Start Widget at game start, followed by an Add to Viewport node. - Place this code immediately after the Score Widget creation. Try It Out: Testing Scoring and Feedback Your game should now be fully functional and playable. If you encounter any issues with starting the game, check the BallPlayer Blueprint: - Ensure Is Started is set to False by default. - Ensure Is Dead is set to False by default. Chapter 6: Packaging and Exporting the Finished Game This should be one of the shortest lessons and should give a lot of time for reflection and feedback, here is a sample guideline of how to have students evaluate what they have created: Wrap-Up: Reviewing and Expanding the Game Game Review: - Encourage students to review their game and consider what they’ve built. Let them play through it to observe any areas for refinement, such as scoring, UI, or obstacles. Discussion on Expanding the Game: - Suggest ways to expand the project, such as: - Adding new tunnel designs or backgrounds. - Implementing power-ups or new scoring mechanics. - Experimenting with more complex obstacles or an evolving difficulty level. - Suggest ways to expand the project, such as: 1. Preparing the Project for Export Check Project Settings: - Open Project Settings from the Edit menu. Here, you’ll set the target platform and optimize settings. - Maps & Modes: Ensure the correct Game Mode is selected and set the appropriate Default Map for the game’s opening level. Under Maps & Modes, set both the Editor Startup Map and Game Default Map to the starting level of the game. - Open Project Settings from the Edit menu. Here, you’ll set the target platform and optimize settings. 2. Configuring Packaging Options - In Project Settings > Packaging: - Build Configuration: Set to Shipping for a final build, which removes debug information and optimizes performance. - Full Rebuild: Enable this option to ensure a clean build, free of temporary or old data. - Use Pak File: Enabling this option packages all game content into a single file, which makes distribution cleaner and can improve load times. - Include Prerequisites: Enable this if you want the installer to include necessary components like DirectX for Windows or Metal for Mac. 3. Packaging the Game for Windows Select Build Configuration: - In the Main Editor, go to Platforms > Windows and choose Package Project. - Choose a target directory where the packaged game will be saved. Initiate Packaging: - Click on the chosen Windows option, and Unreal Engine will begin the packaging process. This may take a few minutes depending on the complexity of your game. Testing the Packaged Game: - Once the packaging completes, go to the saved directory and test the executable file ( .exe ) to ensure the game runs as expected. - Verify that all gameplay elements, graphics, and sound work correctly outside the Unreal editor. - Once the packaging completes, go to the saved directory and test the executable file ( 5. Creating a Final Build for Sharing - Folder Structure: - For both Windows and Mac, package all the files within the build folder into a single zip file to simplify sharing. Include any ReadMe files or controls guides if necessary. 6. Testing and Troubleshooting Common Issues - Test on different machines if possible to identify any platform-specific issues. - If you encounter errors, return to Project Settings and verify that your settings match the target platform requirements. Conclusion A few years ago, I stumbled upon a Twitter thread that easily explained how to build an entire game from scratch in just six posts. Unfortunately, that thread has since disappeared, as well as any trace of it on the internet. Inspired by that simple resource, I wanted to recreate it to the best of my ability. My goal is to provide a tool for aspiring game developers—one that enables anyone, regardless of prior experience, to create a great first project. Massive thanks to Dogwood Gaming for making this all possible! Created by: Samuel Martino Tyler Ulsch	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.827196	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/119822/overview", "title": "Building your First Game: An Infinite Runner", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96656/overview	Nassella pulchra p000072 Overview Nassella seeds germinated in water. Image credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Light background with long, yellow and tan rods covered with tiny white, hairlike projections.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.846164	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96656/overview", "title": "Nassella pulchra p000072", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114419/overview	Library Research for Academic Writing Overview This resource will provide college students with the skills necessary to find academic articles in support of a research writing assignment. This resource is written for a college level reader. The exercises are intended to be accomplished by using your college or university library website and the research resources on it. While this resource can be accomplished independently, it has been written to serve as instruction within a research methods course and assumes that students have an actual research project to which they can apply these strategies. Introduction Instructor Notes: The reading and exercises in this resource can be adapted to several different disciplines. It has been written in generalized language so that instructors can easily make changes to customize the resource to their course. Because of the general nature of the exercises, instructors may need to clarify some aspects of the tasks or specify what tools should be used based on the student's home institution. Welcome to Library Research for Academic Writing. This resource is written for a college level reader and the exercises are intended to be accomplished by using your college or university library website and the research resources on it. While this resource can be accomplished independently, it has been written to serve as instruction within a research methods course and assumes that you have an actual research project to which you can apply these strategies. Let’s look at a common college writing scenario: you are assigned to write a research paper, an annotated bibliography or a literature review. Maybe your project involves each of these steps. Where do you begin, and how can you find the best and most reliable writing from all the information available to you, whether it is in print or in an online format? If you understand this reading and perform the practice exercises recommended here, you can develop the skills you need to be a sophisticated online searcher who can independently explore any topic you are assigned in school; any project you are given in your future career; or any interest you have in your personal life. Not only will you be able to find and access the information, but you will also have the knowledge to make decisions about the quality and credibility of any information. If this sounds like a valuable academic skill, it is! It is also a valuable job skill and a valuable life skill. So read on and join me in becoming a better student and entering the world of scholarly research! Annotated Bibliography, Literature Review, or Both?* The annotated bibliography comes in various forms and serves a variety of purposes. Thus, authors might include an annotated bibliography at the end of their text to offer further reading. Advanced students might be required to produce an extended annotated bibliography before they begin their dissertation. Students might create an annotated bibliography at the preliminary stage of their research. Writing an annotated bibliography helps researchers organize their sources and gain perspective on the larger conversation about their topic. It is a list of sources (or a bibliography) divided into two parts: The first part, the citation, contains basic information about the source, such as the author’s name, the title of the work, and the date of publication. The second part contains individual paragraphs that describe, evaluate, or summarize each source. The annotated bibliography serves as a foundation for a larger project, like a college-level research paper. An academic literature review serves a similar purpose to an annotated bibliography, summarizing existing research, but it takes a different form and is more evaluative. Literature reviews are an indispensable tool for researchers. Instead of having to read dozens of articles on a topic, a researcher could instead read a literature review that synthesizes what is known and puts each piece of scholarship into conversation with the others. This could be not only quicker, but also more valuable. The job of a literature review is to examine a collection of research or scholarship on a given topic and show how that scholarship fits together. Literature reviews summarize, describe, evaluate, and synthesize the work of other authors and researchers while looking for common trends/patterns, themes, inconsistencies, and gaps in this previous research. As the author of the literature review, it is your job to join the pieces together, giving your reader a complete picture of what researchers know about your topic. Literature reviews occur in two general forms—as a background section in a scholarly work or as a stand-alone genre in and of itself. In both situations, the basic purpose and structure of the literature review is similar: it is the length and the scope that varies. In undergraduate study the Traditional or Narrative Review as a background section is most common. Narrative reviews are somewhat exploratory in their content—in a narrative review you are synthesizing the results of specific texts selected for their connection to your topic. Other types of literature reviews, those which are stand-alone publications include a Systematic Review and a Scoping Review. Narrative Reviews can also serve as stand-alone pieces of writing. Systematic reviews provide comprehensive coverage of the research on a specific line of inquiry. In a systematic review, the methodology section is a primary component so readers can verify that all relevant research has been included. These are frequently used in Medicine and Social Sciences. In a scoping review, the purpose is to identify the types of research on a topic and gaps in current research being performed. The focus is often on new and developing, possibly incomplete, research. Want to learn more? Visit these resources Costello, V. (2023). Annotated Bibliography. In Writing for Inquiry and Research. Windsor & Downs Press. https://doi.org/10.21900/wd.19 Williams, C. (2023). Literature Review. In Writing for Inquiry and Research. Windsor & Downs Press. https://doi.org/10.21900/wd.19 This section reuses and revises text from the OER: Costello, V. (2023). Annotated Bibliography. In Writing for Inquiry and Research. Windsor & Downs Press. https://doi.org/10.21900/wd.19 Exploring Your Field Instructor Notes: Students may find that there are multiple entries in general encyclopedias relevant to their search. They may also be able to identify entire encyclopedias specific to their area of interest. This exercise is intended to encourage their exploration of encyclpoedia entries (2000-5000 words) rather than book length works. A good response to this exercise will include a thoughtful answer to item four, "Record any salient terms, theories, research or events that will help you in your literature search." What will you study? If you are reading this you are probably a college student in a class with a research project component. Whether it is a Natural Science, Social Science, Professional Studies, or Arts and Humanities, academic scholarship is categorized into a discipline. What makes scholarship part of a discipline is the subject matter, the approach taken by the author toward that subject matter, and the methods of inquiry and analysis that the author or authors employ. In addition, whatever that discipline might be, it will be divided into several subfields or subdisciplines. Before we dive into the strategy of online searching, we need to make some decisions about the scope of the topic we are investigating so we can rule out irrelevant information and make informed decisions about where we will look for the academic literature on your topic. Ask yourself these questions: In what area or subdiscipline do your interests lie? What are the major questions or ideas in this subdiscipline? What do you already know about the subject matter? Depending on your assignment, you may already have the scope of your subject decided for you, which makes the next decision that much easier. However, if you have a lot of latitude for subjects to study, it might be useful to do a few short readings to help you narrow down your choices. Appropriate, credible, high quality readings on commonly studied ideas, events, or people within a subject area can be found in general encyclopedias, subject encyclopedias, biographical dictionaries, historical dictionaries, handbooks and manuals and research guides. All of these types of reference works, whether print or online (and sometimes both) are available at an academic library. For problem-free and fast access to these tools, ask the librarians at your university or college library for help finding and using these information resources. Wait a second. You are really busy. You have other classes and a job and maybe you didn’t start on this assignment right away. You might be asking yourself, “why do I have to do this pre-work before I can choose a topic?” Learning a bit about the topic will help you decide if you are really interested in the subject. Your interest will help you sustain effort in the project, thereby producing better work. It is a lot easier to research and write about something you are genuinely interested in than something you don’t care about. It will save you time in the long run One of the things you are doing by reading short, factual pieces about a topic is that you are learning the subject terminology, names of theories and theoretical concepts, names of important scholars, and research in the topic, and perhaps key people and events. You are learning the language of your discipline. This knowledge will serve you well as you continue researching the literature. Keep notes and lists on what you read and collect citations and permalinks to materials so you can get back to them easily when you need to. When you have identified and read a few encyclopedia entries and selected a topic of inquiry, you are ready to start developing a research question. Exercise I Perform the following tasks - Using your library resources or your favorite free search engine, identify two or more encyclopedia entries in a subfield of your discipline. If you are using a search engine, Wikipedia is acceptable. If you discover there are entire encyclopedias dedicated to your field or subfield, dig a little deeper and identify specific entries in the encyclopedias. - Read these entries and summarize them in two or three sentences in a document. - Cite the entries in the style required by your assignment. - Record any salient terms, theories, research or events that will help you in your literature search. Ask the librarians at your school for guidance in finding the encyclopedias either online, or as print or electronic books. Developing a Good Research Question Your particular research question and the methods by which you will conduct research, such as data selection, and/or collection, and data analysis, are subject to your assignment and your instructor’s approval. We are interested in knowing how and where to find relevant, credible scholarship on a topic. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are adequately covered in textbooks, and there are many handbooks on research methods in the Social Sciences. However, we can make some general observations about common aspects of good research questions. Your research project has clear time and resource constraints. Do you have a few weeks for the project or an entire semester? When developing a good research question, you need to know if it can be accomplished in the time allowed and with the resources at your disposal. Another important consideration is the relevance to the field. How much has already been studied in the area? Will there be a sufficient body of literature interrogating the subject that you will be able to draw upon to help you state your ideas? Alternatively, is your question a matter of debate? Has the question you wish to ask already been answered to the satisfaction of most scholars in the field? If the topic is dependent on recent events or phenomena, has it been so little studied that you can’t find adequate research to provide you with a context for your work? Remember that it takes time for scholars to think and write and respond to each other. A useful metaphor for scholarly research findings is the idea of a conversation. As a researcher—even at an undergraduate level—you will be situating your ideas within the context of what other scholars have written about a topic. If the topic is recent, can you draw connections to your question and to research published in the literature? Want to learn more? Visit these resources Reisner, A. (2023). Reading Social Science Methods. Windsor & Downs Press. https://doi.org/10.21900/wd.18 Sheppard, V. (2020). Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/jibcresearchmethods/ Finding Academic Literature 1: What is it? Instructor Notes: 1. The intention for exercise two is for students to find journals relevant to their research interest. That means they may find journals outside the context of the course in which they are enrolled. 2. If students use an open web search engine to find journals, they may find titles that are not subscribed to by their home institution. This is acceptable and teaches the student the distinction between subscribed journals to which their access is seamless, and journals behind a "paywall". Librarians at your institution can help draw these distinctions and make clarifications. Now that you have learned a bit more about your general topic area, for example, to which subdiscipline or subfield it belongs, and you have developed a research question, your next goal is to find academic literature that addresses your topic. If you aren’t very experienced in writing academic research papers you might be wondering a few things. What is academic literature? Where can you find it? What are some effective ways to search for it? The academic literature, also referred to as scholarly literature, or journal literature is a modality of communication that scholars use to share research with each other. Primarily, this communication takes the form of articles published in periodicals called journals. A journal is a publication that comes out several times a year, often quarterly, but sometimes as many as twelve or more times each year. Each issue includes several articles written by one or more expert researchers, like your professors. Academic journals have a few differences from other periodical publications that make them distinct. Academic journal articles are written at a very high level of expertise, making them difficult to understand by readers who are not experts themselves. Remember, these are experts communicating with other experts in a specialized subject area. This is good to keep in mind when you begin reading academic research. You may need some extra time reading to fully comprehend the ideas. In contrast, articles published in magazines, newspapers or on websites are usually written in language that can be understood by the average person. Academic journal articles also tend to be longer than articles for the general readership. Forty to sixty page articles are common. In addition to being lengthy, journal articles follow a formal structure that includes a literature review, a description of the methods used to conduct the research, research findings, and a bibliography or list of works cited. These article sections will be present in some form in most academic articles, in addition to other sections, depending on the discipline. These sections should seem familiar to you, since you are being asked to provide a literature review and/or an annotated bibliography and a list of works cited for your research paper. Another distinction to be made about academic journal articles is the form of review or editing that article manuscripts must undergo prior to being published. Most journal articles go through a peer-review process of editing, before being approved for publication in a scholarly journal. Peer review means that the author, for example Professor Jones, Ph.D., submits her article to a journal, where it is then sent anonymously to three or more professors in the same field at different institutions. These other Ph.D. s review the article for accuracy and quality, and make a recommendation about whether it should be published or not. It is common for an article to be returned to an author for revision before it is published. Sometimes articles are rejected from a journal. In this way, a journal strives to only publish the most appropriate and best research in that specialized area. Peer review is a form of quality control. Exercise 2: Journal Examples Using resources such as the library catalog or research guide at your school, or your favorite search engine, identify five journals and answer the following questions about each one. - How long has the journal been publishing (i.e. did it begin in 1940, 1890, or 2010?) - Who publishes it? - How much does a subscription cost? - Does your college or institution subscribe to this journal? Journals are often published by scholarly associations, and also by university presses. They are also published by for-profit corporate academic publishers. The answers to the questions can usually be found on the journal’s home page. If you are reviewing a print issue, you might find the information in the first few pages of the issue prior to the table of contents. Ask the librarians at your school for guidance in identifying journals to explore. Finding Academic Literature 2: Where can you find it? Instructor Notes: Each of the exercises assumes the student will be provided with or will create their own documents in which to record their answers and progress. Guided exploration is the overarching aim of the exercises rather than "correct" answers. If a student is far afield from the intention of the exercise, the instructor and or a partner librarian can provide suitable redirection in order to help the student understand the goal. It should be clear by now that when you hear the terms academic literature, scholarly literature, or peer reviewed articles, that these terms are synonymous with each other. It should also be clear that journals are highly selective and publish highly specific subject areas. A journal in Sociology won’t be publishing any Biology research. But even within Sociology there will be several different journals publishing research within the subdisciplines. Thousands of scholarly journals exist to publish research in many different areas of scholarly inquiry. It can be a little intimidating to think about the number of possible publications where you can find research relevant to your topic. How can you possibly search across all of those journals and also be able to ignore all the extraneous “noise” information you get when searching Google, Bing, DuckDuckGo, or other search engines? Lucky for you, librarians have been working on this problem for a long time. You have online tools called article databases available through your institution’s library. These tools allow you to search across thousands of journal publications from many years ago up to the most current issues. Every journal indexed in a database will have published thousands of articles, and each one of those articles is described in a unique database record. College and university libraries make dozens and sometimes hundreds of article databases available to use. The libraries pay annual access fees so that faculty, staff and students at that institution can search the databases, and access the full articles when available. Choosing to search these tools for information rather than searching the open Web will save you time and effort. You also sidestep questions of credibility, currency, relevance, accuracy, and purpose by using article databases (search the CRAAP test for more information). Unlike search engines, in which your results are influenced by commercial interests and algorithms that increase confirmation bias, library databases only include information already published and vetted by an editorial process. This does not mean that all the information contained in library databases is objectively true and factual. But knowing that the information you find in a database has already undergone a review process will help you decide whether you want to trust and use the information. You always need to think critically when evaluating information. Another resource to consider is a subset of Google that is limited to academic research. Google Scholar allows you to find scholarly articles on any scholarly topic. Be aware, unlike your library’s licensed databases, Google Scholar will not provide you with links to the full articles. Google Scholar will provide a link to the journal publisher’s page. The journal publisher will gladly sell you the article, even if your college already pays for it. This is unnecessary. You never have to pay for access to articles, so don’t fall into that trap. Your librarians can help you get the article quickly and free of charge. Exercise 3: Types of article databases Using the library website at your institution, explore the variety of databases available to you and answer the following questions. - Can you tell how many databases your school licenses for your access? (50? 100? 300? More?) - You can probably find an alphabetical list of databases on your library website, but they may also be listed by subject. How many databases are focused on your major area of study? (For example, if you are a History Major, are there 25 databases valuable for History research?) If there are no databases specific to your major, How many are available at the next hierarchical grouping of your discipline, i.e. Social Sciences? List three of the article databases recommended for research in your area. - Do the databases focus on the academic literature? What about other publications that are not academic in nature, like magazines and newspapers? Are there databases that allow you to search for newspaper and magazine articles? List three databases that include publications aimed at general readers. Ask the librarians at your school for help navigating the library website. Finding Academic Literature 3: What are some effective ways to search for scholarly literature? Instructor Notes: This may be the most challenging exercise in that the potential for disparities in functionality across the library databases can be great. That in itself is a good lesson, but if the student cannot accomplish the exercise exactly, the instructor or partner librarian may be able to point out any parallels between the tools. In some cases, the difference in content or the way the content is organized may be so at odds that the selected databases can't be compared effectively. Some redirection may be necessary to select tools more closely aligned. The search interfaces for most article databases are sophisticated and powerful, and they can be challenging to understand for the beginning researcher. Luckily, if you understand some basic principles about database record structure and how databases operate, you can usually transfer your search skills and strategy from one interface to another, even when the databases are produced by different companies and differ greatly in the way they look. When you perform a keyword search in a library catalog, article database or a discovery system, the first page you are presented with is a list of your search results in an abbreviated form. The information presented in the abbreviated (short) record will often be simply the citation, such as the article title, author(s), publication name, and issue information. To help illustrate this difference let’s compare them to search engine results. if you click on a result in a search engine result list, you will be sent to a new web page. However, if you follow the link of a short record from your search results you don’t leave the database. Instead you are taken to the full record, or full bibliographic record of an article. This full record provides you with much more information about that article, and allows you to make a better judgment about whether it will help you in your research. A full bibliographic record in an article database is a description of a journal article containing several short elements about that article. This information about the article is called metadata. Your search terms (keywords) are matched with these elements, or metadata, and ranked as more or less relevant to your search based on where and how frequently they appear in the record, such as in the title. The article database is not matching your keywords within the full text of the article. Only specialized databases like JSTOR or Google Books will search within the entire text of publications. Each of these elements of metadata are fields within the database, and all the individual fields of an article together comprise the full record. Having cited articles before, you are already familiar with several metadata fields such as title and author(s), source (or journal title), year, etc. Additional metadata fields which are important to be familiar with are the abstract, ISSN or the International Standard Serial Number, author-supplied keywords, and subject headings. As a researcher, you can specify where you want your keywords to be matched. An example of this strategy would be requiring your keywords to be identified within the title of articles, thus ensuring that any result would contain your terms in a very prominent position. Other useful fields might be the article abstract (a summary of the article) or subject headings, which are sometimes called descriptors. The subject headings assigned to an article are a special type of metadata called controlled vocabulary. Think of an assignment when you have been asked to identify keywords for your research topic. You can often think of more than one term to describe each of the important ideas. A subject heading is a term used by catalogers and indexers (librarians who create article records) to serve as the official word or phrase to represent an idea. When you first perform your keyword search, you should notice the subject headings that best represent your research topic. Subject Headings are a very powerful way to identify relevant articles. Like hashtags, which are a social media user’s strategy to link together conceptually similar posts, subject headings link together conceptually similar articles. A final strategy to consider in searching article databases is to employ limiters or filters to control the scope of your search. Some common filters include limiting to peer reviewed articles, or limiting to full-text articles. You may also limit by the year or a range of years, or by subject area(s). Keep in mind that filters narrow your results which can potentially eliminate relevant results from your search. Exercise 4: Employing search strategies Using the databases you listed in exercise three, choose two of them to explore. Complete the following tasks in both databases. 1. Search the databases with your keywords. Do not place any limitations on the search. Do not focus your terms to any fields. Review the first 20 search results. How many of these would you consider relevant to your topic? 2. Go to the advanced search in the database and repeat your keyword search. This time, select a date range to limit your search. This might be the most recent 10 years, but it might also be a different period of time depending on your topic. For example, are you interested in the research published about your topic from a specific historical period, like 1990-2000? Does this date limiter change the relevance of your search results? 3. Perform the advanced search again, this time selecting “peer reviewed journal articles” as a limiter. The databases you chose may have different terms to express the peer-reviewed limitation. Are your results better or worse? 4. Select two or more articles that you consider relevant to your topic. From the full bibliographic record of these articles, review the subject headings assigned to the articles (they might be labeled descriptors). Select two or more subject headings and explore the articles you retrieve when you search by those subject headings. How much more (or less) relevant are the records returned by the subject heading searches? Ask the librarians at your school for help accessing or navigating the databases. Credibility and Authority: Who are the experts? Instructor Notes: This section is intended to illustrate the idea that "Authority is Constructed and Contextual," part of the Framework for Information Literacy in Higher Education from the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL). Up to this point we have been assuming that reliable, credible literature is research published by credentialed professionals in a scholarly discipline. In most cases this is true. You want to get scientific research from people who know how to do science and whose work is reviewed by knowledgeable experts. But it is not only professors, Ph.Ds. and people in positions of power and leadership who can speak authoritatively on a topic. A person’s life experiences provide the knowledge to give credible testimony just as much as any established expert. If you are writing about a significant event or social phenomenon and you wish to provide evidence of the lived experience of it, you would seek out first-person commentary, or you might perform interviews, surveys or focus groups to collect qualitative data. These answers and stories have as much authority, credibility and validity as any social-scientific analysis. Indeed, your own commentary on questions related to aspects of your experience or knowledge deem you the authority for that domain of information. Do not discount an information source purely on the grounds that it is not authored by someone in a position of power or traditionally recognized authority. Make informed choices about the context of expertise in the area of your research. Who Gets Access to Research? Instructor Notes: In this exercise, the student will identify specific Open Access journal titles without regard to discipline. They may also identify resources that list Open Access journals like the DOAJ, or, the Directory of Open Access Journals, or search tools that aggregate Open Access scholarly literature in much the same way library databases aggregate scholarly journal articles. The comparison between results from the major commercial search engines and the privacy conscious search engines is intended to help underscore the nuances of algorithmic bias that affect searches using identical terms. In exercise item number two, students will ideally identify discipline or subject specific repositories of Open Access scholarly literature, effectively assisting the student in focussing their research scope to journals within a discipline. At this point in your literature research, you may be a little overwhelmed by the sheer number of articles there are in your discipline. Each one of the article databases you have explored contain articles from thousands of journals published over several decades. Perhaps you feel as if you have only explored a fraction of the research tools at your disposal. If so, you are not alone. Most students feel this way, and even professional researchers, like your professors, find it difficult to keep up with current research and understand how to use the tools to access it. Academic publishing is a large industry and it has only grown in the past 25 years. Think about how many higher education institutions there are in the United States. Then think of the number of faculty at these organizations. Understand that most of these faculty are publishing research. Even if you are researching a very narrow topic, there is a lot of ground to cover in the research literature. Not only is academic publishing an enormous endeavor, it is also an enormous commercial industry. And as with any commercial industry, academic publishing companies are in business to make a profit. Academic journal subscriptions cost a lot. Unlike a personal subscription to a magazine, or even an individual subscription to a journal, libraries must pay an institutional subscription fee so they can make the research available to faculty and students. Sometimes it can cost several thousand dollars for one journal title! As a university student, the cost of academic publishing is largely hidden from view because your tuition and fees are not paid directly to the library to fund journal subscriptions. However, your institution allocates hundreds of thousands of dollars, if not millions each year to pay for the privilege to access research you need for your education. But not all privileges to information are the same. Recall a question from exercise three: Types of databases. You were asked to explore how many databases were licensed by your college or university library. That number will range widely based on the size of the institution, and on the level of financial resources available to the library. If you are a student at a large research institution, it is likely that you will have access to many research resources going beyond article databases to resources like datasets, archives, electronic book collections, advanced computation, etc. If you are a student at a smaller or medium sized university with fewer financial resources, the scope of your access will likely be narrower simply because your institution can’t afford as many resources. Is the size of the university’s library budget a legitimate reason to deny students access to knowledge? Should a student at a private university with a large endowment have greater access to research than a low-income rural student at a small state college? This question becomes increasingly problematic when you understand that the researchers creating this knowledge and publishing the research (often your professors) receive no pay or royalties from their publications, and, in the case of much U.S. STEM research, their research labs and projects are frequently funded by public grants from the state or federal government, that is to say, tax-payer funds. These researchers hand over their author’s rights to publish their research, which your university library then must pay the commercial publisher high subscription rates so you can read it! If we expand our view from the United States to the globe, access to research limited to only those who can pay the premium denies knowledge, opportunity, and innovation to students and researchers in developing nations. Equity of access to research output, especially access to publicly funded research, is a contentious problem, but not one without some innovative solutions. Over the last 25 years, a growing number of researchers have chosen to communicate their work by using a publishing model that removes this equity gap. Open Access (OA) Publishing replicates the peer review process and the model of scholarly journal publishing except that the articles are freely available on the internet without subscriptions, paywalls or article purchasing fees. OA publishing levels the playing field, allowing students, regardless of status, wealth, or institutional affiliation, to identify and access important research in their field. Your university library makes many subscription-based journals available to you without cost. But you also have at your disposal OA books and journals, many of which are included in the article databases. Much of the OA literature can be found within Open Access subject repositories. It is also possible to explore OA literature in your discipline with a tool like Google Scholar. Any time you perform a Google Scholar search and you are able to retrieve access to articles without going through a paywall, you are accessing an OA article. As an author (yes, the work you are doing is a contribution to knowledge in the field) you may have opportunities to publish your work in a journal or at a conference. Ask your professor, is the journal Open Access? Are the conference proceedings Open Access? If you aren’t publishing, your work can still be made available in an open format. As you consider whether you want your work to be available to future students and researchers, you can elect to make your work available by using any of several different free publishing tools on the web. Ask your librarians if there are any opportunities to add your work to your university’s institutional repository (IR). An IR is an online database containing the Open Access research and creative output of the faculty of a university. Faculty from the institution voluntarily deposit their work in the repository which is then made freely available. IRs often contain other kinds of creative output in addition to faculty research such as student research, and Open Educational Resources (OER). Open Access subject repositories are websites where researchers in a field deposit their work so that it can be accessed free of charge by anyone. OA Subject repositories contain journal articles and working papers as well as other research products such as datasets. The authors submit the work and provide descriptive metadata about it to the repository. The repository platform serves a similar function to a library article database in that they are both searchable databases. The difference being that all the material contained within the subject repository is freely available. The OpenDOAR or, Directory of Open Access Repositories is an excellent place to identify a subject repository in your field. Want to learn more? Visit these resources Suber, P. (2012). Open access. MIT Press. https://openresearchlibrary.org/content/897269fe-ab6a-48ca-bde8-90d741a200a4 Harrington, C., & Scott, R. E. (2023). Intersections of Open Access and Information Privilege in Higher Education and Beyond. NASIG Proceedings, 37(0), Article 0. https://doi.org/10.3998/nasig.4302 Exercise 5: OA resources - Perform a search for Open Access journals in a regular search engine like Google or Bing. Then perform the same search in a privacy conscious search engine (DuckDuckGo, for example). Compare the two search results, and make a list of the top 5 sites you would like to remember for doing additional research. - Perform a search (in your preferred search engine) for Open Access resources in your discipline, (Sociology or Psychology for example). Make a list of your 3-5 top choices of sites that you think will help you identify high quality Open Access research. Keep in mind whether the sites you select are independent or if they are associated with a single publisher. Reading Academic Literature Once you have identified some articles related to your topic, you have to actually read them! Reading more than 20 articles, each of which are 20-50 pages can be an overwhelming prospect. You need to approach this work intelligently. It would be difficult indeed to read every word of every article start to finish. So you won’t do that. Your reading should focus on finding out if a source is useful to you. In this stage of the research process, you will read the abstract first, and maybe the introduction, and then determine whether it is worth reading the rest. Note the structure of the article and see if there are sections that are more relevant to your work than others. You might flip to a relevant section first, rather than reading the entire thing from beginning to end. This is especially useful for longer sources like books or lengthy reports where you may only need to read the beginning, and then go directly to the relevant section, like the results and conclusions. Finally, skim the rest of the article and review the list of references. Here you will find additional research that could be important to your work. Your librarians may have a guide to reading peer reviewed articles that contains additional reading strategies. The Research Process is a Cycle Instructor Notes: Evaluation of this exercise should help instructors understand students' comprehension of the research process. If time affords it, a one on one check-in with the students about their progress and comfort level with the process might be warranted. At this point, engaged students will have collected several potential studies from their exploration. A lack of any relevant articles might indicate a struggling student. Intervention from a partner librarian for support may be effective. Many students think that research is a straight line: choose a topic, research the topic, write the research paper. But it is helpful and productive to think of research as a cyclical process. The research process is not a linear set of tasks. It is a cyclical set of practices, each of which builds upon the earlier ones. Everything you have done to this point is part of the research process. It would be unusual for you to have a complete literature review after searching for articles in library databases just one time. If you find a few articles on your first attempt, the knowledge you gain from reading those articles will surely send you back into the databases to identify additional work. You repeat searches with alternate keywords and in the ways you combine those keywords. You search different databases for additional material. The bibliographies of the articles you find will also help you discover relevant literature. As you read more sources and allow your ideas to change, your focus narrows. You will find yourself eliminating sources that are too broad, too specific, or tangential. Your search for relevant sources should continue throughout the writing process. Exercise 6: Recording your process By performing these exercises you have been learning about research strategies. It can be very useful to think about your own research process and the steps you take to find information. Write a 50-100 word narrative describing your research process. Include how you might be more efficient or thorough in researching your next project. Citing Sources (Credit where credit is due) Throughout your literature review you will be making references to research and to authors you have identified. Depending on the style you are required to use (APSA, APA, ASA, MLA, etc.), the form for these in-text citations will differ. Make sure you are using a style guide for accuracy. The most important point is that giving accurate attribution to other people’s ideas in your work is essential. Not only is it safeguarding you against accusations of academic dishonesty (plagiarism), but correct and appropriate citation is an important part of sharing knowledge and showing respect to your fellow authors. While it is sometimes difficult to visualize, it is important to remember that your work is in conversation with the work of other scholars. Often these scholars are active researchers for whom citation is a valued part of the scholarly conversation. Keeping track of it all Instructor Notes: More than any other, this exercise will require a review of available support from your institution. Because Zotero is Open Source software, there are many freely available web pages and tutorials to support its use. Bibliographic Management Software is not a required skill or tool, but it is an extremely useful and time saving resource once the initial learning curve is overcome. Doing research in academic literature is a complex process. It generates a lot of information from several different sources. It can quickly become difficult to manage all of the different threads of inquiry generated by asking a research question. So how do you keep track of so many articles, chapters, search terms, pdfs, etc.? Some people keep index cards, others keep downloaded articles in a folder. Zotero is a free bibliographic management tool that will help you organize all the research you discover. It has add-ins for word processing applications (including google docs) which allow you to insert in-text citations in a paper, and it will generate your bibliography for you using a citation style chosen from dozens of different options. Zotero also creates a searchable database of the articles you discover, allows you to organize them into projects or themed collections, create tags, make annotations, and access them from the web, and synched to your computer. The Zotero browser add-on allows you to create citations from articles, books or webpages and you can import citations from article databases or library catalogs. Zotero is also a powerful way to share research. It allows you to create and follow groups of other Zotero users so you and your fellow researchers can share the literature you discover. Your librarians may have created guides or offer workshops in how to use Zotero or other commercial bibliographic management software. Two major commercial offerings similar to Zotero are Refworks and Mendeley. Libraries with enough resources will license these tools (buy access) for student use. A major benefit to using bibliographic management software is that you can return to your personalized database of citations for project after project throughout your college career and beyond if you continue into graduate school. Because it is free to use, your access to Zotero will not cease after you graduate. Exercise 7: Bibliographic Management Software Answer the following questions and complete the tasks. - List the tools available at your institution to help you manage references and articles. - Does your library offer support for one or more of these tools? - Create an account in one of these tools and create 5 references to articles, books, chapters, or websites. You can create these reference manually (step by step, adding the title, author, publisher, etc.) or you can import one or more references from a library database. Ideally you could use any or all the references you have identified in this assignment. - Explore the tool’s functionality by creating a list of works cited from the references you entered. *Ask a librarian for support in accomplishing this task if you have questions. Conclusion If you have read to this point and completed the exercises you will be much more familiar with how to successfully find scholarly research for use in your own writing. Let’s review the main points of the resource. - No matter what you have chosen to research, it is important to understand the context of the topic within the scholarly discipline or subdiscipline. There are many excellent reference resources like encyclopedias and handbooks that can help you learn basic information about your area of interest, and taking the time to read background information will support your ability to find relevant academic articles and ultimately save you time. - In crafting your research question, it is important to understand the parameters of the project. How much time to do have to complete the work? Is it a question that is actively debated in the field (or have previous researchers come to conclusive answers)? - What form of a literature review will you need to complete? How exhaustive will your exploration be? Can you be satisfied with a finite number of relevant articles to summarize or synthesize? - What is your plan for searching the scholarly literature in your discipline? How many library article databases do you have at your disposal and/or how many Open Access repositories will you search before you have adequately covered the research in your discipline/subdiscipline? - Are there credible or authoritative voices relevant to your research topic that fall outside the accepted academic boundaries? How might you find and incorporate the knowledge of underrepresented points of view in your work? - Recall that research is a cyclical process. How has the information you find in one round of searching informed your additional inquiries? How will the work you do on this project inform your future research practice? - Accurate and complete attribution (citation) of other authors’ ideas is essential for your work if it is to be honest and taken seriously. - Bibliographic management software tools such as Zotero (free and Open Source), or Refworks and Mendeley (commercial, subscription-based) are powerful database tools that save you work and allow you to build a robust personal database of research articles. Lastly, remember that the librarians at your college or university are highly trained professionals and researchers themselves. It is their job to support you in successfully accomplishing your academic goals, so do yourself a favor and use their expertise! References This Open Educational Resource reuses information from the following works. Each is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0. Conlin, K., & Jennings-Roche, A. (2021). Strategic information literacy: Targeted knowledge with broad application. Pressbooks. https://ubalt.pressbooks.pub/strategicil/ Hand, L., Ryan, E., & Sichler, K. (2019). Introduction to Communication Research: Becoming a Scholar (2022 ed.). Galileo Open Learning Materials. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks/3 Kessler, J., Williams, C., Costello, V., & Armstrong, A. R. (2023). Writing for Inquiry and Research. Windsor & Downs Press. https://doi.org/10.21900/wd.19	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:48.912896	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114419/overview", "title": "Library Research for Academic Writing", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111869/overview	Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 01 -- Order of Operations Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 02 -- Signed Numbers Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 02 -- Signed Numbers Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 03 -- Decimals and Rounding Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 03 -- Decimals and Rounding Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 04 -- Fractions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 04 -- Fractions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 05 -- Formulas Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 05 -- Formulas Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 06 -- Ratios_Rates_Proportions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 06 -- Ratios_Rates_Proportions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 07 -- Percents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 07 -- Percents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 08 -- Significant Figures__Accuracy__Precision Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 08 -- Significant Figures__Accuracy__Precision Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 09 -- Exponents Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 13 -- Unit Conversions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 13 -- Unit Conversions Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 15 __ Graphs Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 15 __ Graphs Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 16 __ Plane Geometry Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 16 __ Plane Geometry Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 17 __ Triangles Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 17 __ Triangles Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 18 __ Trigonometry Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 18 __ Trigonometry Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 20 __ Perimeter_Area_Volume Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 20 __ Perimeter_Area_Volume Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 21 -- Measuring instruments Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 21 -- Measuring instruments Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 22 __ Slope Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 22 __ Slope Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 23 -- Finance_Interest Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 23 -- Finance_Interest Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 25 __ Resistors Applied Technical Mathematics -- Chapter 25 __ Resistors Applied Technical Mathematics -- Copyright Extra Credit Ch 22-- Trigonometry review Extra Credit Ch 22-- Trigonometry review Glossary Glossary printout -- 03-06-2024 HW 24 -- clean copy of budget sheet -- details only HW 24 -- clean copy of budget sheet -- details only HW 24 -- clean copy of budget sheet -- overall HW 24 -- clean copy of budget sheet -- overall HW Chapter 01 -- Order of Operations HW Chapter 01 -- Order of Operations HW Chapter 02 -- Signed Numbers HW Chapter 02 -- Signed Numbers HW Chapter 03 -- Decimals and Rounding HW Chapter 03 -- Decimals and Rounding HW Chapter 04 -- Fractions HW Chapter 04 -- Fractions HW Chapter 05 -- Formulas HW Chapter 05 -- Formulas HW Chapter 06 -- Ratios_Rates_Proportions HW Chapter 06 -- Ratios_Rates_Proportions HW Chapter 07 -- Percents HW Chapter 08 -- Significant figures_Accuracy_Precison HW Chapter 08 -- Significant figures_Accuracy_Precison HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 09 -- Exponents HW Chapter 13 -- Unit Conversions HW Chapter 13 -- Unit Conversions HW Chapter 15 -- Graphs HW Chapter 15 -- Graphs HW Chapter 16 -- Geometry HW Chapter 16 -- Geometry HW Chapter 17 -- Triangles HW Chapter 17 -- Triangles HW Chapter 18-- Trigonometry HW Chapter 18-- Trigonometry HW Chapter 20 -- Perimeter_Area_Volume HW Chapter 20 -- Perimeter_Area_Volume HW Chapter 21 -- Measuring instruments HW Chapter 21 -- Measuring instruments HW Chapter 22 -- Slope HW Chapter 22 -- Slope HW Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans HW Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans HW Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans HW Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans HW Chapter 25 -- Resistors HW Chapter 25 -- Resistors Index -- Excel -- use this copy Index printout -- 03-06-2024 Introduction Introduction Percent explanations -- OER version Preface Preface Table of Contents Table of Contents Applied Technical Mathematics For Diesel Mechanics and Horticulture Students Overview Applied Technical Mathematics for Horticulture and Diesel Mechanics is intended for a one-semester class with students who enter the semester with a good working-level of math skills. High school algebra and geometry are the only prerequisites, The technical math course at Kishwaukee College is unique in that the class combines students in horticulture with those from diesel mechanics. The course materials apply to both areas, as much as possible. The intent is to provide a solid foundation for solving job-related math problems for all students in the class. For this reason, the focus is on "how to solve" more than "why does this work?" Feedback, comments, etc. would be greatly appreciated! Robert E. Brown rbrown3@kish.edu Title Page Cover page photo credits: Left: Download this free HD photo of engine, race car, classic, and racing by Mike Newbry (@mikenewbry) Unsplash.com Free to use under the Unsplash license Right: Download this free HD photo of greenhouse, agriculture, au potager de kervoigen, and france in Lannion, France by Erwan Hesry (@erwanhesry) Unsplash.com Free to use under the Unsplash license Copyright Applied Technical Mathematics © 2023 by Robert E. Brown is licensed under CC BY 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Preface Preface Technical Mathematics for Diesel Mechanics and Horticulture is designed for a 3-credit hour class for students majoring in diesel mechanics or majoring in horticulture. The two fields, diesel mechanics and horticulture, each require an ability to perform on-the-job math. The math skills needed for the two fields have much in common, as well as some things that are different. This text includes material from both fields in sufficient depth to develop competence. Comments, questions, comments, and corrections are welcomed. Robert E. Brown Kishwaukee College 21193 Malta Road Malta, IL 60150 rbrown3@kish.edu Introduction Introduction Applied Technical Mathematics for Horticulture and Diesel Mechanics is intended for a one-semester community college class with students who enter the semester with a good working-level of math skills. High school algebra and geometry are the only prerequisites. The textbook was created for use within Open Illinois in OER Commons and is available for by other OER organizations. The textbook is specifically designed for classes containing students in both horticulture and diesel mechanics. The technical math course at Kishwaukee College is unique in that the class combines students in horticulture with those from diesel mechanics. The course materials apply to both areas, as much as possible. The intent is to provide a solid foundation for solving job-related math problems for all students in the class. For this reason, the focus is on "how to solve" more than "why does this work?" Inspiration for this work came from many semesters of teaching technical mathematics. Students in these classes were from the fields of diesel repair and from horticulture; their interests were strictly toward on-the-job applications. To meet this need, this text is focused on various job situations, and emphasizes: - How to recognize what is needed: Exactly what is the problem asking? How does it apply to a job situation? What sort of answer do you need? (I.e., Do you want the answer to several decimal places, or is a good estimate enough?) - What to do while setting up the issue in terms of a mathematical problem - How to solve it - Recognizing that there often will be more than one solution method - Ways to see if the last answer makes any sense. - When to take a hard stand if challenged on an answer. - Think things through before you do anything. - If you are being pressed for an answer, demand enough space so you can figure it out. - Check your work before showing it to anyone! - Do not ever release an answer unless you are absolutely certain and can explain why. - But do not be so stubborn that you get a reputation for being hard to work with. A highly stressed approach is to get a sense of what you are looking for: Before doing the math. For example, if a student is asked to calculate the volume of a semitruck gravel trailer, then estimate the loaded weight, what would be a reasonable answer? Maybe it is 5 tons, or maybe 35. It probably is not a quarter of a ton, or 500 tons. I.e., do not rely on a calculator too much. Consider your answers with the “does this make any sense?” test. A chapter is included on MS Excel, which few students knew before entering the class. Excel is so ubiquitous in the working world that nearly all tech math students need to have at least a basic knowledge of this software. The textbook starts with fractions, which almost nobody likes but everybody needs. It is the author’s belief that the foundation for technical math is an ability to work well with fractions. Further course work is intended to teach students how to frame a problem, how to understand what the problem means in terms of why somebody is asking, and how to solve it in any one of several possible ways. The order of chapters is based on past schedules in my tech math classes. The order can, and does, vary amongst instructors. The order I have chosen is what has worked in my experience. It is my great hope that this OER textbook will be beneficial to students. My intentions are for anyone who uses this to become thoroughly knowledgeable about the subject materials. Any comments, corrections, questions, complaints? Please send me an email. All feedback is greatly appreciated. Robert E. Brown Adjunct Professor, Mathematics Math & Science Division Kishwaukee College Malta, IL 60150 rbrown3@kish.edu Table of Contents Chapter 1 :: Order of Operations § 1.0 Purpose of Order of Operations § 1.1 Sequence of Order of Operations § 1.2 Example of Order of Operations § 1.3 Caution about Order of Operations Chapter 2 :: Signed Numbers § 2.0 Signed numbers § 2.1 The Use of Signed numbers § 2.2 The Number Line § 2.2.1 Comparing signed numbers: Greater vs. Smaller § 2.2.2 Inequality symbols: Greater than & Lesser than § 2.3 Operations on Signed Numbers § 2.3.1 Adding numbers with the same sign § 2.3.2 Adding numbers with the opposite sign § 2.3.3 Multiplying & Dividing numbers with the same sign § 2.3.4 Multiplying & Dividing numbers with the opposite sign § 2.4 Absolute Value § 2.5 Opposite of a Number § 2.6 Signed Number Operations § 2.6.1 Addition can be changed into Subtraction § 2.6.2 Multiplication and Division of signed numbers § 2.6.3 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide signed numbers Chapter 3 :: Decimals & Rounding § 3.0 Introduction § 3.1 Parts of a decimal number § 3.2 Place values of a decimal number § 3.2.1 Building a decimal number from place values § 3.3 Operations on decimal numbers § 3.3.1 Addition & Subtraction of decimal numbers § 3.3.2 Multiplication of decimal numbers § 3.3.3 Division of decimal numbers § 3.4 Rounding a decimal number Chapter 4 :: Fractions § 4.0 Introduction § 4.1 Terms for Fractions § 4.1.1 Parts of a fraction § 4.1.2 Proper fraction § 4.1.3 Improper fraction § 4.1.4 Mixed number § 4.2 Improper fractions & Mixed numbers § 4.2.1 Changing Improper fractions & Mixed numbers § 4.3 Changing the form of a fraction § 4.4 Equivalent fractions § 4.4.1 Cross multiplication § 4.5 Reducing fractions § 4.5.1 How to reduce a fraction § 4.6 Common denominators § 4.7 Add & Subtract fractions § 4.8 Multiplication of fractions § 4.9 Division of fractions § 4.10 Mixed numbers: Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide § 4.10.1 Adding mixed numbers § 4.10.2 Subtracting mixed numbers § 4.10.3 Multiplying mixed numbers § 4.10.4 Dividing mixed numbers § 4.11 Arrange fractions in size order Chapter 5 :: Formulas § 5.0 Formulas § 5.1 Construction of formulas § 5.1.1 Variables § 5.1.2 Constants § 5.1.3 Units § 5.2 Rearrangement of formulas § 5.2.1 Equivalent equations § 5.2.2 Balancing equations § 5.2.3 Example – Rearrange the HP formula § 5.2.4 Example – Rearrange the Ag Sprayer formula § 5.2.5 Some example formulas Chapter 6 :: Ratios; Rates; Proportions § 6.0 Objectives § 6.1 Fractions → Ratios, Rates and Proportions § 6.1.1 Fractions § 6.1.2 Ratios § 6.1.3 Rates § 6.1.4 Proportions § 6.2 Ratios, Rates and Proportions in Applications § 6.2.1 Find a ratio § 6.2.2 Find a rate § 6.2.3 Find a proportion § 6.3 Combined use of fractions, ratios, rates, and proportions Chapter 7 :: Percents § 7.0 Definition of a Percent § 7.1 Write a percent as a fraction or a decimal § 7.2 Write fraction or a decimal as a percent § 7.3 Translate and solve percent sentences § 7.4 Percent Equations § 7.5 Use of Percent Equations § 7.6 Applying the Percent Equations § 7.7 Examples of Percent problems § 7.7.1 Semi-Truck § 7.7.2 Soil Texture § 7.8 Percent Increase and Percent Decrease Chapter 8 :: Significant Figures; Accuracy; Precision § 8.0 Significant Figures; Accuracy; Precision § 8.1 Accuracy and Precision § 8.2 Numbers § 8.2.1 Exact numbers § 8.2.2 Approximate numbers § 8.3 Significant Figures § 8.3.1 Notes on use of significant figures § 8.4 Greatest Possible Error (GPE) § 8.5 Working with data and Accuracy/Precision Chapter 9 :: Exponents § 9.0 Definition of an Exponent § 9.1 Examples of Exponents § 9.2 Forms of an equation with Exponents § 9.3 Graph of an equation with Exponents § 9.4 Exponential properties § 9.5 Exponential equations: How they are constructed § 9.6 How do Exponential and Linear equations compare? § 9.5 Exponents on a TI-30 Chapter 10 :: Roots § 10.0 Roots § 10.1 The square root of a number § 10.1.1 Finding roots § 10.2 Cube roots Chapter 11 :: Scientific Notation § 11.0 Scientific Notation § 11.1 Powers of 10 § 11.1.1 Multiplying powers of 10 § 11.1.2 Dividing powers of 10 § 11.1.3 Raising powers of 10 § 11.1.4 Zero power of 10 § 11.1.5 Negative power of 10 § 11.1.6 Combined operations on power of 10 § 11.1.7 Zero to a power § 11.2 Scientific notation § 11.2.1 The Form of Scientific notation § 11.2.2 Scientific notation turned into Decimal form § 11.3 Multiply & Divide numbers in Scientific notation Examples § 11.4 Engineering notation § 11.4.1 Applying engineering notation § 11.4.2 Common engineering symbols Chapter 12 :: Units – US and Metric § 12.0 Units of Measurement § 12.0.1 ISO: Worldwide Authority § 12.0.2 International System of Units (SI) § 12.1 SI System vs. Imperial & US Customary § 12.2 Putting the SI Measurement System to Work § 12.3 SI Base Units § 12.4 SI Prefixes § 12.5 SI Derived Units § 12.6 Temperature § 12.7 Applied SI (metric) Units of Measurement § 12.7.1 Length § 12.7.2 Mass (Weight) § 12.7.3 Electric Current § 12.7.4 Area § 12.7.5 Volume § 12.7.6 Force and Pressure § 12.8 Applied US Customary Units § 12.8.1 Length § 12.8.2 Electric Current § 12.8.3 Mass (Weight) § 12.8.4 Area § 12.8.5 Dry Volume § 12.8.6 Liquid Volume § 12.8.7 Grain Measures § 12.9 Where Did the Foot and the Meter Originate? § 12.9.1 The English Foot § 12.9.2 The Meter Chapter 13 :: Unit Conversions § 13.0 Converting between systems of units § 13.1 Conversion factors § 13.2 Unit fractions § 13.3 How to convert between systems of units § 13.4 Compound conversions Chapter 14 :: Mixtures §14.0 Types of Mixtures §14.0.1 Heterogeneous Matter §14.0.2 Homogenous Matter §14.1 Types of Liquid Mixtures §14.2 Math for Mixtures §14.3 PPM Calculations §14.3.1 Where did we get the “basic ratio” for ppm? §14.4 Using a Fertilizer Applicator Chapter 15 :: Graphs § 15.0 Purpose of Graphs § 15.1 Data: Two kinds § 15.2 Some types of graphs § 15.2.1 Pie graphs § 15.2.2 Bar graphs § 15.2.3 Bar graphs § 15.2.4 Line graphs Chapter 16 :: Plane Geometry § 16.0 Introduction § 16.1 Angles § 16.1.1 Types of Angles § 16.2 Lines § 16.3 Angles in a Triangle § 16.4 Angle Measurement § 16.4.1 Angles – Measured in decimal degrees § 16.4.2 Angles – Measured in Degrees, Minutes, Seconds § 16.5 Converting: Degrees-Minutes-Seconds (DMS) to Decimal degrees, and Decimal degrees to DMS § 16.5.1 DMS to Decimal degrees § 16.5.2 Decimal degrees to DMS Chapter 17 :: Triangles § 17.0 Introduction § 17.1 Triangles § 17.1.1 Scalene Triangles § 17.1.2 Equilateral Triangles § 17.1.3 Isosceles Triangles § 17.1.4 Right Triangles § 17.2 Properties of a Triangle § 17.2.1 Side Characteristics of a Triangle § 17.2.1 Sum of Angles in a Triangle § 17.3 Working with triangles § 17.4 Pythagorean Theorem § 17.5 Similar figures § 17.5.1 Similar triangles Chapter 18 :: Trigonometry § 18.0 Introduction § 18.1 Trigonometry of Right Triangles § 18.1.1 Names of Parts of right triangles § 18.1.2 Ratios of Sides in right triangles § 18.1.3 Trigonometry Formulas for right triangles § 18.2 Sine, Cosine, and Tangent ↔ Angles § 18.2.1 Finding the Cosine, Sine, and Tangent from an Angle: Angle => Sin, Cos, Tan § 18.2.2 Finding the angle from the Cosine, Sine, and Tangent: Sin, Cos, Tan => Angle § 18.3 Trigonometry Formulas for Right Triangles § 18.3.1 Trig formulas § 18.3.2 Trig formulas § 18.4 Trigonometry of Scalene Triangles § 18.4.1 Law of Sines § 18.4.2 Law of Cosines Chapter 19 :: Landscape Drawings and Scale § 19.1 Scale § 19.1.1 How scale is specified § 19.2 Landscape drawing scales & application § 19.3 Putting a detailed drawing onto paper § 19.3.1 Standard paper sizes § 19.3.2 Choosing drawing scales Chapter 20 :: Perimeter; Circumference; Area; Volume § 20.0 Objectives § 20.1 Perimeter; Circumference; Area; Volume § 20.1.1 Perimeter § 20.1.2 Circumference § 20.1.3 Area § 20.1.4 Volume § 20.2 Perimeter § 20.3 Circumference § 20.4 Area § 20.5 Volume § 20.5.1 Volume formulas Chapter 21 :: Measuring Instruments § 21.0 Introduction § 21.1 Rulers § 21.2 Squares § 21.3 Slide Calipers § 21.3.1 Dial calipers § 21.3.2 Digital calipers § 21.3.3 Vernier calipers § 21.4 Micrometers § 21.4.1 Outside Mechanical Micrometer – inch § 21.4.2 Outside Mechanical Micrometer – metric § 21.4.3 Digital outside micrometers § 21.4.4 Depth micrometers § 21.4.5 How to read micrometers § 21.4.6 Comments on precision of inch vs. metric micrometers § 21.5 Dial Indicators Chapter 22 :: Slope § 22.0 Introduction § 22.1 Defining Slope § 22.2 Conventions for Describing Slope § 22.2.1 Positive Slope vs. Negative Slope § 22.2.2 Horizontal Line => Zero Slope § 22.1.3 Vertical Line => Undefined Slope § 22.3 Calculating Slope § 22.3.1 Algebraic equation for slope § 22.4 Putting a Numerical Value on Slope § 22.4.1 Slope as a Ratio § 22.4.2 Slope as a Decimal § 22.4.3 Slope as a Percent Grade § 22.4.4 Trigonometry method § 22.5 Slopes for Applications § 22.5.1 Slopes for Sidewalks and Roads § 22.5.2 Slopes for Roofs § 22.5.3 Slopes for Landscaping § 22.6 Slope from Contour Lines § 22.7 Measurement of Slope § 22.7.1 Measurement of Slope – Level and Square § 22.7.2 Measurement of Slope – Post and String § 22.8 Slope Comparison Chart Chapter 23 :: Finance § 26.1 Basic Financial: Paycheck § 26.1.1 Gross Income and Deductions § 26.2 Sales and Property Taxes § 26.2.1 Sales Tax § 26.2.2 Property Tax § 26.3 Interest § 26.4 Simple Interest § 26.4.1 Future Value with Simple Interest § 26.5 Compound Interest § 26.5.1 Annual Compounding § 26.5.2 Interest Compounded More Often Than Annually § 26.6 Sinking Funds § 26.6.1 Future Value of a Sinking Fund: § 26.6.2 Periodic Payments into a Sinking Fund Chapter 24 :: Budgets & Project Plans § 24.0 Introduction § 24.1 Estimates § 24.1.1 Who are the Parties in the Estimation Process? § 24.1.2 Communication for the Estimation Process § 24.1 Budgets §24.1.1 Budget Types §24.1.2 Budget Components §24.1.3 Budget Software §24.1.4 Example Project Budget § 24.2 Project Plans § 24.2.1 Writing Project Plans § 24.2.2 Project Plan Ownership and Buy-in § 24.2.3 Project Phases § 24.2.4 Project Planning Software § 24.2.5 Project Planning for Large Projects Chapter 25 :: Resistors § 20.5 Introduction § 25.1 Ohm’s Law § 25.2 Basic DC Electric Circuits § 25.2.1 Gauges for DC Electric Circuits § 25.3 Complex DC Electric Circuits § 25.3.1 Complex DC Electric Circuits -- Three Types § 25.3.3 Resistors in Series § 25.3.3 Current and Voltage Drop for Resistors in Series § 25.3.4 Resistors in Parallel § 25.3.5 Series—Parallel Resistor Circuits § 25.4 Power Chapter 26 :: Illinois General Standards Exam (GSE) § 26.0 Introduction § 26.1 Safety § 26.2 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) § 26.2.1 Soil Degradation § 26.3 Pesticides § 26.3.1 Insecticides § 26.3.2 Herbicides § 26.3.3 Fungicides § 26.3.4 Rodenticides § 26.3.5 Nematicides § 26.3.6 Other pesticides § 26.4 Math for the IL GSE Exam § 26.4.1 GSE problem 57 § 26.4.2 GSE problem 58 § 26.4.3 GSE problem 59 § 26.4.4 GSE problem 60 § 26.4.5 GSE problem 61 Chapter 01 -- Order of Operations Chapter 02 -- Signed Numbers Chapter 03 -- Decimals and Rounding Chapter 04 -- Fractions Chapter 05 -- Formulas Chapter 06 -- Ratios, Rates, and Proportions Chapter 07 -- Percents Chapter 08 -- Significant Figures; Accuracy; Precision Chapter 09 -- Exponents Chapter 10 -- Roots Chapter 11 -- Scientific Notation Chapter 12 -- Units Chapter 13 -- Unit Conversions Chapter 14 -- Mixtures Chapter 15 -- Graphs Chapter 16 -- Geometry Chapter 17 -- Triangles Chapter 18 __ Trigonometry Chapter 19 -- Landscape drawings and Scale Chapter 20 -- Perimeter__Area__Volume Chapter 21 -- Measuring instruments Chapter 22 -- Slope Chapter 23 -- Finance_Interest Chapter 24 -- Budgets_Project Plans Chapter 25 -- Resistors Chapter 26 -- Illinois General Standards Exam Glossary Index Exams Exams are in the Instructor Notes section below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.242868	ROBERT BROWN	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111869/overview", "title": "Applied Technical Mathematics For Diesel Mechanics and Horticulture Students", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96658/overview	Nassella pulchra p000074 Overview Nassella seeds germinated in water. Image credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Light background with tan seed and long green and white projections.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.261318	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96658/overview", "title": "Nassella pulchra p000074", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76475/overview	dummies a Willey Brand https://support.google.com/edu/classroom/answer/6020279?hl=en Teacher's Tech ( Google Classroom 2020 - Tutorial for Beginners ) Quick Tips on How To Utilize Google Classroom Overview Quick Tips In using Google Classroom Introduction About Classroom What is Google Classroom? Google Classroom delegates teachers to create an online classroom area in which they can manage all the documents that their students need. Documents are stored on Google Drive and can be edited in Drive’s apps, such as Google Docs, Sheets, and so on. But what separates Google Classroom from the regular Google Drive experience is the teacher/student interface, which Google designed for the way teachers and students think and work. You can use Classroom in your school to streamline assignments, boost collaboration, and foster communication. The classroom is available on the web or by mobile app. You can use Classroom with many tools that you already use, such as Gmail, Google Docs, and Google Calendar. What can you do with Classroom? \| User \| What you can do with Classroom \| \| Teachers \| \| \| Students \| \| \| Guardians \| \| \| Administrators \| \| Check this video tutorial for beginners	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.285627	01/20/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76475/overview", "title": "Quick Tips on How To Utilize Google Classroom", "author": "Danilo Natizon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90265/overview	10 early innovationsb 10 early innovations c early world cinema innovations presentation ten Overview early cinema innovations tech presentation ten early world cinema innovations presentation ten early innovations world cinema ten	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.303466	02/21/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90265/overview", "title": "early world cinema innovations presentation ten", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103967/overview	Analyzing and Arguing A Supplement to Relaying and Responding Analyzing & Arguing: A Supplement to the OER Textbook Relaying & Responding Overview This OER textbook has been developed to support English Composition and Rhetoric courses at rural Arizona community colleges. Title Page About This Book This book, which can be accessed by downloading the attached Microsoft Word document or PDF, is an addendum to the OER textbook Relaying and Responding: A Guide to College Reading & Writing. The book has been developed to provide content on textual analysis, rhetorical analysis, and argumentation. Authors This book has been assembled by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College. Most of the content in this book has been sourced from creative commons licensed materials. Attributions for this borrowed and/or adapted and remixed content can be found at the end of each chapter. Any text, graphic, or video without an attribution should be attributed to Mohave Community College by using the license below. License Analyzing and Arguing: A Supplement to the OER Textbook Relaying and Responding by Mohave Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution license except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.322697	Erik Wilbur	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103967/overview", "title": "Analyzing & Arguing: A Supplement to the OER Textbook Relaying & Responding", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105635/overview	GTC's IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide from the Series Overview In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. May 11 - Section One: Landscape Analysis for Accessibility in OER in Local Context (Work on during May 11th implementation) In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. We exnourage to explore some of the questions from each category. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. We ask that you complete Parts One, Two and Six. Part One: Initial Thoughts What is your team's initial goal for this series? To learn more about accessiblity and OER and find ways that we can support faculty on our campus to adopt OER and ultimately create and use more accessible course content. Part Two: Introductory probing questions: What does accessibility look like in our organization? How do we measure accessibility? What does OER look like in our organization? How do we measure access to OER? Part Three: Clarifying questions for accessibility: What is the organizational structure that supports accessibility? Who generates most of the accessibility structures/conversation in our organization? Where do most educators get support with accessibility? What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to accessibility? Part Four: Clarifying questions for OER: What is our organizational structure that supports curricular resources? What is our organizational structure that supports OER? Who generates most of the curricular resources in our organization? Where do most educators get support with curricular resources? What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to curricular resources/OER? Part Five: Clarifying questions for Faculty learning and engagement: What Professional Learning (PL) structures have the best participation rates for our educators? What PL structures have the best "production" rates for our educators? What incentive do we have to offer people for participating in learning and engagement? Who are the educators that would be most creative with accessibility and OER? Who are the educators that would benefit the most from accessibility and OER? Part Six: Final Probing questions: What is our current goal for Accessibility in OER and why is that our goal? Who have we not yet included while thinking about this work? What barriers remain when considering this work? What would genuine change look like for our organization for this work? Section Two: Team Focus (Finish before May 25th to share during Implementation Session Two) Identifying and Describing a Problem of Practice The following questions should help your team ensure that you are focusing your collaboration. What is your Team’s specific goal for this series? You may consider using AEM Quality Indicators for Creating Accessible Materials to help add to or narrow your work. To start the conversation on campus about OER and Accessibility. Thinking about ways that we can encourage the use of OER within our courses and to encourage faculty to make their courses more accessible.What other partners might support this work? Disability Services, CISC, Library, Faculty LeadershipWhat is your desired timeframe for this work? Hoping to start the conversation through this series and then over the summer to get something going during the next academic year.How will you include diverse voices and experiences in this work? Please create a Focus Question that explains your goal and provides specific topics that you would like feedback on. This is what you will share in your breakout groups for feedback. (Save for during May 25th's session.) What feedback did you receive from another team during the May 25th Implementation Session? Section Three: Team Work Time and Next Steps (Complete by the end of Implementation Session Three) Sharing and Next Steps What was your redefined goal for this series? What does your team want to celebrate? Getting the conversation started by this series.What did your team accomplish? If you have links to resources, please include them here. What are your team’s next steps? Continue building the library's OER libguide, CISC's libguide on accessibility, and start forming partnerships with faculty across the campuses to find who is already doing great work with OER and accessibility to recognize their efforts and maybe lean on them as mentors.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.343614	06/20/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105635/overview", "title": "GTC's IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide from the Series", "author": "April Akins" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100686/overview	Remix - Culturally Responsive Approach Describing Countries in Economic Terms Overview - Describe different sociological models for understanding global stratification - Understand how studies of global stratification identify worldwide inequalities How can we describe different world economies? Various models of global stratification all have one thing in common: they rank countries according to their relative economic status, or gross national product (GNP). Traditional models, now considered outdated, used labels to describe the stratification of the different areas of the world. Simply put, they were named “first world, “second world,” and “third world.” First and second world described industrialized nations, while third world referred to “undeveloped” countries (Henslin 2004). When researching using historical sources, you may still encounter these terms, and even today people still refer to some nations as the “third world.” Another model separates countries into two groups: more developed and less developed. More-developed nations have higher wealth, such as Canada, Japan, and Australia. Less-developed nations have less wealth to distribute among higher populations, including many countries in central Africa, South America, and some island nations. Yet another system of global classification defines countries based on the per capita gross domestic product (GDP), a country’s average national wealth per person. The GDP is calculated (usually annually) one of two ways: by totaling either the income of all citizens or the value of all goods and services produced in the country during the year. It also includes government spending. Because the GDP indicates a country’s productivity and performance, comparing GDP rates helps establish a country’s economic health in relation to other countries. These statistics also establish a country’s standard of living. According to this analysis, a GDP standard of a middle-income nation represents a global average. In low-income countries, most people are poor compared to people in other countries. Citizens have little access to infrastructure such as electricity, plumbing, and clean water. People in low-income countries are not guaranteed education, and many are illiterate. The life expectancy of citizens is lower than in high-income countries. Summary Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole. By comparing income and productivity between nations, researchers can better identify global inequalities. Further Research Nations Online refers to itself as “among other things, a more or less objective guide to the world, a statement for the peaceful, nonviolent coexistence of nations.” The website provides a variety of cultural, financial, historical, and ethnic information on countries and peoples throughout the world: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Nations_Online. References Millennium Project. 2006. “Expanding the financial envelope to achieve the Goals.” Millennium Project Official Website. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (https://web.archive.org/web/20130202045634/http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/costs_benefits2.htm). Nationsonline.org. “Countries by Gross National Income (GNI).” Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm). PRB.org. “GNI PPP Per Capita (US$).” PRB 2011 World Population Data Sheet. 2011 Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=61). Rostow, Walt W. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Landler, Mark, and David E. Sanger. 2009. “World Leaders Pledge $1.1 Trillion for Crisis.” New York Times, April 3. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/world/europe/03summit.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.360530	Sociology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100686/overview", "title": "Remix - Culturally Responsive Approach Describing Countries in Economic Terms", "author": "Social Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115690/overview	Powerpoints for Part 1 Overview This is a test for uploading resources PowerPoints for Part I This is just a test	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.376121	05/01/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115690/overview", "title": "Powerpoints for Part 1", "author": "Erik Dean" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116977/overview	Greater Enjoyment Greater Enjoyment: An Introduction to Actively Reading and Discussing Literature Overview This book has been developed by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College to support Introduction to Literature courses at rural Arizona community colleges. A PDF version and a Microsoft Doc. version of the book are available for download. About This Book This book has been developed to support Introduction to Literature courses at rural Arizona community colleges. Authors This book has been assembled by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College. Most of the content in this book has been sourced from creative commons licensed materials. Attributions for this borrowed and/or adapted and remixed content can be found at the end of each chapter. Any text, graphic, or video without an attribution should be attributed to Mohave Community College by using the license below. License Greater Enjoyment: An Introduction to Actively Reading and Discussing Literature by Mohave Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.396127	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116977/overview", "title": "Greater Enjoyment: An Introduction to Actively Reading and Discussing Literature", "author": "Reading Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77266/overview	Methods of Reasonin Overview This resource includes categorical logic, propositional logic, informal fallacies and inductive logic. These are the notes that I have used in lieu of a textbook when teaching introductory logic. It consists mostly of explanations of the main concepts and homework exercises.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.412342	02/15/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77266/overview", "title": "Methods of Reasonin", "author": "Leonard Olson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82237/overview	English Learner? Overview An English Learner is anyone, of any age, whose first (or native) language is not English and is currently learning English. Usually, this term is used in the US for students (K-12 and post-secondary) whose first language is not English. This resource was updated to change English Language Learner to the most recent term, English Learner (EL). What is an English Learner? An English Learner is anyone, of any age, whose first (or native) language is not English and is currently learning English. Usually, this term is used in the US for students (K-12 and post-secondary) whose first language is not English. Other Terms Describing English Learners Here is a list of terms used either for English Learners (ELs) or to describe them: - emergent bilinguals. - Limited English Proficient (LEPs) - language minority. Who Is an English Learner? Anyone whose first, also called native, language is not English, and who is learning to use English in his or her life, is an English Learner. In the United States, this term is applied to all students at the pre-Kindergarten through Grade 12 (preschool, elementary, middle or junior high and high school), as well as college and university levels. It also applies to adult learners. Learning Formulaic Expressions in Another Language Formulaic expressions, expressions that do not change much, such as greetings, are usually acquired first by learners of a second language. These are expressions, in any language, that learners can group into chunks and store in their memory. This is a process called chunking and it also occurs, for example, when we memorize phone numbers. The numbers 4-8-1-1-2-3-4 are more easily retained when grouped into larger "chunks," such as 481-1234. Social Language Is the Next Level Acquired Social language, the language that we need and use in our everyday lives, is called Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) by language acquisition researchers and professionals. These are the language skills that we use daily, usually in informal situations. For school-age children, this is the language used for interactions with friends or classmates in the school yard, on the school bus, in the lunch room or cafeteria, talking on the phone. These interactions do not require specialized or complicated language nor is it very cognitively demanding. Because these situations are context embedded, that is, these conversations are often face-to-face which offers the listener cues like facial expressions, gestures and concrete objects of reference (things to point to), and occur in a meaningful social context, these language skills develop the fastest for an English Learner; usually ELLs develop BICS between six months to two years after arrival in the United States. Academic Language Is the Last Level to Develop Academic language is the last layer of language, or discourse, to develop. Language acquisition experts and researchers call this Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency or CALP. It is language acquired through formal academic study or learning and includes all the domains of language: listening, speaking, reading and writing. CALP is developed by studying all of our core content subject areas. Learning academic discourse, though, is not just limited to learning content area vocabulary. It includes all of Bloom's Taxonomy, a hierarchy of learning (and learned) skills and tasks: comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, inferring. These tasks are context reduced, which means information is more abstract, read from a textbook or presented by a teacher. The older a student gets, the more in-depth the material becomes, the more reduced the context becomes and the more complex and cognitively demanding learning becomes as new (abstract) ideas, concepts, language, are presented to the students simultaneously. Development of CALP, therefore, is essentially to success in school. Research has shown that it takes at least between five to seven years to develop CALP. For students who have had no or limited prior schooling in their native language, Thomas and Collier's research has shown that it may take seven to ten years for them to catch up to their native-speaking peers. Different Methods of Instruction for ELs Here is a list and description of a few instructional methods for ELs in use in the United States: “English-Only,” English Immersion or Sheltered Immersion: 100% of instruction is delivered in essay in english. In Sheltered Immersion or Sheltered English Immersion (SEI) programs, content lessons use simplified college english essay in order to help students learn the language (from social to academic discourse) as well as the academic subjects. This is a method that embeds language learning with content learning across all academic subjects (Science, Math, etc.). Immersion, therefore, is a program-level term. English as a Second Language (ESL) or English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL): ESL classes are similar to the Immersion classes in that they are conducted predominantly in English. Typically, however, the ESL class is the equivalent of an English Language Arts class – that is, it is a course on language and literature. ESL, therefore, may also be one component of an entire English Immersion or Sheltered English Immersion program. If students in the class share a common first language, that language may be used to support learning. However, increasingly, students in an ESL class speak many different first (or native) languages, so English immersion becomes the default method of instruction in an ESL course. ESL or ESOL are instruction-level terms. Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE): This is a program-level term. Instruction for part of the day (usually for the core academic subject courses) is in students’ native language. The other part of the day is dedicated to English language skill building, usually through an ESL method course. This type of program works when students in the program all share a first (or native) language). Two-way bilingual education: Also called dual immersion or dual language education, this is a program-level term. The goal of this type of program/instruction is to develop bilingual proficiency and content mastery throughout the entire student body, regardless of whether a student is a native speaker of English or not. In this type of program, students are taught content in both English and another language. Typically, the other language is that of the non-native English speakers in the program. (For example, in a community with many Spanish-speaking immigrants, a two-way bilingual program would teach core subject courses, such as Math, in English and in Spanish whereas in a community with many Mandarin Chinese-speaking immigrants, a two-way bilingual program would teach those academic core content courses in English and in Mandarin Chinese.) The students in these classes are mixed; that is, for example, if there are two Kindergarten classrooms in a two-way bilingual elementary school, there would be a mix of native English-speaking and English Language Learners in each classroom. One classroom teacher, however, would be a native speaker of English and the other a native speaker of the non-English language. These two teachers would teach the same curriculum for part of the day and then swap for the other part of the day so that students in both classrooms receive the same content in both languages. In this way, the goal of creating bilingual proficiency for all students in the school/program is achieved. Total Physical Response (TPR): TPR is an instruction-level method for teaching language. Similar to playing a game of charades, it uses the body (the physical response) to teach the context for vocabulary and some grammar. This is usually used as one of several methods within an entire language learning lesson, course, or program.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.436830	06/10/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82237/overview", "title": "English Learner?", "author": "Leah Carruth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54117/overview	Credo Reference Overview Overview Overview on how to use Credo Reference, provided by Shelton State Community College for use by enrolled students. All videos are closed captioned. Using Credo Reference Suggested Prerequisite Modules: - Library Web Page Recommended Exercises: - Provide students with a topic or have them come up with their own. - What is your topic? - Search your topic in Credo Reference and provide bibliographic enteries for one reference article, one diagram, and one media piece. Credo Reference is an online database of general reference works provided by Shelton State. To get to Credo Reference: - From the library's main web site, select eResources from the tiled menu or the left-hand menu. - Select Credo Reference from the list. - You will need your MyShelton credentials to use this resource. Searching Credo Reference will provide you with reference book articles, diagrams, artwork, video and audio clips, mind maps, and other resouces related to your topic. Searching is easy. Credo also provides their own video content to illustrate the full functions of the tools they provide. Once you are logged in to Credo Reference, scroll to the bottom of the page and there will be a rotating menu of resources that are tool-specific. Two important points: - If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire. - The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.451848	05/08/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54117/overview", "title": "Credo Reference Overview", "author": "Kelly Griffiths" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56673/overview	6.2 Metabolism Metabolism This animated video presents topics of Metabolism found in Openstax Biology 2e. This video explains the differences between kinetic and potential energy. This animated video presents topics of Metabolism found in Openstax Biology 2e.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.463992	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56673/overview", "title": "6.2 Metabolism", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89007/overview	Kinship Assignment Overview This is a fun assignment for Cultural Anthropology students. They can research one or both parents, and/or step parents. Cultural Anthropology For the assignment, you will work on 2 kinship sheets (one for your mother’s side of the family and one for your father’s side). You will NOT turn in these sheets, but try and fill in as much as you can and keep for yourself and your family. You will turn in a 1-2-page, typed-written summary of your findings (12 font with 1” margins, double spaced). This should include how you found the information you did, what, if anything was a surprise, and any other interesting facts about your family history and your research experience. You should cite at least 2 internet or library sources. If you have step parents, just pick which parent to research: either biological or step. Helpful information for you to trace your ancestors: There are several free ancestry sites where you can find information. Ancestry.com lets you have a 2 week free trial. LDS website https://www.familysearch.org/search/ If you know the county where a family member lived, go to the county genealogy page. There is no charge for this information. These sites are usually run by volunteers and are kind of hokey-looking, but they are good sources. Here’s an example of what I’m talking about: http://genealogytrails.com/tex/pineywoods/madison/ Also, the Houston and San Antonio libraries have huge genealogy sections and the people there are very helpful. There is a lot of information in genealogy books and town history books in the library that cannot be found online. Don’t worry if you can only get back to your grandparents or great grandparents. If this is the case, you should find out as much as you can about them such as siblings, occupation, etc…It should be fairly easy to get information on these generations. In order to obtain as much information as possible, you should consult the older members of your family. Write or record all they tell you—names, dates, locations. However, names are not all you need. Lead them to tell you family stories that have been passed down from generation to generation. Sometimes recalling these stories will trigger memories. Inquire about military service of any family member. Ask them about old bible records, letters, or other documents in the possession of your family. Copy any pictures that they give you and WRITE DOWN who is in the picture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.485949	12/31/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89007/overview", "title": "Kinship Assignment", "author": "Jennifer Zonker Rice" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82935/overview	JPPM - Marv's Story Overview What should you do if you're lucky enough to find an artifact? In this resource, JPPM Educator Kenny walks you through a simple 4-step process for making sure your find gets taken care of. Available in video and text form, this resource also includes connections for instructors to Maryland State Social Studies Frameworks for grades 2 and 3 on Civic Engagment and Civic Virtue. Resource The below resource "Marv's Story" is intended to be used with "If You Find an Artifact..." found here on OER Commons. In that resource, JPPM Educator Kenny walks you through a simple 4-step process for making sure your find gets taken care of. Mary Marvin Brekenridge Patterson, or "Marv" owned the farm which was to become Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum when artifacts were found on it--her story provides a case study in civics. Marv's Story Over 30 years ago, a woman living on ”Point Farm” in Southern Maryland discovered ancient artifacts while walking on the beach. An artifact is anything that was made, used, or changed by people and left behind, and these looked like they had come from a long-ago group of Native Americans. At that time, the farm belonged to Mary Marvin Patterson (she went by ”Marv”). There was a 10,000 square foot main house, working farms, barns, and several smaller houses. Each building had been designed by Gertrude Sawyer in the 1930s for Jefferson Patterson, Marv’s husband. Mr. Patterson had died in November 1977 and at that time, Marv began looking for someone to give the land to. She wanted it to be just the right person or people because the Patterson’s had loved Point Farm so much. When the possible Native American artifacts were found by one of Point Farm’s tenants, she contacted archaeologists from the state of Maryland instead of keeping them for herself. The archaeologists surveyed the property looking for possible sites where more artifacts could be and found more than 40 in just one week. After Mrs. Patterson learned about all the sites (some over 9,000 years old), she decided to give the 512 acres of land and buildings of Point Farm to the state of Maryland. She didn’t have to do this because of any rule or law, she did it because she thought it was best that others could learn from the land instead of just a few people knowing about what was there. She called it “the greatest gift that is in my power to give,” and did so in memory of her husband Jefferson Patterson. Today, Point Farm has been renamed Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum and includes historical sites from Native American tribes who lived in the area thousands of years ago, colonial era homes, a former sharecropper’s cabin built after the Civil War, and all of the buildings designed by Gertrude Sawyer.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.500682	Social Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82935/overview", "title": "JPPM - Marv's Story", "author": "Political Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92951/overview	ANTH 106 American Mosaic Overview In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class--some of the major ways our culture is organized. It is comprised of 9 lessons based on online resources, plus 2 auto-ethnography assignments. This class was originally taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. What is Anthropology? These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 1: What is Anthropology? What can it do for you? So, you're in an anthropology class! But what is anthropology? Learning a bit about the subject will make what we learn in this class make a lot more sense. So let's begin. STEP 1: Watch this 10-minute video, which explains what anthropology is. What is Social Anthropology? STEP 2: Now watch this 1-minute clip of anthropologist Kenneth Guest explaining how you can apply anthropology to do better in any experience: your career, your relationships, your world. [Kenneth Guest is the author of our first reading!] Why Cultural Anthropology is important? STEP 3: Below, post two things you learned about anthropology (2.5 points) and one way in which you can see it applying to your life [Ex: your major, your career path, your relationships.] (2.5 points). Culture These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 2: What is Culture? Read the chapter on The Culture Concept. Post your 1-2 paragraph reflection on the following: - List 2 things you learned about what culture is. (2 points) - Tell us about one new concept you either found interesting or disagreed with/questioned? (2 points) Respond to a classmate with your thoughts. Here, you should engage with the other person and what they are saying to provide constructive remarks, rather than simply "I agree" or "lol!" etc. Your response should be at least 2-3 sentences long. (1 point) Race These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 3: Race 1st paragraph: Omi and Winant state that "Race is a socio-historical concept." What do they mean by this? According to the authors, how have race and racial categories such as "black" and "white" been defined and used in the US? (2 points) 2nd paragraph: Explain/summarize the author's position in "Monuments to Hate," and connect it clearly to our week 2 lesson on culture and symbols. How might it be useful to American culture to remove Confederate statues? (2 points) Respond to a classmate, and make sure you are respectful! (1 point) Racism These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 4: Racism For this week's discussion, please answer the following in your reflection: According to Michelle Alexander, what is "colorblindness" and why is it a problem? (2 points) According to the author, how does the "War on Drugs" and our legal system work to continue the racist legacies of the Jim Crow era? How do these racist policies affect black Americans? (2 points) Please provide your thoughts on Michelle Alexander's point of view and work. What did you learn that stood out to you? (1 point) Gender These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 5: Gender In one paragraph, explain what Lorber means in her article "Night to His Day" when she talks about "doing gender" (2.5 points), and about gender as something that is socially constructed. (2.5 points) Hint: you can find this answer right on the first page of the article! Marriage Equality These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 6: Marriage Equality Using examples from our reading, explain how God/religion was used as a justification against same sex and interracial marriages. (4 points) Respond to a classmate! (1 point) Please base your responses in the reading only. Your personal or religious views on same sex or interracial marriage are irrelevant in this classroom. Your discussion posts must be respectful to people of all backgrounds and must demonstrate knowledge of the reading. Here are the two readings: 1) Klarman, M. (2013) “How Same Sex Marriage Came to be.” Harvard Magazine. http://harvardmagazine.com/2013/03/how-same-sex-marriage-came-to-be 2) Toobin, J. (2015) “God and Marriage Equality.” The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/god-and-marriage-equality Immigration These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 7: Immigration In a short paragraph, briefly discuss what Kevin Johnson says about the historical treatment of poor people in the United States? (3 points) Use at least 1 clear example from the reading. (2 points) No need to respond to a classmate this week! Auto-Ethnography Assignment 1 This assignment is originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Auto-ethnography 1 - Due _____ - Points 20 What is an Auto-ethnography? Auto = self + ethno = culture + graphy = scientific study of Auto-ethnography is a genre of writing that has been described as: A "...highly personalized accounts that draw upon the experience of the author/researcher for the purposes of extending sociological understanding’ (Sparkes, 2000, p.21). An essay that ‘lets you use yourself to get to culture’ (Pelias, 2003, p. 372) What will you be doing? You will write a 2-4 page, journal-style essay that explores a formative aspect of yourself. This could be anything that you think is important to your identity. For example, it could be your immigrant experience; it could be your life as a mother; your experience within the criminal justice system; your appearance--anything that you think has shaped you. From this, you conduct research and analysis to draw larger conclusions about the culture of that particular American subgroup ("Immigrants", "Moms," etc.). Step 1: Brainstorm Ideas Think about which aspect of yourself you'd like to discuss and how this is shaped. Then, choose a specific incident from your personal history that demonstrates this aspect and serves as the foundation for your sociocultural analysis. To begin, consider that who you are can be shaped by any of the following: - things you have (e.g., I am a mom – because of things I have – kids) - things you do (e.g., I am an athlete – because I play sports often and possibly on a competitive level) - things you believe (e.g., I am a Baptist.) - places you’ve been/lived/spent a lot of time (e.g., I am a New Yorker.) - physical construct (e.g., I am petite.) - heritage/ethnicity (e.g., I am African-American.) - social and/or cultural construct (e.g., I am a widow.) STEP 2: Apply course concepts Choose one of our reading discussions or course concepts that you can relate to and apply to the main component of your story. The goal here is to see how broader social and cultural forces have shaped who you are, your experiences, and your place in the world. STEP 3: Research and Analyze Once you have steps 1 and 2 nailed down, conduct basic research about your main component. In other words, find statistics or ideas and/or quotations from media sources that complement and support your narrative. Your essay should have at least 2 outside sources. STEP 4: Write You can choose any style of writing (even poetry!), as ethnography lends itself to creativity. Whichever tone you choose, keep in mind that the goal is to write for a diverse audience. Do not assume that the reader is familiar with everything about American culture; write as if you are explaining the culture to someone who is new to it. Within the introduction, write a clear sentence explaining your topic and its significance. As you write, always check to make sure that you have answered two key questions: Why is the component you chose so central to you? What does your personal story and research reveal about American culture? Conclude your essay by answering the following question: Why is understanding this topic important? Be sure to cite your in-class and research sources in a bibliography! I am not picky about whether you choose MLA, Chicago or APA, but whichever format you choose, I require consistency. STEP 5: Proofread, Proofread, Proofread! Once you have drafted and revised your auto-ethnography, be sure to run it through the spelling and grammar check in the very least, and proofread twice. If you have trouble writing, or if you'd just like to run your essay by another set of eyes, know that there are some great tutors available in the LRCC! This assignment has been adapted from Dr. Sansburn's English class at Eastern Michigan University. Rubric \| Criteria \| Ratings \| Points \| \|\|\| Applies class concept-You have successfully applied one of the major concepts we have learned in class, either through readings, lecture, or film discussions. \| 5 pts Exceeds Expectations Course concept is included, clearly defined, and its relationship to the overall narrative is articulated concretely. \| 3 pts Meets Expectations Course concepts are included with a basic explanation tying it to the overall narrative. \| 0 pts Does not meet expectations Course concepts are not included at all, or are alluded to only vaguely/in passing. \| 5 \| \| Analyze a topic to arrive at reasonable conclusions. -Analyze a topic to arrive at reasonable conclusions. \| 5 pts Exceeds Expectations \| 3 pts Meets Expectations \| 0 pts Does Not Meet Expectations \| 5 \| \| \| Combine and connect ideas from multiple sources. \| 5 pts Mastered: The student has mastered the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 4 pts Developed: The student is developing mastery of the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 3 pts Introductory Level: The student has mastered the introductory level of the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 0 pts Not Started: The student has not yet learned the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 5 \| \| Explain the impact of diverse perspectives on individual and group behaviors. \| 5 pts Exceeds Expectations \| 3 pts Meets Expectations \| 0 ptsDoes Not Meet Expectations \| 5 \| \| \| Total Points 20 \| Identity These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 8: Identity Using our reading for the week, explain what it means that identity is a "social and historically constructed" thing. (2 points) What are some categories we use to identify ourselves? (1 point) Then, using clear examples from our second reading on media representations, explain how black men are depicted in media and what are some of the impacts this has on their real lives and opportunities? (2 points) No need to respond to a classmate this week! Islamophobia These lessons are originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Week 9: Islamophobia How does our reading this week define Islamophobia? (1 point) Answer after watching the film “US Islamaphobia Inc: How does the film describe the "Islamophobia network?" (1 point) Provide ONE example from the film of a political leader tapping into the power of Islamophobia to stir up supporters? (1 point) Share 1 moment from the film that you found compelling, and explain why you found it compelling. (2 points) Auto-Ethnography Assignment 2 This assignment is originally from ANTH 106 American Mosaic, taught by Huma Mohibullah at Renton Technical College. In this class, we will explore America's diversity through questions of immigration, race, gender/sexuality and class—some of the major ways our culture is organized. This content was originally a asynchronous online (Canvas) course, but the lessons can be adapted to different classroom settings. Auto-ethnography 2 - Due _____ - Points 20 The instructions are exactly the same as for your first autoethnography essay. Just make sure you choose a different story from your life and a different course concept to apply to it. So if you wrote about being an immigrant the first time, write about something else this time: your identity as a student, a parent, a worker, an illness you struggled with—literally ANY aspect of your life that was important in shaping you. If you used "culture" as a course concept the first time, forget that and use any others clearly from our assigned readings. Here are the instructions again, as a reminder: What is an Auto-ethnography? Auto = self + ethno = culture + graphy = scientific study of Auto-ethnography is a genre of writing that has been described as: A "...highly personalized accounts that draw upon the experience of the author/researcher for the purposes of extending sociological understanding’ (Sparkes, 2000, p.21). An essay that ‘lets you use yourself to get to culture’ (Pelias, 2003, p. 372) What will you be doing? You will write a 2-4 page, journal-style essay that explores a formative aspect of yourself. This could be anything that you think is important to your identity. For example, it could be your immigrant experience; it could be your life as a mother; your experience within the criminal justice system; your appearance--anything that you think has shaped you. From this, you conduct research and analysis to draw larger conclusions about the culture of that particular American subgroup ("Immigrants", "Moms," etc.). Step 1: Brainstorm Ideas Think about which aspect of yourself you'd like to discuss and how this is shaped. Then, choose a specific incident from your personal history that demonstrates this aspect and serves as the foundation for your sociocultural analysis. To begin, consider that who you are can be shaped by any of the following: - things you have (e.g., I am a mom – because of things I have – kids) - things you do (e.g., I am an athlete – because I play sports often and possibly on a competitive level) - things you believe (e.g., I am a Baptist.) - places you’ve been/lived/spent a lot of time (e.g., I am a New Yorker.) - physical construct (e.g., I am petite.) - heritage/ethnicity (e.g., I am African-American.) - social and/or cultural construct (e.g., I am a widow.) STEP 2: Apply course concepts Choose one of our reading discussions or course concepts that you can relate to and apply to the main component of your story. The goal here is to see how broader social and cultural forces have shaped who you are, your experiences, and your place in the world. STEP 3: Research and Analyze Once you have steps 1 and 2 nailed down, conduct basic research about your main component. In other words, find statistics or ideas and/or quotations from media sources that complement and support your narrative. Your essay should have at least 2 outside sources. STEP 4: Write You can choose any style of writing (even poetry!), as ethnography lends itself to creativity. Whichever tone you choose, keep in mind that the goal is to write for a diverse audience. Do not assume that the reader is familiar with everything about American culture; write as if you are explaining the culture to someone who is new to it. Within the introduction, write a clear sentence explaining your topic and its significance. As you write, always check to make sure that you have answered two key questions: Why is the component you chose so central to you? What does your personal story and research reveal about American culture? Conclude your essay by answering the following question: Why is understanding this topic important? Be sure to cite your in-class and research sources in a bibliography! I am not picky about whether you choose MLA, Chicago or APA, but whichever format you choose, I require consistency. STEP 5: Proofread, Proofread, Proofread! Once you have drafted and revised your auto-ethnography, be sure to run it through the spelling and grammar check in the very least, and proofread twice. If you have trouble writing, or if you'd just like to run your essay by another set of eyes, know that there are some great tutors available in the LRCC! This assignment has been adapted from Dr. Sansburn's English class at Eastern Michigan University. Rubric \| Criteria \| Ratings \| Points \| \|\|\| \| Applies class conceptYou have successfully applied one of the major concepts we have learned in class, either through readings, lecture, or film discussions. \| 5 ptsExceeds ExpectationsCourse concept is included, clearly defined, and its relationship to the overall narrative is articulated concretely. \| 3 ptsMeets ExpectationsCourse concepts are included with a basic explanation tying it to the overall narrative. \| 0 ptsDoes not meet expectationsCourse concepts are not included at all, or are alluded to only vaguely/in passing. \| 5 \| \| \| Analyze a topic to arrive at reasonable conclusions.Analyze a topic to arrive at reasonable conclusions.threshold: 3.0 pts \| 5 pts Exceeds Expectations \| 3 ptsMeets Expectations \| 0 ptsDoes Not Meet Expectations \| 5 \| \| \| Combine and connect ideas from multiple sources. \| 5 ptsMastered: The student has mastered the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 4 ptsDeveloped: The student is developing mastery of the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 3 ptsIntroductory Level: The student has mastered the introductory level of the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 0 ptsNot Started: The student has not yet learned the concepts and/or skills being assessed. \| 5 \| \| Explain the impact of diverse perspectives on individual and group behaviors. \| 5 pts Exceeds Expectations \| 3 pts Meets Expectations \| 0 ptsDoes Not Meet Expectations \| 5 \| \| \| Total Points 20 \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.557828	Religious Studies	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92951/overview", "title": "ANTH 106 American Mosaic", "author": "Higher Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11789/overview	Introduction to Social Stratification in the United States Aaron grew up on a farm in rural Ohio, left home to serve in the Army, and returned a few years later to take over the family farm. He moved into the same house he had grown up in and soon married a young woman with whom he had attended high school. As they began to have children, they quickly realized that the income from the farm was no longer sufficient to meet their needs. Aaron, with little experience beyond the farm, accepted a job as a clerk at a local grocery store. It was there that his life and the lives of his wife and children were changed forever. One of the managers at the store liked Aaron, his attitude, and his work ethic. He took Aaron under his wing and began to groom him for advancement at the store. Aaron rose through the ranks with ease. Then the manager encouraged him to take a few classes at a local college. This was the first time Aaron had seriously thought about college. Could he be successful, Aaron wondered? Could he actually be the first one in his family to earn a degree? Fortunately, his wife also believed in him and supported his decision to take his first class. Aaron asked his wife and his manager to keep his college enrollment a secret. He did not want others to know about it in case he failed. Aaron was nervous on his first day of class. He was older than the other students, and he had never considered himself college material. Through hard work and determination, however, he did very well in the class. While he still doubted himself, he enrolled in another class. Again, he performed very well. As his doubt began to fade, he started to take more and more classes. Before he knew it, he was walking across the stage to receive a Bachelor’s degree with honors. The ceremony seemed surreal to Aaron. He couldn’t believe he had finished college, which once seemed like an impossible feat. Shortly after graduation, Aaron was admitted into a graduate program at a well-respected university where he earned a Master’s degree. He had not only become the first from his family to attend college but also he had earned a graduate degree. Inspired by Aaron’s success, his wife enrolled at a technical college, obtained a degree in nursing, and became a registered nurse working in a local hospital’s labor and delivery department. Aaron and his wife both worked their way up the career ladder in their respective fields and became leaders in their organizations. They epitomized the American Dream—they worked hard and it paid off. This story may sound familiar. After all, nearly one in three first-year college students is a first-generation degree candidate, and it is well documented that many are not as successful as Aaron. According to the Center for Student Opportunity, a national nonprofit, 89 percent of first-generation students will not earn an undergraduate degree within six years of starting their studies. In fact, these students “drop out of college at four times the rate of peers whose parents have postsecondary degrees” (Center for Student Opportunity quoted in Huot 2014). Why do students with parents who have completed college tend to graduate more often than those students whose parents do not hold degrees? That question and many others will be answered as we explore social stratification. References Huot, Anne E. 2014. "A Commitment to Making College Accessible to First-Generation College Students." Huffington Post. Retrieved December 22, 2014 (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/anne-e-huot/first-generation-college-students_b_6081958.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.573414	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11789/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Social Stratification in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11790/overview	What Is Social Stratification? Overview - Differentiate between open and closed stratification systems - Distinguish between caste and class systems - Understand meritocracy as an ideal system of stratification Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. You may remember the word “stratification” from geology class. The distinct vertical layers found in rock, called stratification, are a good way to visualize social structure. Society’s layers are made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the layers. The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of stratification. Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources, represent the lower layers of our society. In the United States, people like to believe everyone has an equal chance at success. To a certain extent, Aaron illustrates the belief that hard work and talent—not prejudicial treatment or societal values—determine social rank. This emphasis on self-effort perpetuates the belief that people control their own social standing. However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are interested in larger social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects a person's social standing. Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by society as a whole. Factors that define stratification vary in different societies. In most societies, stratification is an economic system, based on wealth, the net value of money and assets a person has, andincome, a person’s wages or investment dividends. While people are regularly categorized based on how rich or poor they are, other important factors influence social standing. For example, in some cultures, wisdom and charisma are valued, and people who have them are revered more than those who don’t. In some cultures, the elderly are esteemed; in others, the elderly are disparaged or overlooked. Societies’ cultural beliefs often reinforce the inequalities of stratification. One key determinant of social standing is the social standing of our parents. Parents tend to pass their social position on to their children. People inherit not only social standing but also the cultural norms that accompany a certain lifestyle. They share these with a network of friends and family members. Social standing becomes a comfort zone, a familiar lifestyle, and an identity. This is one of the reasons first-generation college students do not fare as well as other students. Other determinants are found in a society’s occupational structure. Teachers, for example, often have high levels of education but receive relatively low pay. Many believe that teaching is a noble profession, so teachers should do their jobs for love of their profession and the good of their students—not for money. Yet no successful executive or entrepreneur would embrace that attitude in the business world, where profits are valued as a driving force. Cultural attitudes and beliefs like these support and perpetuate social inequalities. Recent Economic Changes and U.S. Stratification As a result of the Great Recession that rocked our nation’s economy in the last few years, many families and individuals found themselves struggling like never before. The nation fell into a period of prolonged and exceptionally high unemployment. While no one was completely insulated from the recession, perhaps those in the lower classes felt the impact most profoundly. Before the recession, many were living paycheck to paycheck or even had been living comfortably. As the recession hit, they were often among the first to lose their jobs. Unable to find replacement employment, they faced more than loss of income. Their homes were foreclosed, their cars were repossessed, and their ability to afford healthcare was taken away. This put many in the position of deciding whether to put food on the table or fill a needed prescription. While we’re not completely out of the woods economically, there are several signs that we’re on the road to recovery. Many of those who suffered during the recession are back to work and are busy rebuilding their lives. The Affordable Health Care Act has provided health insurance to millions who lost or never had it. But the Great Recession, like the Great Depression, has changed social attitudes. Where once it was important to demonstrate wealth by wearing expensive clothing items like Calvin Klein shirts and Louis Vuitton shoes, now there’s a new, thriftier way of thinking. In many circles, it has become hip to be frugal. It’s no longer about how much we spend, but about how much we don't spend. Think of shows like Extreme Couponing on TLC and songs like Macklemore’s “Thrift Shop.” Systems of Stratification Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification. Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relationships between levels. Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values and shape individual beliefs. Stratification systems include class systems and caste systems, as well as meritocracy. The Caste System Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it their whole lives. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no opportunities to improve a person's social position. In the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in the occupation of their caste and to enter into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social standing was considered a moral duty. Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A person who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing. Although the caste system in India has been officially dismantled, its residual presence in Indian society is deeply embedded. In rural areas, aspects of the tradition are more likely to remain, while urban centers show less evidence of this past. In India’s larger cities, people now have more opportunities to choose their own career paths and marriage partners. As a global center of employment, corporations have introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation. The Class System A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. Aclass consists of a set of people who share similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People are free to gain a different level of education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with and marry members of other classes, which allows people to move from one class to another. In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other societal models help guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role. In class systems, people have the option to form exogamous marriages, unions of spouses from different social categories. Marriage in these circumstances is based on values such as love and compatibility rather than on social standing or economics. Though social conformities still exist that encourage people to choose partners within their own class, people are not as pressured to choose marriage partners based solely on those elements. Marriage to a partner from the same social background is anendogamous union. Meritocracy Meritocracy is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort—or merit—that determines social standing. High levels of effort will lead to a high social position, and vice versa. The concept of meritocracy is an ideal—because a society has never existed where social rank was based purely on merit. Because of the complex structure of societies, processes like socialization, and the realities of economic systems, social standing is influenced by multiple factors—not merit alone. Inheritance and pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure meritocracy. While a meritocracy has never existed, sociologists see aspects of meritocracies in modern societies when they study the role of academic and job performance and the systems in place for evaluating and rewarding achievement in these areas. Status Consistency Social stratification systems determine social position based on factors like income, education, and occupation. Sociologists use the term status consistency to describe the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across these factors. Caste systems correlate with high status consistency, whereas the more flexible class system has lower status consistency. To illustrate, let’s consider Susan. Susan earned her high school degree but did not go to college. That factor is a trait of the lower-middle class. She began doing landscaping work, which, as manual labor, is also a trait of lower-middle class or even lower class. However, over time, Susan started her own company. She hired employees. She won larger contracts. She became a business owner and earned a lot of money. Those traits represent the upper-middle class. There are inconsistencies between Susan’s educational level, her occupation, and her income. In a class system, a person can work hard and have little education and still be in middle or upper class, whereas in a caste system that would not be possible. In a class system, low status consistency correlates with having more choices and opportunities. The Commoner Who Could Be Queen On April 29, 2011, in London, England, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, married Catherine Middleton, a commoner. It is rare, though not unheard of, for a member of the British royal family to marry a commoner. Kate Middleton has an upper-class background, but does not have royal ancestry. Her father was a former flight dispatcher and her mother a former flight attendant and owner of Party Pieces. According to Grace Wong's 2011 article titled, "Kate Middleton: A family business that built a princess," "[t]he business grew to the point where [her father] quit his job . . . and it's evolved from a mom-and-pop outfit run out of a shed . . . into a venture operated out of three converted farm buildings in Berkshire." Kate and William met when they were both students at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland (Köhler 2010). Britain’s monarchy arose during the Middle Ages. Its social hierarchy placed royalty at the top and commoners on the bottom. This was generally a closed system, with people born into positions of nobility. Wealth was passed from generation to generation through primogeniture, a law stating that all property would be inherited by the firstborn son. If the family had no son, the land went to the next closest male relation. Women could not inherit property, and their social standing was primarily determined through marriage. The arrival of the Industrial Revolution changed Britain’s social structure. Commoners moved to cities, got jobs, and made better livings. Gradually, people found new opportunities to increase their wealth and power. Today, the government is a constitutional monarchy with the prime minister and other ministers elected to their positions, and with the royal family’s role being largely ceremonial. The long-ago differences between nobility and commoners have blurred, and the modern class system in Britain is similar to that of the United States (McKee 1996). Today, the royal family still commands wealth, power, and a great deal of attention. When Queen Elizabeth II retires or passes away, Prince Charles will be first in line to ascend the throne. If he abdicates (chooses not to become king) or dies, the position will go to Prince William. If that happens, Kate Middleton will be called Queen Catherine and hold the position of queen consort. She will be one of the few queens in history to have earned a college degree (Marquand 2011). There is a great deal of social pressure on her not only to behave as a royal but also to bear children. In fact, Kate and Prince William welcomed their first son, Prince George, on July 22, 2013 and are expecting their second child. The royal family recently changed its succession laws to allow daughters, not just sons, to ascend the throne. Kate’s experience—from commoner to potential queen—demonstrates the fluidity of social position in modern society. Summary Stratification systems are either closed, meaning they allow little change in social position, or open, meaning they allow movement and interaction between the layers. A caste system is one in which social standing is based on ascribed status or birth. Class systems are open, with achievement playing a role in social position. People fall into classes based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. A meritocracy is a system of social stratification that confers standing based on personal worth, rewarding effort. Section Quiz What factor makes caste systems closed? - They are run by secretive governments. - People cannot change their social standings. - Most have been outlawed. - They exist only in rural areas. Hint: B What factor makes class systems open? - They allow for movement between the classes. - People are more open-minded. - People are encouraged to socialize within their class. - They do not have clearly defined layers. Hint: A Which of these systems allows for the most social mobility? - Caste - Monarchy - Endogamy - Class Hint: D Which person best illustrates opportunities for upward social mobility in the United States? - First-shift factory worker - First-generation college student - Firstborn son who inherits the family business - First-time interviewee who is hired for a job Hint: B Which statement illustrates low status consistency? - A suburban family lives in a modest ranch home and enjoys a nice vacation each summer. - A single mother receives food stamps and struggles to find adequate employment. - A college dropout launches an online company that earns millions in its first year. - A celebrity actress owns homes in three countries. Hint: C Based on meritocracy, a physician’s assistant would: - receive the same pay as all the other physician’s assistants - be encouraged to earn a higher degree to seek a better position - most likely marry a professional at the same level - earn a pay raise for doing excellent work Hint: D Short Answer Track the social stratification of your family tree. Did the social standing of your parents differ from the social standing of your grandparents and great-grandparents? What social traits were handed down by your forebears? Are there any exogamous marriages in your history? Does your family exhibit status consistencies or inconsistencies? What defines communities that have low status consistency? What are the ramifications, both positive and negative, of cultures with low status consistency? Try to think of specific examples to support your ideas. Review the concept of stratification. Now choose a group of people you have observed and been a part of—for example, cousins, high school friends, classmates, sport teammates, or coworkers. How does the structure of the social group you chose adhere to the concept of stratification? Further Research The New York Times investigated social stratification in their series of articles called “Class Matters.” The online accompaniment to the series includes an interactive graphic called “How Class Works,” which tallies four factors—occupation, education, income, and wealth—and places an individual within a certain class and percentile. What class describes you? Test your class rank on the interactive site:http://openstaxcollege.org/l/NY_Times_how_class_works References Köhler, Nicholas. 2010. “An Uncommon Princess.” Maclean’s, November 22. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www2.macleans.ca/2010/11/22/an-uncommon-princess/). McKee, Victoria. 1996. “Blue Blood and the Color of Money.” New York Times, June 9. Marquand, Robert. 2011. “What Kate Middleton’s Wedding to Prince William Could Do for Britain.” Christian Science Monitor, April 15. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2011/0415/What-Kate-Middleton-s-wedding-to-Prince-William-could-do-for-Britain). Wong, Grace. 2011. "Kate Middleton: A Family Business That Built a Princess." CNN Money. Retrieved December 22, 2014 (http://money.cnn.com/2011/04/14/smallbusiness/kate-middleton-party-pieces/).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.607175	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11790/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Social Stratification in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11791/overview	Social Stratification and Mobility in the United States Overview - Understand the U.S. class structure - Describe several types of social mobility - Recognize characteristics that define and identify class Most sociologists define social class as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. These factors affect how much power and prestige a person has. Social stratification reflects an unequal distribution of resources. In most cases, having more money means having more power or more opportunities. Stratification can also result from physical and intellectual traits. Categories that affect social standing include family ancestry, race, ethnicity, age, and gender. In the United States, standing can also be defined by characteristics such as IQ, athletic abilities, appearance, personal skills, and achievements. Standard of Living In the last century, the United States has seen a steady rise in its standard of living, the level of wealth available to a certain socioeconomic class in order to acquire the material necessities and comforts to maintain its lifestyle. The standard of living is based on factors such as income, employment, class, poverty rates, and housing affordability. Because standard of living is closely related to quality of life, it can represent factors such as the ability to afford a home, own a car, and take vacations. In the United States, a small portion of the population has the means to the highest standard of living. A Federal Reserve Bank study shows that a mere one percent of the population holds one-third of our nation’s wealth (Kennickell 2009). Wealthy people receive the most schooling, have better health, and consume the most goods and services. Wealthy people also wield decision-making power. Many people think of the United States as a “middle-class society.” They think a few people are rich, a few are poor, and most are fairly well off, existing in the middle of the social strata. But as the study mentioned above indicates, there is not an even distribution of wealth. Millions of women and men struggle to pay rent, buy food, find work, and afford basic medical care. Women who are single heads of household tend to have a lower income and lower standard of living than their married or male counterparts. This is a worldwide phenomenon known as the “feminization of poverty”—which acknowledges that women disproportionately make up the majority of individuals in poverty across the globe. In the United States, as in most high-income nations, social stratifications and standards of living are in part based on occupation (Lin and Xie 1988). Aside from the obvious impact that income has on someone’s standard of living, occupations also influence social standing through the relative levels of prestige they afford. Employment in medicine, law, or engineering confers high status. Teachers and police officers are generally respected, though not considered particularly prestigious. At the other end of the scale, some of the lowest rankings apply to positions like waitress, janitor, and bus driver. The most significant threat to the relatively high standard of living we’re accustomed to in the United States is the decline of the middle class. The size, income, and wealth of the middle class have all been declining since the 1970s. This is occurring at a time when corporate profits have increased more than 141 percent, and CEO pay has risen by more than 298 percent (Popken 2007). G. William Domhoff, of the University of California at Santa Cruz, reports that “In 2010, the top 1% of households (the upper class) owned 35.4% of all privately held wealth, and the next 19% (the managerial, professional, and small business stratum) had 53.5%, which means that just 20% of the people owned a remarkable 89%, leaving only 11% of the wealth for the bottom 80% (wage and salary workers)” (Domhoff 2013). While several economic factors can be improved in the United States (inequitable distribution of income and wealth, feminization of poverty, stagnant wages for most workers while executive pay and profits soar, declining middle class), we are fortunate that the poverty experienced here is most often relative poverty and not absolute poverty. Whereas absolute poverty is deprivation so severe that it puts survival in jeopardy, relative poverty is not having the means to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country. As a wealthy developed country, the United States has the resources to provide the basic necessities to those in need through a series of federal and state social welfare programs. The best-known of these programs is likely the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), which is administered by the United States Department of Agriculture. (This used to be known as the food stamp program.) The program began in the Great Depression, when unmarketable or surplus food was distributed to the hungry. It was not until 1961 that President John F. Kennedy initiated a food stamp pilot program. His successor Lyndon B. Johnson was instrumental in the passage of the Food Stamp Act in 1964. In 1965, more than 500,000 individuals received food assistance. In March 2008, on the precipice of the Great Recession, participation hovered around 28 million people. During the recession, that number escalated to more than 40 million (USDA). Social Classes in the United States Does a person’s appearance indicate class? Can you tell a man’s education level based on his clothing? Do you know a woman’s income by the car she drives? For sociologists, categorizing class is a fluid science. Sociologists generally identify three levels of class in the United States: upper, middle, and lower class. Within each class, there are many subcategories. Wealth is the most significant way of distinguishing classes, because wealth can be transferred to one’s children and perpetuate the class structure. One economist, J.D. Foster, defines the 20 percent of U.S. citizens’ highest earners as “upper income,” and the lower 20 percent as “lower income.” The remaining 60 percent of the population make up the middle class. But by that distinction, annual household incomes for the middle class range between $25,000 and $100,000 (Mason and Sullivan 2010). One sociological perspective distinguishes the classes, in part, according to their relative power and control over their lives. The upper class not only have power and control over their own lives but also their social status gives them power and control over others’ lives. The middle class doesn’t generally control other strata of society, but its members do exert control over their own lives. In contrast, the lower class has little control over their work or lives. Below, we will explore the major divisions of U.S. social class and their key subcategories. Upper Class The upper class is considered the top, and only the powerful elite get to see the view from there. In the United States, people with extreme wealth make up 1 percent of the population, and they own one-third of the country’s wealth (Beeghley 2008). Money provides not just access to material goods, but also access to a lot of power. As corporate leaders, members of the upper class make decisions that affect the job status of millions of people. As media owners, they influence the collective identity of the nation. They run the major network television stations, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, and sports franchises. As board members of the most influential colleges and universities, they influence cultural attitudes and values. As philanthropists, they establish foundations to support social causes they believe in. As campaign contributors, they sway politicians and fund campaigns, sometimes to protect their own economic interests. U.S. society has historically distinguished between “old money” (inherited wealth passed from one generation to the next) and “new money” (wealth you have earned and built yourself). While both types may have equal net worth, they have traditionally held different social standings. People of old money, firmly situated in the upper class for generations, have held high prestige. Their families have socialized them to know the customs, norms, and expectations that come with wealth. Often, the very wealthy don’t work for wages. Some study business or become lawyers in order to manage the family fortune. Others, such as Paris Hilton and Kim Kardashian, capitalize on being a rich socialite and transform that into celebrity status, flaunting a wealthy lifestyle. However, new-money members of the upper class are not oriented to the customs and mores of the elite. They haven’t gone to the most exclusive schools. They have not established old-money social ties. People with new money might flaunt their wealth, buying sports cars and mansions, but they might still exhibit behaviors attributed to the middle and lower classes. The Middle Class Many people consider themselves middle class, but there are differing ideas about what that means. People with annual incomes of $150,000 call themselves middle class, as do people who annually earn $30,000. That helps explain why, in the United States, the middle class is broken into upper and lower subcategories. Upper-middle-class people tend to hold bachelor’s and postgraduate degrees. They’ve studied subjects such as business, management, law, or medicine. Lower-middle-class members hold bachelor’s degrees from four-year colleges or associate’s degrees from two-year community or technical colleges. Comfort is a key concept to the middle class. Middle-class people work hard and live fairly comfortable lives. Upper-middle-class people tend to pursue careers that earn comfortable incomes. They provide their families with large homes and nice cars. They may go skiing or boating on vacation. Their children receive high-quality education and healthcare (Gilbert 2010). In the lower middle class, people hold jobs supervised by members of the upper middle class. They fill technical, lower-level management or administrative support positions. Compared to lower-class work, lower-middle-class jobs carry more prestige and come with slightly higher paychecks. With these incomes, people can afford a decent, mainstream lifestyle, but they struggle to maintain it. They generally don’t have enough income to build significant savings. In addition, their grip on class status is more precarious than in the upper tiers of the class system. When budgets are tight, lower-middle-class people are often the ones to lose their jobs. The Lower Class The lower class is also referred to as the working class. Just like the middle and upper classes, the lower class can be divided into subsets: the working class, the working poor, and the underclass. Compared to the lower middle class, lower-class people have less of an educational background and earn smaller incomes. They work jobs that require little prior skill or experience and often do routine tasks under close supervision. Working-class people, the highest subcategory of the lower class, often land decent jobs in fields like custodial or food service. The work is hands-on and often physically demanding, such as landscaping, cooking, cleaning, or building. Beneath the working class is the working poor. Like the working class, they have unskilled, low-paying employment. However, their jobs rarely offer benefits such as healthcare or retirement planning, and their positions are often seasonal or temporary. They work as sharecroppers, migrant farm workers, housecleaners, and day laborers. Some are high school dropouts. Some are illiterate, unable to read job ads. How can people work full-time and still be poor? Even working full-time, millions of the working poor earn incomes too meager to support a family. Minimum wage varies from state to state, but in many states it is approaching $8.00 per hour (Department of Labor 2014). At that rate, working 40 hours a week earns $320. That comes to $16,640 a year, before tax and deductions. Even for a single person, the pay is low. A married couple with children will have a hard time covering expenses. The underclass is the United States’ lowest tier. Members of the underclass live mainly in inner cities. Many are unemployed or underemployed. Those who do hold jobs typically perform menial tasks for little pay. Some of the underclass are homeless. For many, welfare systems provide a much-needed support through food assistance, medical care, housing, and the like. Social Mobility Social mobility refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. When people improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social class, they experience social mobility. Individuals can experience upward or downward social mobility for a variety of reasons. Upward mobility refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class. In the United States, people applaud the rags-to-riches achievements of celebrities like Jennifer Lopez or Michael Jordan. Bestselling author Stephen King worked as a janitor prior to being published. Oprah Winfrey grew up in poverty in rural Mississippi before becoming a powerful media personality. There are many stories of people rising from modest beginnings to fame and fortune. But the truth is that relative to the overall population, the number of people who rise from poverty to wealth is very small. Still, upward mobility is not only about becoming rich and famous. In the United States, people who earn a college degree, get a job promotion, or marry someone with a good income may move up socially. In contrast,downward mobility indicates a lowering of one’s social class. Some people move downward because of business setbacks, unemployment, or illness. Dropping out of school, losing a job, or getting a divorce may result in a loss of income or status and, therefore, downward social mobility. It is not uncommon for different generations of a family to belong to varying social classes. This is known as intergenerational mobility. For example, an upper-class executive may have parents who belonged to the middle class. In turn, those parents may have been raised in the lower class. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term societal changes. Similarly, intragenerational mobility refers to changes in a person's social mobility over the course of his or her lifetime. For example, the wealth and prestige experienced by one person may be quite different from that of his or her siblings. Structural mobility happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes. In the first half of the twentieth century, industrialization expanded the U.S. economy, raising the standard of living and leading to upward structural mobility. In today’s work economy, the recent recession and the outsourcing of jobs overseas have contributed to high unemployment rates. Many people have experienced economic setbacks, creating a wave of downward structural mobility. When analyzing the trends and movements in social mobility, sociologists consider all modes of mobility. Scholars recognize that mobility is not as common or easy to achieve as many people think. In fact, some consider social mobility a myth. Class Traits Class traits, also called class markers, are the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class. Class traits indicate the level of exposure a person has to a wide range of cultures. Class traits also indicate the amount of resources a person has to spend on items like hobbies, vacations, and leisure activities. People may associate the upper class with enjoyment of costly, refined, or highly cultivated tastes—expensive clothing, luxury cars, high-end fund-raisers, and opulent vacations. People may also believe that the middle and lower classes are more likely to enjoy camping, fishing, or hunting, shopping at large retailers, and participating in community activities. While these descriptions may identify class traits, they may also simply be stereotypes. Moreover, just as class distinctions have blurred in recent decades, so too have class traits. A very wealthy person may enjoy bowling as much as opera. A factory worker could be a skilled French cook. A billionaire might dress in ripped jeans, and a low-income student might own designer shoes. Turn-of-the-Century “Social Problem Novels”: Sociological Gold Mines Class distinctions were sharper in the nineteenth century and earlier, in part because people easily accepted them. The ideology of social order made class structure seem natural, right, and just. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, U.S. and British novelists played a role in changing public perception. They published novels in which characters struggled to survive against a merciless class system. These dissenting authors used gender and morality to question the class system and expose its inequalities. They protested the suffering of urbanization and industrialization, drawing attention to these issues. These “social problem novels,” sometimes called Victorian realism, forced middle-class readers into an uncomfortable position: they had to question and challenge the natural order of social class. For speaking out so strongly about the social issues of class, authors were both praised and criticized. Most authors did not want to dissolve the class system. They wanted to bring about an awareness that would improve conditions for the lower classes, while maintaining their own higher class positions (DeVine 2005). Soon, middle-class readers were not their only audience. In 1870, Forster’s Elementary Education Act required all children ages five through twelve in England and Wales to attend school. The act increased literacy levels among the urban poor, causing a rise in sales of cheap newspapers and magazines. The increasing number of people who rode public transit systems created a demand for “railway literature,” as it was called (Williams 1984). These reading materials are credited with the move toward democratization in England. By 1900 the British middle class had established a rigid definition for itself, and England’s working class also began to self-identify and demand a better way of life. Many of the novels of that era are seen as sociological goldmines. They are studied as existing sources because they detail the customs and mores of the upper, middle, and lower classes of that period in history. Examples of “social problem” novels include Charles Dickens’s The Adventures of Oliver Twist (1838), which shocked readers with its brutal portrayal of the realities of poverty, vice, and crime. Thomas Hardy’sTess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) was considered revolutionary by critics for its depiction of working-class women (DeVine 2005), and U.S. novelist Theodore Dreiser’sSister Carrie (1900) portrayed an accurate and detailed description of early Chicago. Summary There are three main classes in the United States: upper, middle, and lower class. Social mobility describes a shift from one social class to another. Class traits, also called class markers, are the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class. Section Quiz In the United States, most people define themselves as: - middle class - upper class - lower class - no specific class Hint: A Structural mobility occurs when: - an individual moves up the class ladder - an individual moves down the class ladder - a large group moves up or down the class ladder due to societal changes - a member of a family belongs to a different class than his or her siblings Hint: C The behaviors, customs, and norms associated with a class are known as: - class traits - power - prestige - underclass Hint: A Which of the following scenarios is an example of intragenerational mobility? - A janitor belongs to the same social class as his grandmother did. - An executive belongs to a different class than her parents. - An editor shares the same social class as his cousin. - A lawyer belongs to a different class than her sister. Hint: B Occupational prestige means that jobs are: - all equal in status - not equally valued - assigned to a person for life - not part of a person’s self-identity Hint: B Short Answer Which social class do you and your family belong to? Are you in a different social class than your grandparents and great-grandparents? Does your class differ from your social standing, and, if so, how? What aspects of your societal situation establish you in a social class? What class traits define your peer group? For example, what speech patterns or clothing trends do you and your friends share? What cultural elements, such as taste in music or hobbies, define your peer group? How do you see this set of class traits as different from other classes either above or below yours? Write a list of ten to twenty class traits that describe the environment of your upbringing. Which of these seem like true class traits, and which seem like stereotypes? What items might fall into both categories? How do you imagine a sociologist might address the conflation of class traits and stereotypes? Further Research PBS made a documentary about social class called “People Like Us: Social Class in America.” The filmmakers interviewed people who lived in Park Avenue penthouses and Appalachian trailer parks. The accompanying web site is full of information, interactive games, and life stories from those who participated. Read about it at http://openstaxcollege.org/l/social_class_in_America References Beeghley, Leonard. 2008. The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. DeVine, Christine. 2005. Class in Turn-of-the-Century Novels of Gissing, James, Hardy and Wells. London: Ashgate Publishing Co. Domhoff, G. William. 2013. "Wealth, Income, and Power." Retrieved December 22, 2014 (http://www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html). Gilbert, Dennis. 2010. The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Newbury Park, CA: Pine Forge Press. Kennickell, Arthur B. 2009. Ponds and Streams: Wealth and Income in the U.S., 1989 to 2007. January 7. Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2009/200913/200913pap.pdf). Lin, Nan, and Wen Xie. 1988. “Occupational Prestige in Urban China.” American Journal of Sociology 93(4):793–832. Mason, Jeff, and Andy Sullivan. 2010. “Factbox: What Is Middle Class in the United States?” Reuters, September 14. Retrieved August 29, 2011 (http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/09/14/us-usa-taxes-middleclass-idUSTRE68D3QD20100914). Popken, Ben. "CEO Pay Up 298%, Average Worker's? 4.3% (1995-2005)," 2007, The Consumerist. Retrieved on December 31, 2014 (http://consumerist.com/2007/04/09/ceo-pay-up-298-average-workers-43-1995-2005/) United States Department of Labor. 2014. “Wage and Hour Division: Minimum Wage Laws in the States—September 1, 2014.” Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.dol.gov/whd/minwage/america.htm). United States Department of Agriculture, 2013, "Food and Nutrition Assistance Research Database: Overview." Retrieved December 31, 2014 (http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-and-nutrition-assistance-research-database/ridge-project-summaries.aspx?type=2&summaryId=233) Williams, Raymond. 1984 [1976]. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.644587	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11791/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Social Stratification in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11792/overview	Global Stratification and Inequality Overview - Define global stratification - Describe different sociological models for understanding global stratification - Understand how studies of global stratification identify worldwide inequalities Untitled Section Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries across the world. Global stratification highlights worldwide patterns of social inequality. In the early years of civilization, hunter-gatherer and agrarian societies lived off the earth and rarely interacted with other societies. When explorers began traveling, societies began trading goods, as well as ideas and customs. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution created unprecedented wealth in Western Europe and North America. Due to mechanical inventions and new means of production, people began working in factories—not only men, but women and children as well. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, industrial technology had gradually raised the standard of living for many people in the United States and Europe. The Industrial Revolution also saw the rise of vast inequalities between countries that were industrialized and those that were not. As some nations embraced technology and saw increased wealth and goods, others maintained their ways; as the gap widened, the nonindustrialized nations fell further behind. Some social researchers, such as Walt Rostow, suggest that the disparity also resulted from power differences. Applying a conflict theory perspective, he asserts that industrializing nations took advantage of the resources of traditional nations. As industrialized nations became rich, other nations became poor (Rostow 1960). Sociologists studying global stratification analyze economic comparisons between nations. Income, purchasing power, and wealth are used to calculate global stratification. Global stratification also compares the quality of life that a country’s population can have. Poverty levels have been shown to vary greatly. The poor in wealthy countries like the United States or Europe are much better off than the poor in less-industrialized countries such as Mali or India. In 2002, the UN implemented the Millennium Project, an attempt to cut poverty worldwide by the year 2015. To reach the project’s goal, planners in 2006 estimated that industrialized nations must set aside 0.7 percent of their gross national income—the total value of the nation’s good and service, plus or minus income received from and sent to other nations—to aid in developing countries (Landler and Sanger, 2009; Millennium Project 2006). Models of Global Stratification Various models of global stratification all have one thing in common: they rank countries according to their relative economic status, or gross national product (GNP). Traditional models, now considered outdated, used labels to describe the stratification of the different areas of the world. Simply put, they were named “first world, “second world,” and “third world.” First and second world described industrialized nations, while third world referred to “undeveloped” countries (Henslin 2004). When researching existing historical sources, you may still encounter these terms, and even today people still refer to some nations as the “third world.” Another model separates countries into two groups: more developed and less developed. More-developed nations have higher wealth, such as Canada, Japan, and Australia. Less-developed nations have less wealth to distribute among higher populations, including many countries in central Africa, South America, and some island nations. Yet another system of global classification defines countries based on the per capita gross domestic product (GDP), a country’s average national wealth per person. The GDP is calculated (usually annually) one of two ways: by totaling either the income of all citizens or the value of all goods and services produced in the country during the year. It also includes government spending. Because the GDP indicates a country’s productivity and performance, comparing GDP rates helps establish a country’s economic health in relation to other countries. The figures also establish a country’s standard of living. According to this analysis, a GDP standard of a middle-income nation represents a global average. In low-income countries, most people are poor relative to people in other countries. Citizens have little access to amenities such as electricity, plumbing, and clean water. People in low-income countries are not guaranteed education, and many are illiterate. The life expectancy of citizens is lower than in high-income countries. The Big Picture: Calculating Global Stratification A few organizations take on the job of comparing the wealth of nations. The Population Reference Bureau (PRB) is one of them. Besides a focus on population data, the PRB publishes an annual report that measures the relative economic well-being of all the world’s countries. It’s called the Gross National Income (GNI) and Purchasing Power Parity (PPP). The GNI measures the current value of goods and services produced by a country. The PPP measures the relative power a country has to purchase those same goods and services. So, GNI refers to productive output and PPP refers to buying power. The total figure is divided by the number of residents living in a country to establish the average income of a resident of that country. Because costs of goods and services vary from one country to the next, the GNI PPP converts figures into a relative international unit. Calculating GNI PPP figures helps researchers accurately compare countries’ standard of living. They allow the United Nations and Population Reference Bureau to compare and rank the wealth of all countries and consider international stratification issues (nationsonline.org). Summary Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole. By comparing income and productivity between nations, researchers can better identify global inequalities. Section Quiz Social stratification is a system that: - ranks society members into categories - destroys competition between society members - allows society members to choose their social standing - reflects personal choices of society members Hint: A Which graphic concept best illustrates the concept of social stratification? - Pie chart - Flag poles - Planetary movement - Pyramid Hint: D The GNI PPP figure represents: - a country’s total accumulated wealth - annual government spending - the average annual income of a country’s citizens - a country’s debt Hint: C Short Answer Why is it important to understand and be aware of global stratification? Make a list of specific issues that are related to global stratification. For inspiration, turn on a news channel or read the newspaper. Next, choose a topic from your list, and look at it more closely. Who is affected by this issue? How is the issue specifically related to global stratification? Compare a family that lives in a grass hut in Ethiopia to an American family living in a trailer home in the Unites States. Assuming both exist at or below the poverty levels established by their country, how are the families’ lifestyles and economic situations similar and how are they different? Further Research Nations Online refers to itself as “among other things, a more or less objective guide to the world, a statement for the peaceful, nonviolent coexistence of nations.” The website provides a variety of cultural, financial, historical, and ethnic information on countries and peoples throughout the world: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/Nations_Online. References Millennium Project. 2006. “Expanding the financial envelope to achieve the Goals.” Millennium Project Official Website. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (https://web.archive.org/web/20130202045634/http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/costs_benefits2.htm). Nationsonline.org. “Countries by Gross National Income (GNI).” Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm). PRB.org. “GNI PPP Per Capita (US$).” PRB 2011 World Population Data Sheet. 2011 Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=61). Rostow, Walt W. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Landler, Mark, and David E. Sanger. 2009. “World Leaders Pledge $1.1 Trillion for Crisis.” New York Times, April 3. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/world/europe/03summit.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.671165	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11792/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Social Stratification in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11793/overview	Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Overview - Understand and apply functionalist, conflict theory, and interactionist perspectives on social stratification Basketball is one of the highest-paying professional sports. There is stratification even among teams. For example, the Minnesota Timberwolves hand out the lowest annual payroll, while the Los Angeles Lakers reportedly pay the highest. Kobe Bryant, a Lakers shooting guard, is one of the highest paid athletes in the NBA, earning around $30.5 million a year (Forbes 2014). Even within specific fields, layers are stratified and members are ranked. In sociology, even an issue such as NBA salaries can be seen from various points of view. Functionalists will examine the purpose of such high salaries, while conflict theorists will study the exorbitant salaries as an unfair distribution of money. Social stratification takes on new meanings when it is examined from different sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Functionalism In sociology, the functionalist perspective examines how society’s parts operate. According to functionalism, different aspects of society exist because they serve a needed purpose. What is the function of social stratification? In 1945, sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore published the Davis-Moore thesis, which argued that the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward. The theory posits that social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different work. Certain tasks in society are more valuable than others. Qualified people who fill those positions must be rewarded more than others. According to Davis and Moore, a firefighter’s job is more important than, for instance, a grocery store cashier’s. The cashier position does not require the same skill and training level as firefighting. Without the incentive of higher pay and better benefits, why would someone be willing to rush into burning buildings? If pay levels were the same, the firefighter might as well work as a grocery store cashier. Davis and Moore believed that rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder and longer. Davis and Moore stated that, in most cases, the degree of skill required for a job determines that job’s importance. They also stated that the more skill required for a job, the fewer qualified people there would be to do that job. Certain jobs, such as cleaning hallways or answering phones, do not require much skill. The employees don’t need a college degree. Other work, like designing a highway system or delivering a baby, requires immense skill. In 1953, Melvin Tumin countered the Davis-Moore thesis in “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis.” Tumin questioned what determined a job’s degree of importance. The Davis-Moore thesis does not explain, he argued, why a media personality with little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign trail. The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system or inequalities due to race or gender. Tumin believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill roles (Tumin 1953). For example, an underprivileged youth has less chance of becoming a scientist, no matter how smart she is, because of the relative lack of opportunity available to her. The Davis-Moore thesis also does not explain why a basketball player earns millions of dollars a year when a doctor who saves lives, a soldier who fights for others’ rights, and a teacher who helps form the minds of tomorrow will likely not make millions over the course of their careers. The Davis-Moore thesis, though open for debate, was an early attempt to explain why stratification exists. The thesis states that social stratification is necessary to promote excellence, productivity, and efficiency, thus giving people something to strive for. Davis and Moore believed that the system serves society as a whole because it allows everyone to benefit to a certain extent. Conflict Theory Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, asserting that it benefits only some people, not all of society. For instance, to a conflict theorist, it seems wrong that a basketball player is paid millions for an annual contract while a public school teacher earns $35,000 a year. Stratification, conflict theorists believe, perpetuates inequality. Conflict theorists try to bring awareness to inequalities, such as how a rich society can have so many poor members. Many conflict theorists draw on the work of Karl Marx. During the nineteenth-century era of industrialization, Marx believed social stratification resulted from people’s relationship to production. People were divided by a single line: they either owned factories or worked in them. In Marx’s time, bourgeois capitalists owned high-producing businesses, factories, and land, as they still do today. Proletariats were the workers who performed the manual labor to produce goods. Upper-class capitalists raked in profits and got rich, while working-class proletariats earned skimpy wages and struggled to survive. With such opposing interests, the two groups were divided by differences of wealth and power. Marx saw workers experience deep alienation, isolation and misery resulting from powerless status levels (Marx 1848). Marx argued that proletariats were oppressed by the money-hungry bourgeois. Today, while working conditions have improved, conflict theorists believe that the strained working relationship between employers and employees still exists. Capitalists own the means of production, and a system is in place to make business owners rich and keep workers poor. According to conflict theorists, the resulting stratification creates class conflict. If he were alive in today’s economy, as it recovers from a prolonged recession, Marx would likely have argued that the recession resulted from the greed of capitalists, satisfied at the expense of working people. Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic interactionism is a theory that uses everyday interactions of individuals to explain society as a whole. Symbolic interactionism examines stratification from a micro-level perspective. This analysis strives to explain how people’s social standing affects their everyday interactions. In most communities, people interact primarily with others who share the same social standing. It is precisely because of social stratification that people tend to live, work, and associate with others like themselves, people who share their same income level, educational background, or racial background, and even tastes in food, music, and clothing. The built-in system of social stratification groups people together. This is one of the reasons why it was rare for a royal prince like England’s Prince William to marry a commoner. Symbolic interactionists also note that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Housing, clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in accessories, and personal style. To symbolically communicate social standing, people often engage in conspicuous consumption, which is the purchase and use of certain products to make a social statement about status. Carrying pricey but eco-friendly water bottles could indicate a person’s social standing. Some people buy expensive trendy sneakers even though they will never wear them to jog or play sports. A $17,000 car provides transportation as easily as a $100,000 vehicle, but the luxury car makes a social statement that the less expensive car can’t live up to. All these symbols of stratification are worthy of examination by an interactionist. Summary Social stratification can be examined from different sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. The functionalist perspective states that systems exist in society for good reasons. Conflict theorists observe that stratification promotes inequality, such as between rich business owners and poor workers. Symbolic interactionists examine stratification from a micro-level perspective. They observe how social standing affects people’s everyday interactions and how the concept of “social class” is constructed and maintained through everyday interactions. Section Quiz The basic premise of the Davis-Moore thesis is that the unequal distribution of rewards in social stratification: - is an outdated mode of societal organization - is an artificial reflection of society - serves a purpose in society - cannot be justified Hint: C Unlike Davis and Moore, Melvin Tumin believed that, because of social stratification, some qualified people were _______ higher-level job positions. - denied the opportunity to obtain - encouraged to train for - often fired from - forced into Hint: A Which statement represents stratification from the perspective of symbolic interactionism? - Men often earn more than women, even working the same job. - After work, Pat, a janitor, feels more comfortable eating in a truck stop than a French restaurant. - Doctors earn more money because their job is more highly valued. - Teachers continue to struggle to keep benefits such as health insurance. Hint: B When Karl Marx said workers experience alienation, he meant that workers: - must labor alone, without companionship - do not feel connected to their work - move from one geographical location to another - have to put forth self-effort to get ahead Hint: B Conflict theorists view capitalists as those who: - are ambitious - fund social services - spend money wisely - get rich while workers stay poor Hint: D Short Answer Analyze the Davis-Moore thesis. Do you agree with Davis and Moore? Does social stratification play an important function in society? What examples can you think of that support the thesis? What examples can you think of that refute the thesis? Consider social stratification from the symbolic interactionist perspective. How does social stratification influence the daily interactions of individuals? How do systems of class, based on factors such as prestige, power, income, and wealth, influence your own daily routines, as well as your beliefs and attitudes? Illustrate your ideas with specific examples and anecdotes from your own life and the lives of people in your community. References Davis, Kingsley, and Wilbert E. Moore. “Some Principles of Stratification.” American Sociological Review 10(2):242–249. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2085643). Forbes.com LLC. 2014. "#15 Kobe Bryant." Retrived December 22, 2014 (http://www.forbes.com/profile/kobe-bryant/). Marx, Karl. 1848. Manifesto of the Communist Party. Retrieved January 9, 2012 (http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/). Tumin, Melvin M. 1953. “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis.” American Sociological Review 18(4):387–394.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.699174	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11793/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Social Stratification in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99502/overview	Final Contribution OER Commons Overview FInal Contribution, OER Commons ANT 100 The Ethnography of Youth and Justice in NYC SDG #10 Reducing Inequalities Reducing inequalities is a topic that has a very broad range of topics. There is inequality in so many areas of life it was hard for us to pick where we wanted to specify. Initially we agreed infrastructure and workplaces were the two places we felt we have experienced inequality firsthand. We both knew exactly where to go and how we could record our findings. Jad growing up in the Bronx area, he would pass these places on a daily basis. I ,Shane, told the group how I grew up witnessing these inequalities in my hometown restaurant throughout my childhood. For our anthropological research Jad decided to visit areas around 161st in the Bronx and I decided to visit Tropical Jade 1. Both of us were able to witness more cases of inequality first hand, from this first hand experience we were both able to draw conclusions that helped us understand these things from a more anthropological view. My main findings were from an article by Marion Young, she explained workplace culture to me that challenged my whole point of view of this project. My first objective was to understand the correlation between the inequality based on the gender, sex,and race of the management. I went into the establishment and made my basis of conclusions on racial stereotypes and social roles. In the article Five Faces of Oppression she made me understand it as a workplace culture issue in all work environments, thinking culturally relativistically. When Jad went into his study of infrastructure he wanted to understand how the infrastructure of minority neighborhoods affected the residents in their daily life. He understood how poor infrastructure is often detrimental to a person living in poverty. The way people were always dealt the short end of the stick. Upon going to 161st near Yankee Stadium, he witnessed the inequality of the infrastructure by seeing the difference a few blocks make. Near Yankee Stadium he was able to witness a 6 billion dollar organization where it has become gentrified. Walking these few blocks he’s already at a place deemed the projects by the community. These are the things that threaten the sustainability and equality of our workplaces and community infrastructure. “Reducing inequalities and ensuring no one is left behind are integral to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals”(un.org) The accommodation for the Yankees fans and not for the people of the community show true inequality. From an anthropological view we understand the culture of a neighborhood affects the residents in all ways, when a community feels “left behind” it has detrimental effects on the residents mental health. On the other facet of inequality in workplaces, it creates an unfair environment for workers. Workplace culture has a hierarchy culture in place already which needs to be challenged to fight for our sustainability goals. We cannot achieve sustainable development and create a better planet for us all if people are left behind and are fighting for places in a hierarchical environment. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/inequality/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.712811	12/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99502/overview", "title": "Final Contribution OER Commons", "author": "Shane Bahadur" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123319/overview	Information Retrieval Experiments Overview This assignment follows the history of IR experiments and discusses major milestones in this area. The Cranfield Test first introduced precision and recall as evaluation metrics. Medlars Project is mainly based on automatic indexing and query expansion for biomedical retrieval. The SMART Retrieval Experiment was the pioneer for the Vector Space Model (VSM) and TF-IDF term weighting. TREC brought large-scale IR benchmarking, and the STAIRS Test is the milestone with a probabilistic model and statistical techniques. These experiments together shaped modern IR by enhancing retrieval accuracy, standards for evaluation, and the incorporation of statistical and machine learning methods. Evolution of IR Experiments Information Retrieval (IR) has evolved significantly over the decades, with many groundbreaking experiments and test collections being developed to evaluate and enhance retrieval systems. Each experiment was a response to the growing need for more precise and efficient ways of retrieving information from large datasets. This assignment gives an elaborate description of several important IR experiments: the Cranfield Test, the Medlars project, the SMART retrieval experiments, the TREC experiments, and the STAIRS test. These experiments were of vital importance in the shaping of the field of IR. 1. The Cranfield Test (1960s) Background: The Cranfield Test is arguably the first big formal IR evaluation experiment. It was invented in the early 1960s by Cleverdon and his associates at Cranfield University, UK. The purpose of the Cranfield Test was to provide a consistent, objective measure of the performance of IR systems. This was against the background of the then existing method of comparison between different retrieval systems that did not have any standard approach. Methodology: The experiment made use of a large number of documents, queries and relevance judgments. The Cranfield Test used scientific papers as the main documents for the test, and queries were constructed to represent average information needs in academic research. A set of relevance judgments, i.e., which documents were deemed relevant for which query, was created by human assessors. The documents were retrieved through an assortment of IR systems, and their performance was ascertained using precision and recall as key metrics. Key Contributions Precise and Recall : the Cranfield Test introduced both precision ( The ratio of retrieved documents, which is relevant;) as well as recall,( that is, the percentage of relevant documents retrieved). Both will eventually form the backbone of the evaluation procedure of IR systems. Relevance Judgments: The test established the practice of relevance judgments based on human assessment, which is still a norm in IR experiments. Systematic Evaluation: It set the foundation for systematic, quantitative evaluation of IR systems using test collections, which was critical to the development of the field. Impact: The Cranfield Test was instrumental in the form it has taken for today's IR research. It laid down the significance of a structured experiment, reproducibility, and explicit measures of evaluation in testing the retrieval system's performance. 2. Medlars Project (1960s) Overview: The Medlars Project (1962-1963) is another significant IR experiment started by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) in the United States. The project involved an attempt to enhance biomedical literature retrieval using automatic indexing and retrieval techniques. Medlars was an early effort to automate the process of retrieval of documents in a specialized domain. Methodology: The Medlars project used a test collection of biomedical documents (such as research papers and medical reports) and a set of user queries designed to reflect typical medical information needs. Again, relevance judgments were created by human experts, and the project used a set of indexing terms to evaluate the effectiveness of various indexing and retrieval strategies. The key focus was on assessing the effectiveness of automatic indexing systems, particularly for medical information retrieval. The experiments examined the ability of IR systems to return relevant documents for a given query based on the assigned indexing terms. Key Contributions: - Automatic Indexing: Medlars helped demonstrate the potential of automatic indexing and retrieval methods for specialized domains like medicine. - Query Expansion: The research looked into methods of increasing retrieval effectiveness, including the use of 'query expansion', where related terms were added to a user's query to enhance retrieval. - Human-Computer Interaction: Medlars also recognized the need for understanding user needs and introducing human judgment into the IR process. Impact: The Medlars Project was an important point in the development of IR systems specific to domains. It contributed to the spreading use of automatic indexing approaches within IR research and provided the first evidence of possible failure in achieving effective retrieval within specialized domains. 3. The SMART Retrieval Experiment (1960s–1970s) Background The SMART (System for the Mechanical Analysis and Retrieval of Text) project, developed by Salton and his colleagues at Cornell University in the 1960s and 1970s, is one of the most influential experiments in IR history. It introduced several important ideas in IR, particularly those concerning indexing, retrieval models, and evaluation. The SMART system relied on a very large corpus of text-comprised mainly of documents from the CIA World Factbook -and made use of many information retrieval techniques. Most of the SMART experiments concentrated on the development and testing of the vector space model (VSM), which represents documents and queries as vectors in a multidimensional space. The SMART system used several indexing techniques such as term weighting schemes like TF-IDF and Boolean logic for formulating queries. The experiments were to generate queries, retrieve the documents, and evaluate the retrieved results with the precision and recall measures. Major Contributions Vector Space Model (VSM): The invention of the VSM was one of the greatest IR breakthroughs. This could make the document retrieval process much more advanced and flexible than the Boolean model. Term Weighting: The SMART system incorporated term weighting, utilizing the TF-IDF (Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency) approach that remains the very heart of modern IR. Evaluation Methods: It also introduced systematic, quantitative methods of evaluation which would enable the comparison of different IR systems. Impact: The SMART experiments played a crucial role in the development of modern IR, especially in the use of mathematical and statistical methods for document retrieval. Many of the vector space model and term weighting schemes introduced by SMART are still widely used in contemporary IR systems. 4. The TREC Experiment (1990s–Present) Background: The Text REtrieval Conference (TREC) , which was initiated in 1992 by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), is one of the most influential and continuous IR evaluation efforts. TREC strives to enhance IR development through a forum where different retrieval techniques can be compared, especially within large-scale and real-world scenarios. Methodology: The experiments TREC offers contain various large, publicly available datasets (corpora) and a series of tasks associated with information retrieval: document retrieval, web search, and interactive search. Annually, TREC conducts a competition by where teams from around the globe submit their IR systems to compete against standardized queries for evaluation. The experiments employ benchmark datasets and offer relevance judgments for a set of queries. Performance is measured using metrics such as precision, recall, mean average precision (MAP), and normalized discounted cumulative gain (NDCG). Key Contributions: Large-Scale IR Evaluation: TREC was among the first large-scale, community-driven efforts to benchmark IR systems on a wide variety of tasks, from web search to question answering. Shared Datasets and Evaluation Metrics: This shared use of datasets with standardized evaluation metrics permitted comparative evaluations among different systems and techniques. Task Diversity: TREC expanded its scope over time by including many diverse tasks: cross-language retrieval, interactive search, and many other specialized domains, like medical and legal retrieval. TREC has had important consequences in IR research; namely, collaboration, supplying benchmarks of data, and enhancing sound practices in terms of rigorous evaluation. Of further consequence was the surfacing of emergent themes, and trends, to highlight emerging directions and obstacles with this kind of advance as witnessed by web search and even, by way of necessity, real-time adaptation and retrieval. 5. The STAIRS Test (2000s) Background: The STAIRS is the series of experiments proposed for testing the effectiveness of statistical techniques in IR, where the approach was very different from that of earlier experiments, which were basically built on traditional information retrieval models. In contrast, newer statistical approaches, including probabilistic models, became the focus of STAIRS. Methodology The STAIRS test is set up in a similar fashion to previous experiments, in that it has a set of queries and a corpus of documents. However, it focuses much more heavily on the application of statistical methods, such as Bayesian networks, Markov models, and other probabilistic models, in the context of IR. The test also discusses latent semantic analysis (LSA) and other dimensionality reduction techniques in order to improve retrieval accuracy. Key Contributions: Probabilistic Models: The STAIRS experiment pointed out the use of probabilistic models to better information retrieval, thereby yielding more advanced retrieval techniques. Dimensionality Reduction: STAIRS made an attempt using techniques like latent semantic indexing (LSI) that may reflect underlying structure in large document collections as needed to enhance retrieval in high dimensional spaces. Effect: STAIRS contributed to the growth of statistical and probabilistic IR models and, by this way, influenced the development of more advanced systems based on machine learning and statistical techniques. Conclusion The desire to improve retrieval accuracy and efficiency across different domains have shaped the evolution of experiments in IR. From Cranfield Test, which was the earliest experimentation, to the TREC experiments currently, these tests have given people a better understanding of what is needed to develop information retrieval systems, test them, and refine them. Each of these experiments advanced the growth of the field of IR by providing it with new models, some evaluation metrics, and methods that shaped the modern era of IR.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.732096	12/21/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123319/overview", "title": "Information Retrieval Experiments", "author": "Ajoy kumar Das" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90668/overview	The Effect of Culture on Eating Overview A recording of the impact of culture on eating. A recording of the effect of culture on eating.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.749716	03/04/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90668/overview", "title": "The Effect of Culture on Eating", "author": "Nadire Dağ" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview	Introduction to Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview This Summer Institutute kick off webinar and reflection in group discussion covered the following: - Connect and get to know each other - Discuss Institute Goals, Outcomes and Expectations - Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview - Explore the What and Why - Discover how Open Educational Resources and Practices can support our work Introduction to Open Educational Resources & Practices Webinar Recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zMMyN6n__GZOTKfMznjDRaATEd28X6a8gCUXqfMPykpr2_Crl5BdzXjd4vIsyJOw Slides are attached Reply to group discussion: https://www.oercommons.org/groups/summer-2020-training-team/4846/discussions/1294?__hub_id=74 Summary of all known empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education https://openedgroup.org/review	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.769576	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66684/overview	OER Discovery Overview The Summer Institute webinar and practice activities covered the following: - Explore the opportunity for OER to address our current needs / challenges / opportunities - Discover how to find OER that you can use in your work –Browse collections in the digital library and hubs –Utilize search, advanced search, refine search OER Discovery Webinar recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/_5B5L7zLy2dLWK_I1kfNd_cMF9v0aaa80SkWqPUKxBlVJ1MHJVT5YnpQGCMWIF4N Slides are attached Practice: Use search tools (search, advanced search, filter results) to find a resource you can use https://www.oercommons.org Share: Share a link to the resource you found and how you plan to use the resource by replying to the discussion in our Group Show & Tell: Find an image that represents what collaboration looks like in your work to share next week. We will share these images in breakout rooms over zoom. You can either share your screen or hold the image up to your camera to share.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.791214	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66684/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview	OER Collaboration and Curation Overview The Summer Institute webinar and practice activities covered the following: 1.Share what collaboration looks like in your work 2.Explore tools and workflows for collaboration and curation –Create folders and subfolders –Save resources to folders OER Collaboration and Curation Webinar recording Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zshKKritp3xLRIXy40LlZJwgJoS7X6a81nJL__oLyk8XpNR6V06OQ0l_ejgw94Kd Slides are attached This week's practice activities: 1. Practice: Create a folder / subfolders and save resources you can use in your work. Learn how to create group folders. - Are you interested in creating a group? Learn how to create a group. 2. Practice: Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate To add a resource to one of the BranchED Hub Collections, find the the keyword below for the collection you want to add it to and tag it on the resource. \| Collection title \| Keywords \| \| Subject areas/content \| BranchED SC \| \| Teaching Methods \| BranchED Methods \| \| Social Emotional Learning \| BranchED SEL \| \| CLSP \| BranchED CLSP \| \| SPED \| BranchED SPED \| \| Assessment and Evaluation \| BranchED Assessment \| \| Foundations of Education \| BranchED Foundations \| \| Field-Based Courses \| BranchED FBC \| 3. Show & Tell: Bring a resource you created or remixed that you are proud of to share at our next meeting	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.811528	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview	OER Quality Evaluation Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share what high-quality resources look like in your work 2.Explore quality evaluation tools 3.Determine your own quality evaluation criteria Webinar Recording: Link to the zoom recording here: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/_v0pFZCu7XtLRNbw707tc48BFZnheaa8hyVKqKIKzRsRAQ7P0HYtwTxx24tN4Ipq?startTime=1591204997000 Slides are attached Quality Evaluation Tools: - Achieve OER Rubric https://www.achieve.org/files/AchieveOERRubrics.pdf - Open Textbook Library Review Criteria https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/reviews/rubric - BranchED’s Equity-Oriented Criteria https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65060/overview - Washington’s Model for Assessing Bias in Instructional Materials https://www.k12.wa.us/sites/default/files/public/equity/pubdocs/Washington%20Models%20for%20the%20Evaluation%20of%20Bias_2009.pdf This week's practice and reflection: Discuss: Share what your resource quality evaluation criteria is in the group discussion here. Practice: Evaluate a resource in our group folders using your own quality evaluation criteria. Write your review as a comment on the resource. For example: Here is a resource that was evaluated in the comment section Fractal Cities Discuss: Revisit your OER Content Development & Training Proposal. Reflect on any modifications or additions you many need to make to your module and/or training offerings given what you have worked on in the past month. Share any changes you made and why in our group discussion here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.839083	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66687/overview	OER Design, Authoring and Remixing Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share any changes we made to our proposals 2.Explore designing and iterating for continuous improvement –Share best practices and get inspiration from other educators 3.Get an overview of OER authoring tool, Open Author –Discover how to edit, describe, and publish a resource Webinar recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/uedTDYqv5kFJWoWX5lH-eJ9_Q6K5eaa8gCAfq_JYzhrpBtLqZ6dSnHccl4vvoGvO?startTime=1591808490000 Slides are attached Here is the Open Author instructional video that shows you how to edit, describe, and publish a resource, as well as how to remix. This week's practice: Begin designing your module in Open Author - In our Summer Institute Group click Contribute to this Group and select Open Author (you need to be logged in) - Give your module a title and start creating your sections - add co-authors, format sections, embed media (images and videos), attach files from your computer, add instructor notes if applicable, check sections for accessibility - Describe your module, choose a license, add keywords, align to standards if applicable - Publish and be ready to share your first draft next week	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.858275	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66687/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66688/overview	BranchED Institute Training 2 OER Training Design and Planning Overview We shared the progress and next steps for our modules and discussed plans for trainings over two weeks. OER Training Design and Planning Part One Watch recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/ufdMC4_3xHFJSZ390FjQS5cABInUaaa81CVI-aEKz0-1ZrZp2B3q3XEz5VWh6psz?startTime=1593018155000 Slides are attached This week's practice: - Continue designing and editing your module in Open Author. Republish changes by June 30. - Brainstorm ideas for training plans by replying to the discussion here by June 30. OER Training Design and Planning Part Two Watch Recording for Training Design and Planning Part Two: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/18grKung8VhIcKOc11PfZ_8wQdS4aaa82nQZqaVeyRvryZx-IX_ZyyMBGWj8LGwg Slides are attached This week's practice: • Continue designing and editing your module in Open Author. Republish changes and Save to the OER Module folder by July 6. • Choose two other modules to evaluate in the OER Module folder using the quality criteria you determined in week 4. You can Evaluate using the achieve rubric and/or write your evaluation in the comment section of the modules on July 7. • Fill out Webinar Topic and Date Selection Form by July 10.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.879758	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66688/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66689/overview	Peer Review and Continuous Improvement Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share your first draft of your module 2.Get feedback from peers 3.Take notes so you can refine your module based on feedback Watch recording: Link to zoom recording https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/5OUlK-re8EFOE9bAsXPCAKAYB4f-X6a80yIX-fQOz0eHk0ZfO3KwwefgEjQduvhT Slides are attached Here is the Open Author instructional video that shows you how to edit, describe, and publish a resource, as well as how to remix. This week's practice: Continue designing and editing your module in Open Author Evaluate your module based on the quality criteria you determined in week 4 Publish your module draft by next Wednesday, June 24	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.897840	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66689/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66690/overview	Leadership and Advocacy Overview During this week's session, we brainstormed our plans for our workshop trainings, shared some structure to draft outreach communication ideas, and discussed next steps. Zoom meeting reording: Zoom recording link: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/pv12Dq7Ry3hIXc_y8BHAarYwHYbjX6a82nVPrKcImEyeLt84gFtKvzqholNGxMX4 Slides are attached Next Steps - Share outreach communication ideas and drafts in the discussion here. - Please fill out the Summer Institute Survey to help inform our work moving forward. Share your webinar training ideas in the Webinar Topic and Date Selection Form by July 10. The webinar Series will be offered from August-October. Brainstorm and share your Workshop Training Plans in our shared folder and facilitate workshops by November 20. Ensure workshop participants complete the Workshop Evaluations by November 30. BranchED will reach out regarding Peer Mentoring Opportunities for the Spring 2021 Cohort.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.916586	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66690/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11833/overview	Work in the United States Overview - Describe the current U.S. workforce and the trend of polarization - Explain how women and immigrants have changed the modern U.S. workforce - Understand the basic elements of poverty in the United States today The American Dream has always been based on opportunity. There is a great deal of mythologizing about the energetic upstart who can climb to success based on hard work alone. Common wisdom states that if you study hard, develop good work habits, and graduate high school or, even better, college, then you'll have the opportunity to land a good job. That has long been seen as the key to a successful life. And although the reality has always been more complex than suggested by the myth, the worldwide recession that began in 2008 took its toll on the American Dream. During the recession, more than 8 million U.S. workers lost their jobs, and unemployment rates surpassed 10 percent on a national level. Today, while the recovery is still incomplete, many sectors of the economy are hiring, and unemployment rates have receded. Real Money, Virtual Worlds If you are not one of the tens of millions gamers who enjoy World of Warcraft or other online virtual world games, you might not even know what MMORPG stands for. But if you made a living playing massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), as a growing number of enterprising gamers do, then massive multiplayer online role-playing games might matter a bit more. According to an article in Forbes magazine, the online world of gaming has been yielding very real profits for entrepreneurs who are able to buy, sell, and manage online real estate, currency, and more for cash (Holland and Ewalt 2006). If it seems strange that people would pay real money for imaginary goods, consider that for serious gamers the online world is of equal importance to the real one. These entrepreneurs can sell items because the gaming sites have introduced scarcity into the virtual worlds. The game makers have realized that MMORPGs lack tension without a level of scarcity for needed resources or highly desired items. In other words, if anyone can have a palace or a vault full of wealth, then what’s the fun? So how does it work? One of the easiest ways to make such a living is called gold farming, which involves hours of repetitive and boring play, hunting, and shooting animals like dragons that carry a lot of wealth. This virtual wealth can be sold on eBay for real money: a timesaver for players who don’t want to waste their playing time on boring pursuits. Players in parts of Asia engage in gold farming and play eight hours a day or more to sell their gold to players in Western Europe or North America. From virtual prostitutes to power levelers (people who play the game logged in as you so your characters get the wealth and power), to architects, merchants, and even beggars, online players can offer to sell any service or product that others want to buy. Whether buying a magic carpet in World of Warcraft or a stainless-steel kitchen appliance in Second Life, gamers have the same desire to acquire as the rest of us—never mind that their items are virtual. Once a gamer creates the code for an item, she can sell it again and again for real money. And finally, you can sell yourself. According to Forbes, a University of Virginia computer science student sold his World of Warcraft character on eBay for $1,200, due to the high levels of powers and skills it had gained (Holland and Ewalt 2006). So should you quit your day job to make a killing in online games? Probably not. Those who work hard might eke out a decent living, but for most people, grabbing up land that doesn’t really exist or selling your body in animated action scenes is probably not the best opportunity. Still, for some, it offers the ultimate in work-from-home flexibility, even if that home is a mountain cave in a virtual world. Polarization in the Workforce The mix of jobs available in the United States began changing many years before the recession struck, and, as mentioned above, the American Dream has not always been easy to achieve. Geography, race, gender, and other factors have always played a role in the reality of success. More recently, the increased outsourcing—or contracting a job or set of jobs to an outside source—of manufacturing jobs to developing nations has greatly diminished the number of high-paying, often unionized, blue-collar positions available. A similar problem has arisen in the white-collar sector, with many low-level clerical and support positions also being outsourced, as evidenced by the international technical-support call centers in Mumbai, India, and Newfoundland, Canada. The number of supervisory and managerial positions has been reduced as companies streamline their command structures and industries continue to consolidate through mergers. Even highly educated skilled workers such as computer programmers have seen their jobs vanish overseas. The automation of the workplace, which replaces workers with technology, is another cause of the changes in the job market. Computers can be programmed to do many routine tasks faster and less expensively than people who used to do such tasks. Jobs like bookkeeping, clerical work, and repetitive tasks on production assembly lines all lend themselves to automation. Envision your local supermarket’s self-scan checkout aisles. The automated cashiers affixed to the units take the place of paid employees. Now one cashier can oversee transactions at six or more self-scan aisles, which was a job that used to require one cashier per aisle. Despite the ongoing economic recovery, the job market is actually growing in some areas, but in a very polarized fashion. Polarization means that a gap has developed in the job market, with most employment opportunities at the lowest and highest levels and few jobs for those with midlevel skills and education. At one end, there has been strong demand for low-skilled, low-paying jobs in industries like food service and retail. On the other end, some research shows that in certain fields there has been a steadily increasing demand for highly skilled and educated professionals, technologists, and managers. These high-skilled positions also tend to be highly paid (Autor 2010). The fact that some positions are highly paid while others are not is an example of the class system, an economic hierarchy in which movement (both upward and downward) between various rungs of the socioeconomic ladder is possible. Theoretically, at least, the class system as it is organized in the United States is an example of a meritocracy, an economic system that rewards merit––typically in the form of skill and hard work––with upward mobility. A theorist working in the functionalist perspective might point out that this system is designed to reward hard work, which encourages people to strive for excellence in pursuit of reward. A theorist working in the conflict perspective might counter with the thought that hard work does not guarantee success even in a meritocracy, because social capital––the accumulation of a network of social relationships and knowledge that will provide a platform from which to achieve financial success––in the form of connections or higher education are often required to access the high-paying jobs. Increasingly, we are realizing intelligence and hard work aren’t enough. If you lack knowledge of how to leverage the right names, connections, and players, you are unlikely to experience upward mobility. With so many jobs being outsourced or eliminated by automation, what kind of jobs are there a demand for in the United States? While fishing and forestry jobs are in decline, in several markets jobs are increasing. These include community and social service, personal care and service, finance, computer and information services, and healthcare. The chart below, from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, illustrates areas of projected growth. The professional and related jobs, which include any number of positions, typically require significant education and training and tend to be lucrative career choices. Service jobs, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, can include everything from jobs with the fire department to jobs scooping ice cream (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2010). There is a wide variety of training needed, and therefore an equally large wage potential discrepancy. One of the largest areas of growth by industry, rather than by occupational group (as seen above), is in the health field. This growth is across occupations, from associate-level nurse’s aides to management-level assisted-living staff. As baby boomers age, they are living longer than any generation before, and the growth of this population segment requires an increase in capacity throughout our country’s elder care system, from home healthcare nursing to geriatric nutrition. Notably, jobs in farming are in decline. This is an area where those with less education traditionally could be assured of finding steady, if low-wage, work. With these jobs disappearing, more and more workers will find themselves untrained for the types of employment that are available. Another projected trend in employment relates to the level of education and training required to gain and keep a job. As the chart below shows us, growth rates are higher for those with more education. Those with a professional degree or a master’s degree may expect job growth of 20 and 22 percent respectively, and jobs that require a bachelor’s degree are projected to grow 17 percent. At the other end of the spectrum, jobs that require a high school diploma or equivalent are projected to grow at only 12 percent, while jobs that require less than a high school diploma will grow 14 percent. Quite simply, without a degree, it will be more difficult to find a job. It is worth noting that these projections are based on overall growth across all occupation categories, so obviously there will be variations within different occupational areas. However, once again, those who are the least educated will be the ones least able to fulfill the American Dream. In the past, rising education levels in the United States had been able to keep pace with the rise in the number of education-dependent jobs. However, since the late 1970s, men have been enrolling in college at a lower rate than women, and graduating at a rate of almost 10 percent less. The lack of male candidates reaching the education levels needed for skilled positions has opened opportunities for women, minorities, and immigrants (Wang 2011). Women in the Workforce Women have been entering the workforce in ever-increasing numbers for several decades. They have also been finishing college and going on to earn higher degrees at higher rate than men do. This has resulted in many women being better positioned to obtain high-paying, high-skill jobs (Autor 2010). While women are getting more and better jobs and their wages are rising more quickly than men's wages are, U.S. Census statistics show that they are still earning only 77 percent of what men are for the same positions (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). Immigration and the Workforce Simply put, people will move from where there are few or no jobs to places where there are jobs, unless something prevents them from doing so. The process of moving to a country is called immigration. Due to its reputation as the land of opportunity, the United States has long been the destination of all skill levels of workers. While the rate decreased somewhat during the economic slowdown of 2008, immigrants, both legal and illegal, continue to be a major part of the U.S. workforce. In 2005, before the recession arrived, immigrants made up a historic high of 14.7 percent of the workforce (Lowell et al. 2006). During the 1970s through 2000s, the United States experienced both an increase in college-educated immigrants and in immigrants who lacked a high school diploma. With this range across the spectrum, immigrants are well positioned for both the higher-paid jobs and the low-wage low-skill jobs that are predicted to grow in the next decade (Lowell et al. 2006). In the early 2000s, it certainly seemed that the United States was continuing to live up to its reputation of opportunity. But what about during the recession of 2008, when so many jobs were lost and unemployment hovered close to 10 percent? How did immigrant workers fare then? The answer is that as of June 2009, when the National Bureau of Economic Research (NEBR) declared the recession officially over, “foreign-born workers gained 656,000 jobs while native-born workers lost 1.2 million jobs” (Kochhar 2010). As these numbers suggest, the unemployment rate that year decreased for immigrant workers and increased for native workers. The reasons for this trend are not entirely clear. Some Pew research suggests immigrants tend to have greater flexibility to move from job to job and that the immigrant population may have been early victims of the recession, and thus were quicker to rebound (Kochhar 2010). Regardless of the reasons, the 2009 job gains are far from enough to keep them inured from the country’s economic woes. Immigrant earnings are in decline, even as the number of jobs increases, and some theorize that increase in employment may come from a willingness to accept significantly lower wages and benefits. While the political debate is often fueled by conversations about low-wage-earning immigrants, there are actually as many highly skilled––and high-earning––immigrant workers as well. Many immigrants are sponsored by their employers who claim they possess talents, education, and training that are in short supply in the U.S. These sponsored immigrants account for 15 percent of all legal immigrants (Batalova and Terrazas 2010). Interestingly, the U.S. population generally supports these high-level workers, believing they will help lead to economic growth and not be a drain on government services (Hainmueller and Hiscox 2010). On the other hand, illegal immigrants tend to be trapped in extremely low-paying jobs in agriculture, service, and construction with few ways to improve their situation without risking exposure and deportation. Poverty in the United States When people lose their jobs during a recession or in a changing job market, it takes longer to find a new one, if they can find one at all. If they do, it is often at a much lower wage or not full time. This can force people into poverty. In the United States, we tend to have what is called relative poverty, defined as being unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country. This must be contrasted with the absolute poverty that is frequently found in underdeveloped countries and defined as the inability, or near-inability, to afford basic necessities such as food (Byrns 2011). We cannot even rely on unemployment statistics to provide a clear picture of total unemployment in the United States. First, unemployment statistics do not take into account underemployment, a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than their education and experience qualifies them to perform. Second, unemployment statistics only count those: - who are actively looking for work - who have not earned income from a job in the past four weeks - who are ready, willing, and able to work The unemployment statistics provided by the U.S. government are rarely accurate, because many of the unemployed become discouraged and stop looking for work. Not only that, but these statistics undercount the youngest and oldest workers, the chronically unemployed (e.g., homeless), and seasonal and migrant workers. A certain amount of unemployment is a direct result of the relative inflexibility of the labor market, considered structural unemployment, which describes when there is a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the available jobs. This mismatch can be geographic (they are hiring in California, but most unemployed live in Alabama), technological (skilled workers are replaced by machines, as in the auto industry), or can result from any sudden change in the types of jobs people are seeking versus the types of companies that are hiring. Because of the high standard of living in the United States, many people are working at full-time jobs but are still poor by the standards of relative poverty. They are the working poor. The United States has a higher percentage of working poor than many other developed countries (Brady, Fullerton and Cross 2010). In terms of employment, the Bureau of Labor Statistics defines the working poor as those who have spent at least 27 weeks working or looking for work, and yet remain below the poverty line. Many of the facts about the working poor are as expected: Those who work only part time are more likely to be classified as working poor than those with full-time employment; higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working poor; and those with children under 18 are four times more likely than those without children to fall into this category. In 2009, the working poor included 10.4 million Americans, up almost 17 percent from 2008 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011). Most developed countries such as the United States protect their citizens from absolute poverty by providing different levels of social services such as unemployment insurance, welfare, food assistance, and so on. They may also provide job training and retraining so that people can reenter the job market. In the past, the elderly were particularly vulnerable to falling into poverty after they stopped working; however, pensions, retirement plans, and Social Security were designed to help prevent this. A major concern in the United States is the rising number of young people growing up in poverty. Growing up poor can cut off access to the education and services people need to move out of poverty and into stable employment. As we saw, more education was often a key to stability, and those raised in poverty are the ones least able to find well-paying work, perpetuating a cycle. There is great debate about how much support local, state, and federal governments should give to help the unemployed and underemployed. The decisions made on these issues will have a profound effect on working in the United States. Summary The job market in the United States is meant to be a meritocracy that creates social stratifications based on individual achievement. Economic forces, such as outsourcing and automation, are polarizing the workforce, with most job opportunities being either low-level, low-paying manual jobs or high-level, high-paying jobs based on abstract skills. Women's role in the workforce has increased, although women have not yet achieved full equality. Immigrants play an important role in the U.S. labor market. The changing economy has forced more people into poverty even if they are working. Welfare, Social Security, and other social programs exist to protect people from the worst effects of poverty. Section Quiz Which is evidence that the United States workforce is largely a meritocracy? - Job opportunities are increasing for highly skilled jobs. - Job opportunities are decreasing for midlevel jobs. - Highly skilled jobs pay better than low-skill jobs. - Women tend to make less than men do for the same job. Hint: C If someone does not earn enough money to pay for the essentials of life he or she is said to be _____ poor. - absolutely - essentially - really - working Hint: A About what percentage of the workforce in the United States are legal immigrants? - Less than 1% - 1% - 16% - 66% Hint: C Short Answer As polarization occurs in the U.S. job market, this will affect other social institutions. For example, if midlevel education won’t lead to employment, we could see polarization in educational levels as well. Use the sociological imagination to consider what social institutions may be impacted, and how. Do you believe we have a true meritocracy in the United States? Why, or why not? Further Research The role of women in the workplace is constantly changing. To learn more, check out http://openstaxcollege.org/l/women_workplace The Employment Projections Program of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics looks at a ten-year projection for jobs and employment. To see some trends for the next decade, check out http://openstaxcollege.org/l/BLS References Autor, David. 2010. “The Polarization of Job Opportunities in the U.S. Labor Market Implications for Employment and Earnings.” MIT Department of Economics and National Bureau of Economic Research, April. Retrieved February 15, 2012 (http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/5554). Batalova, Jeanne, and Aaron Terrazas. 2010. “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States.” Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved February 6, 2012 (http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/display.cfm?id=818). Brady, David, Andrew Fullerton, and Jennifer Moren Cross. 2010. “More Than Just Nickels and Dimes: A Cross-National Analysis of Working Poverty in Affluent Democracies.” Social Problems 57:559–585. Retrieved February 15, 2012 (http://www.soc.duke.edu/~brady/web/Bradyetal2010.pdf). DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, and Bernadette D. Proctor. 2013. "Income and Poverty in the United States: 2013." U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved December 15, 2014. (https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2014/demographics/p60-249.pdf). Hainmueller, Jens, and Michael J. Hiscox. 2010. “Attitudes Toward Highly Skilled and Low-Skilled Immigration: Evidence from a Survey Experiment.” American Political Science Review 104:61–84. Holland, Laurence H.M. and David M. Ewalt. 2006. “Making Real Money in Virtual Worlds,” Forbes, August 7. Retrieved January 30, 2012 (http://www.forbes.com/2006/08/07/virtual-world-jobs_cx_de_0807virtualjobs.html). Kochhar, Rokesh. 2010. “After the Great Recession: Foreign Born Gain Jobs; Native Born Lose Jobs.” Pew Hispanic Center, October 29. Retrieved January 29, 2012 (http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1784/great-recession-foreign-born-gain-jobs-native-born-lose-jobs). Lowell, Lindsay B., Julia Gelatt, and Jeanne Batalova. 2006. “Immigrants and Labor Force Trends: the Future, Past, and Present.” Migration Policy Institute Insight No. 17. Retrieved February 6, 2012 (http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ITFIAF/TF17_Lowell.pdf). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2010. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–2007 ed. Retrieved from February 15, 2012 (www.bls.gov/oco). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2010. “Overview of the 2008-2018 Projections.” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–2011 ed. Retrieved February 15, 2012 (http://www.bls.gov/oco/oco2003.htm#industry). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2011. “A Profile of the Working Poor, 2009.” Retrieved January 25, 2012 (www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2009.pdf). U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2012. "Employment Projections–2010–20." U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved December 15, 2014. (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/ecopro_02012012.pdf). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2013. "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022." Deoartment of Labor. Retrieved December 15, 2014. (http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/pdf/occupational-employment-projections-to-2022.pdf). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2013. "Table 7: Employment by Summary Education and Training Assignment, 2012 and Projected 2022." United States Department of Labor. Retrieved December 15, 2014. (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ecopro.t07.htm). U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. “Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States.” Retrieved February 15, 2012 (http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60-239.pdf). Wang, Wendy and Kim Parker. 2011. “Women See Value and Benefit of College; Men Lag Behind on Both Fronts.” Pew Social and Demographic Trends, August 17. Retrieved January 30, 2012 (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/08/17/women-see-value-and-benefits-of-college-men-lag-on-both-fronts-survey-finds/5/#iv-by-the-numbers-gender-race-and-education). Wheaton, Sarah. 2011. “Perry Repeats Socialist Charge Against Obama Policies.” New York Times, September 15. Retrieved January 30, 2012 (http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/perry-repeats-socialist-charge-against-obama-policies).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.949730	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11833/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, Work and the Economy, Work in the United States", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15196/overview	Engagement in a Democracy Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the importance of citizen engagement in a democracy - Describe the main ways Americans can influence and become engaged in government - Discuss factors that may affect people’s willingness to become engaged in government Participation in government matters. Although people may not get all that they want, they can achieve many goals and improve their lives through civic engagement. According to the pluralist theory, government cannot function without active participation by at least some citizens. Even if we believe the elite make political decisions, participation in government through the act of voting can change who the members of the elite are. WHY GET INVOLVED? Are fewer people today active in politics than in the past? Political scientist Robert Putnam has argued that civic engagement is declining; although many Americans may report belonging to groups, these groups are usually large, impersonal ones with thousands of members. People who join groups such as Amnesty International or Greenpeace may share certain values and ideals with other members of the group, but they do not actually interact with these other members. These organizations are different from the types of groups Americans used to belong to, like church groups or bowling leagues. Although people are still interested in volunteering and working for the public good, they are more interested in either working individually or joining large organizations where they have little opportunity to interact with others. Putnam considers a number of explanations for this decline in small group membership, including increased participation by women in the workforce, a decrease in the number of marriages and an increase in divorces, and the effect of technological developments, such as the internet, that separate people by allowing them to feel connected to others without having to spend time in their presence.Robert D. Putnam. 2001. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster, 75. Putnam argues that a decline in social capital—“the collective value of all ‘social networks’ [those whom people know] and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other”—accompanies this decline in membership in small, interactive groups.———. 1995. “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital,” Journal of Democracy 6: 66–67, 69; “About Social Capital,” https://www.hks.harvard.edu/programs/saguaro/about-social-capital (May 2, 2016). Included in social capital are such things as networks of individuals, a sense that one is part of an entity larger than oneself, concern for the collective good and a willingness to help others, and the ability to trust others and to work with them to find solutions to problems. This, in turn, has hurt people’s willingness and ability to engage in representative government. If Putnam is correct, this trend is unfortunate, because becoming active in government and community organizations is important for many reasons. To learn more about political engagement in the United States, read “The Current State of Civic Engagement in America” by the Pew Research Center. Civic engagement can increase the power of ordinary people to influence government actions. Even those without money or connections to important people can influence the policies that affect their lives and change the direction taken by government. U.S. history is filled with examples of people actively challenging the power of elites, gaining rights for themselves, and protecting their interests. For example, slavery was once legal in the United States and large sectors of the U.S. economy were dependent on this forced labor. Slavery was outlawed and blacks were granted citizenship because of the actions of abolitionists. Although some abolitionists were wealthy white men, most were ordinary people, including men and women of both races. White women and blacks were able to actively assist in the campaign to end slavery despite the fact that, with few exceptions, they were unable to vote. Similarly, the right to vote once belonged solely to white men until the Fifteenth Amendment gave the vote to African American men. The Nineteenth Amendment extended the vote to include women, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 made exercising the right to vote a reality for African American men and women in the South. None of this would have happened, however, without the efforts of people who marched in protest, participated in boycotts, delivered speeches, wrote letters to politicians, and sometimes risked arrest in order to be heard (Figure). The tactics used to influence the government and effect change by abolitionists and members of the women’s rights and African American civil rights movements are still used by many activists today. The rights gained by these activists and others have dramatically improved the quality of life for many in the United States. Civil rights legislation did not focus solely on the right to vote or to hold public office; it also integrated schools and public accommodations, prohibited discrimination in housing and employment, and increased access to higher education. Activists for women’s rights fought for, and won, greater reproductive freedom for women, better wages, and access to credit. Only a few decades ago, homosexuality was considered a mental disorder, and intercourse between consenting adults of the same sex was illegal in many states. Although legal discrimination against gays and lesbians still remains, consensual intercourse between homosexual adults is no longer illegal anywhere in the United States, and same-sex couples have the right to legally marry. Activism can improve people’s lives in less dramatic ways as well. Working to make cities clean up vacant lots, destroy or rehabilitate abandoned buildings, build more parks and playgrounds, pass ordinances requiring people to curb their dogs, and ban late-night noise greatly affects people’s quality of life. The actions of individual Americans can make their own lives better and improve their neighbors’ lives as well. Representative democracy cannot work effectively without the participation of informed citizens, however. Engaged citizens familiarize themselves with the most important issues confronting the country and with the plans different candidates have for dealing with those issues. Then they vote for the candidates they believe will be best suited to the job, and they may join others to raise funds or campaign for those they support. They inform their representatives how they feel about important issues. Through these efforts and others, engaged citizens let their representatives know what they want and thus influence policy. Only then can government actions accurately reflect the interests and concerns of the majority. Even people who believe the elite rule government should recognize that it is easier for them to do so if ordinary people make no effort to participate in public life. PATHWAYS TO ENGAGEMENT People can become civically engaged in many ways, either as individuals or as members of groups. Some forms of individual engagement require very little effort. One of the simplest ways is to stay informed about debates and events in the community, in the state, and in the nation. Awareness is the first step toward engagement. News is available from a variety of reputable sources, such as newspapers like the New York Times; national news shows, including those offered by the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio; and reputable internet sites. Visit Avaaz and Change.org for more information on current political issues. Another form of individual engagement is to write or email political representatives. Filing a complaint with the city council is another avenue of engagement. City officials cannot fix problems if they do not know anything is wrong to begin with. Responding to public opinion polls, actively contributing to a political blog, or starting a new blog are all examples of different ways to be involved. One of the most basic ways to engage with government as an individual is to vote (Figure). Individual votes do matter. City council members, mayors, state legislators, governors, and members of Congress are all chosen by popular vote. Although the president of the United States is not chosen directly by popular vote but by a group called the Electoral College, the votes of individuals in their home states determine how the Electoral College ultimately votes. Registering to vote beforehand is necessary in most states, but it is usually a simple process, and many states allow registration online. (We discuss voter registration and voter turnout in more depth in a later chapter.) Voting, however, is not the only form of political engagement in which people may participate. Individuals can engage by attending political rallies, donating money to campaigns, and signing petitions. Starting a petition of one’s own is relatively easy, and some websites that encourage people to become involved in political activism provide petitions that can be circulated through email. Taking part in a poll or survey is another simple way to make your voice heard. Votes for Eighteen-Year-Olds Young Americans are often reluctant to become involved in traditional forms of political activity. They may believe politicians are not interested in what they have to say, or they may feel their votes do not matter. However, this attitude has not always prevailed. Indeed, today’s college students can vote because of the activism of college students in the 1960s. Most states at that time required citizens to be twenty-one years of age before they could vote in national elections. This angered many young people, especially young men who could be drafted to fight the war in Vietnam. They argued that it was unfair to deny eighteen-year-olds the right to vote for the people who had the power to send them to war. As a result, the Twenty-Sixth Amendment, which lowered the voting age in national elections to eighteen, was ratified by the states and went into effect in 1971. Are you engaged in or at least informed about actions of the federal or local government? Are you registered to vote? How would you feel if you were not allowed to vote until age twenty-one? Some people prefer to work with groups when participating in political activities or performing service to the community. Group activities can be as simple as hosting a book club or discussion group to talk about politics. Coffee Party USA provides an online forum for people from a variety of political perspectives to discuss issues that are of concern to them. People who wish to be more active often work for political campaigns. Engaging in fundraising efforts, handing out bumper stickers and campaign buttons, helping people register to vote, and driving voters to the polls on Election Day are all important activities that anyone can engage in. Individual citizens can also join interest groups that promote the causes they favor. Getting Involved In many ways, the pluralists were right. There is plenty of room for average citizens to become active in government, whether it is through a city council subcommittee or another type of local organization. Civic organizations always need volunteers, sometimes for only a short while and sometimes for much longer. For example, Common Cause is a non-partisan organization that seeks to hold government accountable for its actions. It calls for campaign finance reform and paper verification of votes registered on electronic voting machines. Voters would then receive proof that the machine recorded their actual vote. This would help to detect faulty machines that were inaccurately tabulating votes or election fraud. Therefore, one could be sure that election results were reliable and that the winning candidate had in fact received the votes counted in their favor. Common Cause has also advocated that the Electoral College be done away with and that presidential elections be decided solely on the basis of the popular vote. Follow-up activity: Choose one of the following websites to connect with organizations and interest groups in need of help: - Common Cause; - Friends of the Earth which mobilizes people to protect the natural environment; - Grassroots International which works for global justice; - The Family Research Council which promotes traditional marriage and Judeo-Christian values; or - Eagle Forum which supports greater restrictions on immigration and fewer restrictions on home schooling. Political activity is not the only form of engagement, and many people today seek other opportunities to become involved. This is particularly true of young Americans. Although young people today often shy away from participating in traditional political activities, they do express deep concern for their communities and seek out volunteer opportunities.Jared Keller. 4 May 2015. “Young Americans are Opting Out of Politics, but Not Because They’re Cynical,” http://www.psmag.com/politics-and-law/young-people-are-not-so-politically-inclined. Although they may not realize it, becoming active in the community and engaging in a wide variety of community-based volunteer efforts are important forms of civic engagement and help government do its job. The demands on government are great, and funds do not always exist to enable it to undertake all the projects it may deem necessary. Even when there are sufficient funds, politicians have differing ideas regarding how much government should do and what areas it should be active in. Volunteers and community organizations help fill the gaps. Examples of community action include tending a community garden, building a house for Habitat for Humanity, cleaning up trash in a vacant lot, volunteering to deliver meals to the elderly, and tutoring children in after-school programs (Figure). Some people prefer even more active and direct forms of engagement such as protest marches and demonstrations, including civil disobedience. Such tactics were used successfully in the African American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s and remain effective today. Likewise, the sit-ins (and sleep-ins and pray-ins) staged by African American civil rights activists, which they employed successfully to desegregate lunch counters, motels, and churches, have been adopted today by movements such as Black Lives Matter and Occupy Wall Street (Figure). Other tactics, such as boycotting businesses of whose policies the activists disapproved, are also still common. Along with boycotts, there are now “buycotts,” in which consumers purchase goods and services from companies that give extensively to charity, help the communities in which they are located, or take steps to protect the environment. Many ordinary people have become political activists. Read “19 Young Activists Changing America” to learn about people who are working to make people’s lives better. Ritchie Torres In 2013, at the age of twenty-five, Ritchie Torres became the youngest member of the New York City Council and the first gay council member to represent the Bronx (Figure). Torres became interested in social justice early in his life. He was raised in poverty in the Bronx by his mother and a stepfather who left the family when Torres was twelve. The mold in his family’s public housing apartment caused him to suffer from asthma as a child, and he spent time in the hospital on more than one occasion because of it. His mother’s complaints to the New York City Housing Authority were largely ignored. In high school, Torres decided to become a lawyer, participated in mock trials, and met a young and aspiring local politician named James Vacca. After graduation, he volunteered to campaign for Vacca in his run for a seat on the City Council. After Vacca was elected, he hired Torres to serve as his housing director to reach out to the community on Vacca’s behalf. While doing so, Torres took pictures of the poor conditions in public housing and collected complaints from residents. In 2013, Torres ran for a seat on the City Council himself and won. He remains committed to improving housing for the poor.Winston Ross, “Ritchie Torres: Gay, Hispanic and Powerful,” Newsweek, 25 January 2015. Why don’t more young people run for local office as Torres did? What changes might they effect in their communities if they were elected to a government position? FACTORS OF ENGAGEMENT Many Americans engage in political activity on a regular basis. A survey conducted in 2008 revealed that approximately two-thirds of American adults had participated in some type of political action in the past year. These activities included largely non-personal activities that did not require a great deal of interaction with others, such as signing petitions, contacting elected representatives, or contributing money to campaigns.Aaron Smith et al., 1 September 2009. “The Current State of Civic Engagement in America,” http://www.pewinternet.org/2009/09/01/the-current-state-of-civic-engagement-in-america/. Americans aged 18–29 were less likely to become involved in traditional forms of political activity than older Americans. A 2015 poll of more than three thousand young adults by Harvard University’s Institute of Politics revealed that only 22 percent claimed to be politically engaged, and fewer than 10 percent said that they belonged to any type of political organization or had volunteered for a political campaign. Only slightly more said that they had gone to political rallies.Harvard Institute of Politics, “Survey of Young Americans’ Attitudes toward Politics and Public Service,” Survey, October 30, 2015–November 9, 2015. http://www.iop.harvard.edu/sites/default/files_new/pictures/151208_Harvard_IOP_Fall_2015_Topline.pdf. However, although Americans under age thirty are less likely than older Americans to engage in traditional types of political participation, many remain engaged in activities on behalf of their communities. One-third reported that they had voluntarily engaged in some form of community service in the past year.Keller, “Young Americans are Opting Out.” Why are younger Americans less likely to become involved in traditional political organizations? One answer may be that as American politics become more partisan in nature, young people turn away. Committed partisanship, which is the tendency to identify with and to support (often blindly) a particular political party, alienates some Americans who feel that elected representatives should vote in support of the nation’s best interests instead of voting in the way their party wishes them to. When elected officials ignore all factors other than their party’s position on a particular issue, some voters become disheartened while others may become polarized. However, a recent study reveals that it is a distrust of the opposing party and not an ideological commitment to their own party that is at the heart of most partisanship among voters.Marc Hetherington and Thomas Rudolph, “Why Don’t Americans Trust the Government?” The Washington Post, 30 January 2014. Young Americans are particularly likely to be put off by partisan politics. More Americans under the age of thirty now identify themselves as Independents instead of Democrats or Republicans (Figure). Instead of identifying with a particular political party, young Americans are increasingly concerned about specific issues, such as same-sex marriage.Keller, “Young Americans are Opting Out.” People whose votes are determined based on single issues are unlikely to vote according to party affiliation. The other factor involved in low youth voter turnout in the past was that younger Americans did not feel that candidates generally tackle issues relevant to their lives. When younger voters cannot relate to the issues put forth in a campaign, such as entitlements for seniors, they lose interest. This dynamic changed somewhat in 2016 as Democratic candidate Bernie Sanders made college costs an issue, even promising free college tuition for undergraduates at public institutions. Senator Sanders enjoyed intense support on college campuses across the United States. After his nomination campaign failed, this young voter enthusiasm faded. Despite the fact that Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton eventually took up the free tuition issue, young people did not flock to her as well as they had to Sanders. In the general election, won by Republican nominee Donald Trump, turnout was down and Clinton received a smaller proportion of the youth vote than President Obama had in 2012.Tami Luhby and Jennifer Agiesta. 8 November 2016. “Exit Polls: Clinton Fails to Energize African-Americans, Latinos and the Young, http://www.cnn.com/2016/11/08/politics/first-exit-polls-2016/. While some Americans disapprove of partisanship in general, others are put off by the ideology—established beliefs and ideals that help shape political policy—of one of the major parties. This is especially true among the young. As some members of the Republican Party have become more ideologically conservative (e.g., opposing same-sex marriage, legalization of certain drugs, immigration reform, gun control, separation of church and state, and access to abortion), those young people who do identify with one of the major parties have in recent years tended to favor the Democratic Party.Harvard Institute of Politics, “No Front-Runner among Prospective Republican Candidates,” http://iop.harvard.edu/no-front-runner-among-prospective-republican-candidates-hillary-clinton-control-democratic-primary (May 2, 2016). Of the Americans under age thirty who were surveyed by Harvard in 2015, more tended to hold a favorable opinion of Democrats in Congress than of Republicans, and 56 percent reported that they wanted the Democrats to win the presidency in 2016 (Figure). Even those young Americans who identify themselves as Republicans are more liberal on certain issues, such as being supportive of same-sex marriage and immigration reform, than are older Republicans. The young Republicans also may be more willing to see similarities between themselves and Democrats.Jocelyn Kiley and Michael Dimock. 25 September 2014. “The GOP’s Millennial Problem Runs Deep,” http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/09/25/the-gops-millennial-problem-runs-deep/. Once again, support for the views of a particular party does not necessarily mean that someone will vote for members of that party. Other factors may keep even those college students who do wish to vote away from the polls. Because many young Americans attend colleges and universities outside of their home states, they may find it difficult to register to vote. In places where a state-issued ID is required, students may not have one or may be denied one if they cannot prove that they paid in-state tuition rates.“Keeping Students from the Polls,” New York Times, 26 December 2011. The likelihood that people will become active in politics also depends not only on age but on such factors as wealth and education. In a 2006 poll, the percentage of people who reported that they were regular voters grew as levels of income and education increased.18 October 2006. “Who Votes, Who Doesn’t, and Why,” http://www.people-press.org/2006/10/18/who-votes-who-doesnt-and-why/. Political involvement also depends on how strongly people feel about current political issues. Unfortunately, public opinion polls, which politicians may rely on when formulating policy or deciding how to vote on issues, capture only people’s latent preferences or beliefs. Latent preferences are not deeply held and do not remain the same over time. They may not even represent a person’s true feelings, since they may be formed on the spot when someone is asked a question about which he or she has no real opinion. Indeed, voting itself may reflect merely a latent preference because even people who do not feel strongly about a particular political candidate or issue vote. On the other hand, intense preferences are based on strong feelings regarding an issue that someone adheres to over time. People with intense preferences tend to become more engaged in politics; they are more likely to donate time and money to campaigns or to attend political rallies. The more money that one has and the more highly educated one is, the more likely that he or she will form intense preferences and take political action.Jonathan M. Ladd. 11 September 2015. “Don’t Worry about Special Interests,” https://www.vox.com/mischiefs-of-faction/2015/9/11/9279615/economic-inequality-special-interests. Summary Civic and political engagement allows politicians to know how the people feel. It also improves people’s lives and helps them to build connections with others. Individuals can educate themselves on important issues and events, write to their senator or representative, file a complaint at city hall, attend a political rally, or vote. People can also work in groups to campaign or raise funds for a candidate, volunteer in the community, or protest a social injustice or an unpopular government policy. Although wealthier, older, more highly educated citizens are the most likely to be engaged with their government, especially if they have intense preferences about an issue, younger, less wealthy people can do much to change their communities and their country. Supporting the actions of the Democratic Party simply because one identifies oneself as a member of that party is an example of ________. - partisanship - ideology - latent preference - social capital When a person is asked a question about a political issue that he or she has little interest in and has not thought much about, that person’s answer will likely reflect ________. - ideology - partisanship - intense preferences - latent preferences Hint: D What kinds of people are most likely to become active in politics or community service? What political activities can people engage in other than running for office? Hint: People can pay attention to the news in order to be aware of the most important issues of the day. They can contribute money to a campaign or attend a rally in support of a political candidate whose views they favor. They can write letters to members of Congress and to state and local politicians. They can vote. Is citizen engagement necessary for a democracy to function? Explain. Which is the more important reason for being engaged: to gain power or improve the quality of life? Why? Are all Americans equally able to become engaged in government? What factors make it more possible for some people to become engaged than others? What could be done to change this? Which pathways of engagement in U.S. government do you plan to follow? Why do you prefer these approaches? Are there any redeeming qualities to elitism and any downsides to pluralism? Are there benefits to having elites rule? Are there problems with allowing interest groups to exercise influence over government? Explain. Books: Dahl, Robert A. 1991. Democracy and Its Critics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ———. 1961. Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Dolan, Julie, Melissa M. Deckman, and Michele L. Swers. 2015. Women and Politics: Paths to Power and Political Influence. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Mills, C. Wright. 1956. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press. Olson, Mancur. 1971. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Putnam, Robert D. 2001. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster. Films: 1949. All the King’s Men. 1976. All the President’s Men. 1972. The Candidate. 2007. Charlie Wilson’s War. 2008. Frost/Nixon. 1933. Gabriel over the White House. 2008. Milk. 1939. Mr. Smith Goes to Washington.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:49.987392	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15196/overview", "title": "American Government, Students and the System, American Government and Civic Engagement, Engagement in a Democracy", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87814/overview	Aboriginal Australians Overview Earth's Most Ancient and Isolated Civilization: Aboriginal Australians Far south of the equator rests Australia. The only country in the world to also be a continent and an island. Bordered to the west by the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific to the east, Australia is a distant continent rife with unique plant and animal life. The country’s distance from other continents and nations has led scientists and historians alike to speculate about how and when the country’s inhabitants, the Aborigines, first arrived on the hottest, flattest continent in the world. Learning Objectives Examine early Aboriginal life in Australia and understand why they are considered some of the oldest cultures in the world. Key Terms / Key Concepts Aborigine: broad term used to describe Australia’s many different linguistic and cultural groups who have inhabited the continent since the Pleistocene era Australia: smallest of the seven continents, located in the South Pacific Micronesia: subregion of Oceania east of the Philippines that includes hundreds of islands, including the Marshall Islands Polynesia: subregion of Oceania east comprised of thousands of islands, including Hawaii and New Zealand Arrival of the Aborigines Aborigine is a broad term that describes more than over four-hundred linguistic and cultural groups whose ancestors predated white European settlement of Australia by nearly fifty thousand years. These groups were often as diverse as they were numerous, and traditions varied significantly. One question that has arisen about these ethnically and linguistically diverse peoples is, “How did they get here, and who were they before?” Scholars and research teams have produced several theories based on historical, archeological, climatological, and geographic studies. The most recent, and widely accepted theory is that Aborigines are peoples who originated in present-day Indonesia, Micronesia, and Southeast Asia. During a period in which sea levels fell, these groups crossed land bridges and shallow seas to Australia. Oral histories passed down by the Yolngu tribe in present-day Arnhem Land in the Northwest Territory of Australia recount the migration of Aborigine clans who crossed the Sunda continental shelf from parts of Indonesia and Micronesia and then passed into the Australian continent. In the twentieth century, archeological evidence confirmed the theory of the migration of humans from Southeast Asia to Australia during the Pleistocene Era. Later they migrated into parts of Polynesia. Aborigines Spread through Australia Aborigines were communal peoples who practiced polygamy. Instead of a strict nuclear family, the family structure consisted of an extended tribal group that could include 100 – 2,000 people. Tribes were built from many of these groups coming together. Before European arrival in Australia, Aborigine tribes could reach populations of 300 – 500,000. Most tribes shared some common features, but there were also significant differences as well. Aborigines were hunter-gatherers whose diets consisted of fish, shellfish, turtles, lizards, and a variety of plants. The centrality of hunting meant that territorial claims were fiercely defended, and intertribal warfare was not uncommon. Reflected in the extensive symbols used in their cave art is the importance of spirituality to the ancient Aborigine peoples. Within their religious beliefs and practices is an ancient ritual called, The Dreaming. For the Aborigines, The Dreaming was a range of views about the connection of life, including human life, to nature and the world. Life emerged from earth and water, and an ancient kinship exists between people and ancestral creators. Hundreds of languages evolved among the Aborigine tribes as they fanned out across Australia’s coastal regions, rivers, bush, and outback. The most often spoken languages belonged to the Pama-Nyungen language family of northern Australia. Like many early cultures, Aborigines valued oral traditions, stories, and customs over written words. Because of these practices, little written work about Aboriginal culture survives before European settlement. To understand their story, we instead turn to the wealth of surviving archeological evidence such as dwellings and cave paintings. Lack of written sources produced challenges for scholars. Competing theories about Aborigine origins and histories have emerged. In many ways, the Aborigines are a broad group of people whose story, while ancient, is still being uncovered. What remains certain though is that they have occupied Australia for over 50,000 years. They remain one of the oldest, most isolated, and unchanged cultures in the world. Attributions Images from Wikimedia Commons. Matsuda, Matt K. Pacific Worlds. Cambridge University Press, 2012. 162-163. Welsh, Frank. Australia : a New History of the Great Southern Land. Overlook Press, 2006. 20-23. Lilley, Ian. Archaeology of Oceania : Australia and the Pacific Islands. Blackwell, 2006. 60.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.008795	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87814/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 1: Asia & Oceania, Aboriginal Australians", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88236/overview	Incas Overview Incas The Inca empire was the central empire in South America. They swept the range of the Andes Mountains. The ability to establish a trade federation was important to establishing a powerful economic and political group in South America. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the differences between the different Andean populations. - Analyze the impact of environment on the different Andean populations. Key Terms / Key Concepts Huaca: A large, pyramid-like structure made of adobe bricks and used as a palace, ritual site, temple, and administrative center. vicuña: A wild South American camelid that lives in the high alpine areas of the Andes. It is a relative of the llama, and is now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Moche: A city in modern-day Peru, which is also where the Moche culture was centered. quipus: Brightly colored knotted strings that recorded numerical information, such as taxes, goods, and labor, using the base number of 10 to record data in knots. suyus: Distinct districts of the Inca Empire that all reported back to the capital of Cusco. There were four major districts during the height of the empire. The First Peoples of the Americas The first peoples of the Americas go by many different terms: Native American, Indian, Amerindian, Indigenous. The peoples of the Americas have many different cultures and backgrounds that span the geographic diversity of the Americas. The first peoples live in deserts, islands, woodlands, tropical rainforests, swampy marshes, plains, and even in tundra. In this textbook, the first peoples of the Americas will simply be referred to as the indigenous populations, which means the first people in a region. This is not specific to the Americas, but the term fits the most comfortably with our discussion. The diversity of indigenous populations and their ways of life demonstrate how complicated the peoples of the Americas truly are and that complexity is mirrored in their origin stories. Archeologists believe that the first peoples of the Americas arrived approximately 15,000 to 13,000 years ago. Most of the archeological record points to peoples crossing from Asia, either by land bridge or boat, through the Bering Straight region of Alaska and Asia. Once entering the Western hemisphere, the peoples began their migration southward. Most archeologists agree that the first settlers of the Americas were following food and game that migrated and diversified as they moved further south. The archeological record points to migrants moving from the Alaska region and the northern Canadian Rockies to both south and east regions. The group that moved directly southward would become the group that moved the furthest south in the Americas, to the tip of the Tierra del Fuego in modern Argentina. The peoples of the Americas diversified as they migrated throughout the lands. They adapted to the environmental conditions and found a new way of life as they found their homelands. Archeologists debate the number of indigenous people in the Americas by the 1490s CE. Some estimations are as low as 100 million people, others range as high as 350 million. These estimates are difficult because of the lack of records and archeological findings from the period. Indigenous populations in the New World had a unique relationship with technology and production. In the Americas, because of limited resources and travel, this type of knowledge became very scattered and did not universally spread throughout the Americas. In many cases, indigenous groups would learn a technology or food and share it regionally, but very few of these technologies spread throughout the Americas. For example, corn production was widely known throughout the North American world. Yet, potatoes, which were a very important South American crop, did not spread beyond the region. This is due to a lack of trade resources and links north to south. For 13,000 years, as indigenous populations moved throughout what would later become the Americas different types of societies emerged. There were several different groups that held empires and civilizations in the Americas during the ancient and Middle Ages. These groups would have a special impact on the later civilizations that developed in the Late Middle Ages period. To here are three key indigenous groups in Latin American history that had the greatest impact on European colonization. The first was the Mayan, who lived in central America and developed a culture and agricultural style that was at the heart of trade in the Mesoamerican world. The second was the Aztecs of what is today Central Mexico. The third is the Inca of South America. These three groups were large, complicated empires during the Late Middle Ages and that had unique political and economic pull. Andean Peoples The Andean peoples consist of several groups that originated in the Andean world throughout the course of civilization. These include the Moche, the Nazca, andthe Inca,which are now the most famous. To build their civilization, the Inca drew from the cultural and political organizations of of the various Andes peoples. The Andres peoples take their name from the mountain chain that was their home. The Andes Mountains run north to south throughout the South American continent, as if they were the spine of the continent. They are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They stretch approximately 4350 miles and have many high plateaus and tall peaks. The Andes are the home to the mountain that is the farthest from the earth’s center and are an average height of 13,123 feet above sea level. They are approximately double the height of the Appalachian Mountains in North America and three times the size of the Alps in Europe. The height of the Andes Mountains means that there are many elevation zones where there are a variety of plants and animals can live near the equator that would not normally live in such hot regions of the world. Moche The Moche (also known as the Early Chimú or Mochica) lived in what is modern-day Peru. Their civilization lasted from approximately 100 to 800 CE. The Moche shared cultural values and social structures within a distinct geographical region. However, scholars suggest this civilization functioned as individual city-states, sharing similar cultural elite classes, rather than as an empire or a single political system. The Moche cultural sphere centered around several valleys along the north coast of Peru and occupied 250 miles of desert coastline that extended up to 50 miles inland. Moche society was agriculturally based. Because of the arid climate, they made a network of irrigation canals that diverted water into the dry region so that they could grow crops. The Moche are also noted for their expansive ceremonial architecture (Huaca), elaborately painted ceramics, and woven textiles. Moche textiles were mostly created using wool from vicuña and alpacas. Although there are few surviving examples of the original textiles, descendants of the Moche people have strong weaving traditions. There are several theories as to what caused the demise of the Moche. Some scholars have emphasized the role of environmental change. Studies of ice cores drilled from glaciers in the Andes reveal climatic events between 536 and 594 CE, possibly a super El Niño, that resulted in thirty years of intense rain and flooding followed by thirty years of drought, which is thought to be part of the aftermath of the climate changes of 535 – 536. These weather events could have disrupted the Moche way of life and shattered their faith in their religion, which had promised stable weather through sacrifices. While there is no evidence of a foreign invasion, as many scholars have suggested in the past, the defensive works suggest social unrest, possibly the result of climate change, as factions fought for control over increasingly scarce resources. The Inca The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The civilization emerged in the 13th century and lasted until it was conquered by the Spanish in 1572 CE. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was located in Cusco (also spelled Cuzco) in modern-day Peru. From 1438 to 1533 CE, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America. The Inca expanded their borders to include large parts of modern Ecuador, Peru, western and south-central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and north-central Chile, and southern Colombia. This vast territory was known in Quechua (the language of the Inca Empire) as Tawantin Suyu, or the Four Regions, which met in the capital of Cusco. Architecture illustrates the sophistication and technical skill typical of the Inca Empire. The main example of this resilient art form was the capital city of Cusco, which drew together the Four Regions. The Inca built their works without using adhesive to keep the walls together. This was important because they were so skillful with stone work, that they placed stones together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large scale by the Pucara peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE). The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering one rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where there was compression or the pieces did not fit exactly. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. Machu Picchu is a rare example of this architectural building technique and remains in remarkable condition after many centuries. It was built around 1450 CE, at the height of the Inca Empire, dating from the period of the two great Inca emperors. Machu Picchu was probably built as a temple for the emperor. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of the Spanish Conquest, possibly related to smallpox. Textiles were one of the most precious commodities of the Inca culture; they denoted a person’s social status and often their profession. The brightly colored patterns on a wool tunic represented various positions and achievements. For example, a black-and-white checkerboard pattern topped with a pink triangle denoted a soldier. Because textiles were so specific to a person’s class and employment, citizens could not change their wardrobe without the express permission of the government. Textiles were also manufactured that could only be used for certain tasks or social arenas. A rougher textile, spun from llama wool and called awaska, was used for everyday household chores. On the other hand, a fine-spun cloth made from vicuña wool could only be used in religious ceremonies. Although textiles were considered the most precious commodity in Inca culture, Incas also considered ceramics and metalwork essential commodities of their economy and class system. Incan pottery was distinctive and normally had a spherical body with a cone-shaped base. The pottery would also include curved handles and often featured animal heads, such as jaguars or birds. These ceramics were painted in bright colors, such as orange, red, black, and yellow. The Inca required every province to mine for precious metals like tin, silver, gold, and copper. Fine silver and gold were made into intricate decorative pieces for the emperors and elites based on Chimú metallurgy traditions. The decorative pieces often included animal motifs with butterflies, jaguars, and llamas etched into the metal. Skilled metallurgists also transformed bronze and copper into farming implements, such as blades and axes, or pins for everyday activities. The Inca culture boasted a wide variety of crops, numbering around seventy different strains in total; this makes it one of the most diverse crop cultures in the world. Some of these flavorful vegetables and grains included potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, chili peppers, cotton, tomatoes, peanuts, oca, quinoa, and amaranth. These crops were grown in the high-altitude Andes by building terraced farms that allowed farmers to utilize the mineral-rich mountain soil. The quick change in altitude on these mountain farms utilized the micro-climates of each terrace to grow a wider range of crops. The Inca also produced bounties in the Amazon rainforest and along the more arid coastline of modern-day Peru. Alongside vegetables, the Inca supplemented their diet with fish, guinea pigs, camelid meat, and wild fowl. And they fermented maize, or corn, to create the alcoholic beverage chicha. Administration of the Inca Empire Society was broken into two distinct parts. One segment was comprised of the common people, including those cultures that had been subsumed by the Inca Empire. The second group was made up of the elite of the empire, including the emperor and the kurakas, along with various other dignitaries and blood relations. The Inca Empire was a hierarchical system with the emperor, or Inca Sapa, ruling over the rest of society. Directly below the emperor, a number of religious officials and magistrates oversaw the administration of the empire. Kurakas were magistrates that served as the head of an ayliu—a clan-like family unit based on a common ancestor. These leaders mitigated between the spiritual and physical worlds. They also collected taxes, oversaw the day-to-day administration of the empire in their regions, and even chose brides for men in their communities. Some of the privileges kurakas enjoyed included exemption from taxation, the right to ride in a litter, and the freedom to practice polygamy. Education was vocationally based for commoners, while the elite received a formal spiritual education. The Inca Empire utilized a hierarchical rule of law to oversee the administration of its vast population. There was no codified legal system for people that broke with the cultural and social norms. Local inspectors reported back to the capital and the emperor and made immediate decisions regarding punishment in cases where customs were not honored. Many times these local inspectors were blood relatives of the emperor. The Incas created complex road systems. The Inca civilization was able to keep populations in line, collect taxes efficiently, and move goods, messages, and military resources across such a varied landscape because of the complex road system. Measuring about 24,800 miles long, this road system connected the regions of the empire and was the most complex and lengthy road system in South America at the time. Two main routes connected the north and the south of the empire, with many smaller branches extending to outposts in the east and west. The roads varied in width and style because the Inca leaders often utilized roads that already existed to create this powerful network. Common people could not use these official roads unless they were given permission by the government. These roads were used for relaying messages by way of chasqui, or human runners, who could run up to 150 miles a day with messages for officials. Llamas and alpacas were also used to distribute goods throughout the empire and ease trade relations. Additionally, the roads had a ritual purpose because they allowed the highest leaders of the Inca Empire to ascend into the Andes to perform religious rituals in sacred spaces, such as Machu Picchu. The Inca utilized a complex recording system to keep track of the administration of the empire. Quipus (also spelled khipus) were colorful bunches of knotted strings that recorded census data, taxes, calendrical information, military organization, and accounting information. These “talking knots” could contain anything from a few threads to around 2,000. They used the base number of 10 to record information in complex variations of knots and spaces. Trade and the movement of goods fed into what is called the vertical archipelago. This system meant that all goods produced within the empire were immediately property of the ruling elites. These elites, such as the emperor and governors, then redistributed resources across the empire as they saw fit. Taxes and goods were collected from four distinct suyus, or districts, and sent directly to the ruling emperor in Cusco. This highly organized system was most likely perfected under the emperor Pachacuti around 1460. This system also required a minimum quota of manual labor from the general population. This form of labor taxation was called mita. The populations of each district were expected to contribute to the wealth of the empire by mining, farming, or doing other manual labor that would benefit the entire empire. Precious metals, textiles, and crops were collected and redistributed using the road system that snaked across the land, from the ocean to the Andes. The Inca religious system utilized oral traditions to pass down the mythology of their Sun god, Inti. This benevolent male deity was often represented as a gold disk with large rays and a human face. Golden disks were commonly displayed at temples across the Inca Empire and were also associated with the ruling emperor, who was supposed to be a direct descendent of Inti and divinely powerful. Inti was also associated with the growth of crops and material abundance, especially in the high Andes, where the Inca centered their power. Some myths state that this benevolent entity Inti had children with Mama Killa, the Moon goddess. Inti ordered these children, named Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo, to descend from the sky and onto Earth with a divine golden wedge. This wedge penetrated the earth, and they built the capital of Cusco and civilization on that very spot. Royalty were considered to be direct descendants of Inti and, therefore, able to act as intermediaries between the physical and spiritual realms. The high priest of Inti was called the Willaq Umu. He was often the brother or a direct blood relation of the Sapa Inca, or emperor, and was the second most powerful person in the empire. The royal family oversaw the collection of goods, spiritual festivals, and the worship of Inti. Power consolidated around the cult of the Sun, and scholars suggest that the emperor Pachacuti expanded this Sun cult to garner greater power in the 15th century. Conquered provinces were expected to dedicate a third of their resources, such as herds and crops, directly to the worship of Inti. Each province also had a temple with male and female priests worshipping the Inti cult. Becoming a priest was considered one of the most honorable positions in society. Female priests were called mamakuna, or “the chosen women,” and they wove special cloth and brewed chicha for religious festivals. The main temple in the Inca Empire, called Qurikancha, was built in Cusco. The temple housed the bodies of deceased emperors and also contained a vast array of physical representations of Inti, many of which were removed or destroyed when the Spanish arrived. Qurikancha was also the main site of the religious festival Inti Raymi, which means “Sun Festival.” It was considered the most important festival of the year and is still celebrated in Cusco on the winter solstice. It represents the mythical origin of the Inca and the hope for good crops in the coming year as the winter sun returns from darkness. Religious life was centered in the Andes near Cusco, but as the Inca Empire expanded its sphere of influence, they had to incorporate a wide array of religious customs and traditions to avoid outright revolt. Ayliu, or family clans, often worshipped very localized entities and gods. The ruling Inca often incorporated these deities into the Inti cosmos. For example, Pachamama, the Earth goddess, was a long-worshipped deity before the Inca Empire. She was incorporated into Inca culture as a lower divine entity. Similarly, the Chimú along the northern coast of Peru worshipped the Moon, rather than the Sun, probably due to the hot, arid climate and their proximity to the ocean. The Inca also incorporated the Moon into their religious myths and practices in the form of Mama Killa. The Inca believed in reincarnation. Death was a passage to the next world that was full of difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long dark road. The trip required the assistance of a black dog that was able to see in the dark. Most Incas imagined the afterworld to be very similar to the Euro-American notion of heaven, with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains. It was important for the Inca to ensure they did not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased did not become incinerated. This is because of the underlying belief that a vital force would disappear and this would threaten their passage to the afterworld. Those who obeyed the Inca moral code (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) went to live in the “Sun’s warmth” while others spent their eternal days “in the cold earth.” Human sacrifice has been exaggerated by myth, but it did play a role in Inca religious practices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites, and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca uayna Capac in 1527, for example. The Incas also performed child sacrifices during or after important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as capacocha. The Inca practiced cranial deformation. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their soft skulls into a more conical form; this cranial deformation distinguished social classes of the communities, with only the nobility having it. Primary Source: Incan Creation Myth Incan Creation Myth (1556) Mythology holds the first truths of a culture and often may be the basis for gender roles in society. Set down in print around 1556, more than twenty years after the Spanish Conquistadors had overthrown the Inca Empire, this story was given to an Incan Princess and one of the Spanairds. Thus our imperial city came into existence, and was divided into two halves: Hanan-Cuzco, or Upper-Cuzco, and Hurin-Cuzco, or Lower-Cuzco. Hanan-Cuzco was founded by our king and Hurin-Cuzco by our queen, and that is why the two parts were given these names, without the inhabitants of one possessing any superiority over those of the other, but simply to recall the fact that certain of them had been originally brought together by the king, and certain others by the queen. There existed only one single difference between them, ... that the inhabitants of Upper-Cuzco were to be considered as the elders ... for the reason that those from above had been brought together by the male, and those below by the female element. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Peru_-_Viewpoint_over_Machu_Pichu_city.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/the-inca/ Primary Source: Incan Creation Myth https://web.archive.org/web/20000416033032/http://www.humanities.ccny.cuny.edu/history/reader/inca.htm	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.039418	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88236/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 4: Latin America, Incas", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87863/overview	The Historical Background of the Reformation Overview The Historical Background of the Reformation Europe by 1500 was ripe for sweeping religious reforms at the close of the Medieval period and the dawn of the modern era. Learning Objectives - Identify the primary factors from the late medieval period that led to the Reformation. Key Terms / Key Concepts Black Plague: an epidemic disease carried by fleas that killed millions across Europe beginning in the 14th century Little Ice Age: a period of cold and long winters that impacted the world from the mid-13th century through mid-15th century Humanists: Renaissance artists and writers who collected and modeled their works on the artwork and writings of ancient Greek and Roman artists and writers Europe in 1500: General Overview The Reformation developed as a religious movement in a period of intense social anxiety in Europe due to rapid social and economic change. In this time of stress and worry, people often turned to their faith for comfort and support. One cause of anxiety was the fear of a horrific death from disease. The Black Plague or Bubonic Plague first struck Europe in 1348, but this disease continued to strike down the population periodically in the centuries that followed. Infestations of fleas on rats and livestock carried this disease from Central Asia and across Europe. By 1500 and over the next century, another source of anxiety was economic and social insecurity. Beginning around 1450, Europe began experiencing a warming climate, which lasted until the end of the 16th century. This period of rising temperatures brought temporary relief to Europeans, who had been living in a Little Ice Age prior to 1450. The rising temperatures of the period 1450 to 1600 resulted in longer growing seasons for crops—such as wheat and larger harvests, which resulted in population growth. People with access to a plentiful supply of food were well nourished and less likely to die from hunger or epidemic diseases, which is more likely to affect people who are malnourished. As the population grew, demand for goods also expanded with the corresponding growth of markets. The introduction of vast amounts of precious metals (silver and gold) into Europe in the later 16th century, after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires in the Western Hemisphere, accelerated the growth of the market economy. People with coins of silver and gold in hand were ready and eager to purchase goods on the market. This economic expansion allowed inventive entrepreneurs the opportunity to amass large fortunes. The acquisition of such fortunes, however, stirred up social unrest and economic fears when those possessing this newfound wealth were non-noble commoners. Less successful commoners and the elite nobility viewed these entrepreneurs as greedy, pretentious men, who had forgotten their proper place in the hierarchical social order, which traditionally drew a sharp distinction between the aristocratic landowning elite and the mass of common people. Society did not expect commoners to serve in positions of leadership or to engage in elite activities such as wearing fine clothes or riding in a horse drawn carriage or entertaining guests with a feast of meat and wine. These were positions and activities reserved for the elite nobility. Non-nobles with money who engaged in such activities were a dire threat to the social order. It is perhaps not a coincidence that the leading Protestant reformers, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, and John Calvin were commoners. Luther’s father was a miner, Zwingli’s was a peasant, and Calvin’s was an account clerk. The parents of all these reformers sacrificed and saved to send their children to a university, where they could receive an education and afterwards raise their social status through service in the church or government. In contrast, one of the leading Catholic reformers, Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit Order, was a Spanish nobleman who was a soldier and knight prior to entering the ministry. The Roman Catholic Church in 1500 As people across Europe turned to their faith in this period of anxiety, they were often disappointed with the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church. During the preceding Medieval period and especially after 1000 CE, the Catholic Church in Western and Central Europe had developed into a centralized, hierarchical organization under the leadership of the Popes based in Rome. The Pope was Christ's representative or vicar on earth, and the Pope's power in the church was unchecked. According to the doctrines of the church, the Pope also possessed authority over all the Christian rulers of Christendom, the body of all Christians. In the 15th century, the Pope was not merely a spiritual leader, but he also ruled directly over a large section of Central Italy known as the Papal States. These Popes, therefore, often obtained their position because of their administrative and political skills, and not necessarily due to their spiritual gifts and piety. The Popes of this period were often very worldly men and far from model Christians. For example, Rodrigo Borgia or Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492 – 1503) was infamous for his elaborate, wild parties and for his beautiful mistress. He also used his power as Pope to advance the interests of his family through his efforts to carve out a principality for his illegitimate son, the ruthless and violent Cesare Borgia. The conduct and worldly reputation of such Popes shocked and disgusted Christians across Europe, who wanted to reform the church and end its corruption. The Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance provided reform-minded Christians with the tools to demand church reform. The Renaissance was a "rebirth" of the art and literature of Classical Greece and Rome, which arose originally in the Italian city-states of North Italy in the 14th and 15th century. Renaissance artists and writers modeled their works on the artwork and writings of ancient Greek and Roman artists and writers. Renaissance Humanists collected ancient works of art and manuscripts as sources of inspiration. Around 1350, the Italian poet, Petrarch first began to search out and assemble ancient texts and became the "Father of the Humanists." The conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks resulted in the migration of Byzantine scholars to Italy, who brought ancient Greek manuscripts with them. 1453 was also the year in which the first printed book, the Gutenberg Bible was published in Germany. The invention of the printing press allowed for the mass publication and circulation of the ancient works that Humanists had collected. Humanists not only collected ancient manuscripts; they also maintained that the study of ancient Greek and Roman mathematics, philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry would promote human excellence and virtue. The advancement of literacy and education that resulted from the Renaissance provided Europeans who wanted to reform the church with the intellectual skills to question the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church. Moreover, due to the work of the Humanists the works of early Christian writers who wrote in ancient Latin and Greek were now in circulation. As more educated Christians read the works of these early Christian writers, such as Saint Augustine (c. 400 CE), they contrasted the corrupt church of their own day with the ancient Christian Church, which provided a model for church reform. The Reformation and Society The historical study of the Reformation often focuses on the leading thinkers of this era and the ideas that they espoused, but in this period millions of Europeans, both men and women, either enthusiastically embraced the church reforms advocated by Protestants or passionately defended the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. The spread of reform would not have been possible without the work of many women, who have remained largely anonymous. For example, Katharina von Bora, was a former nun, who married the Protestant German reformer, Martin Luther. She operated a farm and a brewery to support her husband’s work as a teacher and author, while also running a hospital. On the other hand, Teresa of Avila was a Spanish nun and noblewomen of the 16th century who inspired Roman Catholics with her writings on prayer and mystical faith during the Catholic Reformation. The ideas of Protestant reformers and loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church also appealed to large segments of the population across different parts of Europe who were experiencing economic hardship. For example, Martin Luther’s stress on the equality of all Christians before God caused peasant farmers across Germany to wonder why their aristocratic landlords controlled their local churches and imposed heavy rents and fees on them. In 1524, peasants across Germany revolted against their landlords in the Peasant's Rebellion. By 1525, the rebellion was over after aristocratic armies massacred over 30,000 men, women, and children. Luther condemned the rebels; equality among Christians, according to Luther, was a spiritual state only and impossible in a sinful, material world. John of Leiden in the Netherlands was a tailor, who became an Anabaptist travelling preacher. In 1532, he began preaching in the German city of Munster. He convinced the city's poor residents to expel the Roman Catholic Bishop from the city. John became the new leader of the city and demanded that the city residents all share their wealth with one another equally. He also rejected the idea of traditional marriage and insisted that all residents were all married to one another in common. Eventually John declared that he himself was Jesus Christ. He had a special gold crown made for himself and he demanded the people worship him as God. In 1534, the exiled Bishop raised an army and overthrew John's regime in Munster. The appeal of Roman Catholicism and the Protestant churches varied from region to region, often depending on the culture of a region. In the Netherlands, for example, the Dutch speaking, rural areas embraced the Protestant faith; whereas, the more city-based Flemish and Walloon speaking areas remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church. Northern Germany with its large trading cities converted to the Protestant faith; whereas, rural, Southern Germany remained Roman Catholic. Paris, the royal French capital, was a Roman Catholic stronghold, while large areas in the south of France converted to Protestantism. In Poland, the German-speaking residents of the cities were Protestants, but the ethnic Poles in the countryside were Roman Catholic. While the British Isles became mostly a Protestant region, pockets remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church: northern England, the Scottish Highlands, and most of Ireland. Attributions Title Image "Dance of Death" Schedel, Hartmann, 1493 - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.062698	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87863/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 5: Europe, The Historical Background of the Reformation", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87858/overview	Early European Exploration of Africa Overview Early European Exploration of Africa In the mid-15th century the Portuguese opened up sub-Saharan Africa to European trade. Learning Objectives - Assess how Trans-Atlantic trade affected the social and political development in Africa and the Americas. Key Terms / Key Concepts São Tomé: island off the coast of West Africa colonized by the Portuguese in 1486, which became the center of the early African slave trade Elmina: a fortified trading settlement founded by the Portuguese along the West African coast (modern Ghana) in 1482 Early European Exploration and Expansion into Africa With the arrival of Portuguese explorers and merchants along the African coasts, beginning in the 15th century, trade from Sub-Saharan Africa largely shifted away from the Muslim Arab states of North Africa and the trans-Saharan trade to the coasts of West and East Africa, where European merchants established trading posts. European merchants were at first interested in the ivory and gold trade, but in the 17th century, African slaves became the primary export from Sub-Saharan Africa as the volume of trade along the Atlantic coast exceeded the trans-Saharan trade. The demand for labor in the European controlled territories in the Western Hemisphere fueled the expansion of this notorious transatlantic slave trade through the 19th century. The Portuguese Empire The Portuguese Empire was established from the 15th century and eventually stretched from the Americas to Japan. These were often a string of coastal trading centers with defensive fortifications, but there were also larger territorial colonies like Brazil, Angola, and Mozambique. White Europeans dominated trade, politics, and society, but there was also a significant mixing of races, and in many places, people of mixed ancestry rose to positions of wealth and power in the colonies. The Portuguese began their empire as a search for access to the gold of West Africa and then the eastern spice trade. In addition, it was hoped that there might well be Christian states in Asia that could become useful allies in Christianity’s ongoing battles with the Islamic caliphates. New lands for agriculture, riches and glory for colonial adventurers, and the ambitions of missionary work were other motivations in the building of an empire. Carrack ships created a maritime network that connected Lisbon with all of its colonies in the west and the Estado da India (‘State of India’), as the empire was known east of the Cape of Good Hope. Goods like gold, ivory, silk, Ming porcelain, and spices were carried and traded around the world. Another major trade was in slaves, taken from West and southern Africa and used as labor on plantations in the North Atlantic islands and the Americas. The North Atlantic Islands The Portuguese were intrepid mariners and so it is entirely appropriate that their first colonies should be relatively remote islands. Searching for new resources and land which might solve Portugal’s deficit in wheat requirements, mariners sailed towards the unknown mid-Atlantic Ocean. The Portuguese navigators were able to mount these expeditions thanks to such rich and powerful backers as Prince Henry the Navigator (aka Infante Dom Henrique, 1394 – 1460). Another immeasurable advantage was innovative ship design and the use of the lateen triangular sail. The first group of islands to be colonized was the volcanic and uninhabited Madeira archipelago. With rich volcanic soil, mild climate, and sufficient rainfall, the islands were used to grow wheat, vines, and sugar cane. In many ways, the Portuguese colonization of Madeira would set the template that all other colonies copied. The Portuguese Crown partitioned the islands and gave out ‘captaincies’ (donatarias) as part of a feudal system designed to encourage nobles to fund agricultural and trade development. The Crown retained overall ownership. However, each captain (donatario) was given certain financial and judicial privileges, and they, in turn, gave out smaller parcels of their land (semarias) for development by their tenants who had to clear and begin cultivation within a certain number of years. These captaincies became hereditary offices in many cases. Settlers were attracted by the hope of a better life, but there were, as there would be in all future colonies, less desirable immigrants, as well. These were the undesirables (degregados); people unwanted by the authorities in Portugal who were forcibly transported to colonies, such as convicts, beggars, reformed prostitutes, orphans, Jews, and religious dissidents. Another way in which Madeira became a colonial model was sugar cane plantations, which were created as early as 1455. The success of this crop and its large labor requirement led to slaves being imported from West Africa. The slave-worked plantation system became an important part of the economy in the New World that led to the terrible traffic in humanity that was the Atlantic slave trade. After Madeira, and following the same pattern, there followed the Portuguese colonization of the Azores and the Cape Verde group. These colonies all became invaluable ports of call for ships sailing from India and the Americas. The Portuguese were not without rivals for these colonies. Portugal and Spain squabbled over possession of the Canary Islands, but the 1479-80 Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo and the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas set out two spheres of influence, which audaciously encompassed the globe. The vagueness of these agreements caused trouble later, such as Portugal’s right to future discoveries in Africa and Spain’s to islands beyond the Canaries, interests which were eventually identified as the Caribbean and even the Americas. The North Atlantic islands permitted the Portuguese Crown to gain direct access to the gold of West Africa, avoiding the Islamic states in North Africa. A significant obstacle had been Cape Bojador which seemed to block sailing ships from going south and then returning home to Europe. A solution to this issue was provided by the Atlantic islands and setting a bold course out away from the African coastline to best use winds, currents, and high-pressure areas. Portuguese mariners could then sail south with confidence, and the ultimate result was the opening up of Asia to European ships. West Africa & Slavery The Portuguese, keen to access the West African gold and salt trade, set up several fortified trading settlements along the southern coast (modern Ghana), such as at Elmina in 1482. However, tropical diseases, a lack of manpower, and a reluctance by local rulers to allow male slaves to be exported meant that, at least initially, the profits were limited along the southern coast. African chiefs were keen to trade for firearms, but the Portuguese were not interested in giving them such power. A more successful strategy focused on the uninhabited islands of Sao Tome and Principe, located off the southern coast of West Africa, which were colonized beginning in 1486. The two islands became heavily involved in the slave trade, and, as in the North Atlantic, the captaincy model for development was used. Settlers on the islands were permitted to trade with communities in West Africa, and those trades proved more successful than the attempts made a few decades before. Portuguese trade settlements were established on the continent as far south as Luanda (in modern Angola) to take advantage of the well-organized African trade that saw goods travel from the interior along the major rivers (e.g. Gambia and Senegal) to the coast. Goods acquired included gold, ivory, pepper, beeswax, gum, and dyewoods. Slaves (men and women) were acquired from the Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Benin, the rulers of which were eager for European trade goods like cotton cloth, mirrors, knives, and glass beads. The islands acted as a gathering point for slaves and as a place to take onboard provisions for the ships that would carry the human cargo. One in five slaves died on these ships, but as many as one in two slaves died between initial capture and arrival at their final destination. There was little attempt at territorial conquest in West Africa as trade was thriving and the Europeans did not possess the military resources for such a policy. Some settlements were fortified, but this was usually done with permission from the local African tribal chief. Europeans and resettled Africans had intermarried on islands— such as the Cape Verde group—creating an Afro-Portuguese culture, which had a strong African religious and artistic influence. It was very often these free mixed-race Cape Verdeans (mulattoes) who settled in the trading posts on the coast of Africa. There were moves to cut out African chiefs and directly acquire slaves from the interior, but this policy soured relations with Kongo. The situation further deteriorated following a reaction against Christian missionaries as traditional cultural activities and tribal loyalties broke down. The Europeans were obliged to move further down the coast to the Ndongo region, where their interference led to a series of wars in a region that soon after became Portuguese Angola. East Africa In 1498 the explorer Vasco da Gama (c. 1469 – 1524) sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean, and the Portuguese suddenly gained access to a whole new trade network involving Africans, Indians, and Arabs. The trade network had existed for centuries, but when the Portuguese arrived commerce became violent. Using superior ships and cannons, the Portuguese blasted rival ships out of the water. Their crews were arrested or killed and their cargoes confiscated. The fact that most traders were Muslim was an added motivation for the Europeans who were still beset with a crusader mentality. Portuguese attacks on the independent trading cities of the Swahili Coast and on the inland Kingdom of Mutapa in the south (Zimbabwe/Zambia) did not bring any tangible benefits as traders simply moved to the north or avoided them. When the Portuguese had taken over and fortified the likes of Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Sofala, and Kilwa, they found they had already lost the trading partners of these city-states. Then the Omani Arabs of the Persian Gulf arrived. Keen to keep hold of their Red Sea trade routes and re-establish the age-old trade networks, the Omani moved in on the Swahili Coast and captured many cities, including Portuguese Mombasa in 1698. The lack of success in East Africa eventually drove the Portuguese south to Mozambique, but they were already wholly distracted by the potential of a newly discovered area of the world: India. By the mid-17th century, however, the Portuguese no longer possessed a monopoly on African trade, which they had previously enjoyed at the beginning of the 16th century. English, French, Dutch, Swede, and Danish merchants were all competing with one another for access to this market and its most valuable export: slaves. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ghana,_het_fort_Sint_George_d%27Elmina_(3381211949).jpg Elmina, Ghana - Nationaal Archief, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: Cartwright, Mark. "Portuguese Empire." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified July 19, 2021. https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.086683	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87858/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 3: Africa, Early European Exploration of Africa", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87857/overview	Islamic African Empires Overview Islamic African Empires The arrival of Islam on the continent of Africa in the seventh century CE resulted in the development of a series of Islamic empires across sub-Saharan Africa. Learning Objectives Assess how Trans-Atlantic trade affected the social and political development in Africa and the Americas. Key Terms / Key Concepts Soninke people: the founders of the ancient empire of Ghana c. 750–1240 CE Almoravids: a Berber imperial dynasty of Morocco that formed an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus (Spain) Mansa: a Mandinka word meaning “sultan” (king) or “emperor,” particularly associated with the Keita dynasty of the Mali Empire, which dominated West Africa from the 13th century to the 15th century Sahel: the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south (Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.) Bantu expansion: a postulated millennia-long series of migrations of original proto-Bantu language speakers ( Attempts to trace the exact route of the migrations, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive. The Bantu traveled in two waves, and it is likely that the migration of the Bantu-speaking people from their core region in West Africa began around 1000 BCE.) Shona: a group of Bantu people in Zimbabwe and some neighboring countries, the main part of which is divided into five major clans and adjacent to some people of very similar culture and languages; the peoples who created empires and states on the Zimbabwe plateau Islamic African Empires Control of trade routes across the Sahara resulted in a series of empires in western Africa. These empires used the revenues from this trade to build their armies and bureaucracies. The first of these empires was Ghana (990 – 1180 CE). The rulers of this empire converted to Islam and even imported Arab clerics as administrators, but their subjects still practiced their native polytheistic religions. Another such great empire was Mali. Under its greatest king, Mansa Musa, the capital of this empire, Timbuktu, became a center of Islamic scholarship and the home of a university. In 1324, Mansa Musa travelled to the Islamic holy city of Mecca on a pilgrimage and astounded fellow Muslim pilgrims with the vast quantities of gold that he distributed as gifts. In the 15th century CE with the decline of Mali, the empire of Songhai arose with its capital at the trading city of Gao. Islam and trade also resulted in the emergence of Swahili trading cities along the east coast of Africa, along the Indian Ocean. In the first century CE, Bantu peoples from Central Africa began migrating to East Africa and South Africa. Bantu peoples shared a common language, iron technology, and an economy focused on cattle raising. With the rise of Islam, Arab merchants sailed down the coast of East Africa and established trading posts. The mixture of Bantu and Arab culture in these trading posts resulted in a distinctive Swahili culture. The trading posts developed into large city-states by 1200, which were ruled by "Sultans”. The growth of these Swahili city-states sparked the emergence of an advanced culture in South Africa—in modern Zimbabwe and Zambia. Swahili merchants along the east coast traded with the Bantu peoples of the interior for cattle hides, salt, and gold. Between 900 and 1500 CE, the rulers of the Shona established powerful kingdoms in this region that drew revenue from this trade. Shona kings built massive stone palaces (Zimbabwe) whose ruins still impress visitors today. The Shona did not convert to Islam. They instead continued to practice their polytheistic religion and revere their kings as gods. The Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire, called the Wagadou (or Wagadu) Empire by its rulers, was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, western Mali, and eastern Senegal. It derived its power from the control of trans-Saharan trade, particularly the gold trade. There is no consensus on when precisely it originated, but its development is linked to the changes in trade that emerged after the introduction of the camel to the western Sahara. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century, the camel had changed the earlier, more irregular trade routes into a trade network running from Morocco to the Niger River. This regular and intensified trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, and ivory allowed for the development of larger urban centers and encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over different trade routes. The Ghana ruling dynasty was first mentioned in written records in 830, and thus the 9th century is sometimes identified as the empire’s beginning. In the medieval Arabic sources, the word “Ghana” can refer to a royal title, the name of a capital city, or a kingdom. From the 9th century, Arab authors mention the Ghana Empire in connection with the trans-Saharan gold trade. Al-Bakri, who wrote in the 11th century, described the capital of Ghana as consisting of two towns six miles apart, one inhabited by Muslim merchants and the other by the king of Ghana. According to the tradition of the Soninke people, they migrated to southeastern Mauritania in the 1st century, and as early as around 100 CE created a settlement that would eventually develop into the Ghana Empire. Other sources identify the beginnings of the empire sometime between the 4th century and the mid-8th century. Most information about the economy of Ghana comes from al-Bakri. He noted that merchants had to pay a one gold dinar tax on imports of salt and two on exports of salt. Al-Bakri mentioned also copper and “other goods.” Imports probably included products such as textiles and ornaments. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in old Morocco originated from the Ghana Empire. Tribute was also received from various tributary states and chiefdoms at the empire’s periphery. The Ghana Empire lay in the Sahel region to the north of the West African gold fields and was able to profit from controlling the trans-Saharan gold trade. The early history of Ghana is unknown, but there is evidence that North Africa had begun importing gold from West Africa before the Arab conquest in the middle of the 7th century. Much testimony on ancient Ghana comes from the recorded visits of foreign travelers, who could provide only a fragmentary picture. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the Empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king. Al-Bakri questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote of the king hearing grievances against officials and being surrounded by great wealth. Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by vassal states. One of the earliest sources, al-Ya’qubi, writing in 889/890 (276 AH), noted that “under the king’s authority are a number of kings.” These “kings” were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called kafu in Mandinka. In al-Bakri’s time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter, and “the majority of his officials.” Given scarce Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined and fell. According to Arab tradition, Ghana fell when it was sacked by the Almoravid movement in 1076 – 1077, but this interpretation has been questioned. Some historians have argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation of or limited reliance on Arabic sources. Other historians have maintained that Almoravid political agitation somehow contributed to Ghana’s demise. While the evidence for conquest is unclear, the influence and success of the Almoravid movement in securing West African gold and circulating it widely necessitated a high degree of political control. The archaeology of ancient Ghana, however, does not show signs of the rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests. Historians assume that this ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge, ending the kingdom’s position as a commercial and military power by 1100. It collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids, while others founded the Mali Empire. Despite ambiguous evidence, it is clear that Ghana was incorporated into the Mali Empire around 1240. Mali The Mali Empire was an empire in West Africa that lasted from 1230 to 1600 and profoundly influenced the culture of the region through the spread of its language, laws, and customs along lands adjacent to the Niger River, as well as other areas consisting of numerous vassal kingdoms and provinces. The Mali Empire, also historically referred to as the Manden Kurufaba, was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers. Modern oral traditions recorded that the Mandinka kingdoms of Mali or Manden had already existed several centuries before their unification as small states just to the south of the Soninké empire of Wagadou (the Ghana Empire). This area was composed of mountains, savanna, and forest providing ideal protection and resources for the population of hunters. Those not living in the mountains formed small city-states, such as Toron, Ka-Ba, and Niani. In approximately 1140, the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga, a former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old masters. By 1180, it had even subjugated Wagadou, forcing the Soninké to pay tribute. In 1203, the Sosso king Soumaoro of the Kanté clan came to power and reportedly terrorized much of Manden. After many years in exile, first at the court of Wagadou and then at Mema, Sundiata, a prince who eventually became founder of the Mali Empire, was sought out by a Niani delegation and begged to combat the Sosso and free the kingdoms of Manden. Returning with the combined armies of Mema, Wagadou, and all the rebellious Mandinka city-states, Maghan Sundiata, or Sumanguru, led a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated the Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina (then known as Krina) in approximately 1235. This victory resulted in the fall of the Kaniaga kingdom and the rise of the Mali Empire. After the victory, King Soumaoro disappeared and the Mandinka stormed the last of the Sosso cities. Maghan Sundiata received the title “mansa,” which translates roughly to emperor. At the age of eighteen, he gained authority over all the twelve kingdoms in an alliance known as the Manden Kurufaba. He was crowned under the throne name Sunidata Keita, becoming the first Mandinka emperor. And so the name Keita became a clan/family and began its reign. The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralized nature of administration throughout the state and that the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. Officials at the village, town, city, and county levels were elected locally, and only at the state or provincial level was there any palpable interference from the central authority in Niani. Provinces picked their own governors via their own customs, but governors had to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. The Mali Empire flourished because of trade above all else. It contained three immense gold mines within its borders, and the empire taxed every ounce of gold or salt that entered its borders. By the beginning of the 14th century, Mali was the source of almost half the Old World’s gold, exported from mines in Bambuk, Boure, and Galam. There was no standard currency throughout the realm, but several forms were prominent by region. The towns of the Mali Empire were organized as both staging posts in the long-distance caravan trade and trading centers for the various West African products (e.g., salt, copper). Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim traveler and scholar, observed the employment of slave labor. During most of his journey, Ibn Battuta traveled with a retinue that included slaves, most of whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded themselves. On the return to Morocco, his caravan transported 600 female slaves, which suggests that slavery was a substantial part of the commercial activity of the empire. Thanks to steady tax revenue and a stable government beginning in the last quarter of the 13th century, the Mali Empire was able to project its power throughout its own extensive domain and beyond. The empire maintained a semi-professional full-time army in order to defend its borders. The entire nation was mobilized, with each clan obligated to provide a quota of fighting-age men. Historians who lived during the height and decline of the Mali Empire consistently recorded its army at 100,000, with 10,000 of that number being made up of cavalry. The Mali Empire reached its largest size under the Laye Keita mansas (1312 – 1389). The empire’s total area included nearly all the land between the Sahara Desert and the coastal forests. It spanned modern-day Senegal, southern Mauritania, Mali, northern Burkina Faso, western Niger, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and northern Ghana. The first ruler from the Laye lineage was Kankan Musa Keita (or Moussa), also known as Mansa Musa. He embarked on a large building program, raising mosques and madrasas (Muslim schools) in Timbuktu and Gao. He also transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. By the end of Mansa Musa’s reign, the Sankoré University had been converted into a fully staffed university, with a large collection of books. During this period, there was an advanced level of urban living in the major centers of the Mali. Sergio Domian, an Italian art and architecture scholar, wrote the following about this period: “Thus was laid the foundation of an urban civilization. At the height of its power, Mali had at least 400 cities, and the interior of the Niger Delta was very densely populated.” Mansa Mahmud Keita IV was the last emperor of Manden. He launched an unsuccessful attack on the city of Djenné in 1599. The battle marked the effective end of the great Mali Empire and set the stage for a large number of smaller West African states to emerge. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden’s remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV’s death, thus his death marked the end of the Mali Empire. Songhai The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai. Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464 – 1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493 – 1591). During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire. Mali conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century and the town would remain under Malian hegemony until the late 14th century. But as the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expand Songhai rule. In the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in the 1430s, Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni Dynasty. Around thirty years later, Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Mema, the Mali province west of Timbuktu, paving the way for his successor, Sonni Ali, to turn his country into one of the greatest empires sub-Saharan Africa has ever seen. Sonni Ali reigned from 1464 to 1492. Like Songhai kings before him, he was a Muslim. In the late 1460s, he conquered many of the Songhai’s neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was arguably the empire’s most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule, Songhai reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers. During his campaigns for expansion, Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs (Berber people with a traditionally nomadic pastoralist lifestyle) who had taken the city following the decline of Mali. However, Ali met stark resistance after setting his sights on the wealthy and renowned trading town of Djenné (also known as Jenne). After a persistent seven-year siege, he was able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved its citizens into surrender Oral traditions present a conflicted image of Sonni Ali. On the one hand, the invasion of Timbuktu destroyed the city, and Ali was described as an intolerant tyrant who conducted a repressive policy against the scholars of Timbuktu, especially those of the Sankore region who were associated with the Tuareg. On the other hand, his control of critical trade routes and cities brought great wealth. He is thus often presented as a powerful politician and great military commander and under his reign, Djenné and Timbuktu became great centers of learning. Following Ali’s reign, Askia the Great strengthened the Songhai Empire and made it the largest empire in West Africa’s history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria) and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the west. His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the creation of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire. Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and extended his court to scholars and poets from throughout the Muslim world. He was also tolerant of other religions and did not force Islam on his people. Among his great accomplishments was an interest in astronomical knowledge, which led to the development of astronomy and observatories in the capital. Not only was Askia a patron of Islam but he was also gifted in administration and encouraging trade. He centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy that was responsible for, among other things, tax collection and the administration of justice. He also demanded that canals be built in order to enhance agriculture, which would eventually increase trade. More importantly than anything Askia did for trade was the introduction of weights and measures and the appointment of an inspector for each of Songhai’s important trading centers. During his reign, Islam became more widely entrenched, trans-Saharan trade flourished, and Saharan salt mines were brought within the boundaries of the empire. However, as Askia the Great grew older, his power declined. In 1528, his sons revolted against him and declared Musa, one of Askia’s many sons, as king. Following Musa’s overthrow in 1531, Songhai’s empire went into decline. Multiple attempts at governing the empire by Askia’s sons and grandsons failed and between the political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire Ahmed al-Mansur—the Sultan of Morocco—invaded Songhai. The main reason for the Moroccan invasion of Songhai was to seize control and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold. The Songhai military, during Askia’s reign, consisted of full-time soldiers, but the king never modernized his army. The Empire fell to the Moroccans and their firearms in 1591. Before the collapse of the Songhai Empire in the 16th century, the Songhai city of Timbuktu at its peak was a thriving cultural and commercial center where Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. Trade existed throughout the empire due to the Songhai standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to this trade were the independent gold fields of this empire since gold was one of the empire’s major exports. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger. The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided one’s occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Askia the Great. Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia, which appointed governors to preside over local tributary states situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy. Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, which was usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and bureaucratic responsibilities. The Kanem Empire At its height, the Kanem Empire (c. 700 – 1376) encompassed an area covering Chad, parts of southern Libya and eastern Niger, northeastern Nigeria, and northern Cameroon. The history of the empire is mainly known from the Royal Chronicle, or Girgam, discovered in 1851 by the German traveler Heinrich Barth. The empire of Kanem began forming around 300 CE under the nomadic Tebu-speaking Kanembu. The Kanembu eventually abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and founded a capital around 700 CE under the first documented Kanembu king (mai), known as Sef of Saif. The capital of Njimi grew in power and influence under Sef’s son, Dugu. This transition marked the beginning of the Duguwa dynasty. The mais of the Duguwa were regarded as divine kings and belonged to the ruling establishment known as the magumi. Despite changes in dynastic power, the magumi and the title of mai would persevere for over a thousand years. The major factor that later influenced the history of the state of Kanem was the early penetration of Islam that came with North African traders: Berbers and Arabs. In 1085, a Muslim noble by the name of Hummay removed the last Duguwa king, Selma, from power and thus established the new dynasty of the Sefuwa. The introduction of the Sefuwa dynasty meant radical changes for the Kanem Empire. First, it meant the adoption of Islam and Muslim religious practices by the court and in state policies. Second, the identification of founders had to be revised. Islam offered the Sayfawa rulers the advantage of new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as well as literacy, in the form of the Arabic language. But many people resisted the new religion, favoring traditional beliefs and practices. Kanem’s expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai Dunama Dabbalemi (ca. 1221 – 1259), also of the Sayfawa dynasty. Dabbalemi initiated diplomatic exchanges with sultans in North Africa and apparently arranged for the establishment of a special hostel in Cairo to facilitate pilgrimages to Mecca. During his reign, he declared jihad or “holy war” against the surrounding tribes and initiated an extended period of conquest. However, he also destroyed the local Mune cult, which was centered around a mysterious sacred object that was revered by the people. This action sparked widespread revolt, resulting in the uprising of the Tubu and the Bulala. The former was quenched, but the latter lingered on, finally leading to the retreat of the Sayfuwa from Kanem to Bornu c. 1380. By the end of the 14th century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. Between 1359 and 1383, seven mais reigned, but Bulala invaders (from the area around Lake Fitri to the east) killed five of them. This proliferation of mais resulted in numerous claimants to the throne and a series of destructive wars. Finally, around 1380, the Bulala forced Mai Umar Idrismi to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to Bornu on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Bornu peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri. Even in Bornu, the Sayfawa dynasty’s troubles persisted. During the first three-quarters of the 15th century, for example, fifteen mais occupied the throne. Around 1460, Mai Ali Dunamami defeated his rivals and began the consolidation of Bornu. He built a fortified capital at Ngazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Niger), the first permanent home a Sayfawa mai had enjoyed in a century. The Sayfawa rejuvenation was so successful that by the early 16th century, Mai Idris Katakarmabe (1487 – 1509) was able to defeat the Bulala and retake Njimi, the former capital. The empire’s leaders, however, remained at Ngazargamu because its lands were more agriculturally productive and better suited to the raising of cattle. With control over both capitals, the Sayfawa dynasty became more powerful than ever. The two states were merged, but political authority still rested in Bornu. Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the statesman Mai Idris Alwma (also spelled Alooma or Alawma) in the last decades of the 16th/the beginning of the 17th century. Alwma introduced a number of legal and administrative reforms based on his religious beliefs and Islamic law (sharia). He sponsored the construction of numerous mosques and made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a hostel to be used by pilgrims from his empire. Alwma’s reformist goals led him to seek loyal and competent advisers and allies, and he frequently relied on slaves who had been educated in noble homes. He required major political figures to live at the court, and he reinforced political alliances through appropriate marriages. Kanem-Bornu under Alwma was strong and wealthy. Government revenue came from tribute (or booty, if the recalcitrant people had to be conquered), sales of slaves, and duties on and participation in trans-Saharan trade. Unlike West Africa, the Chadian region did not have gold. Still, it was central to one of the most convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases, and from Fezzan in Libya there were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products were sent north, including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides. However, the most significant export of all were slaves. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, muskets, and copper. Somali Sultanates and Islam After the arrival of Islam in East Africa in the seventh century, the territory of modern Somalia witnessed the emergence and decline of several powerful sultanates that dominated the regional trade. At no point was the region centralized as one state, and the development of all the sultanates was linked to the central role that Islam played in the area. The oldest mosque in the city of Zeila, a major port/trading center, dates to the 7th century. In the late 9th century, Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard, and evidence suggests that Zeila was already the headquarters of a Muslim sultanate in the 9th or 10th century. This state was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. The Sultanate of Mogadishu was an important trading empire that lasted from the 10th century to the 16th century. It rose as one of the pre-eminent powers in the Horn of Africa over the course of the 12th to 14th centuries, before becoming part of the expanding Ajuran Empire. The Mogadishu Sultanate maintained a vast trading network, dominated the regional gold trade, minted its own Mogadishu currency, and left an extensive architectural legacy in present-day southern Somalia. Its first dynasty was established by Sultan Fakr ad-Din. This ruling house was succeeded by the Muzaffar dynasty, and the kingdom subsequently became closely linked with the Ajuran Sultanate. For many years, Mogadishu stood as the pre-eminent city in what is known as the Land of the Berbers, which was the medieval Arab term for the Somali coast. Contemporary historians suggest that the Berbers were ancestors of the modern Somalis. During his travels, Ibn Sa’id al-Maghribi (1213 – 1286) noted that the city had already become the leading Islamic center in the region. By the time of the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta’s appearance on the Somali coast in 1331, the city was at the zenith of its prosperity. He described Mogadishu as “an exceedingly large city” with many rich merchants that was famous for its high-quality fabric that it exported to Egypt, among other places. The Ajuran Sultanate ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa between the 13th and late 17th centuries. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance toward invaders, it successfully resisted, from the west, an Oromo invasion (a series of expansions in the 16th and 17th centuries by the Oromo people from parts of Kenya and Somalia to Ethiopia) and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished, with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires in East Asia, South Asia, Europe, the Near East, North Africa, and East Africa. The Ajuran Sultanate left an extensive architectural legacy, being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle and fortress building. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Sultanate’s engineers. During the Ajuran period, many regions and people in the southern part of the Horn of Africa converted to Islam because of the influence of Ajuran Islamic government. The royal family, the House of Garen, expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages, and alliances. As a hydraulic empire, the Ajuran monopolized the water resources of the Shebelle and Jubba rivers. It also constructed many of the limestone wells and cisterns of the state that are still in use today. The rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of the Horn of Africa as late as the 19th century. The tyrannical rule of the later Ajuran rulers caused multiple rebellions to break out in the sultanate, and at the end of the 17th century the Ajuran state disintegrated into several successor kingdoms and states. The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan. The Sultanate of Ifat was a medieval Muslim Sultanate in the Horn of Africa. Led by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in the ancient cities of Zeila and Shewa. The sultanate ruled over parts of what are now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, and northern Somalia. Ifat first emerged in the 13th century, when Sultan Umar Walashma (or his son Ali, according to another source) is recorded as having conquered the Sultanate of Showa in 1285. Sultan Umar’s military action was an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as the Abyssinian Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. These two states inevitably came into conflict over Shewa and territories further south. A lengthy war ensued, but the Muslim sultanates of the time were not strongly unified. Ifat was finally defeated by Emperor Amda Seyon I of Abyssinia in 1332. Despite this setback, the Muslim rulers of Ifat continued their campaign. The Ethiopian emperor branded the Muslims of the surrounding area “enemies of the Lord” and invaded Ifat in the early 15th century. After much struggle, Ifat’s troops were defeated. Ifat eventually disappeared as a distinct polity following the conquest by Abyssinia led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi and the subsequent Oromo migrations into the area. Its name is preserved in the modern-day Ethiopian district of Yifat, situated in Shewa. The Adal Sultanate or Kingdom of Adal was founded after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat. It flourished from around 1415 to 1577. The sultanate was established predominately by local Somali tribes, as well as Afars, Arabs, and Hararis. At its height, the polity controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Eritrea. During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in northeast Africa, the Near East, Europe, and South Asia. Many of the historic cities in the Horn of Africa, such as Abasa and Berbera, flourished under its reign, with courtyard houses, mosques, shrines, walled enclosures, and cisterns. Adal attained its peak in the 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory, and other commodities with Abyssinia and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila. Bantu and Swahili Culture Swahili culture is the culture of the people inhabiting the Swahili Coast, encompassing today’s Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and Mozambique, as well as the adjacent islands of Zanzibar and Comoros and some parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Malawi. They speak Swahili as their native language, which belongs to the Niger-Congo family. Swahili culture is the product of the history of the coastal part of the African Great Lakes region. As with the Swahili language, Swahili culture has a Bantu core, with some foreign influences. Around 3,000 years ago, speakers of the proto-Bantu language group began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland between West Africa and Central Africa, at the border of eastern Nigeria and Cameroon. This Bantu expansion first introduced Bantu peoples to central, southern, and southeastern Africa—regions from which they had previously been absent. The Swahili people are mainly united under the mother tongue of Kiswahili, a Bantu language. This also extends to Arab, Persian, and other migrants who reached the coast around the 7th and 8th centuries, providing considerable cultural infusion and numerous loan words from Arabic and Persian. Bantu settlements straddled the Southeast African coast as early as the beginning of the 1st millennium. They evolved gradually from the 7th century onward to accommodate for an increase in trade (mainly with Arab merchants), population growth, and further centralized urbanization. These developed into what would later become known as the Swahili city-states. European archaeologists once assumed during the 19th century that Arab or Persian colonizers brought stone architecture and urban civilization to the Swahili Coast. Today we know that it was local populations who developed the Swahili coast. Swahili architecture exhibits a range of influences and innovations, and diverse forms and histories interlock and overlap to create densely layered structures that cannot be broken down into distinct stylistic parts. Swahili City-States Around the 8th century, the Bantu people began trading with the Arab, Persian, Indian, Chinese, and Southeast Asian peoples—a process known as the Indian Ocean trade. As a consequence of long-distance trading routes crossing the Indian Ocean, the emerging Swahili culture was influenced by Arabic, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cultures. During the 10th century, several city-states flourished along the Swahili Coast and adjacent islands, including Kilwa, Malindi, Gedi, Pate, Comoros, and Zanzibar. These early Swahili city-states were Muslim, cosmopolitan, and politically independent of one another. They grew in wealth because the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. They all competed against one another for the best of the Great Lakes region’s (modern Uganda, Rwanda) trade business, and their chief exports were salt, ebony, gold, ivory, and sandalwood. They were also involved in the slave trade. These city-states began to decline towards the 16th century, mainly as a consequence of the arrival of the Portuguese. Eventually, Swahili trading centers went out of business, and commerce between Africa and Asia on the Indian Ocean collapsed. The Kilwa Sultanate was one of the more prominent of these sultanates, centered at Kilwa (an island off modern-day Tanzania). At its height, the Kilwa Sultanate’s authority stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast. It was founded in the 10th century by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, a Persian prince of Shiraz. His family ruled the Sultanate until 1277, when it was replaced by the Arab family of Abu Moaheb. The latter was overthrown by a Portuguese invasion in 1505. By 1513, the sultanate was already fragmented into smaller states, many of which became protectorates of the Sultanate of Oman. Despite its origin as a Persian colony, extensive inter-marriage and conversion of local Bantu inhabitants, and later Arab immigration, turned the Kilwa Sultanate into a diverse state not ethnically differentiable from the mainland. It was the mixture of Perso-Arab and Bantu cultures in Kilwa that is credited for creating Swahili as a distinctive East African culture and language. Nonetheless, the Muslims of Kilwa (whatever their ethnicity) would often refer to themselves generally as Shirazi or Arabs, and to the unconverted Bantu peoples of the mainland as Zanj or Khaffirs (infidels). The Kilwa Sultanate was almost wholly dependent on external commerce. Effectively, it was a confederation of urban settlements, and there was little to no agriculture carried on in within the boundaries of the sultanate. Grains (principally millet and rice), meats (cattle and poultry), and other supplies necessary to feed the large city populations had to be purchased from the Bantu peoples of the interior. Kilwan traders from the coast encouraged the development of market towns in the Bantu-dominated highlands of what are now Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. The Kilwan mode of living was as middlemen traders, importing manufactured goods (e.g. cloth) from Arabia and India—which were then swapped in the highland market towns for Bantu-produced agricultural commodities (grain, meats)—and precious raw materials (gold, ivory) that they would export back to Asia. The diverse history of the Swahili Coast has also resulted in multicultural influences on Swahili arts, including furniture and architecture. The Swahili do not often use designs with images of living beings due to their Muslim heritage. Instead, Swahili designs are primarily geometric. The most typical musical genre of Swahili culture is taarab (or tarabu), sung in the Swahili language. Its melodies and orchestration have Arab and Indian influences. Swahili architecture, a term used to designate a whole range of diverse building traditions practiced or once practiced along the eastern and southeastern coasts of Africa, is in many ways an extension of mainland African traditions. Structural elements, such as domes and barrel vaulting clearly connect, however, to the Persian Gulf area and South Asian building traditions. Exotic ornament and design elements also connected the architecture of the Swahili coast to other Islamic port cities. In fact, many of the classic mansions and palaces of the Swahili Coast belonged to wealthy merchants and landowners, who played a key role in the mercantile economy of the region. Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the southeastern hills of today’s Zimbabwe in southern Africa. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown. The most popular modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona people. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures in Southern Africa; they are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. The most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, is the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. The city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone, and they span 730 ha (1,800 acres). This kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. It was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes (stone structures). The kingdom controlled the ivory and gold trade from the interior to the southeastern coast of Africa. The Great Zimbabwe people mined copper and iron in addition to gold. Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a center for international trading, with a trade network linked to the Kilwa Sultanate and extending as far as China. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory. Some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Archaeological evidence also suggests a high degree of social stratification, with poorer residents living outside of the city. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads, and other non-local items have been excavated. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and other centers such as Kilwa. The rulers of Zimbabwe brought artistic and stone masonry traditions from Mapungubwe. In the early 11th century, people from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Southern Africa are believed to have settled on the Zimbabwe plateau. There, they would establish the Kingdom of Zimbabwe around 1220. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. Around 1430, prince Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe traveled north in search of salt among the Shona-Tavara. He defeated the Tonga and Tavara with his army and established his dynasty at Chitakochangonya Hill. The land he conquered would become the Kingdom of Mutapa. Within a generation, Mutapa eclipsed Great Zimbabwe as the economic and political power in Zimbabwe. By 1450, the capital and most of the kingdom had been abandoned. Causes suggested for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the city of Great Zimbabwe have included a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability, or famine and water shortages induced by climatic change. The end of the kingdom resulted in a fragmentation of Shona power. Two bases emerged along a north-south axis. In the north, the Kingdom of Mutapa carried on and even improved upon Zimbabwe’s administrative structure. However, it did not carry on the stone masonry tradition to the extent of its predecessor. In the south, the Kingdom of Butua was established as a smaller but nearly identical version of Zimbabwe. Both states were eventually absorbed into the Rozwi Empire in the 17th century. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donkeys,_Timbuktu.jpg Great Mosque of Timbuktu, Mali - Flickr user: Emilio Labrador Santiago de Chile https://www.flickr.com/people/3059349393/, CC BY 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/west-african-empires/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/central-african-empires/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/east-african-empires/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/southern-african-states/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.132945	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87857/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 3: Africa, Islamic African Empires", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87856/overview	Early Africa Overview Early Africa Civilizations emerged in Africa centuries prior to the arrival of Islam into the continent (7th CE) and later European explorers and traders (15th century). These complex cultures developed with very little contact with civilizations ourside of the continent. Learning Objectives - Identify the geographical features of Africa that influenced the development of cultures in this region. - Describe the earliest civilizations to develop in Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Key Terms / Key Concepts Sahara Desert: separates North Africa from the rest of the continent of Africa (Sub-Saharan Africa) along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea Savannah: tropical grasslands just to the south of the Sahara Nok Culture: arose in central Africa in modern Nigeria as an advanced culture around 400 BCE Aksum: large empire around 300 CE located in Northeast Africa in modern Ethiopia, as well as North and South Sudan Early Africa Advanced cultures developed deep within the interior of Africa despite relatively very little interaction with cultures outside of this region. The vast Sahara Desert separates North Africa, along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, from the rest of the continent of Africa (Sub-Saharan Africa). This was an isolated area, where cultures evolved practically devoid of contact with other regions prior to the arrival of Islam in North Africa, which began along the Mediterranean Sea in the seventh century CE. Nonetheless, flourishing cultures developed in the Savannah, tropical grasslands just to the south of the Sahara, and in the rain forests of central Africa. People in the Savannah had domesticated millet by 6000 BCE, whereas the inhabitants of the rain forests had domesticated yams (sweet potatoes) by 2000 BCE. By 400 BCE, the Nok culture of central Africa in modern Nigeria shows signs of an advanced culture with its mastery of iron technology and its elaborate terracotta figures that evidence advanced craft production. The first, well-known great empire in Sub-Saharan Africa was Aksum (or Axum) located in Northeast Africa—which is modern Ethiopia, as well as North and South Sudan. After 300 CE the kings of Aksum controlled the Red Sea coast and could, therefore, control the Indian Ocean trade between the Late Roman Empire and the Gupta Empire in India. The wealth from this trade enabled these kings to control its vast empire. In the fourth century CE, the kings of Aksum converted to Christianity. This Ethiopian Church became a Monophysite Church like the Coptic Church in Egypt, which was independent from the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches in Europe. The Church in Aksum adapted the Coptic script to develop its own script, Ge'ez, so that the Holy Scriptures were available in their own language. After the rise of Islam, the Aksum Empire collapsed, but the Ethiopian Church survived in the mountains of Ethiopia. From the remnants of the Aksum Empire, the kingdom of Abyssinia emerged in the 11th century CE, which is the forerunner of the modern nation of Ethiopia.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.154733	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87856/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 3: Africa, Early Africa", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91200/overview	B2B Purchasing Decisions Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: B2B Purchasing Decisions What you’ll learn to do: explain the B2B buying process and factors influencing B2B purchasing decisions Up to this point, our discussion about decision making has focused on individual consumers (B2C). Next we will shift attention to the decision making of businesses and other organizations when they are considering what to buy (B2B). While many of the same principles apply in business-to-business purchasing decisions, there are important differences that warrant discussion. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain the B2B purchasing decision process - Describe factors influencing B2B purchasing decisions - Differentiate between B2C and B2B purchasing decisions Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Organizational Buying Process - Video: Complexities of a B2B Solution Sale - Reading: The Organizational Buying Process Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: B2B Purchasing Decisions. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Organizational Buyer Behavior Individual consumers are not the only buyers in a market. Companies and other organizations also need goods and services to operate, run their businesses, and produce the offerings they provide to one another and to consumers. These organizations, which include producers, resellers, government and nonprofit groups, buy a huge variety of products including equipment, raw materials, finished goods, labor, and other services. Some organizations sell exclusively to other organizations and never come into contact with consumer buyers. B2B markets have their own patterns of behavior and decision-making dynamics that are important to understand for two major reasons. First, when you are a member of an organization, it’s helpful to appreciate how and why organization buying decisions are different from the decisions you make as an individual consumer. Second, many marketing roles focus on B2B rather than B2C marketing, or they may be a combination of the two. If you have opportunities to work in B2B marketing, you need to recognize how the decision-making process differs in order to create effective marketing for B2B customers and target segments. Who Are the Organizational Buyers? Unlike the consumer buying process, multiple individuals are usually involved in making B2B buying decisions. A purchasing agent or procurement team (also called a buying center) may also be involved to help move the decision through the organization’s decision process and to negotiate advantageous terms of sale. Organizations define and enforce rules for making buying decisions with purchasing policies, processes, and systems designed to ensure the right people have oversight and final approval of these decisions. Typically, more levels of consideration, review, and approval are required for more expensive purchases. For anyone involved in B2B marketing or selling, it is important to know: - Who will take part in the buying process? - What criteria does each person use to evaluate prospective suppliers? - What level of influence does each member of the process have? - What interpersonal, psychological, or other factors about the decision team might influence this buying process? - How well do the individuals work together as a group? - Who makes the final decision to buy? Because every organization is unique, the answers to these questions will be different for every organization and every sale. Marketers should understand their target segments well enough to identify commonalities where they exist and then create effective marketing to address the common roles and decision makers identified. For example, a technology company selling a travel- and expense-management system should expect decision makers from several departments to be involved in the purchasing decision: the HR department (to ensure the system is user-friendly for employees and compatible with company travel policies), the accounting department (to ensure the system is a good complement to the company’s accounting and finance systems), and the IT department (to ensure the system is compatible with the other systems and technologies the company uses). Marketers should focus first on managers in the group most responsible for travel and expense policy—typically the HR department. As the company generates serious interest and leads, marketing and sales staff should take the time to learn about decision dynamics within each organization considering the system. Marketing and sales support activities can focus on getting each of the essential decision makers acquainted with the product and then convincing them to make it their final selection. B2B Buying Situations Who makes the buying decision depends, in part, on the situation. Common types of buying situations include the straight rebuy, the modified rebuy, and the new task. The straight rebuy is the simplest situation: the organization reorders a good or service without any modifications. These transactions are usually routine and may be handled entirely by the purchasing department because the initial selection of the product and supplier already took place. With the modified rebuy, the buyer wants to reorder a product but with some modification to the product specifications, prices, or other aspects of the order. In this situation, a purchasing agent may be involved in negotiating the terms for the new order, and several other participants who will use the product may participate in the buying decision. The buying situation is a new task when an organization considers buying a product for the first time. The number of participants and the amount of information sought tend to increase with the cost and risks associated with the transaction. For marketers, the new task is the best opportunity for winning new business because there is no need to displace another supplier (which would be the case for the rebuy situations). For sales opportunities that are new tasks, there may be an opportunity for a solution sale (sometimes called system selling). In these opportunities, the buyer may be interested in a provider that offers a complete package or solution for the business problem, rather than individual components that address separate aspects of the problem. Providers win these opportunities by being the company that has both the vision and the capability to provide combination of products, technologies, and services that address the problem–and to make everything work together smoothly. Solution sales are particularly common in the technology industry. Characteristics of Organizational Buying B2B purchasing decisions include levels of complexity that are unique to organizations and the environments in which they operate. Timing Complexity The organizational decision process frequently spans a long period of time, which creates a significant lag between the marketer’s initial contact with the customer and the purchasing decision. In some situations, organizational buying can move very quickly, but it is more likely to be slow. When personnel change, go on leave, or get reassigned to other projects, the decision process can take even longer as new players and new priorities or requirements are introduced. Since a variety of factors can enter the picture during the longer decision cycles of B2B transactions, the marketer’s ability to monitor and adjust to these changes is critical. Technical Complexity Organizational buying decisions frequently involve a range of complex technical dimensions. These could be complex technical specifications of the physical products, or complex technical specifications associated with services, timing, and terms of delivery and payment. Purchases need to fit into the broader supply chain an organization uses to operate and produce its own products, and the payment schedule needs to align with the organization’s budget and fiscal plans. For example, a purchasing agent for Volvo automobiles must consider a number of technical factors before ordering a radio to be installed in a new vehicle model. The electronic system, the acoustics of the interior, and the shape of the dashboard are a few of these considerations. Organizational Complexity Because every organization is unique, it is nearly impossible to group them into precise categories with regard to dynamics of buying decisions. Each organization has a characteristic way of functioning, as well as a personality and unique culture. Each organization has its own business philosophy that guides its actions in resolving conflicts, handling uncertainty and risk, searching for solutions, and adapting to change. Marketing and sales staff need to learn about each customer or prospect and how to work with them to effectively navigate the product selection process. Unique Factors Influencing B2B Buying Behavior Because organizations are made up of individual people, many of the same influencing factors discussed earlier in this module apply in B2B settings: situational, personal, psychological, and social factors. At the same time, B2B purchasing decisions are influenced by a variety of factors that are unique to organizations, the people they employ, and the broader business environment. Individual Factors B2B decisions are influenced by characteristics of the individuals involved in the selection process. A person’s job position, tenure, and level in the organization may all play a role influencing a purchasing decision. Additionally, a decision maker’s relationships with peers and managers could lead them to exert more–or less–influence over the final selection. Individuals’ professional motives, personal style, and credibility as a colleague, manager, or leader may play a role. To illustrate, a new department head might want to introduce an updated technology system to help her organization work more productively. However, her short time in the role and rivalry from other department heads could slow down a buying decision until she has proven her leadership capability and made a strong case for investment in the new technology. Organizational Factors Purchasing decisions, especially big-ticket expenditures, may be influenced by the organization’s strategies, priorities, and performance. Generally the decision makers and the providers competing for the business must present a compelling explanation for how the new purchase will help the organization become more effective at achieving its mission and goals. If a company goes through a quarter with poor sales performance, for example, the management team might slow down or halt purchasing decisions until performance improves. As suggested above, organizational structure plays a central role determining who participates in the buying process and what that process entails. Internal organizational politics and culture may also impact who the decision makers are, what power they exert in the decision, the pace of the buying process, and so forth. An organization’s existing systems, products, or technology might also influence the buying process when new purchases need to be compatible with whatever is already in place. Business Environment B2B purchasing is also influenced by factors in the external business environment. The health of the economy and the company’s industry may determine whether an organization chooses to move ahead with a significant purchase or hold off until economic indicators improve. Competitive pressures can create a strong sense of urgency around organizational decision making and purchasing. For instance, if a leading competitor introduces a compelling new product feature that causes your organization to lose business, managers might be anxious to move forward with a project or purchase that can help them regain a competitive edge. When new technology becomes available that can improve products, services, processes, or efficiency, it can create demand and sales opportunities among companies that want the new technology in order to compete more effectively. Government and the regulatory environment can also influence purchasing decisions. Governmental organizations often have very strict, highly regulated purchasing processes to prevent corruption, and companies must comply with these regulations in order to win government contracts and business. Similarly, lawmakers or governmental agencies might create new laws and regulations that require organizations to alter how they do business—or face penalties. In these situations, organizations tend to be highly motivated to do whatever it takes, including purchasing new products or altering how they operate, in order to comply. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Business Meeting. Authored by: thetaxhaven. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/83532250@N06/7650804342/. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Untitled. Authored by: StartupStockPhotos. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/entrepreneur-startup-start-up-man-593358/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved. License Terms: Pixabay License Reading: The Organizational Buying Process Making B2B Buying Decisions The organizational buying process contains eight stages, which are listed in the figure below. Although these stages parallel those of the consumer buying process, there are important differences that have a direct bearing on the marketing strategy. The complete process occurs only in the case of a new task. In virtually all situations, the organizational buying process is more formal than the consumer buying process. It is also worth noting that B2B buying decisions tend to be more information-intensive than consumer buying decisions. As the marketing opportunity progresses, buyers seek detailed information to guide their choices. It is unlikely that a B2B buyer—in contrast to a consumer—would ever make a final buying decision based solely on the information they see in a standard advertisement. The organization buying process stages are described below. Problem Recognition The process begins when someone in the organization recognizes a problem or need that can be met by acquiring a good or service. Problem recognition can occur as a result of internal or external stimuli. Internal stimuli can be a business problem or need that surfaces through internal operations or the actions of managers or employees. External stimuli can be a presentation by a salesperson, an ad, information picked up at a trade show, or a new competitive development. General Need Description Once they recognize that a need exists, the buyers must describe it thoroughly to make sure that everyone understands both the need and the nature of solution the organization should seek. Working with engineers, users, purchasing agents, and others, the buyer identifies and prioritizes important product characteristics. Armed with knowledge, this buyer understands virtually all the product-related concerns of a typical customer. From a marketing strategy perspective, there is opportunity to influence purchasing decisions at this stage by providing information about the nature of the solution you can provide to address the the organization’s problems. Trade advertising can help potential customers become aware of what you offer. Web sites, content marketing, and direct marketing techniques like toll-free numbers and online sales support are all useful ways to build awareness and help potential customers understand what you offer and why it is worth exploring. Public relations may play a significant role by placing stories about your successful customers and innovative achievements in various trade journals. (Note that the AirCanada video you just watched is an example of this. The video was created by IBM and is offered as one of many “IBM client stories.”) Product Specification Technical specifications come next in the process. This is usually the responsibility of the engineering department. Engineers design several alternatives, with detailed specifications about what the organization requires. These specifications align with the priority list established earlier. Supplier Search Six of the mirror segments for NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope. The mirrors were built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., Boulder, Colorado The buyer now tries to identify the most appropriate supplier (also called the vendor). The buyer conducts a standard search to identify which providers offer what they need, and which ones have a reputation for good quality, good partnership, and good value for the money. This step virtually always involves using the Internet to research providers and sift through product and company reviews. Buyers may consult trade directories and publications, look at published case studies (written or video), seek out guidance from opinion leaders, and contact peers or colleagues from other companies for recommendations. Marketers can participate in this stage by maintaining well-designed Web sites with useful information and case studies, working with opinion leaders to make advantageous information available, using content marketing strategies to make credible information available in sources the buyer is likely to consult, and publishing case studies about customers using your products successfully. Consultative selling (also called personal selling) plays a major role as marketers or sales personnel learn more about the organization’s goals, priorities, and product specifications and provide helpful information to the buyer about the offerings under consideration. Proposal Solicitation During the next stage of the process, qualified suppliers are invited to submit proposals. Depending on the nature of the purchase, some suppliers send only a catalog or a sales representative. More complex purchases typically require submission of a detailed proposal outlining what the provider can offer to address the buyer’s needs, along with product specifications, timing, and pricing. Proposal development requires extensive research, skilled writing, and presentation. For very large, complex purchasing decisions, such as the solution sale described above, the delivery of a proposal could be comparable to a complete marketing strategy targeting an individual customer. Organizations that respond to many proposals typically have a dedicated proposal-writing team working closely with sales and marketing personnel to deliver compelling, well-crafted proposals. Supplier Selection At this stage, the buyer screens the proposals and makes a choice. A significant part of this selection involves evaluating the vendors under consideration. The selection process involves thorough review of the proposals submitted, as well as consideration of vendor capabilities, reputation, customer references, warranties, and so on. Proposals may be scored by different decision makers using a common set of criteria. Often the selection process narrows down vendors to a short list of highest-scoring proposals. Then the short-listed vendors are invited to meet with the buyer(s) virtually or in person to discuss the proposal and address any questions, concerns, or gaps. At this stage, the buyer may attempt to negotiate final, advantageous terms with each of the short-listed vendors. Negotiation points may cover product quantity, specifications, pricing, timing, delivery, and other terms of sale. Ultimately the decision makers finalize their selection and communicate it internally and to the vendors who submitted proposals. Consultative selling and related marketing support are important during this stage. While there may be procurement rules limiting contact with buyers during the selection process, it can be helpful to check in periodically with key contacts and offer any additional information that may be helpful during the selection process. This phase is an opportunity for companies to demonstrate their responsiveness to buyers and their needs. Being attentive during this stage can set a positive tone for how you will conduct future business. Order-Routine Specification The buyer now writes the final order with the chosen supplier, listing the technical specifications, the quantity needed, the warranty, and so on. At this stage, the supplier typically works closely with the buyer to manage inventories and deliver on agreement terms. Performance Review In this final stage, the buyer reviews the supplier’s performance and provides feedback. This may be a very simple or a very complex process, and it may be initiated by either party, or both. The performance review may lead to changes in how the organizations work together to improve efficiency, quality, customer satisfaction, or other aspects of the relationship. From a marketing perspective this stage provides essential information about how well the product is meeting customer needs and how to improve delivery in order to strengthen customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. Happy, successful customers may be great candidates for published case studies, testimonials, and references for future customers. Dissatisfied customers provide an excellent opportunity to learn what isn’t working, demonstrate your responsiveness, and improve. Procurement Processes for Routine Purchases As noted above, the complete eight-stage buying process describe here applies to new tasks, which typically require more complex, involved purchasing decisions. For rebuys and routine purchases, organizations use abridged versions of the process. Some stages may be bypassed completely when a supplier has already been selected. Organizations may also use e-procurement processes, in which an approved supplier has been selected to provide a variety of standard goods at pre-negotiated prices. For example, an organization may negotiate an e-procurement agreement with Staples that allows employees to order office supplies directly from the company using an approval workflow in the ordering system. These systems help simplify the buying process for routine purchases, while still allowing appropriate levels of approvals and cost controls for the buyer. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation . Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 4: Understanding Buyer Behavior, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Primary Mirror Segment Cryogenic Testing. Authored by: NASA's James Webb Space Telescope. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasawebbtelescope/5637974497/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives Self Check: B2B Purchasing Decisions Check Your Understanding Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times. Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Self Check: B2B Purchasing Decisions. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.185085	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91200/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, B2B Purchasing Decisions", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91201/overview	Putting it Together Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Putting It Together: Consumer Behavior Applying the Concepts: Finn’s Family Buys a Pet Do you remember Finn, the newest little consumer who arrived at the beginning of this module? Let’s suppose that Finn’s parents decide they want him to grow up with an animal friend. This gives us a chance to apply what we’ve been discussing about consumer behavior and see what happens as they go through the consumer decision process to buy a pet. Since finding a pet is definitely a high-involvement decision for them, these are the steps they will go through: Recognize Needs The Consumer Perspective: Finn’s parents, Robert and Amanda, know they want a pet. They’re not sure what kind of pet. They’re pretty sure they want it to be cuddly and lovable—something a child can interact with and not get too wet, bitten, or diseased (or maybe just a little). They also want a pet with some longevity, so that Finn can grow up with his animal friend. Although they are busy getting used to a new infant in their lives, Robert and Amanda are both on leave from their jobs for eight weeks, so it could be a good time to get used to a new animal, too. They decide it’s time to get serious about finding a pet. The Marketer’s Perspective and Tactics: You manage marketing for an animal rescue organization in your local community. Somehow you need to get in front of Finn’s family to let them know about your animals and why they should start their search with you. Fortunately, you’ve been working with Google to get a paid placement for your organization near the top of Google searches for kittens and puppies in your area, so when Robert does his first search, he sees your listing. You also routinely post fliers on information boards around your community, and you’ve been working on your Web site to make sure it is search optimized for people searching for pets in your area. Search for Information The Consumer Perspective: Robert has grown skilled at searching the Internet while rocking Finn to sleep at the same time. He and Amanda need to research a few questions: - What kind of pet should they get: dog, cat, guinea pig, ferret, something else? - Where should they get the pet: pet shop, breeder, online provide, animal rescue, someplace else? - How much should they expect to pay for the pet? - How should they take care of the pet once they get it? Robert is already leaning strongly toward getting a dog. His family had dogs when he was growing up, and he loves the idea of his son having the same experience. Amanda is on the fence, until they start reading about best pets for kids in parenting articles online, and they start talking to friends. Robert’s family preference for dogs is validated in articles claiming that dogs are good pets for children and that potential problems (allergies, behavior issues) can be minimized by having the dog around children from a young age. As they begin to investigate places to get a dog, Amanda and Robert are disturbed to read about puppy mills and warnings against buying dogs from unscrupulous online sellers. They agree that they should stay local and check out pet shops, breeders, or animal rescue organizations in their area. Animal rescue would probably be the cheapest option, but they want to shop around and see what’s available. The Marketer’s Perspective and Tactics: One of your organization’s board members is a well-known mommy blogger who feels passionately about pets and kids. At your request, she’s written a few posts over the past several months providing advice for parents who are considering a pet, and recommending animal rescue as the way to go. You’ve cross-posted her pieces on the rescue organization’s Web site blog, and she’s linked to your Web site in her posts. You know from Google Analytics that you’re getting pretty good traffic to your Web site from that link and her posts. The Web site also contains information to educate people about the advantages of adopting rescue animals, reinforcing how rewarding it is to offer these pets a loving home. You know from research that families tend to get interested in pets when they have young children, so you update the Web site with adorable recent-adoption photos showing young families welcoming their new pets. You also know that people have lots of questions when they’re looking for pets, so you prominently feature “Adopting a Pet: What To Expect” on your Web site. Evaluate Alternatives The Consumer Perspective: Now that Robert and Amanda know they want a dog, they are honing in on what type of dog and where to get it. They’ve been reading dog owner sites about different breeds, and they’ve been reading Yelp reviews about people’s experiences with the local pet shops, breeders, and rescue organizations. They are keeping an eye on Craigslist to see what shows up there, and they’ve made a couple of visits to see some of the breeds they are considering. Robert is really charmed by a local breeder’s labradoodles, and online communities rave about how good these dogs are with children, but there is a yearlong waitlist for the puppies and they cost upwards of $1,500. Amanda has joined a mothers’ group, and two of the moms have dogs. One has a golden retriever. She bought the dog at a local pet shop and loves him, but she has been surprised by the number of health problems he’s had. The other mom has a friendly terrier mix she got from a local rescue organization, and she was very happy with the experience. The Marketer’s Perspective and Tactics: You’re trying to do more with word-of-mouth and social media promotion, so you’ve started asking each family that adopts one of your animals to post about their experience on Yelp and Google reviews. You’ve been doing more with Facebook and Instagram, building up followers and posting pictures of some of the sweet rescue animals people can meet and adopt. Since it’s free, you also post regularly in the “Pets” area of Craigslist and you’ve found that is a great way to connect with local area families looking for pets. Craigslist shoppers tend to be good candidates for adopting rescue animals. When people come in to the center, you find out what they are looking for, and you make sure they learn about the advantages of adopting a rescue animal and how simple the process can be. You also get their contact information so you can stay in touch with them electronically and let them know when a new animal arrives that might be a good fit for their family. Make a Purchase The Consumer Perspective: Amanda is very moved by their visit to the local animal rescue center. She is impressed with several of the dogs they met, and she loves the idea of adopting an already-house-trained pet, instead of starting from scratch with a puppy. Robert’s heart is still with the labradoodles, but they agree that the yearlong wait and hefty price tag probably aren’t worth it. Although the pet store puppies are adorable, Amanda keeps thinking about her friend’s golden retriever and health problems, which are probably linked to overbreeding. After thinking things over, they decide to return to the rescue center with Finn and meet the dogs there again. This time, one of the dogs is a standout: a smart little Scottish terrier mix named Bonnie who makes Finn’s eyes light up every time she comes near. The choice is made, and the James family is delighted. The Marketer’s Perspective and Tactics: Once a family comes to the center a second time, you know from experience that they’re hooked. You need to make sure they fall in love with an animal that will be a good fit for their children and living situation. You’ve designed the application process to make sure that it helps you screen people and also match them with the best pets. But it’s also a thoughtful, informative experience for the people who come in, so they can learn about what it takes to be a good pet owner. Once a new pet owner finds “The One,” you snap photos for the happy family bulletin board at the center and ask permission to share the pictures on your Web site and social media. You also invite them to post the picture on social media and share their experience with the center in a Yelp or Foursquare review. A going-home packet includes useful information about caring for their new animal and contact information in case they have questions or concerns. Post-Purchase Behavior The Consumer Perspective: The new addition to the James family is everything Amanda and Robert had hoped for. Bonnie is sweet-tempered, playful, gentle with Finn, and smart as a whip. For Robert, Bonnie brings back the joy and companionship he remembers from his childhood pets. Amanda is so delighted that she tells everyone who will listen about their wonderful experience adopting a rescue animal. Next time they are considering a pet, they’ll know exactly where to go. The Marketer’s Perspective and Tactics: You’ve developed a process for checking in on adoption families after a couple of weeks to make sure things are working out. If they haven’t done so already, you nudge them to write a review about their adoption experience on Yelp or another review site, assuming their experience has been good. If they aren’t doing so well, you try to find out why and suggest some tips and strategies for turning things around. If red flags come up during these conversations, you make a note for one of the center’s volunteers to do a wellness check on the owner and animal, so that the center can intervene and avoid serious problems. Fortunately the follow-up process usually results in happy stories about how much the animals and their new families love each other. And that’s a major reason why you keep doing this job. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Consumer Behavior. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Cream tabby exotic cat. Authored by: Prskavka. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cream_tabby_exotic_cat.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - cute ugly dog. Authored by: D.C. Atty. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/figgenhoffer/3950586259/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Tchiorny Terrier. Authored by: Stephan Czuratis. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tchiorny_Terrier.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.206716	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91201/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91224/overview	Putting it Together Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Putting It Together: Product Marketing In this module we’ve covered a wide range of topics related to the role of the product in the marketing mix. As you’ve seen, creating clear value for the customer, understanding the product life cycle, and creating a balanced product portfolio are all interrelated aspects of thinking about the customer and market behavior. At the beginning of this module we discussed the success of Uber’s ride-sharing product. Let’s take another look at it from the viewpoint of the new-product development process. Recall that the business model canvas is a tool companies use to lay out the business case for a new product concept. Figure 1, below, is an example of how Uber’s business model canvas might have looked when the founders cooked up the idea for their ride-sharing offering. Given what we know now about the product’s success, it’s pretty clear that Uber hit its mark: the company identified and delivered on a value proposition with incredible product-market fit. The successful definition, development, and delivery of the product reduced risk in other elements of the marketing mix, though Uber’s affordable and predictable pricing is an important part of the value proposition. The product has been successful and is continuing to grow in the market. In 2018 the company reported revenue growth of 43 percent year over year.1 Uber’s market may be reaching maturity. In terms of the adoption cycle, Uber has moved far past the innovators and early adopters and likely past most of the early majority. Now it needs to attract late majority customers and fight to hold on to its existing customers in a very competitive marketplace. As you think about Uber’s product and market, will laggards ever use the service? Should the company try to influence them? Chris Nicholson, from FutureAdvisor, explains the impact of this trend on Uber and its competitor, Lyft: “They both feel that the only way to maintain their growth rate in the U.S. is to grab each other’s market share.” As the market reaches maturity, competition is getting more fierce. The companies have to fight to keep their customers and try to lure customers from competitors if they want to sustain their growth.2 In using more of the tools and frameworks that we have discussed in this module, you are better able to understand a product’s success, identify risks to its future success, and use effective marketing to influence the course of that product’s success. - https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/15/uber-2018-financial-results.html - http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2014/09/11/uber_vs_lyft_futureadvisor_study_compares_revenue_users_growth_at_the_companies.html Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Product Marketing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Screenshot Trends in Rides Given. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Screenshot Trend in Growth Rate of Distinct New Customers. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.229197	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91224/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Product Marketing, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91225/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 11 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Pricing Strategies Resources for Module 11: Pricing Strategies Slide Deck - Unit 11: Pricing Strategies Unit 11: “Simulation: Demand for Food Trucks” Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Pricing Strategy Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes - Discuss how price affects the value of the organization’s products or services - Explain the primary factors to consider in pricing - Compare common pricing strategies - Explain price elasticity and how it can be used to set price - Explain the use of competitive bidding for B2B pricing Why use pricing strategies to enhance marketing of products and services? When Amazon.com was created in 1994, the company sold books online. While many viewed it as a real threat to traditional bookstores, few, other than its founder and CEO, Jeff Bezos, imagined what the company would become. Today the services that Amazon offers are extensive, and many of them center on a quiet service membership called Amazon Prime. The following video shows the impact of this offering on one American family. You can view the transcript for “Amazon Prime” (opens in new window). What is Amazon Prime? When Amazon launched the product in 2005, it included free two-day shipping for most orders, and it was priced as an annual $79 membership fee. At the time, analysts wondered how Amazon could justify the value to customers (implying that it was too expensive) and, at the same time, how it could afford to keep offering the service if demand should grow (implying that it was too cheap to cover costs). Greg Greeley, the vice president of Amazon Prime Global, reflected on the company’s decision and told the Washington Post, We have always thought of it as the best bargain in shopping—Jeff [Bezos] went on record again saying that—in 2005 when we launched it with unlimited two-day shipping on 1 million items. But we did not think of it as a shipping program, but as a convenience program. Prime introduced three concepts. It had two-day shipping at a time when people expected to pay for shipping and still not get their items for four to seven business days. It was very predictable: We put it on the Web site that if you ordered in the next 3 hours and 20 min., for example, you could have it in two days. And it was an unlimited, single membership fee that made fast delivery an everyday experience instead of an occasional indulgence.1 Was the initial $79 price too low? Too high? Does it really matter that much? After 2005, Amazon began adding services to the Prime membership without raising the price. Today the service includes unlimited video streaming, unlimited music streaming, $5.99 flat-fee shipping on discounted household items, access to a Kindle lending library and a host of others services. In spite of increased services, Amazon held pricing flat at $79 per year. In 2013, Amazon admitted that by simply adjusting the 2005 price for inflation, transportation, and fuel costs, the price would be more than $100 today. Finally, in January 2014 Amazon told its customers to expect a price increase of $40 for Amazon Prime memberships, which would make the new price $119. In March 2014, the company announced the actual price increase: a $20 increase, or annual price of $99. While there were some disgruntled customers, the majority accepted the increase without complaint. While Amazon doesn’t share its usage or financial data for Amazon Prime, analysts have completed customer surveys, analyzed Internet traffic, and reviewed enough detailed financial data to support the following: - Amazon loses at least $1 billion annually on Prime-related shipping expenses - Amazon spent $1.3 billion into Prime Instant Video in 2014, over and above the shipping costs - Amazon Prime has between 40 and 50 million subscribers - Prime members spend an average of $538 annually with Amazon, far more than the $320 by non-Prime members2 Is it strategic genius or terrible folly for Amazon to lose billions of dollars a year on Amazon Prime on account of its pricing? Is Amazon actually losing money on Prime, or is Prime bringing in enough other sales to cover its costs . . . and more? Choosing a price is as easy as picking a random number. As you’ll discover in this module, however, finding the right price to achieve company objectives and provide sustained value to customers is much more complicated. - https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/02/03/what-amazons-learned-from-a-decade-of-prime/ - http://fortune.com/2015/02/03/inside-amazon-prime/ Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Why It Matters: Pricing Strategies. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Amazon Prime. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/bh5nT_dqN4Q. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.262170	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91225/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91221/overview	Product Portfolio Management Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Product Portfolio Management What you’ll learn to do: explain product portfolio management and how it relates to the organization’s marketing strategy and tactics Our last example showed the importance of marketing a diverse set of products and using new products to gain strategic advantage. Defining and managing this collection of products is called product portfolio management. Think of an artist’s portfolio. The artist will use her portfolio to display a range of work. She will try to select works that showcase her strengths in different areas so that someone reviewing her portfolio can see the range of different things she can do well. Similarly, a product portfolio requires diversity in order to be effective. In this module we will talk about what the product portfolio is and how a marketer can use the power of a product portfolio to achieve marketing objectives. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Define the product portfolio and explain its use in marketing - Identify marketing strategies and tactics used to achieve portfolio objectives - Explain why new products are crucial to an organization’s success Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: The Product Portfolio - Reading: Achieving Portfolio Objectives - Reading: New Products in the Portfolio Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Product Portfolio Management. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: The Product Portfolio Throughout this course we have discussed a number of ways that organizations market products successfully. How does an organization decide which products to offer? When should a company add new products, and when should it discontinue existing ones? Product portfolio management answers these questions. Organizing for Effective Product Marketing Before we dive into the product portfolio it is important to understand how products are organized in most businesses. Typically, organizations group like products into product lines, and then group lines of business targeting a common set of customers into something called strategic business units (SBUs). A product line is a group of products marketed by an organization to one general market. The products have some characteristics, customers, and uses in common, and may also share technologies, distribution channels, prices, services, etc. There are often product lines within product lines.1 Before we take a look at an example, let’s review some definitions within product organizations: - A product is a bundle of attributes (features, functions, benefits, and uses) that a person receives in an exchange. In essence, the term “product” refers to anything offered by a firm to provide customer satisfaction—tangible or intangible. Thus, a product may be an idea (recycling) , a physical good (a pair of jeans), a service (banking), or any combination of the three. - An example of a product is Tylenol pain reliever. - A product line is a group of products marketed by an organization to one general market. The products have some characteristics, customers, and/or uses in common, and may also share technologies, distribution channels, prices, services, etc. There are often product lines within product lines. - An example of a product line is the full range of Tylenol products, or over-the-counter medicines. - A strategic business unit or SBU is a self-contained planning unit for which discrete business strategies can be developed. - An example of a strategic business unit is consumer health care products. Johnson & Johnson Johnson & Johnson has hundreds of products. They sell baby shampoo to new parents and knee systems to surgeons who perform knee-replacement surgeries. Imagine trying to understand all of the different products and their target buyers. It would be impossible to span all of those products well. At the same time, what if your organization owns a single product—say, Johnson & Johnson’s Neutrogena face wash? A different organization owns Johnson & Johnson’s Aveeno face wash. It would be easy to optimize for a single product, rather than trying to achieve company objectives across all the products. And as for a product line inside a product line? Johnson & Johnson has a product line of skin and hair care products. Within that product line, there are a number of brands that have a set of complementary products. Returning to our previous example, the Neutrogena product line includes a complete set of dermatologist-recommended skin and hair care products. The Aveeno product line includes a complete set of natural skin care products. Neutrogena products target buyers who place greater trust in doctors, and Aveeno targets buyers who trust natural products, but both are part of the Johnson & Johnson skin and hair care product line. The skin and hair care product line is part of a larger strategic business unit for Johnson & Johnson: the consumer health care products business unit. This SBU includes: baby care skin and hair care wound care and topicals oral health care over-the-counter medicines vision care nutritionals Think about this list. There are differences in the target buyer for each product line, but drugstores like Walgreen’s and CVS carry all of these products, and they are, of course, all targeting consumers. Johnson & Johnson’s other SBUs include medical devices and prescription products. Managing the Product Portfolio The goal of product portfolio management is to ensure that the company’s investment in products meets objectives. In order to do this, portfolio management must understand the needs and contributions of the products and allocate resources across product lines and SBUs to optimize their market performance. Analyzing SBU Performance Should Johnson & Johnson invest equally in all of its SBUs and product lines? The table below shows Johnson & Johnson’s 2014 financial results.2 \| SBU \| 2014 revenue \| Revenue growth from 2013 \| % profit \| Research and Development spending \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Consumer health care \| $14.5 billion \| 1% \| 13.4% \| $629 million \| \| Medical devices \| $27.5 billion \| 1.6% \| 28.9% \| $1.7 billion \| \| Prescription products \| $32.3 billion \| 16.5% \| 36.2% \| $6.2 billion \| You can see that Johnson & Johnson is spending ten times more on research and development (R&D) for prescription products than for consumer healthcare products. Given the higher growth rates and profit margins for prescription products, this looks like a good decision. Within the SBUs, managers also make important decisions about where to invest. For example, in 2013, the lowest-growth product line in medical devices was diagnostics, which decreased by 8.9 percent from 2012 to 2013. In 2014, Johnson & Johnson sold a major diagnostic product from that product line to another company for $4 billion. This eliminated a product that was not contributing to the portfolio objectives, and it generated new capital that could be invested in higher-growth product lines. The examples here demonstrate a simple review of SBU performance, but companies can also perform a deep analysis of an SBU and product performance in order to understand past performance and identify future growth opportunities. Analyzing Market Opportunities Beyond the internal performance data, portfolio analysis considers broader market factors. In the marketing planning module, we discussed the Boston Consulting Group’s growth-share matrix, which is a tool used to analyze the product portfolio. You’ll recall that this model considers the attractiveness of the market by studying the growth potential in the market, and it includes company performance by showing the product’s current market share. These are both important factors to consider in determining the future growth opportunities. In its annual report, Johnson & Johnson shared the following information with investors about its largest prescription-drug product line: Immunology products achieved sales of $10.2 billion in 2014, representing an increase of 10.9 percent as compared to the prior year. The increased sales of STELARA® (ustekinumab) and SIMPONI® /SIMPONI ARIA® (golimumab) were primarily due to market growth and market share gains. REMICADE® (infliximab) growth was primarily due to market growth. A very simplistic analysis of this information suggests that Stelara and Simponi are stars (high market growth and high market share) while Remicade is a question mark. It is benefiting from market growth but is not achieving gains in market share. Knowing about the product life cycle is also important to understanding market growth. During the introduction phase, the market growth rate is low, and the longer-term potential is unknown. As the market moves into the growth phase, it moves up the market growth axis and creates opportunities for products that are gaining market share and becoming stars. Those that don’t perform well in gaining market share will become question marks. As the market moves into maturity and decline, the market growth moves back down the axis and products will become either cash cows or dogs. If we add the data from the iPod product life cycle to the growth-share matrix, as shown above, we can see how Apple’s products might be analyzed. In the growth-share matrix, the size of the product sphere is determined by the total sales. Obviously, this diagram is not perfectly sized, but it gives a picture of the way in which product life cycle can be used to inform product portfolio management. - https://www.ama.org/ - Originally retrieved from http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/JNJ/1279939564x0x815170/816798CD-60D9-4653-BB5A-50A66FD5B9E7/JNJ_2014_Annual_Report_bookmarked_.pdf Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Reading: The Product Portfolio. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Best Face Wash for oily skin - Neutrogena Oil-Free Acne Face Wash. Authored by: Sundari. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/99248777@N04/23313151006/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial Reading: Achieving Portfolio Objectives In our discussion of the product life cycle, we saw that competition generally increases as more competitors are drawn to high-growth markets. As more brands enter the marketplace and lock into a particular share of the market, it becomes more difficult to win and hold buyers. Apart from these competitive factors, other market factors can shift, too. For example: - Changes in consumer tastes - Changes in the size and characteristics of particular market segments - Changes in availability or cost of raw materials and other production or marketing components Internally, a company might have a proliferation of small-share brands that were introduced to address market opportunities but never saw significant growth. This can reduce efficiencies in production, marketing, and servicing for existing brands. In product portfolio management there is an assumption that a company has an existing set of products. The number may be small or large, but each brand, product, and product line has an impact on the external market view of the others and on the internal resources available to the others. For this reason, portfolio management requires marketers to consider each product individually but also understand the way the products fit together collectively. In order to optimize the product portfolio, marketers may change the marketing mix for a product, change a product line, delete products, or introduce new products. Marketing Mix Strategies When a product is introduced, it’s not locked down forever. Marketers continually gather market data about products so they can refine the product and its position in the marketplace. Product Modification It is normal for a product to be changed several times during its life. Certainly, a product should be equal or superior to those of principal competitors. If a change can provide superior satisfaction and win more initial buyers and switchers from other brands, then a change is probably warranted. However, the decision to make a significant product change introduces risk and cannot be approached in a haphazard manner. First, the marketer must answer the question “What specific attributes of the product and competing products are perceived to be most important by the target customer?” Factors such as quality, features, price, services, design, packaging, and warranty may all be determinants. Each change introduces the risk that it may not align with customer needs. For example, a dramatic increase in product quality might drive the price too high for the existing target consumer, or it might cause him to perceive the product differently and unfavorably. Similarly, the removal of a particular product feature might be the one characteristic that’s regarded as most important by a market segment. The product modification decision can only be made if the marketer has a strong understanding of the target customer. What new information is the marketer learning about the buyer persona? Perhaps additional market research is needed to understand the improvements buyers want, to evaluate the market reception of competitors’ products, and evaluate improvements that have been developed within the company. In determining product improvements, sales teams and distributors can provide valuable information. Sales is likely to hear objections from target customers or learn the reasons why they are choosing not to buy. Distributors often deal with a range of products in a category and provide helpful insights into what is tipping the purchase process toward a competitor’s product. Repositioning In an earlier module we discussed product positioning, which requires finding the right marketing mix for a product in order to distinguish it from competitors and give it a unique position in the market. As competitors’ offerings and customer preferences change, marketing may need to make a significant change to the marketing mix to reposition the product. This involves changing the market’s perceptions of a product or brand so that the product or brand can compete more effectively in its present market or in other market segments. For example, since its heyday in the late seventies and early eighties, Cadillac sales have dropped by more than 50 percent as the Cadillac customer base aged. In order to restore sales, General Motors is trying to redefine the Cadillac product and brand for a new generation of consumers. This is a dramatic example in which a substantial change is needed. Product repositioning can also involve a very subtle change, such as updating the packaging or tweaking the pricing approach, but it is an important way to shift perceptions as market factors change. Product-Line Decisions A product line can contain one product or hundreds of products. The number of products in a product line refer to its depth, while the number of separate product lines owned by a company is the product line width. There are two overarching strategies that deal with product line coverage. With a full-line strategy the company will attempt to carry every conceivable product needed and wanted by the target customer. Few full-line manufacturers attempt to provide items for every conceivable market niche. Instead, they provide many products for a particular market segment. Companies that employ a limited-line strategy will carry selected items. Limited-line manufacturers will add an item if the demand is great enough, but they make that decision based on the market opportunity for the product rather than on a desire to meet all customer needs with their product line. Line-Extension Strategies A line-extension strategy involves adding new products under an already established and well-known brand name. Adopting such a strategy can address various customer needs by providing them with greater choice or serve market segments while taking advantage of the recognition of the original brand.1 When Frito-Lay added Dinamita Mojo Criollo Flavored Rolled Tortilla Chips to its Doritos line, that was an example line-extension strategy. Frito-Lay is able to take advantage of a strong brand with existing shelf space and add a new product that has an appeal to shoppers seeking a spicier snack than the traditional nacho cheese flavor. Similarly, Clinique provides high-end skin care products and has extended its line to provide anti-acne products. Generally, line-extension strategies are lower risk because they introduce a product change but are able to take advantage of other proven elements of the marketing mix. Still, there is a risk of cannibalizing the market for existing products or, if the product is not well received, damaging the brand. Also, there is a danger in overextending the product line by offering so many products that consumers can’t find unique value, and company resources get stretched across many, low-volume products. Line-Filling Strategies Line-filling strategies involve increasing the number of products in an existing product line to take advantage of marketplace gaps and reduce competition.2 Before considering such a strategy several key questions should be answered: - Can the new product support itself? - Will it cannibalize existing products? - Will existing outlets be willing to stock it? - Will competitors fill the gap if we do not? - What will happen if we do not act? Assuming that a company decides to fill out the product line further, there are several ways of going about it. The following three are most common: - Product proliferation: the introduction of new varieties of the initial product or products that are similar (e.g., a ketchup manufacturer introduces hickory-flavored and pizza-flavored barbecue sauces and a special hot dog sauce). - Brand extension: strong brand preference allows the company to introduce the related product under the brand umbrella (e.g. Jell-O introduces pie filling and diet desserts under the Jell-O brand name). - Private branding: producing and distributing a related product under the brand of a distributor or other producers (e.g., Firestone producing a less expensive tire for Costco). In addition to the demand from consumers or pressure from competitors, there are other legitimate reasons to engage in these tactics. First, the additional products may have a greater appeal and serve a greater customer base than did the original product. Second, the additional product or brand can create excitement both for the manufacturer and distributor. Third, shelf space taken by the new product means it cannot be used by competitors. Finally, the danger of the original product becoming outmoded is hedged. Yet, there is serious risk that must be considered as well: unless there are markets for the proliferations that will expand the brand’s share, the newer forms will cannibalize the original product and depress profits. Product Deletion Eventually a product reaches the end of its life. There are several reasons for deleting a mature product. First, when a product is losing money, it is a prime deletion candidate. In regard to this indication, it is important to make sure that the loss is truly attributable to the product. If the product appears not to be profitable when it is actually covering costs of other products, then deleting the product could negatively impact other products in the portfolio. Second, there are times when a company with a long product line can benefit if the weakest of these products is dropped. This thinning of the line is referred to as product-line simplification. Product overpopulation spreads a company’s productive, financial, and marketing resources very thin. Moreover, an excess of products in the line, some of which serve overlapping markets, not only creates internal competition among the company’s own products but also creates confusion in the minds of consumers. Consequently, a company may apply several criteria to all its products and delete those that are faring worst. A third reason for deleting a product is that problem products absorb too much management attention. Many of the costs incurred by weak products are indirect: management time, inventory costs, promotion expenses, decline of company reputation, and so forth. Missed-opportunity costs constitute the final reason for product deletion. Even if a mature product is making a profit contribution and its indirect cost consequences are recognized and considered justifiable, the company might still be better off without the product. Each product requires focus and resources that are not available to grow other products or create new ones. - https://www.monash.edu/business/marketing/marketing-dictionary/p/product-line-extension - https://www.monash.edu/business/marketing/marketing-dictionary/l/line-filling Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 7: Introducing and Managing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Gandini Juggling. Authored by: Dani Alvarez. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/danialvarezfotos/8056057415/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Current Bon Ami Products on the Market. Provided by: Faultless Starch/Bon Ami Company. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo_of_Bon_Ami_Products.jpg#/media/File:Photo_of_Bon_Ami_Products.jpg. License: Other. License Terms: Qualifies as fair use under U.S. copyright law Reading: New Products in the Portfolio Factors Influencing the Pace of Product Development New-product introductions are an important component of the product portfolio. This has always been the case, but there have been a number of changes since 2000 that have increased the pace of new-product development and, with it, the importance of new products in the portfolio. The Internet has fundamentally changed the way that we think about new products. We could devote an entire course to exploring and substantiating this statement, but for our purposes here, we’ll concentrate on the following notable developments: - The Internet increases our ability to find new products. In the past, if a local store carried version 3.0 of any product, a buyer could consider the attributes of version 3.0 and make a purchase decision. Today, the buyer may enter the store, but she’s more likely to know the improvements incorporated in version 4.0 and the new features expected in version 5.0. - The Internet supports real-time comparisons of competitive products, including their features and users’ experience with the products. - The Internet enables new products and services that have changed expectations for service delivery. - The Internet enables customers to recommend new products and experiences to others. In addition to these Internet-related developments, there are many new tools, technologies, and methodologies that are speeding the pace of new product development. For example, software development frameworks make it possible to launch, test, and refine a new Web-based service in a fraction of the time that it required in the past. A new retail offering that, in the past, would have required a team of programmers to bring to market can be launched on Etsy today in less than an hour. New products have never been faster and easier to launch. New Products Bring Risk Still, new products are risky. In the strategic opportunity matrix section we reviewed a number of strategies that include new and existing products. Why is it important to consider whether the product and/or market is new in this strategic context? Current products in current markets are known, and new products and new markets are not known. In this section we have discussed a couple of examples of new products in the context of company strategies. Apple launched five major iPod models in six years, and then followed them with a total of twenty different versions of those models. Perhaps most interesting, Apple launched three different iPod models—the Classic, the Mini, and the Shuffle—before it saw significant sales growth. The Johnson & Johnson medical practices unit launched more than fifty new products between 2012 and 2014 but has seen only a 0.5 percent increase in sales during that period. With the 2014 sale of a diagnostics product that was showing declining sales numbers, the SBU is better poised to show growth in its 2015 sales numbers. Both of these examples show that new products do not guarantee new sales, and they certainly don’t guarantee immediate success. Role of New Products in the Portfolio New products bring greater risk to the product portfolio but also greater potential reward. The goal of portfolio management is to balance risk in order to create strong performance today and in the future. Though new products can drain resources in the short run, they are positioned to generate new sales in the long run—and to take off when other products are entering stages of maturity and decline. The early investment in multiple new iPod models that were not growing quickly created a future base for the growth of the iPod. That, in turn, generated returns and positioned the Apple brand for the development and release of the iPhone. Johnson & Johnson’s medical products division has aggressively invested in new products that can spur growth and divested from products with declining sales. Still, in the first three quarters of 2015, overall growth for the division is down. It is not yet clear whether the new products will generate enough growth to replace the growth of their predecessors.1 - Originally retrieved from http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/JNJ/1279939564x0x854183/3152FFAB-82A7-4F38-AA75-D25F107767DB/Sales_of_Key_Products_Franchises_3Q2015.pdf Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Reading: New Products in the Portfolio. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.309691	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91221/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Product Marketing, Product Portfolio Management", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91222/overview	New Product Development Process Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: New Product Development Process What you’ll learn to do: describe the new-product development process We have considered the role of new products throughout this module. It is important to introduce new products in order to have a balanced portfolio containing products at the various stages of the product life cycle. We have not yet focused on ways of creating successful new products. In this module we will discuss a standard, somewhat fixed new-product development process. The logic behind this rather rigid process is that it requires a great deal of discipline to create new products. It’s expensive to launch a successful new product—but it’s far more expensive to launch an unsuccessful products. For these reasons, organizations invest a lot in the creation and refinement of their new-product development processes. It helps them raise the odds that they’ll be successful. Consider the following dramatic product failures that, in hindsight, should have been screened out much earlier in the product development process. In 1998 Frito-Lay introduced WOW! chips. These snack chips contained significantly less fat and fewer calories than other snack foods thanks to the fat substitute Olestra. Initially, the product performed well, generating $347 million in 1998 and making WOW! the best-selling potato chip brand that year. The success was short lived, though. Olestra had an unpleasant side-effect: soon customers complained of cramping, incontinence, and diarrhea—in some cases requiring hospitalization—after eating the chips. Frito-Lay’s parent company, PepsiCo, spent $35 million on an advertising campaign to turn things around, but sales plummeted nonetheless.[1] In 2011 Hewlett Packard launched a product designed to go head-to-head with Apple’s iPad. The product boasted a higher number of performance features than the iPad, but it had none of the “cool factor” that drew customers to Apple. MarketWatch reported, “Despite large-scale press events and promotions, the HP TouchPad was a colossal failure and was discontinued almost immediately. As a result of the TouchPad’s failure, the company wrote off $885 million in assets and incurred an additional $755 million in costs to wind down its webOS operations, ending all work on the TouchPad’s failed operating system.” To repeat: developing new products creates opportunity and risk. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain how new products are planned - Identify approaches to generate new product ideas - Identify methods to evaluate new product ideas - Explain the process to create and commercialize new products Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Generating and Screening Ideas - Reading: Developing New Products - Reading: Commercializing New Products - Video: Target Product Design Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: New Product Development Process. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Overview of the New-Product Development Process Process Introduction There are probably as many varieties of new-product development systems as there are types of companies, but most of them share the same basic steps or stages—they are just executed in different ways. Below, we have divided the process into eight stages, grouped into three phases; subsequent readings will discuss these phases in greater detail. Many of the activities are performed repeatedly throughout the process, but they become more concrete as the product idea is refined and additional data are gathered. For example, at each stage of the process the product team is asking, “Is this a viable product concept?” but the answers change as the product is refined and more market perspectives can be added to the evaluation. \| Phase I: Generating and Screening Ideas \| Phase II: Developing New Products \| Phase III: Commercializing New Products \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Stage 1: Generating New Product Ideas \| Stage 4: Business Case Analysis \| Stage 6: Test Marketing \| \| Stage 2: Screening Product Ideas \| Stage 5: Technical and Marketing Development \| Stage 7: Launch \| \| Stage 3: Concept Development and Testing \| Stage 8: Evaluation \| Stage 1: Generating New Product Ideas Generating new product ideas is a creative task that requires a particular way of thinking. Coming up with ideas is easy, but generating good ideas is another story. Companies use a range of internal and external sources to identify new product ideas. A SWOT analysis might suggest strengths in existing products that could be the basis for new products or market opportunities. Research might identify market and customer trends. A competitive analysis might expose a hole in the company’s product portfolio. Customer focus groups or the sales team might identify unmet customer needs. Many amazing products are also the result of lucky mistakes—product experiments that don’t meet the intended goal but have an unintended and interesting application. For example, 3M scientist Dr. Spencer Silver invented Post-It Notes in a failed experiment to create a super-strong adhesive.[1] The key to the idea generation stage is to explore possibilities, knowing that most will not result in products that go to market. Stage 2: Screening Product Ideas The second stage of the product development process is idea screening. This is the first of many screening points. At this early stage much is not known about the product and its market opportunity. Still, product ideas that do not meet the organization’s objectives should be rejected at this stage. If a poor product idea is allowed to pass the screening stage, it wastes effort and money in later stages until it is abandoned. Even more serious is the possibility of screening out a worthwhile idea and missing a significant market opportunity. For this reason, this early screening stage allows many ideas to move forward that may not eventually go to market. At this early stage, product ideas may simply be screened through some sort of internal rating process. Employees might rate the product ideas according to a set of criteria, for example; those with low scores are dropped and only the highest ranked products move forward. Stage 3: Concept Development and Testing Today, it is increasingly common for companies to run some small concept test in a real marketing setting. The product concept is a synthesis or a description of a product idea that reflects the core element of the proposed product. Marketing tries to have the most accurate and detailed product concept possible in order to get accurate reactions from target buyers. Those reactions can then be used to inform the final product, the marketing mix, and the business analysis. New tools for technology and product development are available that support the rapid development of prototypes which can be tested with potential buyers. When concept testing can include an actual product prototype, the early test results are much more reliable. Concept testing helps companies avoid investing in bad ideas and at the same time helps them catch and keep outstanding product ideas. Stage 4: Business Case Analysis Before companies make a significant investment in a product’s development, they need to be sure that it will bring a sufficient return. The company seeks to answer such questions as the following: - What is the market opportunity for this product? - What are the costs to bring the product to market? - What are the costs through the stages of the product life cycle? - Where does the product fit in the product portfolio and how will it impact existing product sales? - How does this product impact the brand? - How does this product impact other corporate objectives such as social responsibility? The marketing budget and costs are one element of the business analysis, but the full scope of the analysis includes all revenues, costs, and other business impacts of the product. Stage 5: Technical and Marketing Development A product that has passed the screening and business analysis stages is ready for technical and marketing development. Technical development processes vary greatly according to the type of product. For a product with a complex manufacturing process, there is a lab phase to create specifications and an equally complex phase to develop the manufacturing process. For a service offering, there may be new processes requiring new employee skills or the delivery of new equipment. These are only two of many possible examples, but in every case the company must define both what the product is and how it will be delivered to many buyers. While the technical development is under way, the marketing department is testing the early product with target customers to find the best possible marketing mix. Ideally, marketing uses product prototypes or early production models to understand and capture customer responses and to identify how best to present the product to the market. Through this process, product marketing must prepare a complete marketing plan—one that starts with a statement of objectives and ends with a coherent picture of product distribution, promotion, and pricing integrated into a plan of marketing action. Stage 6: Test Marketing and Validation Test marketing is the final stage before commercialization; the objective is to test all the variables in the marketing plan including elements of the product. Test marketing represents an actual launching of the total marketing program. However, it is done on a limited basis. Initial product testing and test marketing are not the same. Product testing is totally initiated by the producer: he or she selects the sample of people, provides the consumer with the test product, and offers the consumer some sort of incentive to participate. Test marketing, on the other hand, is distinguished by the fact that the test group represents the full market, the consumer must make a purchase decision and pay for the product, and the test product must compete with the existing products in the actual marketing environment. For these and other reasons, a market test is an accurate simulation of the broader market and serves as a method for reducing risk. It should enhance the new product’s probability of success and allow for final adjustment in the marketing mix before the product is introduced on a large scale. Stage 7: Launch Finally, the product arrives at the commercial launch stage. The marketing mix comes together to introduce the product to the market. This stage marks the beginning of the product life cycle. Stage 8: Evaluation The launch does not in any way signal the end of the marketing role for the product. To the contrary, after launch the marketer finally has real market data about how the product performs in the wild, outside the test environment. These market data initiate a new cycle of idea generation about improvements and adjustments that can be made to all elements of the marketing mix. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 7: Introducing and Managing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Design Sketching. Authored by: Jordanhill School D&T Dept. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/designandtechnologydepartment/3968172841/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Circuit Sticker Prototypes. Authored by: Jie Qi. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jieq/9002249677/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Open Ideas. Provided by: opensource.com. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/opensourceway/7496802920/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial - Science!. Authored by: Quinn Dombrowski. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/8042323280/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Reading: Generating and Screening Ideas Introduction The first phase of the new product development process is creating a viable product concept that can move through the development phase. This phase includes the following: - Stage 1: Generating New Product Ideas - Stage 2: Screening Product Ideas - Stage 3: Concept Development and Testing This early phase of the process differs from later phases in several ways. First, it requires immense creativity. Each of the later phases focuses on screening out ideas, but this is a generative stage whose goal is the production of new ideas. Second, the early phase of the process is difficult to plan and manage. On what day will the innovative product idea emerge? That can’t be planned or scheduled. The Fuzzy Front End Researcher Peter Koen refers to this first phase as the Fuzzy Front End (FFE) of the product development process. In his work he has identified a number of characteristics that differentiate the FFE from later phases of product development. These are shown in the table below. Difference Between the Fuzzy Front End and the New-Product Development Process1 \| Fuzzy Front End (FFE) \| New-Product Development (NPD) \| \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Nature of Work \| Experimental, often chaotic. “Eureka” moments. \| Can schedule work—but not invention. Disciplined and goal oriented with a project plan. \| \| Commercialization Date \| Unpredictable or uncertain. \| High degree of certainty. \| \| Funding \| Variable—in the beginning phases many projects may be “bootlegged,” while others will need funding to proceed. \| Budgeted. \| \| Revenue Expectations \| Often uncertain, with a great deal of speculation. \| Predictable, with increasing certainty, analysis, and documentation as the product release date gets closer. \| \| Activity \| Individuals and team conducting research to minimize risk and optimize potential. \| Multifunction product and/or process development team. \| \| Measures of Progress \| Strengthened concepts. \| Milestone achievement. \| As the product concept moves through the stages of the product development process, everything will become more refined and more certain. The time line, the budget, and the performance expectations will all become more concrete, but in the early phase it is important to allow for the ambiguity that supports creativity. Creating Successful Product Concepts How can businesses influence the success of the new business idea? Koen suggests a number of factors that play a role: the corporation’s organizational capabilities, customer and competitor influences, the outside world’s influences, and the depth and strength of enabling sciences and technology.2 Organizational Capabilities You may have noticed that some companies are able to launch one dominant product after another. Other companies struggle to create any products that compete well or have one amazing product and then disappear. Companies develop processes to manage new products, hire leaders to manage new-product development, and develop a culture based on their institutional values and norms around new products. All of these factors tip the scale toward success or failure. If leaders ask employees to take risks with cutting-edge product ideas but fire those whose ideas are not successful, they will not draw out risky ideas that might lead to the greatest success. Also, the best ideas are often refinements of and enhancements to other ideas. If individual performance is rewarded over team success, there is less likelihood of idea sharing and collaboration. Customer and Competitor Influences Innovation by a competitor can spur new ideas and possibilities across the industry. Similarly, customers seeking innovation who are willing to share ideas with their vendors can accelerate the generation of new product ideas and bring a voice of reality that increases the chance of success. Outside World Influences There are a range of influences outside of the company that affect the ease with which new ideas can be developed. Government regulations can positively or negatively influence new-product and idea generation. Society, culture, and the economic environment can create a rich environment for new ideas. Enabling Sciences and Technologies Enabling technologies refer to those technologies that can be used to develop new products. When employees have access to technologies that expose them to new ideas, or technologies that allow rapid development and iteration of new ideas, this can be instrumental in sparking the development of new products. Often companies invest in technology components that can be reused across multiple products. Such technology has the effect of both speeding the new-product development process and facilitating the addition of refinements and enhancements to existing products. Evaluating Product Concepts The goal of the initial product development process is to generate ideas, actively evaluate the ideas, and create a viable product concept. In the past it was difficult to get a clear reading on how products might perform until late in the product development process. That is less true today. Consider the following examples of innovations that accelerate market feedback on new products: Kickstarter is a crowd-funding platform that allows entrepreneurs to pitch a new product concept to potential funders. The entrepreneur receives immediate feedback on the idea from a broad market and, if it generates enough support, funding to bring the product to market. Etsy offers an e-commerce platform from which entrepreneurs can sell products on the Internet without having to develop their own e-commerce Web sites to present products or process payments. 3-D printers create physical products from digital files. These products can be tested and refined with users much more quickly and economically than traditionally manufactured prototypes and products. The video below demonstrates a number of interesting examples. You can view the transcript for “7 Shocking 3D Printed Things” here (opens in new window). On a larger scale, there are a number of Web application frameworks that allow programmers to quickly develop Internet applications, significantly speeding the pace at which software companies can prototype and develop new features. Once a product concept has been successfully evaluated, it moves to the next phase of development. - Fuzzy Front End: Effective Methods, Tools, and Techniques Peter A.Koen, Greg M.Ajamian, Scott Boyce, Allen Clamen, Eden Fisher, Stavros Fountoulakis, Albert Johnson, Pushpinder Puri, and Rebecca Seibert - Ibid. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Reading: Generating and Screening Ideas. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Big Ideas Need Big Spaces. Authored by: Mikey. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/raver_mikey/2916351853/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Authored by: Pixabay. Provided by: Pexels. Located at: https://www.pexels.com/photo/black-and-silver-solar-panels-159397/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved All rights reserved content - 7 Shocking 3D Printed Things. Authored by: Freeze HD. Located at: https://youtu.be/xVU4FLrsPXs?t=1s. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Reading: Developing New Products Introduction The second phase of the new-product development process focuses on the actual development of the new product. This phase includes the following: - Stage 4: Business Case Analysis - Stage 5: Development Making the Business Case The business case is often the most challenging screening process in the new-product development process. It is not uncommon for a product team to get excited about an idea, get positive feedback on the concept from target buyers, and then fail to make the numbers work in the business case. Usually the business case review results in a “go, no-go” decision for the product concept. The business case doesn’t only need to answer the question “Can this product make money?” It’s also trying to answer a more complicated question: “Will the product provide the greatest total return out of all the potential strategies we could pursue?” In addition, the business case is looking at the expected performance of the product—financial and otherwise—over the entire product life cycle. For these reasons, the business case takes into account a broad range of factors. One common tool for presenting a summary of the business case is called the “business model canvas” (see Figure 1, below). The canvas doesn’t cover all of the analysis that must be done, but it does provide a nice structure for identifying the different components that are important to the success of the product or business. You will notice that the center of the canvas focuses on the value proposition of the product, whereas the lower segments specify the costs to create value and the revenue earned by delivering the value. In the analysis of the business case, the key questions are the following: - Does the product provide sufficient unique value to the target customer? - Can that be achieved at a cost that supports the value? - Does that value appeal to a large enough target market to generate sufficient revenue? If the product development team can demonstrate satisfactory answers to these questions, without introducing other objections, then the product will move into development. Developing the Product Regardless of the type of product—a tangible good, a service, a business-to-business product—someone needs to define the marketing requirements for the product. This is the role of a product marketing manager. Product marketing isn’t usually tasked with the technical specifications for the product but is focused on specifying the needs of the target buyer. Product marketing addresses the following question: “What problem does this product solve for the target buyer?” The answers to this question are typically presented in a marketing-requirements document, which also includes a full buyer persona. (Recall that a buyer persona describes the needs, experiences, feelings, and preferences of a specific buyer.) Defining Market Requirements Let’s say your new product is a packaged meal item, and you’re the product marketer. Your marketing-requirements document would explain who the buyer is, what she needs, and which particular features of the product will best address her needs. Your buyer persona is a woman named Aleisha. She has three kids and works part time as a nurse. She feels stretched between her job and her kids’ busy schedule and the demands of keeping up the house. She needs to be able to come home from work and get dinner on the table in twenty minutes, yet not feel like she’s cutting corners. It’s important to her to provide her family with a healthy home-cooked meal. This description of target-buyer Aleisha suggests and guides a set of product requirements that will inform the design and development of the product. Whether the product is a food item, a fashion accessory, a software program, or a banking service, defining the marketing requirements based on the buyer persona will increase the chances that the final product meets the market need. Defining Product Requirements The marketing requirements become an input to the product team to define the technical product requirements for the product. In the packaged meal example, someone will need to decide whether there are visible solids in Aleisha’s sauce and how much ground oregano should be added. Those will become product requirements that drive the production process. With more technical products or products that include a complex manufacturing process, the translation from marketing requirements to technical requirements can be a daunting task. For example, in the manufacturing of semiconductors that power computers and electronics, there is significant interplay between the marketing requirements, the technical requirements, and the manufacturing process. The factory cannot deliver products that exceed their technical capabilities regardless of the market desires. In that case, the limits of the manufacturing process are set, and the role of product marketing is to identify the most attractive products given a fixed manufacturing capability. In all cases, the product team seeks a tight match between the market need and the product that is designed, developed, and delivered. Creating the Go-to-Market Plan The marketing requirements drive the technical product requirements that will be used to develop the product, but they have a second purpose, too. The market requirements are the major input to the marketing plan that will be used during the product launch. In answering what problem a product solves for the target buyer, we gain information about the messaging and promotion strategy. By understanding the alternatives that the target buyer might select and the unique value that our product provides, we can begin to understand the pricing dynamics. In knowing how she wants to buy the product we have options to analyze for the distribution strategy. The initial marketing mix for the product launch is driven from the information in the marketing requirements document. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Developing New Products. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Yes and No. Authored by: Abhi. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/abhi_ryan/2476059942/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Business Model Canvas. Authored by: Business Model Alchemist. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Model_Canvas#/media/File:Business_Model_Canvas.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Reading: Commercializing New Products Introduction The final phase of the new-product development process focuses on commercializing the new product. This phase includes: - Stage 6: Test Marketing - Stage 7: Launch - Stage 8: Evaluation At last the product is ready to go. It has survived the development process and is now, you hope, on the way to commercial success. How can it be guided to reach that marketing success? The different stages in this phase include a common set of activities performed on increasingly larger scale. In all three stages the marketer is implementing, evaluating, and improving the marketing plan, which includes the full marketing mix. Test Marketing The goal of test marketing is to improve the success of the product launch. The marketer will launch the marketing plan to a smaller subset of the market, quickly analyze how the plan can be improved, refine the plan, and then launch to the full market. Test marketing provides a wonderful opportunity to get feedback from buyers in a realistic buying situation in which they experience the full marketing mix—but it’s a challenge to do it right. Because of the special expertise needed to conduct test markets, and the associated expenses, many large manufacturers employ independent marketing research agencies that specialize in test marketing. Among the challenging decisions are the following: - Duration of testing: the product should be tested long enough to account for market factors to even out, but a long test cycle delays the broad launch and may diminish the impact of the product announcement. - Selection of test markets: the test market should reflect the norms for the new product in such areas as advertising, competition, distribution system, and product usage. - Sample size determination: the number of markets and tests must account for the different variables in the market, while allowing for the fact that each test market adds cost to the launch budget and time to the product release cycle. The test data drives evaluation and refinement of the marketing plan. Even after all the test results are in, adjustments to the product and other elements of the marketing mix may still be made. Additional testing may be required, or the product may be canceled. The Launch The product launch is truly the beginning of the implementation of a sustained marketing plan—a plan that will be analyzed, evaluated, and adjusted throughout the product life cycle. That said, there certain marketing techniques that figure more prominently during the launch phase. Press Strategies Often companies issue press releases about new products in order to increase visibility through earned media. The press release can be sent to targeted press outlets, posted on the company Web site, sent as an information message to customers, and distributed to industry influencers. The goal of the press strategy is to build broad visibility for the product, backed up by the credibility of the media outlet. Price Discounts Companies will sometime offer a price discount during a product launch. When we cover pricing in more detail in the next module, we will discuss when this can be an effective strategy. Channel Partner Incentives If the company depends on a partner to sell or distribute the pricing, it might choose to offer pricing discounts and incentives to the distribution partner. A new product carries some risk, and an incentive at launch can encourage channel partners that might be reluctant to add the new product or to sell it aggressively. Evaluation Though we are identifying “evaluation” here as the final stage of the development process, it should be clear that product evaluation is a recurring activity that begins with the idea-screening stage. Careful, objective evaluation of the product at every stage leads to better investment decisions and better products. The difference in this final stage of the process is that the marketer has the benefit of significant market data for the evaluation, which can help improve the marketing plan going forward. It is only at this stage—after the product launch—when the marketer can see which buyers purchase the product, how competitors respond, and how the new product interacts with the company’s other products in the marketplace. Video: Target Product Design Target’s design products include many of the success factors we’ve discussed in this module. As you watch the following video, see if you can identify which aspects of Target’s approach and design process are key to their success. What role does the corporate culture play? You can view the transcript for “Target Product Design and Development” (opens in new window). Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Target Product Design (Introduction). Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Target Product Design. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/3MqEp1ePfbo. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.365859	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91222/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Product Marketing, New Product Development Process", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91240/overview	Social Media and Technology Trends Overview Social Media and Technology Trends Online Consumer Behavior Web advertisers study online behavior and use the results to increase the effectiveness of their campaigns. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Explain the relationship between behavioral targeting and online consumer behavior, and how behavioral marketing influences online advertising KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - The web has become the new ‘zero moment of truth‘, or ZMOT (Google, 2012) for consumers today. Marketers need to understand where their customers are going to research their products / services and what they are doing on the web to help form their purchase decision. - Site publishers can use the data generated from website pages and the searches made to create defined audience segments based on visitors that have similar profiles. Layering this data with other demographic & psychographic data helps marketers build out personas of their key customer segments. - Not all consumers behave the same online. Customers’ online behaviors will fall along a technology adoption curve; innovators will be excited by the latest upgrade or feature, while others will resist change. Further, there is a chasm between the early technology adopters & the mainstream market. - When visitors return to a specific site using the same web browser, profiles generated from data collection can be used to allow advertisers to position their online ads in front of those visitors who exhibit a greater level of interest and intent for the products and services being offered. - Many online users are concerned about privacy issues around doing this type of targeting. The behavioral targeting industry is trying to contain these concerns through education, advocacy, and product constraints to keep all information non-personally identifiable. Key Terms - conversion rates: In internet marketing, conversion rate is the ratio of visitors who convert casual content views or website visits into desired actions based on subtle or direct requests from marketers, advertisers, and content creators. - Cookie: Also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, it is usually a small piece of data sent from a website and stored in a user’s web browser while a user is browsing a website. - segments: Market segment — the smaller subgroups comprising a market Online Consumer Behavior Introduction When consumers visit a web site, data is gathered about their online behavior. The site collects information about the visitor that includes the following: - Pages visited - Amount of time spent on each page - Links clicked - Searches performed - Components with which they interact The sites collect the data, along with other factors, and create a profile that links to that visitor’s web browser. Site publishers can then use this data to create defined audience segments based on visitors that have similar profiles. When visitors return to a specific site or a network of sites using the same web browser, those profiles can be used to allow advertisers to position their online ads in front of those visitors who exhibit a greater level of interest and intent for the products and services being offered. On the theory that properly targeted ads will fetch more consumer interest, the publisher (or seller) can charge a premium for these ads over random advertising (or ads) based on the context of a site. Behavioral marketing can be used on its own or in conjunction with other forms of targeting based on factors like geography, demographics, or contextual web page content. It’s worth noting that many practitioners also refer to this process as audience targeting. Behavioral Targeting On the theory that properly targeted ads will fetch more consumer interest, the publisher (or seller) can charge a premium for these ads over random advertising (or ads) based on the context of a site. Behavioral marketing can be used on its own or in conjunction with other forms of targeting based on factors like geography, demographics, or contextual web page content. It’s worth noting that many practitioners also refer to this process as audience targeting. Behavioral targeting refers to a range of technologies and techniques used by online website publishers and advertisers that allows them to increase the effectiveness of their campaigns by capturing data generated by website and landing page visitors. Behavioral targeting techniques may also be applied to any online property on the premise that it either improves the visitor experience or it benefits the online property, typically through increased conversion rates or increased spending levels. Some of the early adopters of this technology/philosophy were among the following: - Publishing sites such as HotWired - Online advertising with leading online ad servers - Retail - Other e-commerce websites What about My Privacy? Many online users and advocacy groups are concerned about privacy issues around doing this type of targeting. This is a controversy that the behavioral targeting industry is trying to contain through education, advocacy, and product constraints to keep all personal, identifiable information from end-users or to obtain permission. The European Commission has also raised a number of concerns related to online data collection (of personal data), profiling, and behavioral targeting, and is looking to enforce existing regulations. While behavioral targeting is not new and many companies are using it, companies like Google tried to alleviate the worries about profiling users. They won’t create sensitive interest categories, like race or religion and it won’t cross-correlate the data with other information saved in Google accounts. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS TITLE IMAGE Social Media Tree from Pixabay.LicensePublic Domain CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Mobile Consumer Behavior Social media applications for mobile devices are an effective way to advertise to consumers because consumers spend so much time on their mobile devices. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the four types of mobile social media applications and how they are used in social media marketing KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - Consumers can receive text messages about sales and promotions at their favorite stores, restaurants, night clubs, etc. Typically, people can click on a link that will direct them to the website of interest. - There are four types of mobile social media applications, depending on whether the message is location sensitive and/or time sensitive. - The use of the Internet on a mobile phone has doubled in many countries since 2008. Key Terms - SMS: A text message sent on a cell phone. - MMS: Multimedia Messaging Service – standard way to send messages that include multimedia content to and from mobile phones. Mobile Consumer Behavior Social media applications used on mobile devices are called mobile social media. In comparison to traditional social media accessed on computers, mobile social media display a higher location- and time-sensitivity. One can differentiate between four types of mobile social media applications, depending on whether the message takes account of the specific location of the user (location-sensitivity) and whether it is received and processed by the user instantaneously or with a time delay (time-sensitivity). - Space-timers (location and time sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance for one specific location at one specific point in time (e.g., Facebook Places; Foursquare) - Space-locators (only location sensitive): Exchange of messages, with relevance for one specific location, which are tagged to a certain place and read later by others (e.g.,Yelp; Qype) - Quick-timers (only time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices to increase immediacy (e.g., posting Twitter messages or Facebook status updates) - Slow-timers (neither location, nor time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices (e.g., watching a YouTube video or reading a Wikipedia entry) Since these social media applications can be used on mobile devices, they are a good target for social media marketing. For example, SMS marketing has become increasingly popular. Consumers can receive text messages about sales and promotions at their favorite stores, restaurants, night clubs, etc. Typically, people can click on a link that will direct them to the website. People are able to make purchases through the convenience of their phones. iPhones and Push Notifications: Push notifications were first introduced to smartphones, specifically the iPhone, as a new way to advertise to customers. MMS mobile marketing can contain a timed slideshow of images, text, audio, and video. Nearly all new phones produced with a color screen are capable of sending and receiving standard MMS messages. Brands are able to both send and receive rich content through MMS A2P (application-to-person) mobile networks to mobile subscribers. In some networks, brands are also able to sponsor messages that are sent P2P (person-to-person). Good examples of mobile-originated MMS marketing campaigns are Motorola’s ongoing campaigns at House of Blues venues, where the brand allows the consumer to send their mobile photos to the LED board in real time, as well as post their images online. Push notifications were first introduced by Apple with the advent of the iPhone in 2007. They were further popularized with the Android operating system, in which notifications are shown on the top of the screen. It has helped application owners communicate directly with their end users in a simple and effective way. Users can download apps and receive notifications about promotional activities. Clicking on the notification sends the consumer directly to the necessary website, to learn more and perhaps make a purchase. Advertising on web pages specifically meant for access by mobile devices is also an option. The Mobile Marketing Association provides a set of guidelines and standards that provide the recommended format of ads, presentation, and metrics used in reporting. Google, Yahoo, and other major mobile content providers have sold advertising placement on their properties for years. Advertising networks focused on mobile properties and advertisers are also available. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Targeting Consumers Where They Spend Time The World Wide Web has become a key commercial center, and thus, an increasingly important place where companies target potential customers. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how the World Wide Web, social media, and mobile devices are transforming the way advertisers target consumers KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - The Internet, or more specifically, the World Wide Web, has eliminated time and geographic constraints for both consumers and businesses looking to connect regardless of physical location. - Social media sites such as Facebook have proven to be lucrative channels for user insight and online buying behavior. - Brands must modify their marketing strategies to reach consumers accessing information from mobile devices, versus desktop or laptop computes. Key Terms - World Wide Web: Collectively, all of the web pages on the Internet which hyperlink to each other and to other kinds of documents and media. - Market: One of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange. Target Consumers Where they Spend Time Since an exchange involves two or more people, it is natural to think of the market in terms of people, individuals, or groups. Clearly, without the existence of people or businesses to buy and consume goods, services, and ideas, there would be little reason for marketing. Since people create markets, it is essential to target clusters of people and the locations they visit to better implement marketing strategies. The World Wide Web has become an important, albeit virtual, location where companies are spending more time and money to target and influence consumers. The Rise of Social Media The Internet, or more specifically, the World Wide Web, has eliminated time and geographic constraints for both consumers and businesses looking to connect regardless of physical location. Social media sites have further aggregated user content around similar topics, tasks and people, creating online communities that have proven to be lucrative targets for online advertising. As of December 2012, Facebook boasts over 1 billion active users, with over half accessing the social network via a mobile device. Personal information ranging from birthdays and profession, to family photos and multi-user gaming yield insightful intelligence for marketers looking to improve promotion to niche and hard-to-reach markets. Targeting Digital Natives and Other Technology Users Besides the rapid adoption of Internet technologies among consumers and businesses, the world is now seeing a generation of people born after the emergence of the commercial web come into adulthood. Often dubbed, “digital natives,” these individuals have only known a world with the Internet, and are just as or more comfortable interacting with brands in online rather than offline environments. More importantly, they understand the value of digital technology and use it to seek out opportunities, whether to initiate friendships, judge a brand or make a purchase. Consumers are also increasingly accessing information from mobile devices, versus desktop or laptop computers. Busy and hectic schedules are prompting people to view and access brand messaging on the go from their Smartphones, tablets and gaming consoles. The growing legion of mobile users, as well as the increasing sophistication of online purchasers and their preference for relevant, digital content, will continue to push marketers to produce targeted, messaging for the web. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Making Appropriate Changes to Product, Placement, Promotion, and Pricing Marketing teams must adjust their marketing mix strategies accordingly to adapt and succeed in a rapidly changing media environment. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Explain how the World Wide Web has changed the way brands target consumers and position their brand in the marketplace KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - Although the way new products and services are marketed have changed, the primary aim of business in bringing economic and social values have not. - Marketing organizations must be ready to alter product features and ingredients based on consumer and media praise, or backlash. - Brands must ensure that their e-commerce websites work in concert with offline distribution channels such as fulfillment centers and warehouses. - Pricing–the primary means by which customer judge the attractiveness of a product or service–can also be affected by social media technologies, which offer wider access to customers via online channels. - Placement refers to providing the product at a place which is convenient for consumers to access. Marketing management must have a clear understanding of the types of distributors, of the trends influencing those distributors, and of how those distributors are perceived by customers. Key Terms - World Wide Web: Collectively, all of the web pages on the Internet which hyperlink to each other and to other kinds of documents and media. - accountability: The state of being accountable; liability to be called on to render an account; accountableness; responsible for; answerable for. - social media: Interactive forms of media that allow users to interact with and publish to each other, generally by means of the Internet. Making Appropriate Changes to Product, Placement, Promotion, and Pricing Since its emergence during the 1990s, the World Wide Web has fundamentally changed the way businesses market to end users and consumers. Today, the marketing mix –product, placement, promotion and pricing–must take into account both online and offline buyers; traditional media, and digital media. Social media technologies such as social networking sites, as well as digital platforms including SmartPhones and computer tablets, have changed the way users access and consumer information. Marketing teams must adjust their marketing mix strategies accordingly to adapt and succeed in a rapidly changing media environment. The Marketing Mix in the Digital Age The Internet has changed the way business is done in the current world. Consequently, the variables of marketing segmentation, targeting and positioning are addressed differently. Although the way new products and services are marketed have changed, the primary aim of business in bringing economic and social values have not. Indeed, all businesses seek to implement a marketing mix that increases revenues and profit, expands brand awareness, and builds customer bases. Nevertheless, marketers must take into account the following shifts, which will inevitably effect their product, promotional and pricing strategies: - The shift from media advertising to multiple forms of communication. - The shift from mass media to more specialized (niche) media, which are centered on specific target audiences. - The shift from a manufacturer-dominated market to a retailer -dominated, consumer-controlled market. - The shift from general-focus advertising and marketing to data-based marketing. - The shift from low agency accountability to greater agency accountability, particularly in advertising. - The shift from traditional compensation to performance-based compensation (increased sales or benefits to the company). - The shift from limited Internet access to 24/7 Internet availability and access to goods and services. Each element of the marketing mix must coordinate with other elements in the marketing program to ensure maximum reach and impact. The Marketing Mix in Social Media User-generated content, one of the key features of social media websites, provides a direct communication channel between buyers and sellers. Products and services are meant to satisfy customer wants and needs. Comments, ‘Likes’, and other feedback mechanisms make it even easier for satisfied or disgruntled customers to voice their opinion to not only brands, but also to current and prospective customers. Product Marketing organizations must be ready to alter product features and ingredients as dictated by changes in consumer perception, as well as competitive and economic environments. However, product changes can be prompted by social media activity from stakeholders outside a brand’s consumer base. Greenpeace launched an attack on Nestlés use of palm oil in their products and its impact on the climate and natural ecosystems. When Nestlé attempted to respond to the criticism via Facebook, the public backlash was severe. As a result of the viral publicity, Nestlé subsequently increased auditing efforts in its supply chain, and promised to cancel contracts with any firm found to be chopping down rainforests to produce the palm oil used in its products. Placement Placement or distribution moves products from the producer to the consumer. With the Internet and social media websites, consumers now have access to more channels than ever to research, purchase and evaluate products. Both small and major brands offer e-commerce websites that allow web users to browse products and share their ‘wish lists’ or purchases with friends across social media websites. Amazon.com, the world’s largest online retailer, allows third-party merchants to advertise their goods on the company’s e-commerce site. This not only allows smaller retailers to take advantage of Amazon.com’s massive audience, but also utilize the Amazon.com fulfillment centers strategically placed near airports. Pricing Pricing–the primary means by which customer judge the attractiveness of a product or service–can also be affected due to wider access to customers via online channels. Amazon.com is primarily a retail site with a sales revenue model and generates revenue by taking a small percentage of the sale price of each item that is sold through its website. Amazon also allows companies to advertise their products by paying a fee to be listed as featured products. Promotion Promotion is probably the marketing mix element most impacted by social media. In essence, social media acts as a promotional element or communication channel used to reach customers. Promotional activities include advertising (by using different media), sales promotion (sales and trades promotion), and personal selling activities. It also includes sponsorship marketing, direct marketing, database marketing and public relations. Social networking sites can act as secondary or tertiary corporate sites that integrate and link these promotional elements back to the brand’s messaging. Content published by social media users can also feed into various communication channels (e.g. crowdsourcing ideas for a television commercial) and used to further expand a brand’s reach and presence. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Understanding Apps in a Marketing Context Marketing campaigns can be enhanced through the use of mobile apps, designed to run exclusively on smartphones and tablets. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how mobile applications are used to increase customer purchases and brand awareness KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - Allowing your marketing campaign to appear on third party apps is a useful technique. Using existing apps (shown here with target audiences is a good way to get a message out, especially if the target audiences are the same. - A company can create its own app to promote their own marketing campaigns. Certain features make apps more favorable, such as GPS and mobile coupons. Providing convenience and making the app as user-friendly as possible is the best way to attract consumers. - Viral marketing refers to a marketing technique that uses pre-existing social networks and other technologies to produce increases in brand awareness. Using apps is a great media to create viral awareness for brands. Key Terms - Mobile application: a software application designed to run on smartphones, tablet computers and other mobile devices. They are available through application distribution platforms, which are typically operated by the owner of the mobile operating system. Mobile Apps A mobile application (or mobile app) is a software application designed to run smartphones, tablet computers, and other mobile devices. They are available through application distribution platforms, which are typically operated by the owner of the mobile operating system, such as the Apple App Store, Google Play, Windows Phone Store and BlackBerry App World. Some apps are free, while others have a minimal price. Usually, they are downloaded from the platform to a target device, such as an iPhone, BlackBerry, Android phone, or Windows Phone. Sometimes they can be downloaded to less mobile computers, such as laptops or desktops. Mobile apps were originally offered for general productivity and information retrieval, including email, calendar, contacts, stock market, and weather information. However, public demand and the availability of developer tools drove rapid expansion into other categories, such as mobile games, factory automation, GPS and location-based services, banking, order-tracking, and ticket purchases. The explosion in number and variety of apps made discovery a challenge, which in turn led to the creation of a wide range of review, recommendation, and curation sources. These include blogs, magazines, and dedicated online app-discovery services. The popularity of mobile applications has continued to rise, as their usage has become increasingly prevalent across mobile phone users. A May 2012 comScore study reported that during the previous quarter, more mobile subscribers used apps than browsed the web on their devices: 51.1% vs. 49.8% respectively. Apps and Viral Marketing Viral marketing is possible through the creation of apps. Viral marketing refers to a marketing technique that uses pre-existing social networks and other technologies to produce increases in brand awareness or to achieve other marketing objectives (such as product sales) through self-replicating viral processes, analogous to the spread of viruses or computer viruses. It can be delivered by word of mouth or enhanced by the network effects of the Internet and mobile networks. Viral marketing may take the form of video clips, interactive Flash games, ebooks, brandable software, images, text messages, email messages, or web pages. When a celebrity Tweets about the latest and hottest nightclub (which can be viewed by all the followers on an app), many people will see this and re-tweet to their own followers. This creates a viral message. It’s a powerful marketing tool that requires very little effort. All it takes is one person to set the chain and the “virus” is able to spread. This can be replicated for many other products and services. Viral marketing is also possible through marketing on third party apps. Using existing apps with target audiences is a good way to get a message out, especially if the target audiences are the same. Alternatively, a company can create its own app to promote their own marketing campaigns. Certain features make apps more favorable, such as GPS and mobile coupons. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Trends in Social Media Real-time and location-based web are key trends for marketers to understand as they try to develop image, create awareness, and increase sales. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Give examples of social media companies use for real-time and location-based web marketing KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points - Twitter set the trend for real-time services, wherein users can broadcast to the world what they are doing, or what is on their minds within a 140-character limit. Facebook followed suit with their “Live Feed” where users’ activities are streamed as soon as it happens. - Foursquare gained popularity as it allowed for users to “check-in” to places that they are frequenting at the moment. Gowalla uses the GPS in phones to create a location-based user experience. Clixtr, though in the real-time space, is also a location-based social networking site. - Companies such as Monster.com have been steadily developing a more “socialized” feel to their career center sites to harness some of the power of social networking sites. Key Terms - real-time web: A set of technologies and practices that enable users to receive information as soon as it is published by its authors, rather than requiring that they or their software check a source periodically for updates. As the increase in popularity of social networking is on a constant rise, new uses for the technology are constantly being devised. At the forefront of emerging trends in social networking sites is the concept of real-time web and location-based web. Real-time allows users to contribute content, which is then broadcast as it is being uploaded, a concept much akin to live radio and television broadcasts. Twitter set the trend for real-time services, wherein users can broadcast to the world what they are doing, or what is on their minds within a 140-character limit. Facebook soon followed suit with its “Live Feed” where users’ activities are streamed as soon as it happens. While Twitter focuses on words, Instagram, another real-time service, focuses on photo sharing wherein users can update their streams with photos while at an event or after. Facebook, however, remains the largest photo sharing site. In April 2012, the image -based social media network Pinterest had become the third largest social network in the United States. Foursquare gained popularity as it allowed for users to “check-in” to places that they are frequenting at the moment. Gowalla is another such service that functions in much the same way that Foursquare does, leveraging the GPS in phones to create a location-based user experience. Clixtr, another photo-sharing service based in the real-time space, is also a location-based social networking site, since events created by users are automatically geotagged, and users can view events occurring nearby through the Clixtr iPhone app. Recently, Yelp announced its entrance into the location-based social networking space through check-ins with their mobile app; whether this becomes detrimental to Foursquare or Gowalla is yet to be seen, as it is still considered a new space in the Internet technology industry. Companies have begun to merge business technologies and solutions, such as cloud computing, with social networking concepts. Instead of connecting individuals based on social interest, companies are developing interactive communities that connect individuals based on shared business needs or experiences. Many provide specialized networking tools and applications that can be accessed via their websites, such as LinkedIn. Others companies, such as Monster.com, have been steadily developing a more “socialized” feel to their career center sites to harness some of the power of social networking sites. One popular use for this new technology is social networking between businesses. Companies have found that social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are great ways to build their brand image. According to Jody Nimetz, author of Marketing Jive, there are five major uses for businesses and social media: create brand awareness, manage their online reputation, recruit employees, learn about new technologies and competitors, and generate leads for potential prospects. These companies are able to drive traffic to their own online sites while encouraging their consumers and clients to have discussions on how to improve or change products or services. These social networking trends create fun ways for consumers and companies to interact with mutually beneficial outcomes. Consumers get better products and companies get the information they need to attract more consumers. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Behavioral Targeting in Google AdSense. Provided by: Blogspot. Located at: http://googlesystem.blogspot.com/2009/03/behavioral-targeting-in-google-adsense.html. License: CC BY: Attribution - Behavioral targeting. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_targeting. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - segments. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/segments. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - conversion rates. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conversion%20rates. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cookie. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookie. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Internet-usage. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Internet-usage.JPG. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The amount of consumers buying mobile still very small. Provided by: Peter's Opinion. Located at: http://petersopinion.com/2011/12/16/the-amount-of-consumers-buying-mobile-still-very-small/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Social media. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mobile marketing. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_marketing. 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License: CC BY: Attribution - Digital native. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_native. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Market. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - World Wide Web. Provided by: Wiktionary. Located at: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Internet-usage. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Internet-usage.JPG. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - IPhone at Macworld (angled view). Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_at_Macworld_(angled_view).jpg. License: CC BY: Attribution - Zwickau Shopping Mall. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zwickau_Shopping_Mall.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Integrated marketing communications. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_marketing_communications%23Marketing_mix_component. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - social media. Provided by: Wiktionary. Located at: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/social_media. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Marketing mix. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_mix. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Internet marketing. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_marketing. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Amazon.com. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon.com%23Fulfillment_and_warehousing. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Introducing Marketing by John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text Project. Located at: https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/31779972/Introducing%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - accountability. Provided by: Wiktionary. Located at: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/accountability. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - World Wide Web. Provided by: Wiktionary. Located at: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Internet-usage. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Internet-usage.JPG. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - IPhone at Macworld (angled view). Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_at_Macworld_(angled_view).jpg. License: CC BY: Attribution - Zwickau Shopping Mall. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zwickau_Shopping_Mall.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - All sizes \| Social Media Prism - Germany V2.0 \| Flickr - Photo Sharing!. Provided by: Flickr. Located at: http://www.flickr.com/photos/birgerking/4731898939/sizes/l/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Mobile app. Provided by: Wikipedia. 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Located at: http://www.flickr.com/photos/birgerking/4731898939/sizes/l/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Google Nexus S smartphone. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Google_Nexus_S_smartphone.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Social networking service. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service%23Emerging_trends. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - real-time web. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/real-time%20web. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Internet-usage. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Internet-usage.JPG. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - IPhone at Macworld (angled view). Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPhone_at_Macworld_(angled_view).jpg. License: CC BY: Attribution - Zwickau Shopping Mall. Provided by: Wikimedia. 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License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.427741	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91240/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Social and Digital Marketing, Social Media and Technology Trends", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93471/overview	Using IMC in the Sales Process Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Using IMC in the Sales Process What you’ll learn to do: explain how IMC tools support the sales process As you know very well by now, in every successful transaction, there’s a buyer and a seller. The consumer behavior module of this course describes the decision process consumers go through when they decide to buy something. From the seller’s perspective, there is a parallel sales process that companies use to clarify the things they must do to successfully move buyers through their decision process. In this section of the course, we will examine this sales process and the role of integrated marketing communication in supporting it. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Describe the sales process - Provide examples of how IMC tools can support various stages of the sales process Learning Activities - Reading: Using IMC in the Sales Process LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: Using IMC in the Sales Process. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Using IMC in the Sales Process Through the Looking Glass: Understanding the Sales Process Up to this point, we’ve emphasized the importance of getting into the mindset of customers in order to market to them effectively. The consumer decision-making process outlines key stages people go through when they make purchasing decisions. Now we’re going to step through the proverbial looking glass to examine that same process from the seller’s point of view. Why is this helpful? For a sale to occur, the buyer needs to move through the decision making process successfully. To help the buyer do that, the seller needs to provide information and assistance along the way. For some products and services, such as those that employ personal selling, the seller ‘s role is very hands-on. For other product and services, particularly ones in low-involvement decisions, the seller’s role may be fairly hands-off. In either case, though, it’s helpful for marketers to understand the sales process that happens alongside the consumer decision-making process. The role of marketing is to work in the middle ground between these processes, providing tools that facilitate the customer’s movement through the decision-making process and tools that help people responsible for sales close deals. When marketers take an IMC approach to this challenge, they can develop timely, well-coordinated marketing tools that effectively support both processes. The Seller’s Viewpoint The sales process starts with determining where to focus attention and then turns to relationship building and information sharing to help prospective customers reach a buying decision. The figure below lists the five stages of the sales process that correspond to the five stages of the consumer decision-making process. Stage 1: Generate and Qualify Leads The first step in the sales process is to find sales leads. A lead is a person who expresses some interest in learning more about a product or service. But just being interested isn’t enough to warrant the full attention of the seller. Leads must also be qualified. In other words the seller needs to confirm that the lead actually has a recognized need for the offering and the ability to pay for it. Once a prospect meets these criteria, the goal from both the marketing and sales point of view is to move the person successfully through the decision process. Stage 2: Build Relationship and Discover Needs At the same time consumers are searching for information about how to address their needs, sellers are searching for information about the consumers and what they looking for. At this stage a true buyer-seller relationship starts to form: the seller reaches out and probes in order to understand buyer needs. The seller also begins to position herself as a trusted resource to help address these needs. The buyer begins to understand that the seller may indeed be able to provide what he is looking for. Stage 3: Present Solution and Resolve Concerns Once a seller understands the needs of a qualified lead, she can effectively present the product or service as a solution to those needs. She has insight into the buyer and understands which features and benefits are most important. She can position the offering accordingly. It is important to present the solution at the same time the consumer is formulating and evaluating alternatives. Inevitably this evaluation process will raise potential concerns and reservations about the solution. The seller surfaces these issues and provides additional information to resolve them. Stage 4: Close the Sale At this late stage of the sales process, the buyer is engaged in getting the best deal he can, while finally confirming that this decision is the best one. The seller is taking final steps to ensure that her solution is selected and that the purchase is completed. This may involve offering some final, crowning piece of information to instill confidence in the choice and move it over the finish line. It may also involve negotiating final deal terms, pricing, or providing incentives to finalize the decision. Stage 5: Monitor and Follow Up This final stage recognizes that closing the sale is a gateway into a new and deeper relationship: the active customer relationship. If the seller wants to retain this customer and potentially sell to him again in the future, it is important to invest in the relationship and make sure he is satisfied with his decision. The buyer hopes to quickly start enjoying the benefits of the new solution. The seller now takes responsibility for effectively delivering the solution. At this stage, if the seller is using personal selling techniques, there is often a personnel shift, and a colleague from customer service, solution delivery, or another team takes over for the seller. What doesn’t change is the seller’s vested interest in monitoring how the customer is doing, with an eye toward lifetime customer value. Alignment between the Sales and Marketing Functions The marketing and sales functions have common goals in helping to move prospective customers through the purchasing process successfully. Although the sales process is labeled with the term, “sales,” in fact the sales and marketing teams collaborate to make the process effective. It is very common for the marketing team to be responsible for the first stage of the sales process, lead generation and qualification. Marketing may also be instrumental in initiating relationships with qualified leads, beginning to identify their needs and issues, and sharing useful information as buyers begin to seek solutions to their problems. Often the marketing team collaborates with the sales organization to develop appropriate tools for the later stages of the sales process, too. Solution presentations, product demonstrations, and other informational tools are all marketing communications artifacts. Marketers can ensure consistent positioning, messaging, and brand alignment when they work with sales team members to develop tools to support these stages of the process. When no personal selling is involved, organizations may rely heavily on Web-based tools and interactions to support these stages of the buying process. Tools like videos, self-running product demonstrations, free product trials, case studies, and product comparisons might provide sufficient coverage to eliminate the need for dedicated salespeople. But here again, marketing plays a central role in developing and improving these tools, and in managing the process of connecting buyers to the information they need. Marketing automation tools can add significant power to organizational Web sites to assist with this process. Fitting IMC into the Sales Process So where does IMC fit in the sales process? Marketing communication tools serve as the fabric woven between the consumer decision-making process and the sales process. A common set of IMC tools is responsible for helping both processes function smoothly. Taking an IMC approach to supporting the sales process helps marketers think holistically about what’s happening on the part of the buyer as well as the seller; a coordinated approach can make these parallel processes happen more effectively. Various marketing communication tools lend themselves to each stage of the sales process, depending on the nature of the interaction between the seller and the buyer. Although a marketer could conceivably design any IMC tool to support any stage of the process, there are general patterns around the types of marketing communication tactics that work best at each stage, as illustrated in the figure below. Stage 1: Early in the sales process, optimal IMC tools are those that cast a wide net to build awareness about both the problem an organization’s products and services address and its proposed solution(s). This stage is the widest in the so-called sales funnel. Ideally, organizations take a coordinated IMC approach to lead-generating activities, so that advertising, the Web site, conferences, trade shows, and social media activity all reinforce one another by using common messaging to share the value proposition. Stage 2: With qualified leads in hand, the opportunity is ripe for IMC campaigns that target leads based on what they are looking for and their progression through the decision-making process. Electronic direct mail is often an essential tool at this stage. Web-site content should be carefully designed to support prospective customers’ “information search” processes effectively. By monitoring contacts’ progression, the organization can provide additional materials as needed to keep people interested and engaged. Stage 3: When a contact recognizes that he wants to give serious consideration to the company’s products or services, a very solution-focused set of IMC tools come to the fore. Tools such as presentations, case studies, videos, product comparisons, demonstrations, and free trial offers are all designed to help prospective customers understand the product features and benefits they will enjoy. These tools and the process for accessing them can be built into a coherent campaign that moves people easily from stage to stage as they learn more. Stage 4: When the buyer and the seller home in on the final selection process and specific terms for sale, another set of IMC tools can be particularly useful. Testimonials and references from satisfied, successful customers can play a powerful role in pushing a decision across the finish line. At times, offering sales promotions and discounts can make the difference between signing now vs. months from now. By applying an IMC approach to supporting the entire sales process, this stage can feel like a crowning validation of the chosen path, with all the other touch points leading to this point. Stage 5: As the prospective customer becomes an actual customer, IMC tools like email and social media can help deepen and individualize the relationship. A new-customer-orientation IMC campaign, for example, might provide the kickstart a customer needs to move ahead successfully. Online surveys and other feedback tools can engage new customers to monitor how they are doing and confirm that they are experiencing the value they expect. Case Study: IMC and Zombie Apocalypse Supporting the Sales Process In 2013, it was the height of America’s fixation with zombies. The hit TV show The Walking Dead was a popular obsession, and the highly anticipated summer blockbuster was the zombie-filled action-horror film World War Z. At the time, Christine Nurnberger was a new-to-the-job vice president of marketing. She had been challenged by her boss to breathe excitement into the ho-hum reputation of SunGard Availability Services (SunGard AS), a B2B company that helps organizations improve their IT infrastructure to avoid service outages and plan for disaster recovery. Tapping into the zeitgeist, Nurnberger hit on an almost crazy idea for an integrated marketing campaign: “What better way to convey our message around the importance of having a resilient business infrastructure than to test it by seeing if you could survive a zombie apocalypse.”1 Almost crazy, but not quite. Nurnberger set her team to designing a pilot to test the concept with a small number of corporate chief information officers who were in later stages of the buying process. This first phase of the IMC campaign used direct mail. Marketers sent a flash drive to the CIOs, informing them of the imminent zombie apocalypse and telling them to stay tuned for a backpack of survival materials, which arrived a few days later. Sales representatives followed up with sales calls, and they were elated to find their CIO sales leads enthusiastic about the creative zombie campaign and open to talking business, as well. The campaign gave sales reps the perfect opportunity to discuss the company’s offerings and innovation and address concerns about the perception of SunGard AS as a stodgy “dinosaur” in the IT world. The first wave went so well that the marketing team expanded the campaign to additional audiences in ways that impacted multiple stages of the sales funnel: - All stages: A version of the campaign targeting industry analysts and influencers with a message about the company’s recent updates and innovation resulted in positive social media posts from analysts about SunGard AS and the campaign. This helped bolster the SunGard AS brand and generate further interest at each stage of the sales process. - Stage 1: A social media campaign and zombie-apocalypse backpack giveaway are initiated to build awareness and generate new leads. - Stages 1 and 2: A targeted campaign to generate, qualify, and educate new leads among IT decision makers was developed using email, direct mail, and Web-site content. - Stages 2 and 3: A second targeted campaign focused on recontacting promising sales leads who had stalled during the sales process to restart conversations with SunGard AS. Coordinated IMC elements in this campaign included email, direct mail, personal selling, Web-site content, and social media. In the following video, Christine Nurnberger explains the approach behind the IMC campaign (including the zombie apocalypse backpack), how her team executed different phases, and the results of the campaign. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Reading: Using IMC in the Sales Process. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Handshake. Authored by: Chuck Patch. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/chuckp/252924532/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - How Zombies Helped Deliver the Right Message to the Right Audience at the Right Time. Authored by: MarketingSherpa. Located at: https://youtu.be/kmMU6gGa5ZE. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.462299	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93471/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Using IMC in the Sales Process", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91230/overview	Price Elasticity Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Price Elasticity What you’ll learn to do: explain price elasticity and its impact on price Now that you understand different pricing strategies, we’re going to tackle one more concept that helps when selecting the right strategy: price elasticity. Elasticity helps us understand how much a change in price will affect market behaviors. If we make a small change in price, will the change have a dramatic impact on the demand for the product or only a small impact? Price elasticity is the measure of the market’s response to price changes. Elasticity is important to pricing decisions because it helps us understand whether raising prices or lowering prices will enable us to achieve our pricing objectives. Will a discount drive increased sales? Will a price increase cause us to lose many buyers or just a few? We have to answer these questions in order to select the most effective pricing strategy. When you work through this section, start by trying to get a handle on the concept: elasticity helps us understand whether a price change will have a big impact on demand or a small impact. That’s it. Don’t get too hung up on the math at first. Master the concept; then add the math. The following video gives an overview of economics that will better prepare you for the readings. You can view the transcript for “What is Economics” here (opens in new window). The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Define elasticity - Explain the impact of elasticity on price changes - Identify examples of products with elastic and inelastic demand Learning Activities - Video: Elasticity of Demand - Reading: Elasticity and Price Changes - Reading: Products with Elastic and Inelastic Demand Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Price Elasticity. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - What Is Economics?. Authored by: Plain Prep. Located at: https://youtu.be/nWPrMmv1Tis?t=1s. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Video: Elasticity of Demand The following video is a little long to watch, but it provides an excellent overview of elasticity and explains both the concept and the calculations in a simple, easy-to-follow way. You can view the transcript for “Episode 16: Elasticity of Demand” here (opens in new window). In review: - Price elasticity measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in the product price - The calculation for price elasticity is the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price - When the absolute value of the price elasticity is >1, the price is elastic and people are very sensitive to changes in price - When the absolute value of the price elasticity is <1, the price is inelastic and people are insensitive to changes in price Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Elasticity of Demand Introduction. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - Elasticity of Demand. Authored by: mjmfoodie. Located at: https://youtu.be/4oj_lnj6pXA?t=1s. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Reading: Elasticity and Price Changes Introduction With a good understanding of what elasticity means and how it is calculated, we can now investigate its impact on pricing strategies. In order to do this, we’ll look at a couple of examples and answer the following questions: - How much of an impact do we think a price change will have on demand? - How would we calculate the elasticity, and does it confirm our assumption? - What impact does the elasticity have on the business or pricing objectives? Please note: when we calculate elasticity, we will always use the absolute value, or the real number without regard to its sign. In other words, you can disregard the positive and negative signs and just pay attention to the real number. Example 1: The Student Parking Permit How elastic is the demand for student parking passes at your institution? The answer to that question likely varies based on the profile of your institution, but we are going to explore a particular example. Let’s consider a community college campus where all of the students commute to class. Required courses are spread throughout the day and the evening, and most of the classes require classroom attendance (rather than online participation). There is a reasonable public transportation system with busses coming to and leaving campus from several lines, but the majority of students drive to campus. A student parking permit costs $40 per term. As the parking lots become increasingly congested, the college considers raising the price of the parking passes in hopes that it will encourage more students to carpool or to take the bus. If the college increases the price of a parking permit from $40 to $48, will fewer students buy parking permits? If you think that the change in price will cause many students to decide not to buy a permit, then you are suggesting that the demand is elastic—the students are quite sensitive to price changes. If you think that the change in price will not impact student permit purchases much, then you are suggesting that the demand is inelastic—student demand for permits is insensitive to price changes. In this case, we can all argue that students are very sensitive to increases in costs in general, but the determining factor in their demand for parking permits is more likely to be the quality of alternative solutions. If the bus service does not allow students to travel between home, school, and work in a reasonable amount of time, many students will resort to buying a parking permit, even at the higher price. Because students don’t generally have extra money, they may grumble about a price increase, but many will still have to pay. Let’s add some numbers and test our thinking. The college implements the proposed increase of $8. If we divide that by the original price ($40) then we can see that the price increase is 20% (8 / 40 = 0.20). Last year the college sold 12,800 student parking passes. This year, at the new price, the college sells 11,520 parking passes—which is a decrease of 10%, as shown below: 12,800 – 11,520 = 1,280 1,280 / 12,800 = 1 / 10 = 10% Without doing any more math, we know that a 20% change in price resulted in a 10% change in demand. In other words, a large change in price created a comparatively smaller change in demand. This means that student demand is inelastic. Let’s test the math. % change in quantity demanded / % change in price = absolute value of price elasticity 10% / 20% = 0.10 / 0.20 = 0.50 0.50 < 1 When the absolute value of the price elasticity is < 1, the demand is inelastic. In this example, student demand for parking permits is inelastic. What impact does the price change have on the college and their goals for students? First, there are 1,280 fewer cars taking up parking places. If all of those students are using alternative transportation to get to school and this change has relieved parking-capacity issues, then the college may have achieved its goals. However, there’s more to the story: the price change also has an effect on the college’s revenue, as we can see below: Year 1: 12,800 parking permits sold x $40 per permit = $512,000 Year 2: 11,520 parking permits sold x $48 per permit = $552,960 The college earned an additional $40,960 in revenue. Perhaps this can be used to expand parking or address other student transportation issues. In this case, student demand for parking permits is inelastic. A significant change in price leads to a comparatively smaller change in demand. The result is lower sales of parking passes but more revenue. Note: If you attend an institution that offers courses completely or largely online, the price elasticity for parking permits might be completely inelastic. Even if the institution gave away parking permits, you might not want one. Example 2: Helen’s Cookies When we discussed break-even pricing, we used the example of a new cookie company that was selling its cookies for $2. In this example, let’s put the cookies in a convenience store, which has several options on the counter that customers can choose as a last-minute impulse buy. All of the impulse items range between $1 and $2 in price. In order to raise revenue, Helen (the baker, who has taken over the company,) decides to raise her price to $2.20. If Helen increases the cookie price from $2.00 to $2.20—a 10% increase—will fewer customers buy cookies? If you think that the change in price will cause many buyers to forego a cookie, then you are suggesting that the demand is elastic, or that the buyers are sensitive to price changes. If you think that the change in price will not impact sales much, then you are suggesting that the demand for cookies is inelastic, or insensitive to price changes. Let’s assume that this price change does impact customer behavior. Many customers choose a $1 chocolate bar or a $1.50 doughnut over the cookie, or they simply resist the temptation of the cookie at the higher price. Before we do any math, this assumption suggests that the demand for cookies is elastic. Adding in the numbers, we find that Helen’s weekly sales drop from 200 cookies to 150 cookies. This is a 25% change in demand on account of a 10% price increase. We immediately see that the change in demand is greater than the change in price. That means that demand is elastic. Let’s do the math. % change in quantity demanded / % change in price 25% / 10% = 2.5 2.5 > 1 When the absolute value of the price elasticity is > 1, the demand is elastic. In this example, the demand for cookies is elastic. What impact does this have on Helen’s objective to increase revenue? It’s not pretty. Price 1: 200 cookies sold x $2.00 per cookie = $400 Price 2: 150 cookies sold x $2.20 = $330 She is earning less revenue because of the price change. What should Helen do next? She has learned that a small change in price leads to a large change in demand. What if she lowered the price slightly from her original $2.00 price? If the pattern holds, then a small reduction in price will lead to a large increase in sales. That would give her a much more favorable result. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Elasticity and Price Changes. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Parking Lot. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/rent-a-car-automobiles-parking-lot-664986/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved - Cookies. Authored by: conniiely. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/connielyphotography/5254405013/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives Reading: Products with Elastic and Inelastic Demand Now that you’ve had some practice calculating the value of elasticity, let’s turn to some of the factors that play a role in whether a product is likely to have elastic or inelastic demand. The following factors can have an effect on elasticity: - Substitutes: If it’s easy to choose a different product when prices change, the demand will be more elastic. If there are few or no alternatives, demand will be more inelastic. - Absolute price: When a product is very expensive, even a small percentage change in price will make it prohibitively expensive to more buyers. If the price of a product is a tiny percentage of the buyer’s overall spending power, then a change in price will have less impact. - Importance of use: In our previous example, we examined the elasticity of demand for cookies. A buyer may enjoy a cookie, but it doesn’t fulfill a critical need the way a snow shovel after a blizzard or a life-saving drug does. In general, the more important the product’s use, the more inelastic the demand will be. - Competitive dynamics: Goods that are produced by a monopoly generally have inelastic demand, while products that exist in a competitive marketplace have elastic demand. This is because a competitive marketplace will create more options for the buyer. With these considerations in mind, take a moment to see if you can figure out which of the following products have elastic demand and which have inelastic demand. It may be helpful to remember that when the buyer is insensitive to price, demand is inelastic. Gasoline Gasoline (Generic Need) The demand for gasoline generally is fairly inelastic. Car travel requires gasoline. The substitutes for car travel offer less convenience and control. Much car travel is necessary for people to move between activities and cannot be reduced to save money. Gas from a Specific Station The demand for gasoline from any single gas station, or chain of gas stations, is highly elastic. Buyers can choose between comparable products based on price. There are often many stations in a small geographic area that are equally convenient. College Textbooks Traditional Textbooks Generally an instructor assigns a textbook to the student, and the student who wants access to the learning materials must buy it, regardless of the price. Because the student can’t easily identify another textbook or resource that will ensure the same content and grade for the class, he has no substitutes and must buy the book at any price. Thus the demand is inelastic. New Textbook Distribution Channels Increasingly, students have new options to buy the same textbooks from different distribution channels at different price points. The introduction of new distribution channels is increasing options for buyers and having an impact on the price elasticity for publishers. Coffee Specialty Coffee Drinks Many coffee shops have developed branded drinks and specialized experiences in order to reduce substitutes and build customer loyalty. While black coffee is available almost universally, there are few substitutes for a Starbucks Java Chip Frappuccino. Demand for such products is more inelastic. Black Coffee Coffee is generally widely available at a level of quality that meets the needs of most buyers. The combination of a low price, relative to the buyer’s spending power, and the fact that the product is sold by many different suppliers in a competitive market make the demand highly elastic. Tickets Concert Tickets Only Taylor Swift can offer a Taylor Swift concert. She holds a monopoly on the creation and delivery of that experience. There is no substitute, and loyal fans are willing to pay for the experience. Because it is a scarce resource and the delivery is tightly controlled by a single provider, access to concerts has inelastic demand. Airline Tickets Airline tickets are sold in a fiercely competitive market. Buyers can easily compare prices, and buyers experience the services provided by competitors as being very similar. Buyers can often choose not to travel it the cost is too high, or to substitute travel by car or train. This makes the demand elastic. Health Medical Procedures Essential medical procedures have inelastic demand. The patient will pay what she can or what she must. In general, products that significantly affect health and well-being have inelastic demand. Soft Drinks Soft drinks and many other nonessential items have highly elastic demand. There is competition among every brand and type of soda, and there are many substitutes for the entire category of soft drinks. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Products with Elastic and Inelastic Demand. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Coffee Beans. Authored by: Mark Daynes. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/QKylkd3HS6o. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved Simulation: Demand for Food Trucks Try It Play the simulation below multiple times to see how different choices lead to different outcomes. All simulations allow unlimited attempts so that you can gain experience applying the concepts. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Shared previously - Simulation: Demand for Food Trucks. Authored by: Clark Aldrich for Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.candelalearning.com/masterymacro2xngcxmasterfall2015/chapter/simulation-demand-for-food-trucks/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.503074	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91230/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Price Elasticity", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91207/overview	Implementing Positioning Strategy Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Implementing Positioning Strategy Putting Positioning into Practice The positioning strategy, embodied in a strong positioning statement, is a touchstone for marketing and brand-building activities as marketers work to align everything they do in support of this core idea. In simple terms this means aligning the positioning strategy with the marketing mix. Positioning statements provide a relatively easy way to check whether some aspect of the marketing mix is on target or off target: if a particular marketing message or activity reinforces the positioning statement, it’s probably consistent with your goals for reaching a target segment. If a marketing activity doesn’t reinforce the positioning statement, it will probably create some confusion among customers about what your product, service, or brand stands for. What does this mean in practice? As you consider what you’re doing in each area of the marketing mix, think about what your positioning statement is communicating to customers. Then ask yourself how each part of the marketing mix is helping you deliver on the expectations you are setting with those customers. - Product: Is your product, service, or brand capable of delivering everything your positioning statement claims? Are any competitors doing it better than you? How should you adjust your offering to ensure that it lives up to the promises? - Price: When it comes to pricing, how are you positioning your offering relative to competitors? If pricing is part of your positioning strategy, is your offering well aligned with the price you’re asking customers to pay? What pricing strategies should you consider in order to compete more effectively? (More on this in the Pricing module.) - Place (Distribution): Are any distribution-related themes like convenience or availability part of your positioning strategy or competitive advantage? If so, what are you doing to ensure that you can live up to what you promise? How are you communicating your new positioning approach to distribution and channel partners, and how does it impact them? (More on this in the Place module) - Promotion: How are you translating your positioning strategy into messaging and actual communications with your target audiences? What behavioral shift are you trying to create as you launch your new positioning? Where and how do you need to alter existing materials to make them consistent with the new positioning (e.g., Web site, print, ads, social media, marketing content, sponsorships, events, etc.)? What types of campaigns will you use to introduce the new positioning? Which communication tools will be most effective at reaching target audiences, and what are you doing to coordinate marketing messages and activities across different channels? (Much much more to come in this area in the Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communications module.) Persistence Pays Implementing a new positioning or repositioning strategy is not a simple task. It takes time and effort to bring all the pieces together, to update the old and create the new. Implementing a positioning strategy resembles turning a ship: At first the maneuver is slow and deliberate. But once you’ve turned and charted the new direction, momentum picks up. To be sure your positioning activities are having the effect you want, look for ways to measure the impact of your efforts. Depending on your goals and implementation activities, what you measure can vary, but may include one or more of the following: - Sales/revenue - Number of new/returning customers - Average spending per transaction - Brand/product awareness or perceptions - Favorability toward product/service/brand - New leads or inquiries from inside and outside your target segments - Web site traffic - Social media “buzz” - Media attention - Customer satisfaction - Return on investment for marketing campaigns and other activities Above all, don’t forget to check in with customers directly to monitor how they are responding to the new positioning efforts. In all likelihood, there are things that will work and things that won’t work as you introduce the new direction. Having a direct line to customers for constructive feedback and recommendations can help you identify potential improvements and adjust course early to strengthen your impact and results. Before leaving the topic of implementing positioning, another application of positioning strategy deserves attention. For large, complex organizations that have many products and serve many different markets and customer types, effective positioning is crucial. It’s the only way to ensure that the organization can deliver a coherent message and unique value to each target segment. Example: Tyco Integrated Security What does this look like in practice? Let’s examine how the electronic security company Tyco Integrated Security (TycoIS) uses positioning. Tyco Integrated Security is a B2B company that sells electronic security products, installation, and services in the U.S. and Canada. They recently merged with Johnson Controls. TycoIS produces a variety of security-related products and services that can be used across many different industries and sizes of companies. When you think about the security-related needs of different kinds of businesses, you realize that their needs vary widely. A small business needs systems and processes that are affordable and manageable by a single person or a small team. Large companies have extremely complex needs around physical, financial, personnel, supply chain, and information security. Needs also differ by industry. For instance, companies in the food business are concerned about food safety, handling, protection, and complying with regulations and inspections in order to stay in business. Most other industries have similarly specialized needs. Company-Level Positioning TycoIS must communicate at several different levels in order to convince people that it’s the right partner for their business. Operating at the highest level, company-to-company, the following statement explains TycoIS’s company-level positioning: We help companies protect their employees, customers, facilities, and operations from internal and external threats, and allow business to work smarter through enhanced security management and information management solutions.1 This positioning statement from the company’s Web site fits our positioning formula quite nicely, except for one thing: the defined target segment is “companies.” Is it possible to market anything effectively to all companies everywhere? No. This target is too broad. But it is a great starting point for businesspeople looking for security systems; it encourages them to delve deeper. Two-Tiered Segmentation To divide up “all companies” into manageable chunks for marketing purposes, TycoIS uses two different segmentation schema at the same time: segmentation by 1) organization size and 2) industry. Figure 1, below, illustrates how Tyco mixes these schema together: Given the separate messaging for each business size, it’s clear that TycoIS has developed positioning around three unique market segments: small businesses, medium-sized businesses, and large enterprises. The “Small Business” positioning uses a tone of personal reassurance: “We’re right here with you.” And, going a level deeper, “We offer affordable products and services to help you, as a small business owner, protect your investment.” The “Medium Business” positioning mentions “industry-leading” solutions—a term that resonates with these organizations, which are striving to grow and become leaders. The “Enterprise” positioning emphasizes TycoIS expertise working at the global, national, and regional level. It also offers to “help enhance” security and business intelligence, rather than “provide” them. This subtle wording is wise: large, enterprise organizations tend to have a lot of legacy infrastructure and processes already in place, as well as in-house security expertise. With this positioning, TycoIS suggests that it will be an expert, helpful partner to complement and strengthen the security large companies already have. Industry-Specific Positioning Within each business-size segment, TycoIS has identified the common types of industries it works with. For each of these industries, TycoIS has unique positioning to convey that 1) we speak your language, 2) we understand your needs, and 3) we have a great combination of solutions just for you. Figure 2, above, illustrates how TycoIS positions its offering for medium-sized businesses in the restaurant and entertainment industry. For this target segment, the company clarifies the category of security solutions it offers: physical security, theft protection, food inventory and protection for restaurants, nightclubs, and other entertainment venues. The messaging highlights TycoIS’s competitive advantage of offering industry-specific security specialists and business insights—on top of all the systems and gadgets it provides. This detailed, industry-specific positioning flows across each of the company-size segments, and it effectively communicates the following: “Regardless of your company size or industry, TycoIS has relevant experience and familiarity with your security challenges and needs.” On the company’s Web site, it is easy to browse the matrix of company types and industries to find the area that matches your business. Then, as you dig deeper, TycoIS’s attention to target-segment positioning ensures that you will find information that speaks to your unique needs. It’s mind-boggling to imagine all the positioning-strategy and messaging work that has gone into this type of marketing effort. In all, TycoIS actively targets 35+ different business segments! Not every organization needs this kind of detailed targeting and positioning schema. But many organizations, ones smaller and larger than TycoIS, find that this highly targeted use of positioning strategy is an effective way to do business and support their ongoing focus on customer needs. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Implementing Positioning Strategy. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - Screenshot of Tyco Solutions by Industry. Provided by: TycoIS. Located at: https://www.tycois.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - Screenshot of Tyco Restaurants and Entertainment. Provided by: TycoIS. Located at: https://www.tycois.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.532837	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91207/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Positioning, Implementing Positioning Strategy", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91210/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Learning Hacks: How Should I Study Across Topics? The Hack Frequently switch up what you study rather than focusing on the same topic The Story Many students group their studying by topic within a course. This means that they will study Chapter 2 material first before they move on to study Chapter 3 material. Once they are finished with those, they finally move on to Chapter 4 material, and so on. This is called blocking, or taking all of the things you need to study and chopping it into blocks based on chapter or unit. It makes a lot of sense to study this way, but is it the most effective way to study? Spoiler alert, the answer is no! Interleaving is a more effective way to study. Interleaving is splitting your study topics into smaller chunks, and then moving frequently between study topics rather than studying the same material for hours at a time. Let’s say you have three study topics: A, B, and C. Here’s how each of these techniques would look: - Blocking Practice (not as good): AAABBBCCC - Interleaved Practice (much better): ABCABCABC The Research Rohrer et al. and Taylor investigated the effects of interleaved practice when compared with blocked practice. They found that interleaving was a significantly more effective learning strategy and helped students learn more in the same amount of time. Interestingly, students who implemented interleaving practice felt like they were learning less, but ended up doing much better than students who felt like they were learning more with blocking practice. Here are some practical tips for implementing interleaving practice. - Switch up what you study. Interleaving is studying one topic for a relatively short period of time, then switching to a different topic. You could also interleave what you study by mixing up your flashcards from different chapters or courses into the same study set. - Keep at it even if it seems hard. When students implement interleaving, research shows that students feel like they are learning less. However, these students end up retaining information better and scoring higher on exams than students who did not implement interleaving. So even if it is hard, realize you are studying in a more effective way. The Source Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 900. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Learning Hacks: How Should I Study Across Topics?. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Image of student studying at desk. Authored by: English106. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/english106/4357228667/in/photostream/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.555454	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91210/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99735/overview	Absorbance Spectrum of a Substance Data Sheet Copper Cycle Reaction Copper Cycle Reaction Data Sheet Density Determination Density Determination Data Sheet Determination of a Chemical Formula Determination of a Chemical Formula Data Sheet Determination of an unknown concentration of nickel nitrate Determination of an unknown concentration of nickel nitrate Data Sheet Determination of the Gas Constant, R Determination of the Gas Constant, R Data Sheet Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms Data Sheet Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate Data Sheet Gas Laws Problem Set Heat of Solution Heat of Solution Data Sheet Identification of a Substance Experiment Identification of a Substance Experiment Data Sheet Lecture Review Problem Set Molecular Geometry Oxidation Numbers Oxidation Numbers Fillable Worksheet Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Data Sheet Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Data Sheet Word Document Stoichiometry Problem Set General Chemistry I Laboratory Manual Overview This General Chemistry I laboratory manual consists of 11 laboratory wet experiments and 6 activities. The documents within were evaluated for accessibility using NVDA screenreader software. Table of Contents Table of Contents: 1. Experiment 1 - Density Determination 2. Experiment 2 - Identification of a Substance 3. Experiment 3 - Heat of Solution 4. Experiment 4 - Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms 5. Experiment 5 - Determination of a Chemical Formula 6. Experiment 6 - Absorbance Spectrum of a Substance 7. Experiment 7 - Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate 8. Experiment 8 - Preparation and Properties of Oxygen 9. Experiment 9 - Copper Cycle Reaction 10. Experiment 10 - Determination of an Unknown Concentration of Nickel (II) Nitrate 11. Experiment 11 - Determination of the Gas Constant, R 12. Problem Set 1 - Nomenclature 13. Problem Set 2 - Oxidation Numbers 14. Problem Set 3 - Molecular Geometry 15. Problem Set 4 - Stoichiometry 16. Problem Set 5 - Gas Laws Problem Set 17. Problem Set 6 - Lecture Review Problem Set Experiment 1 - Density Determination Density Determination Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine the density of water and an unknown liquid. Introduction Chemistry is an empirical science meaning that it is based on evidence collected through experiment and observation. Experimental data is used to perform calculations to yield results. The accuracy of the results depends on a number of factors: the accuracy of the measuring device, the precision of the measurements, and how careful you are in taking the measurements. Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the known value, whereas precision is the reproducibility of a measurement. The best description of accuracy and precision is the bullseye example. Figure 1: Accuracy versus precision A set of six data points grouped together but far away from the bullseye would be considered precise but not accurate. A set of six data points randomly spaced near the bullseye would show low precision with some accuracy. A set of data is precise and accurate when all six values are on the bullseye. To eliminate random errors always use the same measuring device (that is, the same balance for every mass measurement); this will help increase the precision of your data. Systematic errors can occur when a measuring device is not calibrated correctly and will affect accuracy. For example, a balance might weigh everything 5 mg too low. The error will always be in the same direction, thus preventing an accurate data set but maintaining precision. Density is the ratio of substance’s mass to volume at a given temperature as shown by the equation below. Typical units of density are g/mL or g/cm3. Density is a physical property because it can be measured without changing the composition of the substance. Density is also an intensive property—the density of a substance is the same no matter how much of it there is. Other intensive properties include color, smell, or boiling point. Mass and volume are extensive properties—properties that are affected by the amount of sample. The density of a substance may change depending on the temperature. This is because the volume of the substance may change; volume increases with temperature. Density and volume are inversely related, meaning that if volume increases, the density will decrease. Literature values of density are usually reported at 20°C. Typically, we estimate the density of water to be 1.00 g/mL to simplify calculations; however, the true density of water at 20°C is 0.998203 g/mL. You will calculate the density of water and an unknown liquid. You will identify the liquid based on your density results. You will compare your results to the standard in terms of accuracy and precision. Procedure Part 1 – Density of Water - Determine the mass of a clean, dry 50-mL beaker. Record the mass to 3 decimal places. - Fill a 100-mL beaker halfway with room temperature, deionized water. - Using a clean, dry 10-mL volumetric pipet dispense 10.00 milliliters of DI water into the pre-weighed beaker. Instructor will demonstrate proper use of the pipet. - Insert the pipet tip into the liquid, then suction liquid just above the calibration mark. - While at eye level, adjust the level of the liquid in the pipet so that the bottom of the meniscus lies on the calibration line. - Transfer the pipet to beaker and allow liquid to drain. Best practice is to have glass to glass contact when draining, meaning touch the pipet tip to the side of the beaker. Finally, the last drop is calibrated to stay in the pipet tip. Do not attempt to blow out this drop. - Record the mass of the beaker plus 10.00 mL of water. - On your data sheet, calculate the mass of the water. Report your answer to the correct number of significant figures. - Using the density equation, calculate the density of water and record this value on your data sheet to the correct number of significant figures. - Repeat steps 1 through 6 for Trials 2 and 3. - Calculate the average density of water from the three trials. - Record the temperature of water to the nearest 0.1 °C. - Record the literature density of water at the recorded temperature using Table 2, located at the end of the lab procedure. Compare your average to the literature density. Was the calculated density accurate? Were the calculated density values precise? Part 2 – Density of Unknown Liquid - Obtain a vial containing unknown liquid from instructor. - Determine the mass of a clean, dry 50-mL beaker. Record the mass to 3 decimal places. - Using a clean, dry 10-mL volumetric pipet dispense 10.00 milliliters of unknown liquid into the pre-weighed beaker. - Record the mass of the beaker plus the 10.00 mL of unknown. This should be done quickly, as some unknown might evaporate quickly. - On your data sheet, calculate the mass of the unknown. Report your answer to the correct number of significant figures. - Using the density equation, calculate the density of unknown liquid and record this value on your data sheet to the correct number of significant figures. - Dispose of the unknown liquid as directed by your instructor. - Repeat steps 2 through 7 for Trials 2 and 3. - Calculate the average density of unknown liquid from the three trials. - Identify the unknown liquid using Table 1. Table 1: Density of liquids at 20 °C \| Substance \| Density (g/mL) \| \| Hexane \| 0.659 \| \| Ethanol \| 0.791 \| \| Seawater \| 1.025 \| \| Acetic Acid \| 1.05 \| \| Ethylene glycol \| 1.109 \| Data Sheet Name: Unknown Number: Density of Water \| Density Data \| Trial 1 \| Trial 2 \| Trial 3 \| \| Mass of beaker and 10.00 mL water \| \|\|\| \| Mass of beaker \| \|\|\| \| Mass of water \| \|\|\| \| Volume of water \| 10.00 mL \| 10.00 mL \| 10.00 mL \| \| Density of water (density = mass/volume) \| \|\|\| \| Average density of water \| Temperature of water: Literature Density of Water at above Temperature: Density of Unknown Liquid \| Density Data \| Trial 1 \| Trial 2 \| Trial 3 \| \| Mass of beaker and 10.00 mL unknown \| \|\|\| \| Mass of beaker \| \|\|\| \| Mass of unknown \| \|\|\| \| Volume of unknown \| 10.00 \| 10.00 \| 10.00 \| \| Density of unknown (density = mass/volume) \| \|\|\| \| Average density of unknown \| Density of Unknown Liquid: Identity of Unknown: Table 2: Standard Density of water (g/mL) at different Temperatures (°C) \| 0.0 \| 0.1 \| 0.2 \| 0.3 \| 0.4 \| 0.5 \| 0.6 \| 0.7 \| 0.8 \| 0.9 \| \| \| 15 \| 0.999099 \| 0.999084 \| 0.999069 \| 0.999054 \| 0.999038 \| 0.999023 \| 0.999007 \| 0.998991 \| 0.998975 \| 0.998959 \| \| 16 \| 0.998943 \| 0.998926 \| 0.998910 \| 0.998893 \| 0.998877 \| 0.998860 \| 0.998843 \| 0.998826 \| 0.998809 \| 0.998792 \| \| 17 \| 0.998774 \| 0.998757 \| 0.998739 \| 0.998722 \| 0.998704 \| 0.998686 \| 0.998668 \| 0.998650 \| 0.998632 \| 0.998613 \| \| 18 \| 0.998595 \| 0.998576 \| 0.998558 \| 0.998539 \| 0.998520 \| 0.998501 \| 0.998482 \| 0.998463 \| 0.998444 \| 0.998424 \| \| 19 \| 0.998405 \| 0.998385 \| 0.998365 \| 0.998345 \| 0.998325 \| 0.998305 \| 0.998285 \| 0.998265 \| 0.998244 \| 0.998224 \| \| 20 \| 0.998203 \| 0.998183 \| 0.998162 \| 0.998141 \| 0.998120 \| 0.998099 \| 0.998078 \| 0.998056 \| 0.998035 \| 0.998013 \| \| 21 \| 0.997992 \| 0.997970 \| 0.997948 \| 0.997926 \| 0.997904 \| 0.997882 \| 0.997860 \| 0.997837 \| 0.997815 \| 0.997792 \| \| 22 \| 0.997770 \| 0.997747 \| 0.997724 \| 0.997701 \| 0.997678 \| 0.997655 \| 0.997632 \| 0.997608 \| 0.997585 \| 0.997561 \| \| 23 \| 0.997538 \| 0.997514 \| 0.997490 \| 0.997466 \| 0.997442 \| 0.997418 \| 0.997394 \| 0.997369 \| 0.997345 \| 0.997320 \| \| 24 \| 0.997296 \| 0.997271 \| 0.997246 \| 0.997221 \| 0.997196 \| 0.997171 \| 0.997146 \| 0.997120 \| 0.997095 \| 0.997069 \| \| 25 \| 0.997044 \| 0.997018 \| 0.996992 \| 0.996967 \| 0.996941 \| 0.996914 \| 0.996888 \| 0.996862 \| 0.996836 \| 0.996809 \| \| 26 \| 0.996783 \| 0.996756 \| 0.996729 \| 0.996703 \| 0.996676 \| 0.996649 \| 0.996621 \| 0.996594 \| 0.996567 \| 0.996540 \| \| 27 \| 0.996512 \| 0.996485 \| 0.996457 \| 0.996429 \| 0.996401 \| 0.996373 \| 0.996345 \| 0.996317 \| 0.996289 \| 0.996261 \| \| 28 \| 0.996232 \| 0.996204 \| 0.996175 \| 0.996147 \| 0.996118 \| 0.996089 \| 0.996060 \| 0.996031 \| 0.996002 \| 0.995973 \| \| 29 \| 0.995944 \| 0.995914 \| 0.995885 \| 0.995855 \| 0.995826 \| 0.995796 \| 0.995766 \| 0.995736 \| 0.995706 \| 0.995676 \| \| 30 \| 0.995646 \| 0.995616 \| 0.995586 \| 0.995555 \| 0.995525 \| 0.995494 \| 0.995464 \| 0.995433 \| 0.995402 \| 0.995371 \| Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 53rd Edition, p. F4 Experiment 2 - Identification of a Substance Identification of a Substance Lab Prep Sheet Unknowns: Key Acetone, Isopropyl Alcohol, Hexane, Ethyl Alcohol Fill numbered vials to neck with unknown. Make all Acetone unknowns, then ethanol etc. CAP TIGHTLY. Solubility setup - Dropper bottles - Paraffin oil- dropper bottle - Naphthalene with scoop - DI Water-Dropper bottle on each table, and 1 for DEMO - Hexane- Dropper bottle on each table, and 1 for DEMO - Ethanol- dropper bottle on each table, and 1 for DEMO - Test tube rack with labeled test tubes for DEMO solutions: - Naphthalene/ water - Naphthalene/hexane - Naphthalene/ethanol - Oil/water - Oil/hexane - Oil/ethanol - Solubility guide (laminated card) Waste Hood: - ORGANIC WASTE CONTAINER- for unknowns (Waste hood) - Return vial contain (Waste hood) Density determination - Pipette fillers - 12- 10mL volumetric pipettes - Rulers Boiling point determination - 12 Side arm test tubes inverted on test tube racks - 12 #6 (2 y) cut-hole rubber stoppers in labeled beaker - 12 thermometers - 12 rubber hoses BP DEMO- Instructor’s table - Ring stand, ring, wire square - 400 mL Beaker (with 300 mL water) - Side arm test tube (including Boiling stone and 10mL water) with arm pointing to rod of stand clamped at neck to ring stand - Rubber tubing (on one notch of side arm test tube) leading directly to wide mouth 250mL Erlenmeyer flask - Thermometer in cut-hole rubber stopper with rubber stopper resting on top of test tube; bulb of thermometer should be about 2-2.5” from bottom of solution. Stabilize thermometer/rubber stopper with clamp - Plastic container labeled “RETURNED VIALS”- waste hood (dispose in glass waste) Cleaning - Rinse pipettes and side arm test tubes with acetone between lab sections At conclusion of experiments, clean rinsed (H2O) vials, pipettes, and side arm test tubes with cleaning solution. Rinse with tap H2O, then demineralized H2O. Let drain. Return vials, vial caps Cleaned with Sparkleen 5 min., rinsed with tap and DI H2O) to box. Return side arm test tubes to box in cabinet. Return pipettes to labeled drawer. Identification of a Substance Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to identify an unknown liquid using three physical properties: solubility, density, and boiling point. Introduction Solubility A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components: solute and solvent. The solute is the substance being dissolved and the solvent is the substance doing the dissolving. The solubility of a solute in a solvent can be expressed in quantitative terms that denote the concentration of the solution. For example, a common way to express solubility of a substance is the mass of solute in grams per 100 grams of solvent at a definite temperature. Relative solubilities can be expressed qualitatively by terms such as soluble (s), slightly soluble (ss), and insoluble (i). A general rule regarding solubility is "likes dissolves likes", that is, substances of similar structure are soluble in one another. Density Another specific property of a substance is density, that is, how much mass is contained in a unit volume of the substance. In the case of solids, the unit volume is 1 cubic centimeter (cm3), for liquids: 1 milliliter (mL), and for gases: 1 liter. Pure substances can often be identified by measuring their densities precisely, since it is rare that any two substances have identical densities. Boiling Point When bubbles of vapor form within a liquid and rise freely to the surface and burst, the liquid is said to boil. A liquid exposed to the air will boil when its equilibrium vapor pressure becomes equal to the pressure of the atmosphere. The normal boiling point of a liquid is that temperature at which the equilibrium vapor pressure becomes exactly equal to the standard atmospheric pressure at 760 torr or 1 atmosphere. A liquid will boil at temperatures higher than normal when under external pressures greater than 1 atmosphere; the boiling point of a liquid is lowered below normal by decreasing the external pressure below 1 atmosphere. Procedure Part 1 - Solubility Determination - In separate labeled test tubes, place equal quantities, approximately 2-centimeter depth of the following solvent: water, hexane, and ethyl alcohol. To each test tube, add a few crystals of naphthalene and mix well by shaking and rolling the test tube between the palms of your hands. Body heat speeds up the dissolution process. Let stand for 30 minutes, shaking occasionally. Note results on the data sheet. - In separate labeled test tubes, place equal quantities, approximately 2-centimeter depth of the following solvent: water, hexane, and ethanol. To each test tube, add 5 to 7 drops of paraffin oil and mix well by shaking and rolling the test tube between the palms of their hands. Note results on the data sheet. - In separate labeled test tubes, place equal quantities, approximately 2-centimeter depth of the following solvent: water, hexane, and ethanol. To each test tube, add 20 drops of the unknown liquid and mix well by shaking and rolling the test tube between the palms of their hands. Let stand for 30 minutes, shaking occasionally. Note the results on the data sheet. Part 2 - Density Determination - Obtain a vial containing an unknown from the instructor. - Determine the mass of a clean, dry 50-mL beaker. Record the mass to 3 decimal places. - Using a clean, dry 10-mL volumetric pipet dispense 10.00 milliliters of unknown liquid into the pre-weighed beaker. - Insert the pipet tip into the liquid, then suction liquid just above the calibration mark. - While at eye level, adjust the level of the liquid in the pipet so that the bottom of the meniscus lies on the calibration line. - Transfer the pipet to beaker and allow liquid to drain. Best practice is to have glass to glass contact when draining, meaning touch the pipet tip to the side of the beaker. Finally, the last drop is calibrated to stay in the pipet tip. Do not attempt to blow out this drop. - Record the mass of the beaker plus the 10.00 milliliters of the unknown. This should be done quickly, as some unknown might evaporate quickly. - Pour the unknown liquid from the beaker back into the vial and save for the boiling point determination in Part 3. - On your data sheet, calculate the mass of the unknown. Report your answer to the correct number of significant figures. - Using the density equation, calculate the density of your unknown and record this value on your data sheet to the correct number of significant figures. Part 3 - Boiling Point Determination - Assemble apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Place approximately 300 milliliters of tap water into the beaker. Figure 1: Boiling point apparatus - Attach rubber tubing to side arm test tube. - Place the side arm test tube into the water bath so the bottom of the test tube is about 2 centimeters from the bottom of the beaker. - Clamp the test tube at the upper edge and attach it to the ring stand. Adjust the tube so that the side arm points toward the rod of the stand and tubing leads directly to a beaker or flask used as a trough. - Transfer approximately 10 milliliters of unknown liquid from the vial to side arm test tube, pouring the liquid down the side opposite the side arm. - To promote even boiling, add 1 boiling stone to the unknown liquid in the side arm test tube. - Spread the cut portion of a 2-hole rubber stopper and insert a thermometer. - Clamp the rubber stopper loosely and attach it to the ring stand. - Adjust the height so the bulb of the thermometer is centered 2 centimeters above the level of the liquid in the test tube and the rubber stopper rests on the test tube. - Have the set-up checked by your instructor before starting to heat. - Heat water bath with a moderate flame. The tip of the inner core flame should be about 2 to 3 centimeters below the ring. Heat the unknown until temperature remains constant for 30 seconds to 1 minute. This is the boiling point. Record the temperature on your data sheet to one decimal place. - Remove flame. Avoid boiling to dryness as superheating may occur. Part 4 - Identification of Unknown and Disposal of Materials - Using Table 1 below, compare the data collected for the unknown substance with the properties of known substances. Report the identity of the unknown on the data sheet. - Dispose of hexane solvent from solubility experiment in the Organic Waste Container. If the unknown liquid is soluble in water, other materials in test tubes may be poured in the sink. Otherwise, dispose of insoluble materials in the Organic Waste Container. Clean test tubes with brush and cleanser. If unknown is insoluble in water, dispose of the liquid from the side arm test tube and the vial in the Organic Waste Container. If unknown is soluble in water, dispose of the liquid from the side arm test tube and the vial in the sink. - Place boiling stone in the garbage can. - Return empty unrinsed vials to the container labeled Returned Vials. Table 1: Physical properties of miscellaneous substances \| Substance \| Density (g/mL) \| Melting Point (°C) \| Boiling Point (°C) \| solubility in water \| solubility in hexane \| solubility in ethanol \| \| Acetamide \| 1.16 \| 81 \| 222 \| s \| i \| s \| \| Acetone \| 0.79 \| -95 \| 56 \| s \| s \| s \| \| Benzene \| 0.88 \| 5.5 \| 80 \| i \| s \| s \| \| Carbon tetrachloride \| 1.60 \| -22.6 \| 77 \| i \| s \| s \| \| Chloroform \| 1.49 \| -63.5 \| 61 \| i \| s \| s \| \| Diethyl Ether \| 0.71 \| -120 \| 35 \| ss \| s \| s \| \| Ethyl alcohol \| 0.79 \| -112 \| 78 \| s \| s \| s \| \| Hexane \| 0.66 \| -94 \| 69 \| i \| s \| s \| \| Isopropyl alcohol \| 0.79 \| -86 \| 83 \| s \| s \| s \| \| Methyl alcohol \| 0.79 \| -98 \| 65 \| s \| i \| s \| \| Stearic acid \| 0.85 \| 70 \| 291 \| i \| s \| ss \| Data Sheet Name: Unknown Number: Solubility Data \| Substance \| Solubility in water \| Solubility in hexane \| Solubility in ethanol \| \| Naphthalene \| \|\|\| \| Paraffin Oil \| \|\|\| \| Unknown \| Density Data \| Mass of beaker and unknown \| \| \| Mass of beaker \| \| \| Mass of unknown \| \| \| Volume of unknown \| \| \| Density of unknown (density = mass/volume) \| Boiling Point of Unknown: ____________________________________ Identity of Unknown: ________________________________________ Experiment 3 - Heat of Solution Heat of Solution Lab Prep Sheet DEMO AREA - Calorimeter with stirrer - Thermometer - Cork stopper with thermometer stem extending 10.5 cm through “black cap” - 50 mL pipette (for demo only) - Pipette filler - 250 mL beaker for DI H2O Hood Area: - 12- 10mL volumetric pipettes - Pipette fillers - Calorimeters with stirrers - Thermometer Balance Area: - 3 bottles of Na2SO4· 10 H2O (Sodium Sulfate Decahydrate)store in refrigerator Heat of Solution Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine the heat of solution for sodium sulfate decahydrate. The chemical formula for sodium sulfate decahydrate is · Introduction When a solid dissolves in a liquid, energy is absorbed in overcoming the forces which hold the molecules, atoms, or ions in position in the crystal. Since this requires an input of energy, it is an endothermic change that accompanies the dissolution of all solids in all liquids. The physical process of dissolving is often accompanied by a chemical reaction between the solute and the solvent – usually exothermic in character. If the heat evolved in the chemical change is greater than that absorbed in the physical change, the net process is exothermic; that is, heat of solution, ΔH, is negative. If the net process is endothermic, ΔH is positive. An exothermic heat of solution involves an increase in temperature and an endothermic heat of solution involves a decrease in temperature. The heat of solution of a solid compound can be easily measured in a calorimetric experiment. The temperature change of the solvent is measured, and the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed is calculated from the known specific heats and the masses of solvent and solute. Heat is measured in units of Joules, specific heat has units Joules per gram per °C, and the temperature change is measured in °C. Heat energy = mass x specific heat x temperature change The molar heat of solution can be calculated by multiplying the heat of solution, in units of Joules per gram, by molar mass, in units of grams per mole. Procedure - Obtain a calorimeter and a thermometer. - Insert the thermometer into the calorimeter so that the bulb is not touching the sides or bottom of the calorimeter as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Calorimeter setup - Use a 10-mL volumetric pipet to transfer 50 milliliters of deionized water into the inner vessel of the calorimeter. - Measure the temperature of the water. - Weigh out approximately 5 grams of sodium sulfate decahydrate. Record the exact mass to the nearest 0.001 grams. - Transfer the sodium sulfate decahydrate into the water. Quickly seal the calorimeter. While stirring continuously, watch the thermometer closely and record the maximum or minimum temperature reached as the solute dissolves. - Dispose of solution in sink. Rinse the inner vessel of the calorimeter, the thermometer, and the stirrer with deionized water. Data Sheet \| Measured quantity \| Numerical value and units \| \| Volume of water \| \| \| Initial temperature \| \| \| Density of water at initial temperature \| \| \| Mass of water \| \| \| Mass of weighing paper \| \| \| Mass of weighing paper and solute \| \| \| Mass of solute \| \| \| Final temperature \| \| Calculations \| Numerical value and units \| Heat change for water \| \| Heat change for solute \| \| Total heat change \| \| \| ΔH per gram of solute \| \| \| Molar mass of solute \| 322.1 grams / mole \| \| ΔH per mole of solute (J/mole) \| \| \| ΔH per mole of solute (kJ/mole) \| Experiment 4 - Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms Lab Prep Sheet Instructor's Table: - 12 Galvanized zinc squares, about 1.5x1.5” (purchased as sheet of ductwork metal from Lowe’s). Place on Instructor table. - Use metal press at Blount Co to cut ductwork. - Blue rulers - Beaker labeled "Waste Zn Metal" Hoods 2-5: - 6.0M HCl solution w/ 250mL beaker, 25mL graduated cylinder (300 mL per Lab) - Metal tongs - 2 in each hood with 6M HCl Waste: Waste HCl collected in plastic waste bucket. Metal squares can be thrown away. Solution Prep: 6.0M HCl - hydrochloric acid - 48.4mL conc. HCl + DI H2O → 100mL - 242mL conc. HCl + DI H2O → 500mL - 484mL conc. HCl +DI H2O → 1L Determining the Size of Zinc and Iron Atoms Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to use the mole concept to determine the volume of zinc and iron in a thin square of galvanized metal and to experimentally determine the diameter of individual zinc and iron atoms. Introduction Using mole relationships, it is possible to calculate things that cannot possibly be measured. Metals that are susceptible to corrosion are often coated in a thin protective layer. The most common is to add a layer of more reactive metal in a process known as cathodic protection. Steel and iron are often protected from corrosion by a thin layer of zinc, creating galvanized metal. The zinc layer corrodes before the iron, thereby preventing the iron from rusting. In this experiment, a sample of galvanized iron is placed into hydrochloric acid. The zinc reacts and dissolves; the iron, being a less reactive metal, does not. The reaction is: Avogadro’s number and molar mass can be used to calculate the number of atoms of each element present. Combined with density, the atomic size of each metal can be determined. Procedure - Obtain a sample piece of galvanized iron. Measure the original, exact mass of the metal sample. - Place the metal sample in a 250-mL beaker and add 25.0 milliliters of 6 M hydrochloric acid. When the reaction stops, pour the acid away as waste. - Rinse the metal sample thoroughly with tap water, then wash thoroughly with deionized water. Dry the metal sample well. - Measure the exact mass of the metal sample after reaction. - Clean up, including washing your hands and returning all equipment. - Complete calculations to determine the size of zinc atoms, paying careful attention to units. - Since the zinc was removed by the hydrochloric acid, calculate the mass of zinc by determining the mass lost after the reaction. - Use the molar mass of zinc to calculate the moles of zinc removed from the metal sample. - Use Avogadro’s number to calculate the number of zinc atoms removed from the metal sample. - Use the mass of zinc and the density of zinc, 7.14 grams per cubic centimeter, to calculate the volume of zinc removed from the metal sample. - Calculate the volume of one zinc atom by dividing the total volume of zinc removed by the number of atoms removed. - Assuming a simple cubic packing of zinc atoms, calculate the diameter of a zinc atom by taking the cube root of the volume. - The actual atomic diameter of zinc is 0.268 nm. Calculate the percent error of your calculations compared to the true value. - Complete calculations to determine the size of iron atoms, paying careful attention to units. - Since the iron was unaffected by the hydrochloric acid, the mass of iron is the same as the mass left after the reaction. - Use the molar mass of iron to calculate the moles of iron remaining in the metal sample. - Use Avogadro’s number to calculate the number of iron atoms remaining in the metal sample. - Use the mass of iron and the density of iron, 7.874 grams per cubic centimeter, to calculate the volume of iron in the metal sample. - Calculate the volume of one iron atom by dividing the total volume of iron by the number of atoms in the remaining metal sample. - Assuming a simple cubic packing of iron atoms, calculate the diameter of an iron atom by taking the cube root of the volume. - The actual atomic diameter of iron is 0.280 nm. Calculate the percent error of your calculations compared to the true value. Data Sheet Name: Experimental Data \| Original mass of metal sample: \| \| \| Mass of metal sample after reaction: \| Calculations Size of Zinc \| Mass of zinc (mass lost): \| \| \| Moles of zinc removed: \| \| \| Atoms of zinc removed: \| \| \| Volume of zinc removed: \| \| \| Volume of one zinc atom: \| \| \| Diameter of zinc atom: \| \| \| Percent error: \| Size of Iron \| Mass of iron (mass remaining): \| \| \| Moles of iron: \| \| \| Atoms of iron: \| \| \| Volume of iron: \| \| \| Volume of one iron atom: \| \| \| Diameter of iron atom: \| \| \| Percent error: \| Experiment 5 - Determination of a Chemical Formula Determination of a Chemical Formula Lab Prep Sheet DEMO AREA: - Magnesium - Mg strips- 25 cm long with forceps (one per group) - Steel wool wads in 600ml beaker labeled “Return when finished” - Vacuum grease tubes INSTRUCTOR’S DEMO: - Ring stand - Burner - Ring 3” above burner - Clay triangle on ring - Crucible and lid on clay triangle - Gauge square - Small desiccators - 50 mL beaker - Crucible tongs - Stirring rod - Eye dropper HOOD: - 24 Stained crucibles with lids in hood - Desiccators under hood, -open doors Determination of a Chemical Formula Experiment Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine the simplest formula of a compound by synthesizing the compound. Introduction A compound is composed of two or more different elements. The Law of Definite Composition states that in a pure compound, the elements are always combined in a definite ratio by mass. If the masses (or %) of each element in the compound are known, the simplest or empirical formula can be determined using the following method. - Divide the mass (or percentage) of each element by its molar mass. This gives the relative number of moles of atoms of each element in the compound. - Determine the simple ratio by dividing each value for the relative number of moles by the smallest value so that a ratio of value(s) to one will be obtained. - Since atoms are indivisible under ordinary chemical conditions, determine the integral, or whole number, ratio by multiplying values in the simple ratio by the smallest integer that will produce a whole number. A number within 0.05 of a whole number may be rounded to a whole number. - The integers thus obtained are the subscripts corresponding to the number of atoms of each element in the formula. In this experiment, the formula for the oxide of magnesium is determined by reacting a weighed quantity of magnesium with oxygen in the air forming magnesium oxide. During the reaction, however, magnesium also reacts with nitrogen in the air forming magnesium nitride. To avoid a serious error in formula determination, magnesium nitride is converted to magnesium oxide by the following reactions: Magnesium nitride + water → magnesium hydroxide + ammonia gas Magnesium hydroxide → magnesium oxide + water vapor Thus, a product containing only magnesium and oxygen in chemical combination is obtained. The mass of the oxygen that reacted can be determined by subtracting the mass of the magnesium from the mass of the magnesium oxide. From these data, the formula for magnesium oxide can be determined using the method outlined above. Procedure - Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Heating apparatus - Obtain a crucible and lid. Check to ensure the crucible has no cracks. Support crucible and lid on clay triangle with the lid slightly displaced. - Heat the crucible strongly for 5 minutes. Cool in air for 2 minutes. Transfer crucible and lid to a desiccator and cool to room temperature. - Determine the mass of the crucible and lid, and record this on the data sheet. - Repeat steps 3 and 4 until a constant mass is obtained, that is, the masses must be within 0.005 grams of each other. - Average the two masses that agree within 0.005 grams and use this value for the constant mass on the data sheet. - Clean a magnesium ribbon strip with steel wool until the oxide coating is removed, that is, there are no dull spots on the surface. - Wipe strip with a paper towel. - Using a paper towel to avoid fingerprints, crumble the magnesium strip into a loose coil. The size of the coil should be such that it fits into the bottom half of the crucible. - Place the magnesium in the crucible. Obtain the mass of the crucible, lid, and magnesium. Record this mass on the data sheet. - Determine the mass of the magnesium by subtraction. - Heat the magnesium in the crucible with the lid slightly displaced using a moderate flame until the magnesium begins to ignite. Adjust the lid to cover the crucible completely and continue to heat with a hot flame for 15 minutes. Control heating by adjusting the flame so that no white smoke escapes from beneath the lid. - After heating for 15 minutes, adjust the lid so that a slight opening exists to let more air enter the crucible. Continue heating for an additional 15 minutes, adjusting the heat so that no product escapes. - Remove flame and cool for 2 minutes before removing the lid. Gently tap the lid with the tongs to collect any loose particles into the crucible. - Place crucible on ring stand base. Using a stirring rod, pulverize the contents. If any rigid form of metal remains, continue heating with a moderate flame and with the lid slightly displaced. Place the stirring rod at the base of the ring stand so that the tip is not touching anything, and any adhered particles may be recovered later. - Place the stirring rod close to the product in the cooled crucible and drop approximately 10 to 15 drops of deionized water onto the stirring rod to retrieve adhered particles. Move the stirring rod during the water addition so the entire product is just moist. Do not stir. - Dry the product by heating the covered crucible gently for 2 minutes, and then heat with a stronger flame with lid slightly displaced for an additional 5 minutes. - Cool the crucible in air for 2 minutes. Transfer to the desiccator and cool to room temperature. - Obtain the mass of the crucible, lid and product and record this value on the data sheet. - Pulverize the product with the stirring rod and repeat steps 16 through 19 until a constant mass is obtained, that is, the masses must be within 0.005 grams of each other. No odor of ammonia should be detected if the magnesium nitride has been completely converted to the oxide during the final heating. - Average the two masses that agree within 0.005 grams and record on the data sheet. - Subtract the mass of the crucible, lid, and the magnesium from the mass of the crucible, lid, and product to determine the mass of the oxygen. - Calculate the relative number of moles of each element by dividing the mass of the element by its molar mass. Record these values on the data sheet to the proper number of significant figures. - Determine the simple ratio of moles of magnesium to moles of oxygen by dividing the relative number of moles of each by the smaller value. Record these values on the data sheet to the proper number of significant figures. - Determine the integral ratio by multiplying the simple ratio by the smallest numeral that will yield a value withing 0.05 of a whole number. Round to whole numbers and record these values on the data sheet. - Write the chemical formula for the product using the integers obtained in step 25 as subscripts. - Place the contents of the crucible in the trash can. Clean crucible and lid with a brush and cleanser. Data Sheet Name: ____________________________ \| Mass of crucible, lid, and magnesium \| \| \| Mass of crucible and lid from first heating \| \| \| Mass of crucible and lid from second heating \| \| \| Constant mass of crucible and lid \| \| \| Mass of magnesium used \| \| \| Mass of crucible, lid, and product from first heating \| \| \| Mass of crucible, lid, and product from second heating \| \| \| Constant mass of crucible, lid, and product \| \| \| Mass of oxygen in the compound \| \| \| Molar mass of magnesium \| \| \| Moles of magnesium in the compound \| \| \| Molar mass of oxygen \| \| \| Moles of oxygen in the compound \| \| \| Simple ratio of moles of magnesium to oxygen \| \| \| Integral ratio of moles of magnesium to oxygen \| \| \| Formula \| Experiment 6 - Absorbance Spectrum of a Substance Absorption Spectrum of a Substance Lab Prep Sheet Solutions: Need about 50-75 mL per semester* 0.1M Co(NO3)2 \| (29.104g Co(NO3)2·6 H2O → 1L) Colbalt(II) Nitrate \| 0.1M K2CrO4 \| (19.420g K2CrO4 → 1L) Potassium Chromate \| 0.1M CuSO4 \| (24.968g CuSO4·5 H2O → 1L) Copper(II) Sulfate \| Student Benches: - 1 Spectrophotometers - 4x Kimwipe lined 50 mL beakers labeled DI H2O, Co(NO3)2, K2CrO4, CuSO4 at each instrument with glass cuvettes - DI water bottles Waste Container in waste hood **NOTE: Only 1st lab section prepares and fills cuvettes. Leave filled cuvettes in beakers for next lab until all labs have done the experiment. When all lab sections have performed the experiment, cuvettes should be emptied in waste container and cleaned with cleaning solution, rinsed with tap water, rinsed inside and outside with DI water, and left to dry inverted in fresh tissue lined beakers. NOTE: To avoid scratching, only 4-5 cuvettes should be cleaned at a time Absorption Spectrum of a Substance Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine the absorption spectra of solutions using a spectrophotometer and to relate the color of the solution to the corresponding wavelengths in the spectrum where the percent transmittance is high and where absorbance is high. Introduction Much of the knowledge of chemical properties of substances has come from the study of how light interacts with matter. When a beam of white light is dispersed into a spectrum, the components of the light are spread according to their wavelength. In the case of white light, there is a continuous gradation of color, that is, it is difficult to decide where the blue part of the spectrum ends, and the green part begins. When these dispersed wavelengths are passed through cells containing samples of either atomic or molecular substances, it is found that the emergent light is no longer continuous. Some of the light waves have interacted with the sample in the cell. The light absorbed is characteristic of the substance just as in the case of emission spectra resulting when an excited atom emits light energy of specific wavelengths. In general, an object transmits (reflects) those wavelengths of light corresponding to its color and absorbs wavelengths that are complementary to its observed color. An instrument which can separate light into its component colors and measure the intensity of each of these small bands of color is called a spectrophotometer. This instrument is calibrated to read both the percent transmittance and absorbance. The percent transmittance (%T) at a specific wavelength is determined electronically within the instrument by comparing the intensity of the light after passing through the sample cell with the solvent (blank) to the intensity of the light before passing through the cell with the substance of interest (solution). The percent transmittance is related to the measurements of the instrument (intensity of light measured at the detector), but absorbance is a more useful measurement because of its relationship to the substance. The mathematical relationship is between percent transmittance and absorbance is . Absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance through the Beer-Lambert Law: Where A is the absorbance, ε is the molar absorptivity, b is the pathlength, and c is the molar concentration. The molar absorptivity is an experimental value that depends on each substance and each wavelength. As long as the wavelength and substance are fixed, then the molar absorptivity is a constant. The path length is the distance light travels through the substance. In most solution spectroscopy, the path length is determined by the size of the cuvette, which is the same during the experiment. Cuvettes are optically sensitive and need to be handled with care to avoid scratches or other defects. Since both molar absorptivity and path length are constant during an experiment, the molar concentration of a substance can be calculated directly from the absorbance. This simple, linear relationship is why spectroscopy is one of the most useful methods in chemistry. Procedure - Turn on the spectrophotometer and allow the instrument to warm up for 15 minutes. This gives time for the electronics and light source to reach an equilibrium and have reproducible output/input signals. - Cuvettes should be cleaned by rinsing with deionized water several times. The outside of the cuvette should be cleaned of fingerprints using tissues (not paper towels). Paper towels could scratch the cuvette. - Four cuvettes should be filled to the mark using each solution: deionized water (blank), 0.1 M , 0.1 M , and 0.1 M . After filling, be sure to wipe the outside of each cuvette with a tissue (not a paper towel) to wipe away excess solution and fingerprints. - Measure the %T of light using the following steps starting at 400 nm. - Set the wavelength to the correct setting. - Insert the blank solution, deionized water, and set the %T to 100.0%. - Switch out each solution and record the %T at the selected wavelength for each solution. - Repeat step #4, increasing the wavelength measured by 25 nm each time. The last iteration will be for a wavelength of 700 nm. - Review the collected data and look for large gaps in the %T results for each solution. For any gap of 20% between two wavelengths, repeat steps #4 and #5 at 5 nm increments. For example, if %T = 84.5% at 500 nm and 61.2% at 525 nm of a solution, then %T data needs to be obtained at 505, 510, 515, and 520 nm. - Once all the data has been obtained and there are not any large gaps in %T, use the formula to convert %T to absorbance. Significant Figures: since absorbance is a logarithmic function, digits to the left of the decimal are never significant, but digits to the right are always significant. For example, if %T = 94.2%, then A = 0.026; or if %T = 8.37%, then A = 1.077. Absorbance is typically reported with three significant figures, that is, three decimal places. Data Sheet Name: Experimental Data Complete the table using the data for the 400-700 nm range for each solution. \| Wavelength (nm) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| \| 400 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 425 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 450 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 475 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 500 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 525 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 550 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 575 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 600 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 625 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 650 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 675 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| 700 \| Experimental Data to Smooth Gaps Use this table as needed to fill in gaps in %T that were identified in the original data. \| Wavelength (nm) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| %T (%) \| Abs. (a.u.) \| Lab Report To practice writing lab reports, data analysis, and graphical presentations, complete a partial lab report with the following components. - Title page with the experiment title, your name, date of experiment, and lab section. - One page that has a well-organized data table that clearly and neatly lists all the data and results for each solution. Table headings, units, substance ID, percent transmittance, and absorbance should all be present. - One page that has a graph that plots percent transmittance versus wavelength. The y-axis should be set to range from 0% to 100%, and the x-axis should be set with a domain of 400 nm to 700 nm. The scale for each axis should be set appropriately. The %T data for each solution should be displayed on this one graph, which means that a legend will be needed to clearly distinguish between the data for each solution. The graph for each solution should be set to use a smooth curve with data markers visible. Include all the necessary components of a graph: title, and axes labels with units. - One page that has a graph that plots absorbance versus wavelength. The y-axis should range from 0 (a.u.) to 2 (a.u.), and the x-axis should be set to have a domain of 400 nm to 700 nm. The absorbance results for each solution should be displayed on this one graph, which means that a legend will be needed to clearly distinguish between the data for each solution. The graph for each solution should be set to use a smooth curve with data markers visible. Include all the necessary components of a graph: title, and axes labels with units. - One page that includes a purpose and conclusion. Restate the purpose of this experiment in your own words. The conclusion needs to address the following prompts. - Account for the color of each solution by relating the maximum %T to the color observed. You may need to consult the electromagnetic spectrum. - Account for the color of each solution by relating the maximum absorbance to the color observed. You may need to consult a color wheel for complementary colors. - Describe which of the explanations above makes the most sense. Experiment 7 - Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate Effect of Temperature on Solubility Lab Prep Sheet DEMO SETUP: - Ring stand w/ iron ring, wire square, 400 mL beaker - 2 clamps (same type and extension) - Wide mouth test tube- clamped to ring vertically - Cut-hole rubber stopper (#6 2-hole with thermometer clamped to ring stand so stopper rests on mouth of test tube with thermometer about 1 cm above bottom of test tube. - Cu stirrer - 5 mL pipette on paper towel - Pipette filler - 250 mL beaker for stock DI H2O 1st HOOD: - Pipette holder (container) - 24- 5 mL volumetric pipettes - Pipette fillers and rollers-12 - Thermometers -12 - Rulers-12 MIDDLE HOOD: - Beaker of #6 (two hole) cut-hole rubber stoppers- 12 - Beaker of Cu stirrers- 12 BALANCE AREA: - KNO3 (3 Bottles) on separate paper towels with scoop on paper towel for each bottle Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Potassium Nitrate Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to study the effect of temperature on the solubility of potassium nitrate, , in water. Discussion The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a specified temperature is called that solute’s solubility. Solubility is commonly expressed in units of grams solute per 100 grams solvent. Alternatively phrased, solubility is the concentration of a saturated solution at a specified temperature. In general, solids are more soluble at higher temperatures (that is, as temperature increases, solubility increases). In this experiment, various concentrations of potassium nitrate in water are prepared and the temperatures at which crystallization starts are determined. These crystallization temperatures correspond to the solubility of potassium nitrate in water at the measured temperature. Procedure - Assemble the apparatus shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Heating Apparatus. - In a weighed beaker, obtain 10.000 grams (± 0.001 gram). - Crush the crystals of with a stirring rod to increase surface area and reduce the time required for dissolution. - Using a paper funnel that extends to within two inches from the bottom of the test tube, transfer all the weighed into the test tube. - Place about 50 milliliters of deionized water into a 250-mL beaker. Portions of this water will be pipetted into the test tube at the appropriate times. - Pipet two 5.00 mL portions of deionized water into the test tube. Avoid splattering. Thus, 10.000 grams per 10.00 grams is the solubility of this first solution. - Place the thermometer into the liquid about 1 centimeter above the bottom of the test tube. - Warm the test tube gently and stir gently until all the solid dissolves. At this concentration, all should be in solution by 80°C. Do not allow the temperature to get much above 60°C. - Allow the solution to cool while stirring gently. - Watch the test tube closely, and when crystals first form (looks like “snowing” in the test tube), record the temperature in the Solubility Data Table. - Add exactly 5.00 milliliters more deionized water. This makes a total of 15.00 milliliters of water present – thus 10.000 grams per 15.00 grams is the new solubility. - When all the solid has re-dissolved (heating if necessary), allow the solution to cool again, while stirring gently. Determine the temperature at which crystallization begins. - Add another 5.00 milliliter portion of deionized water. This makes a total of 20.00 milliliter water present – thus 10.000 grams per 20.00 grams is the new solubility. - Determine the crystallization temperature. - Complete the Solubility Data table. - Draw a graph titled “Effect of Temperature on Solubility of ”. Plot Solubility (on the vertical axis) and Temperature (on the horizontal axis). Be sure to choose a convenient scale so that the graph nearly fills the page. Label both axes with appropriate units. Plot the four data points and draw a smooth curve. - Without altering the slope of the curve, extend the curve slightly below 30°C. - Read from the graph the solubility of at 30.0°C and 50.0°C to one decimal place. Record these predictions on the Solubility Predictions Table. Data Sheet Name: Solubility Data Table \| Temperature (°C) \| Mass of (grams) \| Mass of (grams) \| Solubility of (grams / 100 grams ) \| \| 89.5 \| 10.000 \| 5.00 \| 200. \| \| 10.000 \| 10.00 \| \|\| \| 10.000 \| 15.00 \| \|\| \| 10.000 \| 20.00 \| Solubility Predictions Table Temperature (°C) \| Predicted solubility of from graph (grams / 100 grams ) \| \| 30.0 \| \| \| 50.0 \| Experiment 8 - Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Lab Prep Sheet DEMO SETUP: See lab setup pictures - Pneumatic trough with shelf toward front - 3 gas collecting French square bottles - 3 glass plates - Wide mouth test tube attached to ring stand - Angle bend in #4 rubber stopper attached to wide mouth test tube and tube of bend attached to rubber hose attached at other end to trough. - Red rubber tube for overflow spout of pneumatic trough - Pinch clamp on rubber hose to trough - Vial of neutral litmus - Wood splints - Wash bottle with DI H₂O - Crucible and clay triangle on ring stand - Mg 2” strips in 600mL beaker (forceps on a paper towel) Last Hood: - Bunsen burner and striker - Deflagration spoons - Red phosphorus- scoop on paper towel - PbO2 with scoop - Fe2O3 with scoop - SiO2 with scoop - CaO with scoop - Box with expendable test tube for PbO2 test - Test tube rack with test tubes labeled PbO2, Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO - Test tube clamp Middle hoods: - 12 pneumatic troughs - 12 red rubber hoses - 12 white rubber hoses (or yellow/as available) - 12 angle bends in #4 rubber stoppers - 12 pinch clamps - 12 crucibles (no lids) - French square bottles - Glass plates Balance area: - KClO3- Scoop on paper towel- Potassium Chlorate - MnO2 w/ scoop-Manganese Dioxide Preparation and Properties of Oxygen Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to prepare oxygen gas, to prepare oxides, and to become familiar with the properties of oxygen and oxygen-containing compounds. Introduction Preparation Oxygen is often prepared in the laboratory through thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3. Manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) acts as a catalyst for the thermal decomposition, allowing the reaction to occur more rapidly and at a lower temperature. Basic Anhydrides Oxygen is a very reactive element. It forms compounds known as oxides by reacting either directly or indirectly with nearly all the other elements. The oxides formed by reacting metals (M) with oxygen (O2) are called metallic oxides, basic oxides, or basic anhydrides (MO). General: M + O2→ MO Example: 2Ca + O2→2CaO In general, oxides of metals, that is basic anhydrides, react with water to form bases. Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in water, which is why they have a general formula of metal plus hydroxide (MOH). One key idea is that when a basic anhydride reacts with water, the oxidation state of the metal does not change. General: MO + H2O→ MOH Example: CaO + H2O→ CaOH2 Acidic Anhydrides Oxides formed by reacting nonmetals (Nm) with oxygen (O2) are known as nonmetallic oxides, acidic oxides, or acidic anhydrides (NmO). General: Nm+O2→ NmO Examples: 2 S + 3O2→ 2SO3 or S + O2→ SO2 In general, acidic anhydrides react with water to form acids. Acids are compounds that release an acidic proton (H+) in water, which is why they have a general formula of HNmO. General: NmO + H2O→ HNmO Examples: SO3 + H2O→ H2SO4 or SO2 + H2O→ H2SO3 In the case of elements that react with oxygen to form multiple oxidation states, as the example with sulfur above, the oxides will produce different acids when reacted with water: sulfuric acid versus sulfurous acid in the example above. As with the metal in a basic anhydride, the oxidation state of the nonmetal in the acidic anhydride does not change when it is reacted with water. Procedure Part 1 – Preparation of Oxygen - Weigh out approximately 0.3 grams of manganese (IV) oxide into a crucible. - Strongly heat the uncovered crucible for 2-3 minutes with a Bunsen burner (Figure 1), until the bottom of the crucible turns orange. This ensures all the combustible impurities in the manganese (IV) oxide are removed. Figure 1: Heating apparatus 3. Remove the flame and allow the crucible to cool. 4. While the crucible is still cooling, weigh out approximately 4.0 grams of potassium chlorate into a beaker. Break up any large crystals using a stirring rod. 5. Add the cooled manganese (IV) oxide to the potassium chlorate and mix with a stirring rod. 6. Transfer the mixture to a wide mouth Pyrex test tube using a paper funnel. Wipe any loose powder from the mouth of the test tube. 7. Setup the oxygen collection apparatus as shown in Figure 2. a. Attach the test tube with potassium chlorate mixture to a ring stand. b. Tightly seal the test tube with a rubber stopper that has a glass tube and a clamped rubber hose. c. Attach the end of the rubber hose to the inlet of the pneumatic trough. d. Attach a rubber hose from the overflow drain of the pneumatic trough into the sink. e. Add water to the pneumatic trough so that it is about half full. f. Fill three bottles with water and invert them in the pneumatic trough. There should not be any air bubbles in the bottles. g. Have the instructor check your setup before proceeding. Figure 2: Oxygen collection apparatus 8. Be certain that none of the potassium chlorate or manganese (IV) oxide comes into contact with the rubber stopper during heating or a severe explosion will occur. 9. With the instructor’s approval, begin heating the test tube by slowly passing the flame back and forth along the bottom of the test tube. Once the mixture begins heating, do not remove the flame or water will be forced into the test tube. 10. Control the strength of heating so that oxygen gas is evolved at a rate convenient for collection. 11. When the first bottle of oxygen gas has been collected, quickly slide the bottle aside and move the next bottle to over the inlet to collect more oxygen. Repeat the quick transition to collect a third bottle of oxygen. 12. While inverted under water, each gas filled bottle should be covered by a watch glass and removed from the pneumatic trough and turned right-side up. 13. Keep each bottle of oxygen covered unless actively performing an experiment. Part 2 – Preparation of Oxides Oxides of several elements are prepared by burning them in oxygen. Preparation of carbon anhydride - Use the bottle with the least amount of oxygen for this reaction. - Add approximately ¼ inch of deionized water to the bottle. - Light a wood splint on fire and then blow out the flame so that only a glowing ember remains. - Carefully insert the glowing ember and splint into the bottle of oxygen. - Record observations. - Allow the splint to remain in the bottle until it stops burning. - Drop the splint into the bottle. - Cover the bottle and gently shake to dissolve the oxide in the water. - Add a piece of litmus paper to the solution and record the observation. Preparation of phosphorus anhydride - Perform this experiment in a fume hood. - Place a small quantity of red phosphorus () in a deflagrating spoon. - Ignite the phosphorus by heating it in a flame. - Carefully lower the spoon into the second bottle of oxygen. Avoid letting the spoon touch the sides or bottom of the bottle or the glass may break from thermal stress. - Record observations. - Allow the spoon to remain in the bottle until it stops burning. - Rinse the spoon and sides of the bottle with deionized water. - Remove the spoon. - Cover the bottle and gently shake to dissolve the oxide in the water. - Add a piece of litmus paper to the solution and record the observation. Preparation of magnesium anhydride - Add approximately ¼ inch of deionized water to the third bottle. - Hold a 2-inch ribbon of magnesium with a pair of tongs. - Ignite the magnesium ribbon using a Bunsen burner. - Quickly place the burning strip into the bottle. Do not look directly at the burning magnesium. - Drop the remnants of the magnesium ribbon into the bottle. - Cover the bottle and gently shake to dissolve the oxide in the water. - Add a piece of litmus paper to the solution and record the observation. Preparation and Properties of Oxygen - Data Sheet Name: Preparation of Anhydrides \| Element \| Observations \| Oxide Formula \| Classification (metal/ nonmetal) \| Balanced Chemical Equation to produce anhydride \| Anhydride Reactions with Water \| Anhydride \| Observation from Litmus \| Classification (Acid/ Base) \| Balanced Chemical Equation of anhydride with water \| Relationship of Anhydrides to Acid or Base The formula of an acidic or basic anhydride is related to its acid or base by the reaction with water. In general, the oxidation state of the metal or nonmetal is the same in both the anhydride (oxide) and acid or base compound, as shown in the examples below. Acid compound: Oxidation state of boron: +3 Acidic Anhydride: Chemical Reaction: Base compound: Oxidation state of vanadium: +4 Basic Anhydride: Chemical Reaction: Apply the information learned to deduce the chemical formula of the anhydrides for the following acids or bases. \| Compound \| Anhydride \| Compound \| Anhydride \| Experiment 9 - Copper Cycle Reaction Copper Reaction Cycle Lab Prep Sheet SOLUTION PREP: - 3.0 M NaOH (120 g NaOH in 1 L) 720 mL per lab - 6.0 M H2SO4 (333.3 mL H2SO4 in 1 L) 360 mL per lab - Conc HNO3 100 mL - Conc HCl 360 mL - Acetone About 60 mL - Methanol About 60 mL DEMO SETUP: Ring stand with ring and wire square. 400 mL beaker on wire square. On a paper towel place a 50 mL beaker and eyedropper. DEMO AREA: - Cu foil (~0.5g), forceps on paper towel - Steel wool wads in 600mL labeled “Return when finished” - Boiling stones, forceps on paper towel - 3.0M NaOH - 250mL labeled beaker and labeled graduated cylinder marked at 30mL - 12 evaporating dishes Hood 1: - Conc HNO3 and labeled 10 mL graduated cylinder marked at 4 mL and 250 mL beaker - 6.0M H2SO4 and labeled 25 mL graduated cylinder marked at 15 mL and 250 mL beaker - Conc. HCl with graduated cylinder marked at 15mL and 250mL beaker Hood 2: - 1 container labeled WASTE Zn-H2SO4 - 1 100 mL beaker labeled EXTRA Zn Hood 3: - Conc. HCl with graduated cylinder marked at 15mL and 250mL beaker - 1 container labeled WASTE HCl - 1 10mL graduated cylinder marked H₂O - 1 hot plate Organic waste hood: - Methanol and 10mL graduated cylinder marked at 5 mL and 250 mL labeled beaker - Acetone with same - Organic Waste Container Balance Area: - granular Zn with scoop on paper towel/one at each balance Hot Plates: - 1 on each bench CLEANUP: Clean beakers and cylinders with Sparkleen. Rinse thoroughly and return to cabinet after draining. Copper Reaction Cycle Measuring Technique Efficiency Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to study reactions of copper and copper compounds and to compare the mass of copper recovered with the starting mass of copper, that is, the percentage recovery. Introduction A weighed amount of copper metal is reacted with nitric acid to form copper (II) nitrate. Redox reaction: Copper (II) nitrate is then reacted with sodium hydroxide to form copper (II) hydroxide, a blue precipitate. Double Displacement reaction: Copper (II) hydroxide is decomposed by heat, forming copper (II) oxide, a black precipitate. Thermal Decomposition reaction: Copper (II) oxide is then converted to copper (II) sulfate by the addition of sulfuric acid. Neutralization (or Double Displacement reaction): Zinc metal is then added to the solution containing copper (II) sulfate. Zinc tends to lose electrons more readily than copper, consequently a displacement reaction takes place in which zinc displaces copper (II) ions from a solution of copper (II) sulfate forming elemental copper and zinc sulfate. Metal Displacement reaction: The precipitate copper is separated, dried, and weighed. The percentage recovery is then calculated as indicated: Procedure - Half-fill a clean 400-mL beaker with deionized water. Heat it to boiling using a flame. Transfer to a hot plate on medium-low setting until ready to use in Step 8. - Obtain a copper square (approximately 0.5 grams) and clean it thoroughly with steel wool. Wipe with a paper towel. - Weigh a clean, dry 250-mL beaker. - Place the copper square in the 250-mL beaker and weigh again. - In the fume hood, add 4 milliliters concentrated nitric acid to the copper square. Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide will be produced. When the reaction is complete (blue solution and no more brown fumes), remove the mixture from the hood and add deionized water until the beaker is about half full. - Add 30 milliliters of 3.0 M sodium hydroxide to precipitate out copper (II) hydroxide - Add one large boiling stone. Then with gentle stirring (leave stirring rod in beaker), heat just to boiling using a flame to convert the copper (II) hydroxide to insoluble black copper (II) oxide. The precipitate will settle rapidly if very hot. To assure rapid settling, decrease flame at first indication of “bumping” and continue heating with low flame until solution is very hot. - Remove beaker to base of ring stand. Remove stirring rod and place on base of ring stand in such a way that adhered particles will not be contaminated and may be recovered later. Allow copper (II) oxide to settle undisturbed. Decant supernatant liquid. To wash the precipitate, add about 200 milliliters of very hot deionized water (from Step 1). Stir then remove the stirring rod. Allow to settle and decant once more. Use medicine dropper to remove as much liquid as possible without removing product. - Prepare a steam bath for use in Step 18, by half-filling a 400-mL beaker with tap water and place on hot plate on medium-low setting. - Place the tip of the stirring rod in the beaker containing the copper solution. In the fume hood, pour 15 milliliters of 6.0 M sulfuric acid down the stirring rod. Stir, and roll the solution around the sides of the beaker in order to ensure all black copper (II) oxide dissolves. Leave the stirring rod in the beaker until Step 14. With forceps, hold the boiling stone above the solution and rinse it and the forceps with deionized water. Dispose of the boiling stone in a trash can. - In a 50-mL beaker, obtain 2.5 grams of granular zinc. - Place the beaker containing the copper solution in the hood, and slowly add about 2/3 of the granular zinc. This will precipitate copper metal. Stir continuously and continue to slowly add zinc until the solution becomes colorless. At this point, decant the liquid into the zinc-sulfuric acid waste container. - Still in the hood, add 5 milliliters deionized water to the solid copper, then add 15 milliliters concentrated hydrochloric acid. This will react any excess zinc and will be observed as generation of hydrogen gas bubbles. When bubbling has ceased, ask the instructor for permission to warm the solution on a hot plate (still in the hood). Do not boil. When fumes of HCl are observed, remove the solution from the hot plate and let it cool in the hood. When fumes cease, bring the mixture out of the hood. - Remove the stirring rod and decant away the HCl solution to another beaker, then dispose of as HCl Waste. Wash the copper precipitate with deionized water. Allow to settle, then decant as water waste. - Weigh a clean, dry evaporating dish. - Use a stream of deionized water from a wash bottle to transfer the precipitate from the beaker to the weighed evaporating dish. Allow to settle, then decant. - In a fume hood, wash the precipitate with approximately 5 milliliters of methanol. Allow to settle and decant the methanol into the Organic Waste container. Next, wash the precipitate with about 5 milliliters of acetone, allow to settle, and decant the acetone into the Organic Waste container. - Transfer the hot tap water (on hot plate; from step 9) from the 400-mL beaker to a 250-mL beaker. Place the evaporating dish over the beaker of hot water to make a steam bath. Allow at least 30 minutes for the precipitate to dry. - Remove the evaporating dish from the steam bath and allow it to cool to room temperature. Wipe it to remove moisture and fingerprints. Weigh it and record the mass. Have the instructor observe this weighing, verify the mass, and initial this weighing on the report sheet. - Calculate the percent of copper recovered. - Dispose of granular copper in the trash can. Data Sheet Record your observations for: Reaction of copper and nitric acid: Reaction of copper (II) nitrate and sodium hydroxide: Reaction of copper (II) hydroxide and heat: Reaction of copper (II) oxide and sulfuric acid: Reaction of copper (II) sulfate and zinc: \| Mass of 250-mL beaker with copper strip \| grams \| \| Mass of 250-mL beaker (empty) \| grams \| \| Mass of copper strip \| grams \| \| Mass of evaporating dish and product \| grams \| \| Mass of evaporating dish \| grams \| \| Mass of product \| grams \| \| Percent recovery of copper \| % \| Show calculations below. Experiment 10 - Determination of an Unknown Concentration of Nickel (II) Nitrate Determination of an Unknown Concentration Lab Prep Sheet Demo Area: - Watch glasses - Burette cards Hood Area: - 0.400 M Nickel (II) nitrate hexahydrate Ni(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O - 250mL labeled beaker - Rulers - 3 Unknowns labeled A, B, C with labeled beakers and cuvettes Student Benches: 6 stations - 1 Spectrophotometer - 6 Kim-wipe lined 50mL beakers with glass cuvettes- labeled 1-6 - 6x 50mL beakers - labeled 1-6 - 1 burette stand - 2 burets Solution Prep: - 0.400M Nickel (II) nitrate – 116.3 g Ni(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O per 1 L DI H₂O Each lab will need ~300mL of solution. Unknowns: A - 4.163g /100mL H₂O \| 20.815g per 500 mL H2O 0.143 M \| B - 3.098g/100mL H₂O \| 15.490g per 500 mLH2O 0.107 M \| C - 6.050g/100mL H₂O \| 30.250g per 500 mL H2 0.208 M \| Each group will need 10mL of one unknown. These can be placed in storage bottles labeled A, B, and C. Place labeled 250mL beaker, labeled 50mL beaker and cuvette with each unknown. Waste bottle in hood Determination of an Unknown Concentration of Nickel (II) Nitrate: An Introduction to Beer-Lambert Law Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine the concentration of an unknown nickel (II) nitrate solution by using a spectrophotometer and constructing a calibration curve from a series of nickel (II) nitrate solutions of known concentration. Introduction The nickel (II) nitrate solution used in this experiment is deep green in color and shows the greatest absorbance at a wavelength of 635 nm, referred to as . By setting a spectrophotometer to a wavelength of 635 nm, a red light from the light source will pass through the cuvette containing the solution. A fraction of the light is absorbed by the solution, the rest is transmitted through to the detector. Darker solutions, that is, higher concentration solutions, will absorb more light and transmit less light. The Beer-Lambert Law states that the absorbance of a solution is proportional to the concentration of the solution. Where A is the absorbance, ε is the molar absorptivity, b is the pathlength, and c is the molar concentration. This quantitative relationship between absorbance, A, and the solutions concentration, c, forms a linear relationship, as seen in Figure 1. Five “standard” solutions of known concentration are prepared. Each is transferred to a cuvette and placed in a spectrophotometer for absorbance readings. A graph of absorbance as a function of the concentration is plotted and a direct relationship should result, see Figure 1. This direct relationship is known as the Beer-Lambert Law. An unknown concentration is then determined by measuring and plotting its absorbance on the vertical axis and locating the corresponding concentration on the horizontal axis. Procedure - Turn on the spectrophotometer and allow the instrument to warm up for 15 minutes. This gives time for the electronics and light source to reach an equilibrium and have reproducible output/input signals. - Obtain approximately 30 milliliters of 0.400 M nickel (II) nitrate in a 50-mL beaker. - Obtain approximately 30 milliliters of deionized water in another 50-mL beaker. - Label 4 clean, dry 50-mL beakers #1 through 4. Rinse a 50-mL burette twice with about 4 milliliters of the stock 0.400 M nickel (II) nitrate solution. Fill the burette with the remaining nickel (II) nitrate stock solution. Drain enough of the solution to remove any air bubbles from the tip of the burette. Use this burette to deliver 2, 4, 6, and 8 milliliters of nickel (II) nitrate to respective beakers #1 through 4, recording the initial and final burette volumes in Table 1. - Using a second burette that has been rinsed with deionized water, air bubbles removed and filled with deionized water, deliver 8, 6, 4, and 2 milliliters to beakers #1 through 4 respectively, recording the initial and final burette volumes in Table 2. - Stir each solution with a stirring rod and dry the stirring rod between beakers. Use the remaining 0.400 M nickel (II) nitrate solution for the 5th solution. - Calculate the concentrations of the solutions in beakers #1 through 4 using the dilution equation, . Calculate each concentration and record in Table 3. - Pour the solutions from each beaker into separate clean, dry cuvettes labeled # 1 through 5. Additionally, fill a cuvette with deionized water for the blank. Note – the cuvettes should be cleaned by rinsing with deionized water several times. The outside of the cuvette should be cleaned of fingerprints using tissues (not paper towels). Paper towels could scratch the cuvette. - Using the spectrophotometer, set the wavelength to 635 nm. Place the cuvette with deionized water into the spectrophotometer and set the absorbance to zero. Next, read the absorbance for each of the cuvettes #1 through 5 and record these values in Table 3. - Obtain a sample solution of nickel (II) nitrate of unknown concentration. Fill a clean cuvette with this solution and read the absorbance of the solution. - Construct a graph of absorbance as a function of concentration, plot concentration on the x-axis and y-axis absorbance. Perform a linear fitting of the data points. Locate the absorbance of the unknown solution on the vertical axis and determine the corresponding concentration on the x-axis. Note this value on the Data Sheet. Data Sheet Name: Table 1. Volume of nickel (II) nitrate used \| Beaker # \| Initial burette reading (mL) \| Final burette reading (mL) \| Volume of nickel (II) nitrate transferred (mL) \| \| 1 \| \|\|\| \| 2 \| \|\|\| \| 3 \| \|\|\| \| 4 \| Table 2. Volume of deionized water used \| Beaker # \| Initial burette reading (mL) \| Final burette reading (mL) \| Volume of deionized water transferred (mL) \| Total volume of solution in beaker (mL) \| \| 1 \| \|\|\|\| \| 2 \| \|\|\|\| \| 3 \| \|\|\|\| \| 4 \| Table 3. Concentration and Absorbance of solutions \| Beaker # \| Concentration (M) \| Absorbance (a.u.) \| \| 1 \| \|\| \| 2 \| \|\| \| 3 \| \|\| \| 4 \| \|\| \| 5 \| 0.400 \| Concentration of Unknown Solution: ___________________ Experiment 11 - Determination of the Gas Constant, R Determination of the Gas Constant, R Lab Prep Sheet DEMO SETUP: - 500 mL Florence flask - Wide mouth test tube - 400 mL beaker - Thermometer - Utility clamp - Clay Triangle - Connecting tubes - Pinch clamp - Stirring rod on paper towel - Ring stand -3 - Ring -2 - Crucible - Wire square - Evaporating dish Hood: - Pipette fillers - 12 crucibles - 12 pinch clamps - 12 connecting tubes - Box of thermometers (at least 12) - Evaporating dishes - Barometer - Page #D-159 Vapor Pressure of H2O Balance Area: - 3-KClO3 on paper towel with scoop-Potassium chlorate - 3-MnO2 on paper towel with scoop-Manganese @dioxide Determination of the Gas Constant, R Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to determine a value for the gas constant, R, in the ideal gas law equation. Introduction All real gases deviate more or less from ideal behavior because their molecules do have some slight attraction for one another and do occupy some slight volume themselves. These deviations are more pronounced at high pressures and low temperatures; however, under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure, most gases conform to the gas law equation: or since , then In this experiment, the values of P, V, n, and T are obtained for oxygen and R is calculated. Oxygen is prepared by the decomposition of potassium chlorate using manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst. If the potassium chlorate is accurately weighed before and after oxygen has been driven off, the mass of the oxygen can be obtained by difference. Oxygen is collected by water displacement and the volume can be determined by the volume of water displaced. Atmospheric pressure conditions are imposed on the oxygen gas. Thus, by reading the barometer and using the vapor pressure of water at the temperature the measurements were made, the pressure of oxygen can be calculated using Dalton’s law of partial pressure. Procedure - Weigh a crucible and place about 0.1 gram (±0.05 g) in the crucible. The particular value for this mass is not needed for calculation and need not be recorded on the report sheet because the serves as a catalyst. - Heat the crucible and the vigorously for two or three minutes. Cool to room temperature. - Weigh an evaporating dish and place approximately 1.5 grams (±0.2 g) in it. The particular value for this mass is not needed for calculation and need not be recorded on the report sheet because mass lost will be determined by weighing by difference. - Carefully dry the sample by gently warming the evaporating dish over a small flame. Use a wire gauze mat as shown in Figure 1. DO NOT MELT. When the particles “dance” or “crackle,” the is dry. Cool to room temperature. Figure 1: Evaporating dish used to dry potassium chlorate 5. While the is cooling, assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 2, but do not attach the test tube. Figure 2: Oxygen gas production and collection apparatus. 6. Nearly fill a 500-mL Florence flask with room temperature tap water. Fill it at least halfway up the neck. Attach the fitted connecting tube. The long tube should extend to within one-half inch of the bottom of the flask and the short tube should not extend more than one-half inch below the rubber stopper. Half-fill a 400-mL beaker with room temperature tap water. 7. Before attaching the test tube, use a pipet bulb to blow air into the Florence flask through the short tube side. This will displace some water from the Florence flask and fill the tube connecting the flask and the beaker. When air ceases to bubble into the beaker, place a clamp on the hose. 8. Crush any large crystals of in the evaporating dish with a stirring rod and add the cooled to it. Mix thoroughly. 9. Use a paper funnel to transfer the solid mixture into the dry wide-mouth test tube. Wipe the mouth of the test tube with a paper towel. BE CERTAIN THAT NONE OF THE SOLID MIXTURE COMES IN CONTACT WITH THE RUBBER STOPPER OR A SEVERE EXPLOSION MAY OCCUR. 10. Wipe the outside of the test tube thoroughly to remove any fingerprints. 11. Weigh the test tube with its contents ensuring to distribute mass evenly. Weigh accurately to ±0.001 g. Record the mass on the Data Sheet. 12. Spread the contents evenly over the lower third of the test tube and attach to apparatus. 13. Open the clamp and equalize air pressure inside the system with the atmospheric pressure outside the system by raising the beaker until the water levels are at the same height above the countertop. 14. Close the clamp and discard the water in the beaker, taking care not to invert the glass tip of the rubber tubing connector. Dry the beaker. 15. Place the empty beaker back under the glass tip and open the clamp. A little water will flow into the beaker, but if the system is air-tight and has no leaks, the flow will soon stop, and the glass tip will remain filled with water. If this is not the case, and water keeps flowing, check the apparatus for leaks and repeat steps 6, 7, 12, 13, and 14. The small amount of water that is expected to flow into the beaker is part of the sample, and should be kept in the beaker. Water levels will be adjusted again in a later step to correct for this. 16. OBTAIN INSTRUCTOR PERMISSION TO PROCEED ANY FURTHER. 17. Heat the lower part of the test tube gently (BE CERTAIN THAT THE CLAMP IS OPEN) so that a slow but steady stream of gas is produced, as evidenced by the flow of water into the beaker. KEEP THE TIP UNDER WATER at all times during the experiment, for if air is admitted through the tip at any time, the results will not be accurate. 18. Until the mixture has liquefied, tap the test tube gently with a stirring rod to contain “dancing” particles in the lower third of the test tube. 19. Carefully control the evolution of oxygen by removing the flame whenever the rate becomes too rapid. IF WHITE VAPORS SHOULD APPEAR, DISCONTINUE HEATING IMMEDIATELY, and allow the smoke to settle. All smoke particles should be contained in the test tube, for if the smoke enters the connecting tube, the loss of mass from the test tube will be a sizable source of experimental error; and, if it were to obstruct the flow of oxygen through the tube, it could create a major safety hazard. 20. When 300 milliliters of water have been collected in the beaker, remove the flame, and allow the apparatus to stand until it has cooled to room temperature with the glass tip beneath the surface of the water in the beaker and the clamp open. 21. After the apparatus has reached room temperature, equalize the gas pressure inside the flask with the atmospheric pressure by raising or lowering the beaker or flask until the water levels in the beaker and the flask are the same height above the countertop. DO NOT HANDLE THE FLASK in such a way that the gas contained therein will be warmed by the hands. CLOSE THE CLAMP while the water levels are the same height. 22. Take the temperature of the oxygen in the flask by placing a thermometer directly in the gas (one inch above the level of the remaining water). Do not let the bulb of the thermometer touch the wall of the flask. Record the temperature to one decimal place. 23. Weigh the test tube and contents, avoiding fingerprints, to ±0.001 gram and record the value. 24. With 100-mL and 10-mL graduated cylinders, determine the volume of the oxygen in the flask by measuring the volume of the water in the beaker. Record the volume to one decimal place. 25. Determine atmospheric pressure for your location. 26. Look up the vapor pressure of water at the recorded temperature. 27. Calculate the pressure oxygen is exerting, that is, the oxygen’s partial pressure. 28. Calculate the gas constant, R, from the data obtained. Show the calculation with units and proper significant figures in the calculation area of the Data Sheet. Data Sheet Name: Quantity \| numbers and units \| \| Mass of test tube and contents before heating \| \| \| Mass of test tube and contents after heating \| \| \| Mass of oxygen gas \| \| \| Volume of oxygen sample in milliliters \| \| \| Volume of oxygen sample in liters \| \| \| Temperature in °C \| \| \| Temperature in Kelvin \| \| \| Atmospheric pressure in torr \| \| \| Vapor pressure of water in torr \| \| \| Pressure of oxygen gas in torr \| \| \| Pressure of oxygen gas in atmospheres \| \| \| Calculated value of gas constant, R \| Show the calculation the value of the gas constant, R as: Problem Set 1 - Nomenclature Compound Nomenclature – Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas Activity Purpose This activity introduces the naming conventions for common inorganic compounds. The naming conventions are classified by the compound's nature: ionic, molecular, and acid compounds. Part 1 – Ionic Compounds Ionic compounds are charge-based entities. They consist of positively charged particles (cations) in an extensive alternating array with negatively charged particles (anions). When naming an ionic compound, you do not really name “the compound.” You name the two parts (cation and anion) just as if they were independent. Most cations are metals. These cations retain their own element names. For those metals which have a single dependable charge, that element name is enough. These metals are the metals of Group IA (the alkali metals), Group IIA (the alkaline earth metals), silver, zinc, cadmium, and aluminum. All other metals can have multiple charges, and a Roman numeral is used to specify the charge. For example, copper atoms will lose either one electron to make , copper (I) ions or will lose two electrons to make , copper (II) ions. When naming an ionic compound, the charge of the metal ion is determined from the chemical formula and the charge of the anion. Binary Ionic Compounds A binary ionic compound will consist of a metal cation and a monoatomic ion, that is, the anion consists of an atom of a single element. Monoatomic anions are typically nonmetals and are named by changing the ending of the nonmetal name to have the suffix “-ide.” Examples are fluorine atoms gain one electron to form , fluoride anions and oxygen atoms gain two electrons to form , oxide anions. Ternary Ionic Compounds A ternary ionic compound will consist of a metal cation and a polyion, that is, the anion consists of two or more atoms. The most commonly occurring polyions contain two elements with one being oxygen and are sometimes referred to as “oxyanions.” These polyions are named by dropping the ending of the of the non-oxygen element and adding the suffix “-ate” or “-ite,” depending on the number of oxygen atoms contained in the polyion. These polyions also sometimes contain the prefixes “hypo-“ and “per-“, again, to help indicate the number of oxygens atoms contained in the polyion. Table 1 lists some of the most common oxyanions. Look for patterns in the number of oxygens and charges within periodic table family groups. Table 1 – Common Polyatomic Ions Element \| Root \| hypo___ite \| ___ite \| ___ate \| per___ate \| chlorine \| chlor- \| \|\|\|\| bromine \| brom- \| \|\|\|\| iodine \| iod- \| \|\|\|\| sulfur \| sulf- \| \| \| \|\| nitrogen \| nitr- \| \| \| \|\| phosphorus \| phosph- \| \| \|\|\| arsenic \| arsen- \| \| \| \|\| carbon \| carbon- \| \| \| \| \| boron \| bor- \| \| \| \| It is important to note that there are a few exceptions to these naming rules. Hydroxide ion, , cyanide ion, , and peroxide ion, are polyions but they all end in with the “-ide” suffix, which is usually reserved for monoatomic ions. These ion names were assigned before the naming rules were established and were so engrained in the science community; their assigned names were left as an exception to the rule. Another species that does not fit nicely into a category is ammonium ion, . This polyatomic cation will make ionic compounds with both monoatomic and polyatomic anions. Compounds containing ammonium cation appear quite often in general chemistry courses. When determining the chemical formula from the name both binary and ternary ionic compounds, the resulting compound must be expressed so that the result is a neutral compound, that is, the sum of the charges must add up to zero. For a compound like sodium chloride, the name implies cations and anions. These cations and anions pair up in a 1:1 ratio, and the formula is NaCl, with the charges, +1 + (-1) equaling zero. The compound iron (III) chloride implies cations and anions. The compound would require 3 chloride anions for each iron (III) cation to maintain neutrality. The number of ions in the compound are indicated by adding a subscript after the anion, so the formula for iron (III) chloride is expressed as . When the formula requires more than one polyatomic ion, parenthesis are used to group the polyatomic ion together. The compound iron (III) chlorate implies cations and anions. The compound would require 3 chlorate anions for each iron (III) cation, so the formula for iron (III) chlorate is expressed as . Part 2 – Molecular Compounds Molecular compounds typically are composed of nonmetals. Unlike ionic compounds where cations and anions are attracted through electrostatic interactions, molecular compounds form covalent bonds. In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. Nonmetals have high electron affinities and tend to attract electrons to themselves. In a compound comprised of two nonmetals, neither wants to give up electrons to the other, and the result is the sharing of electrons. The naming convention for binary molecular compounds is similar to that of the binary ionic compounds in that the name of the element listed first in the compound is named without altering the name; the element listed second is named by changing the ending of its name to have the suffix “-ide.” In addition, Greek prefixes are used to designate how many atoms of each element are present in the compound. The prefixes are listed in Table 2. The prefix mono- is often omitted, with the implication that if no prefix is listed, it is assumed there is only one atom of that element type. An example of this naming convention is dinitrogen tetrafluoride. The prefix di- indicates the compound has two nitrogen atoms, and the tetra- prefix indicates four fluorine atoms in the compound, thus the formula would be. In the case of oxygen being listed as the second element, often the “a” at the end of the prefix is omitted. In the case of , the compound would be named tetraphosphorus decoxide, rather than decaoxide. Table 2 – Greek Prefixes \| 1 \| mono- \| \| 2 \| di- \| \| 3 \| tri- \| \| 4 \| tetra-- \| \| 5 \| penta- \| \| 6 \| hexa- \| \| 7 \| hepta- \| \| 8 \| octa- \| \| 9 \| nona- \| \| 10 \| deca- \| Part 3 – Acids Acids are compounds that release hydrogen ions, H+, when dissolved in water. Acids, like ionic compounds, can be broken up into two categories: binary acids and ternary acids, and have slightly different naming conventions. Binary Acids A binary acid will consist of hydrogen and one other nonmetal, and the hydrogen is listed first in the compound. In gas form, these substances follow the convention for naming molecular compounds. When they are dissolved in water, they release H+ ions and act like an acid; therefore, the name is changed. To name these compounds in aqueous solution, the word hydrogen is shortened to become the prefix “hydro-,” followed by the base part of the nonmetal, and the end of the nonmetal name is replaced with “-ic acid.” Table 3 lists a few examples of binary acid names in their gas and aqueous forms. Table 3 – Names of Binary Acids \| hydrogen fluoride \| hydrofluoric acid \| \|\| \| hydrogen chloride \| hydrochloric acid \| \|\| \| hydrogen bromide \| hydrobromic acid \| \|\| \| 1 \| hydrogen cyanide \| hydrocyanic acid \| 1 Cyanide ion, , is a polyion but as it is historically named as a monoatomic ion with an ending of “-ide,” it gets placed into the binary acid category as well. Ternary Acids A ternary acid will consist of a hydrogen and a polyatomic ion, typically the oxyanions, and like the binary acids, the hydrogen is typically listed first. To name these compounds, start with the name of the polyatomic ion, if the polyatomic ion ends in “-ate” change the ending to “-ic acid” and if the polyatomic ion ends in “-ite” change the ending to “-ous acid.” An example is . The polyatomic ion in this compound is the sulfate ion, Remove the “-ate” and replace with “ic acid” to get the name sulfuric acid. See attached PDF for Naming problem sets. Problem Set 2 - Oxidation Numbers Oxidation Numbers Purpose This activity introduces the rules for assigning oxidation numbers to each element in a compound or ion. Introduction Oxidation numbers are useful for naming compounds and balancing oxidation-reduction reactions. The oxidation number is defined as the total number of electrons an atom has gained or lost in a chemical reaction to form a bond. Oxidation numbers can be calculated for covalent compounds even though electrons are not gained or lost, but rather shared. The oxidation number in covalent compounds represents the magnitude of relative electron density associated with each atom in a covalent compound. The oxidation number of an atom in a covalent compound indicates what the charges would be if that atom gained or lost the electrons involved in the bonding. Oxidation Number Rules The rules for assigning oxidation numbers are as follows, and should be considered in this order: - The oxidation number of an element in its elemental form is zero. Examples: Fe, Al, H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, P4, S8 - The oxidation numbers in any chemical species must sum to the overall charge on the species. That is, the oxidation numbers for a neutral compound must sum to zero and the oxidation numbers for a polyion must sum to the charge on the ion. - The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. - Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 when in a compound. - Metals of Group IA have an oxidation number of +1 when in a compound. Metals of Group IIA have an oxidation number of +2. - When in a compound, silver, zinc, cadmium, and aluminum will have consistent oxidation numbers. Ag will be +1, Zn and Cd will be +2 and Al will be +3. - Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 when it combines with nonmetals and polyions. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of –1 when it combines with metals. In these cases, hydrogen will be listed as the second element in the compound and will be named as “hydride.” - Oxygen will usually have an oxidation number of -2. There are a few cases where oxygen combines with hydrogen or a Group IA Metal and it has an oxidation number of -1 (rules 5 and 6 take precedence), and forms the ion and is named as “peroxide.” In rare cases, oxygen will have an oxidation number of -½ and is named as “superoxide.” - Nonmetals of Group VIIA, (halogens) have an oxidation number of –1 when they are listed second in a binary compound. When listed first in a binary molecule or in a polyion, their oxidation number can vary from +1 to +7. - Nonmetals of Group VIA (chalcogens) have an oxidation number of –2 when they are listed second in a binary compound. When listed first in a binary molecular or in a polyion, their oxidation number can vary. - Nonmetals of Group VA (pnictogens) have an oxidation number of –3 when they are listed second in a binary compound. When listed first in a binary molecular or in a polyion, their oxidation number can vary. Examples Example 1: magnesium sulfate, . Determine the oxidation numbers for P and S in the compound. - According to rule 2, the oxidation number for all the atoms in the compound must sum up to zero. That is, Mg + S + 4O = 0. Likewise, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in the polyion (sulfate) must add up to the charge on the polyion. That is, S + 2O = -2. - According to rule 3, magnesium will have an oxidation number of +2 since it is a Group IIA metal. - According to rule 7, oxygen will have an oxidation number of -2 since it is oxygen in a polyion. - According to rule 9, the oxidation for sulfur in a polyion can vary. Using either of the relationships listed above, the oxidation number of the sulfur can be calculated since the oxidation numbers of magnesium and oxygen are now known. - By assigning Mg = +2 and O = -2, it is determined that S = +6. Example 2: diphosphorus pentasulfide, . Determine the oxidation numbers for P and S in the compound. - According to rule 2, the oxidation number for all the atoms in the compound must sum up to zero. That is, 2P + 5S = 0. - According to rule 9, the oxidation number for sulfur will be -2 since it is listed second in the binary compound. - According to rule 10, The oxidation number for phosphorus can vary since it is listed first. - By assigning S = -2, it is determined that P = +5. Oxidation Number Exercises Name: Determine correct IUPAC name for each of the following formulas and then determine the oxidation number for requested element the compound or ion. \| Formula \| Name \| Oxidation Number \| \| Zn = \| \|\| \| H = \| \|\| \| Br = \| \|\| \| I = \| \|\| \| Ti = \| \|\| \| S = \| \|\| \| P = \| \|\| \| I = \| \|\| \| Cr = \| \|\| \| Ni = \| \|\| \| Mn = \| \|\| \| P = \| \|\| \| Cr = \| \|\| \| P = \| \|\| \| H = \| \|\| \| N= \| \|\| \| I = \| \|\| \| S = \| \|\| \| P = \| \|\| \| Mn = \| \|\| \| N = \| \|\| \| I = \| \|\| \| Sn = \| \|\| \| O = \| \|\| \| I = \| Determine correct formula for each of the following IUPAC names and then determine the oxidation number for requested element the compound or ion. \| Name \| Formula \| Oxidation Number \| \| Cr= \| \| \| Br = \| \| \| V = \| \| \| C = \| \| \| Mn = \| \| \| P = \| \| \| Cl = \| \| \| P = \| \| \| Cr = \| \| \| Hg = \| \| \| Cl = \| \| \| Te = \| \| \| Se = \| \| \| Cl = \| \| \| O = \| \| \| C = \| \| \| P = \| \| \| I = \| \| \| Br = \| \| \| S = \| \| \| P = \| \| \| H = \| \| \| N = \| \| \| Cd = \| \| \| I = \| Problem Set 3 - Molecular Geometry Molecular Geometry Purpose The purpose of this exercise is to practice drawing Lewis structures of substances, determining electron domain and molecular geometry, determining bond polarity and molecular polarity, and determining bond angles. Instructions For each of the following substances draw the Lewis dot structure, then identify the electron domain geometry and molecular geometry (Table 1). Use the electronegativity chart (Table 2) to determine bond polarity. Determine if the molecule is polar or nonpolar using the molecular geometry and bond polarity. If the substance is charged, write “ion” in the molecular polarity square. Finally, record the approximate bond angles. \| Substance(Formula) \| Lewis Dot Structure \| Electron Domain Geometry \| Molecular Geometry \| Bond Polarity \| Molecular Polarity \| Bond Angles \| \| Bromine \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Hydrogen Chloride \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Boron Trichloride \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Nitrate Ion \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Phosphorous Pentafluoride \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Substance \| Lewis Dot Structure \| Electron Domain Geometry \| Molecular Geometry \| Bond Polarity \| Molecular Polarity \| Bond Angles \| \| Ammonium Ion \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Formaldehyde \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Ammonia \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Triiodide Ion \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Chlorine Trifluoride \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Substance \| Lewis Dot Structure \| Electron Domain Geometry \| Molecular Geometry \| Bond Polarity \| Molecular Polarity \| Bond Angles \| \| Nitrite Ion \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Carbon Tetrachloride \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Sulfur Trioxide \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Sulfite Ion \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Ethylene \| Table 1: Electron Domain and Molecular Geometry \| Number of Bonding Domains \| Number of Non-Bonding Domains \| Electron Domain Geometry \| Molecular Geometry \| Bond Angles \| \| 2 \| 0 \| Linear \| Linear \| 180° \| \| 3 \| 0 \| Trigonal Planar \| Trigonal Planar \| 120° \| \| 2 \| 1 \| Trigonal Planar \| Bent \| <120° \| \| 4 \| 0 \| Tetrahedral \| Tetrahedral \| 109.5° \| \| 3 \| 1 \| Tetrahedral \| Trigonal Pyramidal \| <109.5° \| \| 2 \| 2 \| Tetrahedral \| Bent \| <109.5° \| \| 5 \| 0 \| Trigonal bipyramidal \| Trigonal Bipyramidal \| 120°, 90° \| \| 4 \| 1 \| Trigonal bipyramidal \| Seesaw \| <120°, <90° \| \| 3 \| 2 \| Trigonal bipyramidal \| T-shaped \| <90° \| \| 2 \| 3 \| Trigonal bipyramidal \| Linear \| 180° \| \| 6 \| 0 \| Octahedral \| Octahedral \| 90° \| \| 5 \| 1 \| Octahedral \| Square Pyramidal \| <90° \| \| 4 \| 2 \| Octahedral \| Square Planar \| 90° \| Table 2: Selected Electronegativity Values \| Element \| Electronegativity \| \| Boron \| 2.0 \| \| Bromine \| 2.8 \| \| Carbon \| 2.5 \| \| Chlorine \| 3.0 \| \| Fluorine \| 4.0 \| \| Hydrogen \| 2.1 \| \| Iodine \| 2.5 \| \| Nitrogen \| 3.0 \| \| Oxygen \| 3.5 \| \| Phosphorous \| 2.1 \| \| Sulfur \| 2.5 \| Problem Set 4 - Stoichiometry Stoichiometry Problem Set Purpose This problem set practices calculation techniques for stoichiometry, theoretical yield, percent yield, percent purity, and limiting reactant determination. - Use the balanced equation for the combustion of acetic acid in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water to calculate the answers for problems b through e. a. Balance: b. Calculate the number of moles of water produced from 1.50 moles of acetic acid reacting with sufficient oxygen. c. Calculate the number of moles of acetic acid reacting with sufficient oxygen required to produce 6.2 moles of carbon dioxide. d. Calculate the number of moles of oxygen required to react with 15.00 grams of acetic acid. e. Calculate the number of molecules of carbon dioxide produced by reacting sufficient oxygen with 6.005 grams of acetic acid. 2. Iron metal reacts with oxygen to form iron (III) oxide, . a. Write the balanced equation for this reaction. b. If 25.00 grams of iron completely react, what mass of iron (III) oxide can form? c. If 2.50 × 1023 molecules of oxygen completely react, what mass of iron (III) oxide can form? d. If 25.00 grams of iron react with 2.50 × 1023 molecules of oxygen, what mass of iron (III) oxide can form? e. If 30.45 grams of iron (III) oxide are produced in the reaction in part d, what is the percent yield? 3. Phosphoric acid can be prepared from elemental phosphorus, oxygen, and water by the following series of reactions. Be sure to balance the following reactions. What volume of acid is produced from reacting 1.250 grams of phosphorus with sufficient oxygen and water? The specific gravity of phosphoric acid is 1.18. 4. Potassium chlorate decomposes on heating to form potassium chloride and oxygen. a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction. b. If 4.904 grams of potassium chlorate, with a 75.00% purity, is heated, what mass of oxygen may be produced? c. 1.208 grams of oxygen are experimentally obtained. What is the percent yield? 5. What mass of magnesium oxide can be produced by reacting 0.750 grams of magnesium with 2.00 × 1022 molecules of oxygen? Remember to write the balanced equation for the reaction. 6. Ethyl alcohol, may be prepared by the fermentation of glucose, , as indicated by the unbalanced equation below. If 3.856 mL of ethyl alcohol was collected from an impure 7.000-gram sample by this formation process, determine the percent purity for this glucose sample. The specific gravity of ethyl alcohol is 0.790. Problem Set 5 - Gas Laws Problem Set Gas Laws Problem Set Purpose This problem set practices the use of the several different gas laws: Boyle’s, Charles’, combined, ideal, Dalton’s, and Graham’s laws. - Calculate the ratio of the rates of diffusion of neon to chlorine at room temperature. Which gas diffuses faster? How much faster? - What is the density of fluorine gas at STP? - A given mass of carbon dioxide has a volume of 250.0 milliliters at STP. To what temperature in degrees Celsius must the gas be heated in order to occupy a volume of 750.0 milliliters at 748.0 torr? - Oxygen gas has the density of 1.43 g/L at STP. What will be the mass of 500.0 milliliters of oxygen at 21.8°C and 750.8 torr? - How many liters of oxygen collected over water and measured at 27.0°C and 745.0 torr can be prepared by decomposing 4.421 grams gold (I) oxide (a noble metal oxide)? The vapor pressure of water at 27.0°C is 26.7 torr. - Compute the volume in milliliters of 80.018 grams of carbon dioxide at STP. - Analysis of a volatile liquid shows it contains 62.04% carbon, 10.41% hydrogen and some oxygen by mass. At 150.0°C and 760.0 torr, 500.0 milliliters of vapor have a mass of 1.673 grams. What is the molar mass of the compound and its chemical formula? - Chlorine diffuses 2.19 times faster than gas Q. What is the molar mass of gas Q? - A vessel contains 10.008 grams helium, 30.270 grams neon and 80.001 grams oxygen and exerts a pressure of 4.18 atm at a certain temperature. Calculate the partial pressure of each gas in torr. - Given the gas phase reaction: nitrogen + oxygen yields dinitrogen pentoxide, if 106.4 grams of nitrogen are reacted with sufficient oxygen, calculate the following: - Moles of nitrogen reacted - Moles of oxygen reacted - Moles of dinitrogen pentoxide produced - Liters of nitrogen (STP) reacted - Liters of oxygen (STP) reacted - Liters of dinitrogen pentoxide (STP) produced - Molecules of oxygen reacted - Molecules of dinitrogen pentoxide produced Problem Set 6 - Lecture Review Problem Set Lecture Review Problem Set Purpose This problem set practices concepts covered throughout General Chemistry I and aid in review for the final exam. - After an object with mass 32.118 grams is placed in a graduated cylinder containing water, the water level rises to 47.13 milliliters. The density of the object is 10.8 grams per cubic centimeter. Determine the initial level of the water in the graduated cylinder. - If 28.7 grams of iron at 126.2ºC is placed in 725 milliliters of water at 23.6ºC in an insulated container, what will be the final temperature? The specific heat of iron is 0.444 J/g∙℃ and specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g∙℃. - What is the percent composition by mass of oxygen in rubidium dichromate? - The pretend isotope chemogen, Ch, has the following data: \| Isotope \| Atom mass (a.m.u.) \| Percent abundance \| \| Ch-115 \| 115.0003 \| \| \| Ch-114 \| 113.9893 \| 18.77 \| \| Ch-113 \| 112.9990 \| 50.24 \| Determine the average atomic mass of chemogen to one decimal place. 5. “Antimonal saffron” is a pigment used in paint. A 1.117-gram sample of “antimonal saffron” was found to contain 60.30% of the element antimony. The remainder was sulfur. The true molar mass is known to be 404 grams per mole. Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of this compound. 6. Ethyl alcohol, may be prepared by the fermentation of glucose, , as indicated by the unbalanced equation below. What volume of ethyl alcohol may be prepared from 0.200 kilograms of glucose that is 95.6% pure? The specific gravity of ethyl alcohol is 0.791. 7. What mass of aluminum oxide can be produced by reacting 6.248 grams of aluminum with molecules of oxygen? Hint – write the balanced equation first. 8. Use the thermochemical equations below to determine the standard heat of formation, , at 25ºC for 9. If 17.37 milliliters of 0.4000 M acid solution are added to 20.00 milliliters of water, what is the new concentration? If 10.00 milliliters of this new solution are added to enough water to make 50.00 milliliters of acid solution, what is the new concentration 10. What volume of oxygen collected over water and measured at 26.1ºC and 754.8 torr can be prepared by decomposing 1.226 grams of potassium chlorate? The vapor pressure of water at 26.1ºC is 25.21 torr. 11. A 1.235-gram sample of a hydride of boron was found to contain 1.001 grams of boron. At 23.0ºC and 765.0 torr, 51.15 milliliters of this gas have a mass of 0.113 g. What is the molecular formula for the compound? 12. 8.08 grams of hydrogen, 48.0 gram of methane, and 41.90 grams of krypton in a closed vessel exert a pressure of 3.00 atmospheres at a certain temperature. Calculate the partial pressure of each gas in units of torr. 13. Using the values in the table below, calculate the amount of heat needed to convert 225.0 grams of ice at -5.0ºC to water at 98.0ºC. Standard enthalpy of phase change (J/g) \| Specific heat of substance \| \| Fusion of water = 334 J/g \| Ice = 2.092 \| \| Vaporization of water = 2260 J/g \| Water = 4.184 \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:50.953263	Kane Barker	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99735/overview", "title": "General Chemistry I Laboratory Manual", "author": "Barbara Veith" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104432/overview	CHAPTER 12: PUBLIC SPEAKING Overview Introduction to Human Communications textbook Learning Objectives • Explain the importance of accuracy, clarity, and listener interest in public speaking. • Define four delivery styles. • Discuss why public speaking is important. • Identify strategies for audience analysis. • Identify types of research and evidence • Apply ethical use of information • Identify a variety of speech patterns to organizing a speech. • Understand how to include presentational aids in your speech. • Identify strategies for delivery. • Understand how to outline a speech. THIS CHAPTER IS BROKEN DOWN INTO FIVE PARTS PART ONE – AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 12.1 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SPEAKING In this chapter, we wish to address the finer points of effective public speaking so that you can be more successful in future presentations and later in your professional career. Being honest about your personal agenda in choosing a topic is important. It is not always easy to discern a clear line between informative and persuasive speech. Good information has a strong tendency to be persuasive, and persuasion relies on good information. On a basic level, all communication is persuasive because at the very least when you communicate you are trying to persuade someone to listen to you and to believe you. Thus, informative and persuasive speaking do overlap. It remains up to you to examine your real motives in choosing your topic. Ethical speaking means respecting the intelligence of your audience. If you try to circumvent the purpose of the informative speech in order to plant a persuasive seed, your listeners will notice. Such strategies often come across as dishonest. A good speech conveys accurate information to the audience clearly and keeps the listener interested in the topic. Achieving all three of these goals—accuracy, clarity, and interest—is the key to your effectiveness as a speaker. If the information is inaccurate, incomplete, or unclear, it will be of limited usefulness to the audience. There is no topic about which you can give complete information, and therefore, we strongly recommend careful narrowing. With a carefully narrowed topic and purpose, it is possible to give an accurate picture that isn’t misleading. Part of being accurate is making sure that your information is current. Even if you know a great deal about your topic or writing a good paper on the topic in a high school course, you need to verify the accuracy and completeness of what you know. Most people understand that technology changes rapidly, so you need to update your information almost constantly, but the same is true for topics that, on the surface, may seem to require less updating. For example, the American Civil War occurred 150 years ago, but contemporary research still offers new and emerging theories about the causes of the war and its long-term effects. So even with a topic that seems to be unchanging, you need to carefully check your information to be sure it’s accurate and up to date. For your listeners to benefit from your speech, you must convey your ideas in a fashion that your audience can understand. The clarity of your speech relies on logical organization and understandable word choices. You should not assume that something that’s obvious to you will also be obvious to the members of your audience. Formulate your work with the objective of being understood in all details, and rehearse your speech in front of peers who will tell you whether the information in your speech makes sense. In addition to being clear, your speech should be interesting. Your listeners will benefit the most if they can give sustained attention to the speech, and this is unlikely to happen if they are bored. This often means you will decide against using some of the topics you know a great deal about. Suppose, for example, that you had a summer job as a veterinary assistant and learned a great deal about canine parasites. This topic might be very interesting to you, but how interesting will it be to others in your class? In order to make it interesting, you will need to find a way to connect it with their interests and curiosities. Perhaps there are certain canine parasites that also pose risks to humans—this might be a connection that would increase audience interest in your topic. 12.2 SPEAKING TO AN AUDIENCE WITH CLARITY The first key to preparing a speech for an audience is analyzing them. Audience analysis involves identifying the audience and adapting a speech to their interests, level of understanding, attitudes, and beliefs. A clear and interesting speech can make use of description, causal analysis, or categories. With description, you use words to create a picture in the minds of your audience. You can describe physical realities, social realities, emotional experiences, sequences, consequences, or contexts. For instance, you can describe the mindset of the Massachusetts town of Salem during the witch trials. You can also use causal analysis, which focuses on the connections between causes and consequences. For example, in speaking about health care costs, you could explain how a serious illness can put even a well insured family into bankruptcy. You can also use categories to group things together. For instance, you could say that there are three categories of investment for the future: liquid savings, avoiding debt, and acquiring properties that will increase in value. There are a number of principles to keep in mind as a speaker to make the information you present clear and interesting for your audience. Let’s examine several of them. Adjust the Complexity to the Audience If your speech is too complex or too simplistic, it will not hold the interest of your listeners. How can you determine the right level of complexity? Your audience analysis is one important way to do this. Will your listeners belong to a given age group, or are they more diverse? Did they all go to public schools in the United States, or are some of your listener’s international students? The answers to these and other audience analysis questions will help you to gauge what they know and what they are curious about. Similarly, be very careful about assuming there is anything that “everybody knows.” Suppose you’ve decided to present an informative speech on the survival of the early colonists of New England. You may have learned in elementary school that their survival was attributable, in part, to the assistance of Squanto. Many of your listeners will know which states are in New England, but if there are international students in the audience, they might never have heard of New England. You should clarify the term either by pointing out the region on a map or by stating that it’s the six states in the American northeast. Other knowledge gaps can still confound the effectiveness of the speech. For instance, who or what was Squanto? What kind of assistance did the settlers get? Only a few listeners are likely to know that Squanto spoke English and that fact had greatly surprised the settlers when they landed. It was through his knowledge of English that Squanto was able to advise these settlers in survival strategies during that first harsh winter. If you neglect to provide that information, your speech will not be as informative as it could be. Avoid Unnecessary Jargon If you decide to give a speech on a highly specialized topic, limit how much technical language or jargon you use. Loading a speech with specialized language has the potential to be taxing on the listeners. It can become too difficult to “translate” your meanings, and if that happens, you will not effectively deliver information. Even if you define many technical terms, the audience may feel as if they are being bombarded with a set of definitions instead of useful information. Don’t treat your speech as a crash course in an entire topic. If you must, introduce one specialized term and carefully define and explain it to the audience. Define it in words, and then use a concrete and relevant example to clarify the meaning. Create Concrete Images As a college student, you have had a significant amount of exposure to abstract terms. You have become comfortable using and hearing a variety of abstract ideas. However, abstract terms lend themselves to many interpretations. For instance, the abstract term “responsibility” can mean many things. Among other meanings, it can mean duty, task, authority, or blame. Because of the potential for misunderstanding, it is better to use a concrete word. For example, instead of saying, “Helen Worth was responsible for the project,” you will convey clearer meaning when you say, “Helen Worth was in charge of the project”, “Helen Kimes made the project a success”, or “Helen Worth was to blame for the failure of the project”. To illustrate the differences between abstract and concrete language, let’s look at a few pairs of terms: Abstract Concrete \| Transportation \| air travel \| \| Success \| completion of project \| \| Discrimination \| exclusion of women \| \| Athletic \| physically fit \| \| Profound \| knowledgeable \| By using an abstraction in a sentence and then comparing the concrete term in the sentence, you will notice the more precise meanings of the concrete terms. Those precise terms are less likely to be misunderstood. In the last pair of terms, “knowledgeable” is listed as a concrete term, but it can also be considered an abstract term. Still, it’s likely to be much clearer and more precise than “profound.” Keep Information Limited When you developed your speech, you carefully narrowed your topic in order to keep information limited yet complete and coherent. If you carefully adhere to your own narrowing, you can keep from going off on tangents or confusing your audience. If you overload your audience with information, they will be unable to follow your narrative. Use the definitions, descriptions, explanations, and examples you need in order to make your meanings clear, but resist the temptation to add tangential information merely because you find it interesting. Link Current Knowledge to New Knowledge Certain sets of knowledge are common to many people in your classroom audience. For instance, most of them know what Wikipedia is. Many have found it a useful and convenient source of information about topics related to their coursework. Because many Wikipedia entries are lengthy, greatly annotated, and followed by substantial lists of authoritative sources, many students have relied on information acquired from Wikipedia in writing papers to fulfill course requirements. All this is information that virtually every classroom listener is likely to know. One way to make the message acceptable to your listeners is to show what Wikipedia does well. For example, some Wikipedia entries contain many good references at the end. Most of those references are likely to be authoritative, having been written by scholars. In searching for information on a topic, a student can look up one or more of those references in full-text databases or in the library. In this way, Wikipedia can be helpful in steering a student toward the authoritative information they need. Explaining this to your audience will help them accept, rather than reject, the bad news about Wikipedia. Make it Memorable If you’ve already done the preliminary work in choosing a topic, finding an interesting narrowing of that topic, developing and using presentation aids, and working to maintain audience contact, your delivery is likely to be memorable. Now you can turn to your content and find opportunities to make it appropriately vivid. You can do this by using explanations, comparisons, examples, or language. This strategy rests on the ability of the audience to visualize the two contrasting situations. You have alluded to two sets of images that are familiar to most college students, images that they can easily visualize. Once the audience imagination is engaged in visualization, they are likely to remember the speech. Your task of providing memorable imagery does not stop after the introduction. While maintaining an evenhanded approach that does not seek to persuade, you must provide the audience with information about the circumstances that triggered the policy of internment, perhaps by describing the advice that was given to President Roosevelt by his top advisers. You might depict the conditions faced by Japanese Americans during their internment by describing a typical day one of the camps. To conclude your speech on a memorable note, you might name a notable individual—an actor, writer, or politician—who is a survivor of the internment. Such a strategy might feel unnatural to you. After all, this is not how you talk to your friends or participate in a classroom discussion. Remember, though, that public speaking is not the same as talking. It’s prepared and formal. It demands more of you. In a conversation, it might not be important to be memorable; your goal might merely be to maintain the friendship. But in a speech, when you expect the audience to pay attention, you must make the speech memorable. Make it Relevant and Useful When thinking about your topic, it is always very important to keep your audience members center stage in your mind. For instance, if your speech is about air pollution, ask your audience to imagine feeling the burning of eyes and lungs caused by smog. This is a strategy for making the topic more real to them, since it may have happened to them on a number of occasions; and even if it hasn’t, it easily could. If your speech is about Mark Twain, instead of simply saying that he was very famous during his lifetime, remind your audience that he was so prominent that their own great-grandparents likely knew of his work and had strong opinions about it. In so doing, you’ve connected your topic to their own forebears. For a full list of the Sustainability Goals you can go to the following website https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ sustainable-development-goals/ Develop your Topic for the Audience One issue to consider when preparing a speech is how best to present the information to enhance audience learning. Katherine Rowan (2003) suggests focusing on areas where your audience may experience confusion and using the likely sources of confusion as a guide for developing the content of your speech. Rowan identifies three sources of audience confusion: difficult concepts or language, difficult-to-envision structures or processes, and ideas that are difficult to understand because they are hard to believe. Difficult Concepts or Language Sometimes audiences may have difficulty understanding information because of the concepts or language used. For example, they may not understand what the term “organic food” means or how it differs from “all-natural” foods. If an audience is likely to experience confusion over a basic concept or term, clarify the meaning by giving an example and defining the term. Similarly, when using an acronym it is important to explain what it means and perhaps put up the full name on a visual aid. You may know that NCA refers to the National Communication Association but your audience may not Difficult-to-Envision Process or Structures The second source of audience difficulty in understanding, according to Rowan, is a process or structure. Presentation aids or analogies might be helpful in giving an overview of the process. For the circulatory system, you could show a video or diagram of the entire system or make an analogy to a pump. Then you can move to explaining relationships among the components of the process. Be sure when you explain relationships among components that you include transition and linking words like “leads to” and “because” so that your audience understands relationships between concepts. You may remember the childhood song describing the bones in the body with lines such as, “the hip bone’s connected to the thigh bone; the thigh bone’s connected to the knee bone.” Making the connections between components helps the audience remember and understand the process. Difficult to Understand because it’s Hard to Believe A third source of audience confusion, and perhaps the most difficult to address as a speaker, is an idea that’s difficult to understand because it’s hard to believe. This often happens when people have implicit but erroneous theories about how the world works. For example, the idea that science tries to disprove theories is difficult for some people to understand; after all, shouldn’t the purpose of science be to prove things? In such a case, Rowan suggests using a transformative explanation. A transformative explanation begins by discussing the audience’s implicit theory and showing why it is plausible. Then you move to showing how the implicit theory is limited and conclude by presenting the accepted explanation and why that explanation is better. In the case of scientists disproving theories, you might start by talking about what science has proven (e.g., the causes of malaria, the usefulness of penicillin in treating infection) and why focusing on science as proof is a plausible way of thinking. Then you might show how the science as proof theory is limited by providing examples of ideas that were accepted as “proven” but were later found to be false, such as the belief that diseases are caused by miasma, or “bad air”; or that bloodletting cures diseases by purging the body of “bad humor.” You can then conclude by showing how science is an enterprise designed to disprove theories and that all theories are accepted as tentative in light of existing knowledge. Rowan’s framework is helpful because it keeps our focus on the most significant element of this speech: increasing audience understanding about a topic. PART TWO- TOPIC SELECTION, PURPOSE, & THESIS 12.3 TOPIC SELECTION: FINDING YOUR PURPOSE Finding a speech’s purpose and a topic isn’t as complex or difficult as you might believe. This may be hard to accept right now but trust us. After you read this chapter, you’ll understand how to go about finding interesting topics for a variety of different types of speeches. In this chapter, we are going to explain how to identify the general purpose of a speech. We will also discuss how to select a topic, what to do if you’re just drawing a blank and four basic questions you should ask yourself about the speech topic you ultimately select. Finally, we will explain how to use your general purpose and your chosen topic to develop the specific purpose of your speech. Selecting a Topic One of the most common stumbling blocks for novice public speakers is selecting their first speech topic. Generally, your public speaking instructor will provide you with some fairly specific parameters to make this a little easier. You may be assigned to tell about an event that has shaped your life or to demonstrate how to do something. Whatever your basic parameters, at some point you as the speaker will need to settle on a specific topic. In this section, we’re going to look at some common constraints of public speaking, picking a broad topic area, and narrowing your topic. Common Constraints of Public Speaking When we use the word “constraint” with regard to public speaking, we are referring to any limitation or restriction you may have as a speaker. Whether in a classroom situation or in the boardroom, speakers are typically given specific instructions that they must follow. These instructions constrain the speaker and limit what the speaker can say. For example, in the professional world of public speaking, speakers are often hired to speak about a specific topic (e.g., time management, customer satisfaction, entrepreneurship). In the workplace, a supervisor may assign a subordinate to present certain information in a meeting. In these kinds of situations, when a speaker is hired or assigned to talk about a specific topic, he or she cannot decide to talk about something else. Purpose The first major constraint someone can have involves the general purpose of the speech. As mentioned earlier, there are three general purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain. If you’ve been told that you will be delivering an informative speech, you are automatically constrained from delivering a speech with the purpose of persuading or entertaining. In most public speaking classes, this is the first constraint students will come in contact with because generally, teachers will tell you the exact purpose for each speech in the class. Audience The second major constraint that you need to consider as a speaker is the type of audience you will have. As discussed in the chapter on audience analysis, different audiences have different political, religious, and ideological leanings. As such, choosing a speech topic for an audience that has a specific mindset can be very tricky. Unfortunately, choosing what topics may or may not be appropriate for a given audience is based on generalizations about specific audiences. For example, maybe you’re going to give a speech at a local meeting of Democratic leaders. You may think that all Democrats are liberal or progressive, but there are many conservative Democrats as well. If you assume that all Democrats are liberal or progressive, you may end up offending your audience by making such a generalization without knowing better. Obviously, the best way to prevent yourself from picking a topic that is inappropriate for a specific audience is to really know your audience, which is why we recommend conducting an audience analysis. Context The third major constraint relates to the context. For speaking purposes, the context of a speech is the set of circumstances surrounding a particular speech. There are countless different contexts in which we can find ourselves speaking: a classroom in college, a religious congregation, a corporate boardroom, a retirement village, or a political convention. In each of these different contexts, the expectations for a speaker are going to be unique and different. The topics that may be appropriate in front of a religious group may not be appropriate in the corporate boardroom. Topics appropriate for the corporate boardroom may not be appropriate at a political convention. Time Frame The last—but by no means least important—major constraint that you will face is the time frame of your speech. In speeches that are under ten minutes in length, you must narrowly focus a topic to one major idea. For example, in a ten-minute speech, you could not realistically hope to discuss the entire topic of the US Social Security program. There are countless books, research articles, websites, and other forms of media on the topic of Social Security, so trying to crystallize all that information into ten minutes is just not realistic. Instead, narrow your topic to something that is more realistically manageable within your allotted time. You might choose to inform your audience about Social Security disability benefits, using one individual disabled person as an example. Or perhaps you could speak about the career of Robert J. Myers, one of the original architects of Social Security. By focusing on information that can be covered within your time frame, you are more likely to accomplish your goal at the end of the speech. Selecting a Broad Subject Area Once you know what the basic constraints are for your speech, you can then start thinking about picking a topic. The first aspect to consider is what subject area you are interested in examining. A subject area is a broad area of knowledge. Art, business, history, physical sciences, social sciences, humanities, and education are all examples of subject areas. When selecting a topic, start by casting a broad net because it will help you limit and weed out topics quickly. Furthermore, each of these broad subject areas has a range of subject areas beneath it. For example, if we take the subject area “art,” we can break it down further into broad categories like art history, art galleries, and how to create art. We can further break down these broad areas into even narrower subject areas (e.g., art history includes prehistoric art, Egyptian art, Grecian art, Roman art, Middle Eastern art, medieval art, Asian art, Renaissance art, modern art). As you can see, topic selection is a narrowing process. Narrowing your Topic Narrowing your topic to something manageable for the constraints of your speech is something that takes time, patience, and experience. One of the biggest mistakes that new public speakers make is not narrowing their topics sufficiently given the constraints. In the previous section, we started demonstrating how the narrowing process works, but even in those examples, we narrowed subject areas down to fairly broad areas of knowledge. You may think that your topic is sufficiently narrow, but even within the topic of Anatolian art, there are smaller categories: pre-Hittite, Hittite, Uratu, and Phrygian periods of art. So, let’s narrow our topic again to the Phrygian period of art (1200–700 BCE). Although we have now selected a specific period of art history in Anatolia, we are still looking at a five-hundred-year period in which a great deal of art was created. One famous Phrygian king was King Midas, who according to myth was given the ears of a donkey and the power of a golden touch by the Greek gods. As such, there is an interesting array of art from the period of Midas and its Greek counterparts representing Midas. At this point, we could create a topic about how Phrygian and Grecian art differed in their portrayals of King Midas. We now have a topic that is unique, interesting, and definitely manageable in five to seven minutes. You may be wondering how we narrowed the topic down; we just started doing a little research using the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s website Overall, when narrowing your topic, you should start by asking yourself four basic questions based on the constraints discussed earlier in this section: 1. Does the topic match my intended general purpose? 2. Is the topic appropriate for my audience? 3. Is the topic appropriate for the given speaking context? 4. Can I reasonably hope to inform or persuade my audience in the time frame I have for the speech? PART THREE – RESEARCH 12.4 CONDUCTING RESEARCH The first mention of research can send students running for the exits or on a hike to the nearest Wikipedia page, but this need not be the case. If I asked how familiar you were with finding information, conducting research, or evaluating sources, you would probably say, “Not very.” Although you may not think you engage in research regularly, in fact, you conduct research every day in many ways. Our goal is to boost both your confidence and skills for conducting research so that you know what you need and where to find it for any project you are working on. Informed Learning or Informational Literacy are terms that explain pedagogy (the teaching process) that focuses on how combining subject content through academic practice can result in academic and professional application. Research is applicable to all areas of study and it is an important connection to educational, personal, and professional learning. These connections boost confidence so that students perform a higher level of comprehension and delivery of content. College students recognize that being informed means selecting content for review, building connections, practicing, and implementing higher standards to reading, reviewing research, and demonstration of work. The goal from a student perspective is that informed learning locates resources and evaluates those resources based on conceptual realities mirrored in real life, whether it be family decisions about finance or workplace etiquette. Revising the way you approach learning and including an informed perspective is advantageous for numerous reasons. Informed learning skills allow students to save time, simplify or clarify reading and assignments, promote connections between ideas and perspectives, encourage participation in the learning process, and facilitate skill development. Information Literacy Model There are various information literacy models. One Information Literacy Model consists of four components that aid in comprehension of information in various forms. The four components include library skills, media skills, critical literacy, and information ethics. • Library Skills: Library skills develop literacy by increasing understanding of disciplines of study. Being able to search within different branches of learning allows you to begin to build a foundation of knowledge to understand areas within your educational pursuits and designated career. Building connections between disciplines create bridges that support a more holistic approach to learning, utilizing search options, keyword and subject search, catalog and database access. • Media Skills: Media skills develop the ability to utilize resources that combine text, graphics, and other combinations of media. Visual media has always had a strong presence with varied websites offering videos of tutorials and news. Computer generated media are widely becoming a new way to create information. Lastly, social media allows sharing of information more easily than before in the Digital Age. • Critical Literacy: Critical Literacy activates long term memory, including critical reading, critical thinking, and synthesis. Critical reading is reached when main ideas are determined, interpreted, and evaluated. Critical thinking is reached when analysis, critique, and response motivate observation, experience, and deep learning. Synthesizing is reached when ideas are summarized and a furthered approach to learning is met by combining ideas. • Information Ethics: Information Ethics teaches you to consider ethical and moral obligations in research, including copyright, security, and privacy. Research conducted and presented in any format requires an understanding of how to properly evaluate, cite, and attribute sources. Research is a word that defines the process of inquiry, location, selection, evaluation, and application of sources. There are many types of research. A discussion of information includes the different ways that you can conduct research. Informed learning requires that you be able to identify these research types and choose accordingly which one might be useful in what context or scenario. You also want to think about how one type of research might be better implemented for the desired purpose or effect of the audience. The types of research this chapter introduces include Personal and Professional Experience, Internet Research, Library Research, and Interviewing. Personal and Professional Experience You will most likely want to research ideas you find interesting and can see connections to meaningful and effective ways to learn and use the information. Personal and Professional experience are great ways to begin to think about topics or areas that you can write or speak about due to your own knowledge and expertise. Using Personal and Professional experience can help lessen anxiety by allowing you to speak about subjects you are already familiar with or share meaningful stories. Additionally, when speaking from experience you are more excited about your topic, and this improves eye contact because you rely less upon your speaking notes. You connect on a personal level with the audience and build connections through something you are passionate about. Students may not always respond to a topic, but they will respond to a person. Personal experience relies on the unique frames of reference and worldviews based on the experiences that have shaped your sense of self or identity. Personal experiences can be based on age, race, or economic status. These personal experiences can also be influenced by the way you were raised, educated, or formed connections to media, society, or culture. Personal experience is a great way to incorporate a sense of reality and sincerity into your message. You can choose common or shared experiences with your audience to better meet and anticipate audience understanding. If you share your experience, those in the audience will begin to think about their own experiences, identifying and critiquing your experience against their own. It is a great way to encourage interest and engagement. Many times we choose topics that have affected us personally. Sharing these experiences remind others how certain topics affect them at their age, in their neighborhoods, or among their friends because they are being provided a real life experience from their peer. Professional experience relies on information gained in a professional capacity. If you have gained specific knowledge or experience from education, training, or practice in relationship to your career, the information you have attained counts as professional experience. The phrase “Professional Experience” stands out as an area you would include on your resume and is precisely what you would consider. Professional experience can add credibility to a presentation by allowing others to see that you have more legitimate knowledge than others. For example, if you have interned, served in the military, or have a professional image as a college student, this lets you share your experiences in a real way and connect to an audience that shares your demographic characteristics. This encourages your audience to make its own connections to your topic. The Prom Prom is a shared experience for most teenagers and young adults. It reflects a very important ritual with common themes that are echoed in television and film from movies such as Pretty in Pink, Carrie, and Mean Girls. These are identifiable characteristics that create this sense of the experience and how it should be shared– including bullying, the dress, alcohol, sex, and dancing. This experience is one that has been chronicled for years as a right of passage and often planned with the same sentiment as a wedding. When you share your experience with peers, there is a level of comparison based on expectations and one’s own relationship to their experience or lack thereof. More recently, we are seeing a resurgence of this experience in the media based on new interpretations of prom in response to gender.' 12.3 INTERVIEWS An interview is a conversation in which someone is questioned about their background, lifestyle or experience and answers are given. Interviews are a great way to rely on others for personal and professional experience. Interviews can be structured (formal), semi- structured (blended), or unstructured (informal). The traditional interview experience is between two people in a face-to-face setting. Increasingly, interviews are conducted in groups, by a panel, or virtually with the use of technology. No matter the format, interviews following a similar pattern. Interviewing often follows a simple structure and there are some key ideas that can make your interview more successful. Always remember that you need to do research and prepare before the interview. What can you learn about the person or the person’s connection to your topic? What resources can you utilize to gain this knowledge? Based on your research, develop questions or talking points to encourage sharing. Be respectful of others’ time and be clear about expectations for the interview (where will you meet, if the interview is recorded, how much time you need, the purpose of the interview, etc.). Find the information you need and think through how you want to design questions for the interview. Use prepared questions. Primary questions identify key ideas and direct the interview content. Secondary questions redirect and clarify or build on primary questions. For an informational interview, you may ask more open questions that do not require a specific answer and allow the interviewee to direct and manage more of the conversation. Open questions will help you acquire more perspectives and variety in responses. Identify whether questions may be biased questions or neutral questions. Neutral questions are without opinion; whereas, biased questions present an opinion or agenda in the response. For a survey or data analysis, you may ask more closed questions to generate short one word answers or numerical responses. SKILLS STUDY. Want to get some ideas on how to conduct an Informational (Research) Interview? Lily Zhang, a Career Development Specialist at MIT, wrote a blog post detailing how to construct an informational interview for someone who works in a career you are interested in pursuing.In thinking about interviewing from a research perspective, the interview offers a new and varied perspective. This builds credibility because it shows diversity in opinion and approach to the subject, which presents more trust when more sources are used. It can be difficult to know exactly what information to include, what information is needed, or how to organize the information. A point person or expert can be a great resource. In many instances, this person has experience researching the topic and provide important advice for what should be considered the most important, relevant or timely points, and how to best communicate a message. Lastly, there are numerous factors that divide us as an audience or create a differing worldview from those around us. We may not identify with the author because we feel they do not represent us, our ideals, or our experiences. An expert can bridge those gaps and allow you to choose someone that your audience can connect to, trust, or admire. Internet Research You may be wondering, “What constitutes Internet research?” Examples of internet research can be non-print resources, or formats with special characters whose information content can only be access through the use of machines / digital equipment such as e-book, e-journals, e- images, etc. Internet resources can also include email, blogs, and list-serves can be used to collect interview statements and provide experience. Media sources such as radio, TV, film, audio and video recordings add visual content and increase audience engagement with a topic. Websites, virtual libraries, educational indexes and search engines can be used to locate content and knowledge. Knowing how to utilize a search engine can be extremely helpful in applying informed learning to an online environment. There are shortcuts, operators, features, punctuation, and symbol searches. Also, a site’s address (i.e., Uniform Resource Locator, or URL) contains information that can provide the purpose in selecting a source. You probably recognize .com or .org as two types of URL and there may be others that you recognize but are unsure what would be scholarly or appropriate. American universities, colleges, and secondary schools often use .edu. Not-for-profit or non-profit organizations often use the .org suffix. Businesses, news, and database websites use .com/ .net. Personal sites are individual sites that are not representative of a larger body, but a personal or local business, news, or information website and use .site. Library Research Library research includes all of the resources found in the library or through its website. There are three main areas of library research: Classification and Catalog, Reference Works, and Print Resources. Classification and catalog use a variety of categorization to help patrons locate materials in the library. The catalog organizes resources by author, title, Library of Congress Subject Heading, and call number. Periodicals are works published at regular intervals such as daily, weekly, monthly, or even annually. These include general interest magazines and professional and academic journals. Periodicals are generally peer reviewed or edited and provide a variety of perspectives. They can provide in-depth information, research, and data statistics and studies. They can contain more up-to date information than books or e-books. Newspaper Indexes provide a searchable database of news articles, including more current information. Reference works are books and other works that contain useful facts and information, such as Encyclopedia’s, Dictionaries, Directories, Atlases, Almanacs, Books of Quotations, and Biographies. Print resources are printed text and images or paper publications that are in the form of physical editions of books, journals, magazines, newspapers, etc. Books in print can provide more in-depth, credible, and historical research. Newspapers in print can provide more local information by providing access to smaller, community papers. 12.4 HOW TO INTEGRATE AND PRESENT RESEARCH Research is integrated and presented in a text as evidence. The text can be an essay or speech outline that you have written. Written text can also include a computer generated presentation like a slide show. The text can also be verbal and include a speech or presentation. It doesn’t matter what text you comprise, you need to incorporate your research. The varied ways that you incorporate your research can help you plan, organize, and deliver your evidence more effectively. Choices you make for integrating and presenting your information depend upon the message you want to convey. There are 4 ways that you can integrate evidence: definitions, examples, facts and statistics, and testimony. A definition is a formal statement of the meaning or significance of a word, phrase, idiom, etc.. There are different types of definitions and ways to think about defining a term. Thinking about how the word is used in our language can determine if we want a common meaning or want to use a word more strategically based on how people think about the use of the word. We know there is the denotative or dictionary definition — the literal meaning of the word. There is the connotative definition — the associated meaning of the word based on our world view and experiences. There are more formal ideas about how to define terms such as the etymological definition, or how the word is defined by the word’s origin or history. Definitions provide clarity to complex ideas, jargon, or slang. An example is a characteristic of its kind or illustrates a general rule. They can be brief, extended, or hypothetical. A brief example is short and generally adds clarity by providing a detail or characteristic of a piece of information. Examples add relevance by discussing what is current or familiar to the audience as a way to connect information. For example, using a genre of music as an example of what music you listen to in your free time allows the audience to determine similarities, differences, or lack of exposure and experience. An extended example, or narrative, provides an anecdote or story that relays a more vivid and textured example of a situation, experience, or context surrounding your topic. An extended example often serves as an illustration of an idea. If you are presenting a persuasive speech on local services, you can use an article from a local paper to help the audience visualize how the problem impacts their lives. Hypothetical examples convey ideas that are common, known, or sensitive in nature that is imagined to depict realistic scenarios. Since a hypothetical example does not have to be connected to a specific person, time, or place, hypothetical examples allow an audience to think introspectively about how they would react or respond in the situation. A fact is a piece of information used as evidence known or proved to be true. A statistic is a piece of data from a study of a large quantity of numerical data. Facts and statistics can be used to present new ideas or reinforce current ideas or to confirm or disprove information. Data and statistics help audiences consider a topic from a more informed standpoint and help further reasoning. There are, however, some constraints to using statistics efficiently. When used accurately, facts and statistics can present a clear and purposeful message that creates a sense of immediacy in relationship to a topic. When used poorly, facts and statistics can result in information overload or confusion. When evaluating facts and statistics, it is important to ask the following questions to allow for better understanding. 1. Is the Source Reliable? 2. Is there Manipulation or Distortion? 3. Is the statistic Representative (Sample Size)? 4. Is the Math Correct (Mean/average, Median/ middle, or Mode/ frequency)? PRESENTING STATISTICS It is equally important to present statistics, numerical data, accurately. Introducing statistics as a quantity or rounding the numbers will aid the cognitive process when trying to convey the impact of large numbers. While a large blanket number may be hard to understand, the use of values like “one in three” or an illustration like “five football stadiums long” can present a more simplified, recognizable figure. Combining figures can show seriousness or magnitude of a problem or issue. While you do want to think about your main ideas to be illustrated, statistics should be used sparingly. The audience cannot remember all the information provided and will need to select information based on its goals and needs. Identify the source, cite the author, present a clear idea of where the information comes from, and ensure the audience of the source’s reliability. Explain and clarify the research by providing an interpretation of how the statistic is being applied and how it helps our understanding of the larger topic. Use visuals to help simplify the information and to bolster your audience’s interest. Testimony is a formal written or spoken statement. It can be expert or peer-based. The type of testimony you provide has much to do with your topic or the desired audience outcome. Experts are people who are acknowledged authorities in their fields. Peers are people like ourselves; not prominent figures, but ordinary citizens who have the first-hand experience on a topic. It is important that when you present testimony, you consider the authority of the source. Celebrity or athletic endorsements may not be as trusted or credible as professional endorsements. Always credit the author and include their credentials or qualifications to build that credibility and strengthen the source. You can think back to the introduction on personal and professional experience to understand these two types of testimony better. We integrate testimony as support by either quoting or paraphrasing our original source. Quoting is presenting a message word-for-word, exactly as it was written or stated. Quoting works best when the quote is short and not drawn out, or when the meaning is better conveyed through language or literary technique. When quoting a source, be sure that you are delivering the quote with the correct meaning or intent and presenting the context in which the quote was used. Paraphrasing is restating or summarizing in one’s own words what another person had said. Paraphrase when the quote is long, difficult to understand, or jargon-heavy. There are a few tips to paraphrase accurately (but remember, you must still cite the original source when paraphrasing): 1. Change the words. Identify the key words that are not your own vocabulary or stand out and change them to reflect your own personality and voice. 2. Edit the quote. Identify areas that you can leave out or add-to in order to make the information helpful to your audience. 3. Re-structure the quote. Can you move the beginning to the middle or to the end? Is the paraphrased information better if you start with the last sentence’s idea and work backward to the introduction? Could the body of the quote serve as steps or claims that you can present in order? 4. For a guide on how to paraphrase, check out this site 12.5 EVALUATING RESEARCH There are five fundamental questions that can help you identify the best measure of credibility and reliability of a source. These steps are easy to remember because they follow the five standard questions you have been learning to ask throughout your life. The five questions of who, what, when, where, and why create the 5 W’s of Web Site Evaluation. Who Most credible articles include an author of the text. However, if there is not an author noted in a byline, the author may be a sponsoring organization, company, or entity. The best way to locate the author if no byline is present is to scroll to the bottom of the web page. At the bottom of the page, you will usually find the author (entity) and a copyright date. This serves as a published or last updated (revised) date for the source. How do you identify an author when using a Youtube video, or a blog post? The author is not the site, but the name of the responsible party that posted the content. It may seem strange, but you will use the username if a formal name is not provided. Once you have identified the author, you want to evaluate how credible or reliable they are as a source. If there is no information on the web page, you can conduct an Internet search of the author or entity. You can also look for reviews or conduct an article search to see consumer opinions or news related to the author or entity. What What determines the purpose, point-of-view, or type of site you may be used for research. The purpose may be to inform or sell to consumers. It may be a biased news organization or a stay-at-home dad’s blog about raising a daughter. It may be an educational site created by an institution of learning or an entertainment site with funny videos that encourages subscribing. Determine how the information may contribute to your research as well as what ideas may be presented and shared. It is important to consider what information you will use based on your own purpose and point-of-view, as well as audience interest. Identify bias, fact or opinion, and evaluate the sources you use. The web site should include formal citations or references for material that is not written by the author. You also should be able to navigate the site without problem or error. Privacy and safety should be a concern when navigating an un-trusted site. When When provides the copyright or publish date of a source. It is imperative that you can discern when a site was written or put online. Without this information, you may not have relevant or current information, and that can be misleading. It can also be an indication that the site is not maintained or updated. If a date is not provided, the credibility of the site and the information on the site is questionable. Where Where may seem like it is asking the same question as Who or What, but it is asking specific questions that examine responsibility and transparency in research. Many web sites will borrow, restate, or write their own information. It is important to identify the primary source (created) along with the secondary source (altered or forwarded) information. In evaluating the way the information is presented on the site, it is important to consider the creator of the content. If you are reviewing a study or survey, you want to consider who was conducting the study, for what purpose, using what resources, when, and to what end. If you know that a company conducted a study of their product and only used those that are on their email list, you can see how this information would be inconsistent and not representative of the larger population. Many companies are subsidiaries of larger companies, so you may not realize that in buying organic (thought of as local or homegrown), you are buying from a large food processing company. Why The last question to ask is why should I use the source? The answer is really a combination of all of the other questions. If you have been able to successfully answer all of the 5 W’s and you do not have any doubts about the credibility or reliability of a site, you can explain why a source is useful. When conducting research, variety is also important. Make sure that you are not using sources that are too similar or that present the same information. If you have a source that allows you to answer a research question, prove a point, or provide interest, you need to ask: “Why do I need this source?” The source should offer a segment of the research or purpose in your message that is not replicated somewhere else. Being able to identify the 5 W’s and how to apply each one when selecting and locating evidence is another contribution to Informed Learning. Applying this level of evaluation and critique is preparing you to succeed academically and professionally by critically thinking about choosing and integrating your research for the desired outcome. Now that you have an understanding of Web Site Evaluation, it is time to review citing your research so that you maintain academic honesty and avoid plagiarism. 10.6 REFERENCING CITATIONS A cite or citation is providing a reference or attributing the source of evidence used for justification of an argument or statement, especially in a scholarly work. When citing sources, it is important that you provide internal (in-text) citations in the text of your paper or speech outline, as well as oral citations when making a presentation. These citations help the reader/audience evaluate the credibility of the information. The internal citations should correlate to a full citation included in the bibliography. Internal citations are often referred to as parenthetical citations in a paper. Depending on the style guide that you are using, the required information may change. Please refer to your course’s recommended citation guide for assistance. Ethics and Plagiarism The topic of ethics and plagiarism is common to every academic discipline and professional career path. Ethics is defined as the moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity. We make ethical decisions in the workplace every day, including language that either supports or undermines inclusion and civility. Additionally, company resources and policies determine the culture and climate of an organization. In a professional setting, plagiarism refers to idea development. Whether you are presenting at a conference, conducting a research study, creating a menu for your new restaurant, or designing a website for freelancing, it is necessary to accurately cite original authorship. Plagiarism is defined as the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own. It is important that you avoid plagiarism and understand the consequences for trying to pass off someone else’s work or ideas as your own. PART FOUR – SPEECH ORGANIZATION 12.7 ORGANIZING YOUR SPEECH Once you have selected your topic and conducted research, it is time to organize your ideas.In a series of important and groundbreaking studies conducted during the 1950’s and 1960’s, researchers started investigating how a speech’s organization was related to audience perceptions of those speeches. The first study, conducted by Raymond Smith in 1951, randomly organized the parts of a speech to see how audiences would react. Not surprisingly, when speeches were randomly organized, the audience perceived the speech more negatively than when audiences were presented with a speech with clear, intentional organization. Smith also found that audiences who listened to unorganized speeches were less interested in those speeches than audiences who listened to organized speeches. Thompson furthered this investigation and found that unorganized speeches were also harder for audiences to recall after the speech. Basically, people remember information from speeches that are clearly organized—and forget information from speeches that are poorly organized. A third study by Baker found that when audiences were presented with a disorganized speaker, they were less likely to be persuaded, and saw the disorganized speaker as lacking credibility. These three very important studies make the importance of organization very clear. When speakers are not organized they are not perceived as credible and their audiences view the speeches negatively, are less likely to be persuaded, and don’t remember specific information from the speeches after the fact. Determining Main Ideas A team brainstorming session with ideas stemming off the main idea “A team brainstorming session with ideas stemming off the main idea” by One Click Group UK is licensed under CC BY 2.0 When creating a speech, it’s important to remember that speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the topic and orients your audience, and the conclusion wraps everything up at the end of your speech. An introduction has four main functions–gain the attention of the audience, establish credibility, reveal topic and relevance, and overview the main points. For more information on attention getters click the following link https://www.oercommons.org/courses/public speaking-attention-getters/view. The conclusion has two main functions–summarize your main points and achieve closure. The key to a good conclusion is to keep it short, not add extra information, and achieve a sense of finality. If you are delivering a persuasive speech, include a call to action. The real “meat” of your speech happens in the body. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to think strategically about the body of your speech. What is your Specific Purpose Recall that a speech can have one of three general purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The general purpose refers to the broad goal of creating and delivering the speech. A specific purpose is a statement that starts with one of the three general purposes and then specifies the actual topic you have chosen and the basic objective you hope to accomplish with your speech. Basically, the specific purpose answers the who, what, when, where, and why questions about your speech. Suppose you are going to give a speech about using open-source software. Here are three examples (each with a different general purpose and a different audience) Example One General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To inform a group of school administrators about the various open-source software packages that could be utilized in their school districts Example Two General Purpose: To persuade Specific Purpose: To persuade a group of college students to make the switch from Microsoft Office to the open-source office suite OpenOffice Example Three General Purpose: To entertain Specific Purpose: To entertain members of a business organization with a mock eulogy of for-pay software giants as a result of the proliferation of open-source alternatives In each of these three examples, you’ll notice that the general topic is the same (open-source software) but the specific purpose is different because the speech has a different general purpose and a different audience. Before you can think strategically about organizing the body of your speech, you need to know what your specific purpose is. If you have not yet written a specific purpose for your current speech, please go ahead and write one now. FROM SPECIFIC PURPOSE TO MAIN POINTS Once you have written down your specific purpose, you can now start thinking about the best way to turn that specific purpose into a series of main points. Main points are the key ideas you present to enable your speech to accomplish its specific purpose. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to determine your main points and how to organize those main points into a coherent, strategic speech. How Many Main Points Do I Need? While there is no magic number for how many main points a speech should have, speech experts generally agree that the fewer the number of main points the better. First and foremost, experts on the subject of memory have consistently shown that people don’t tend to remember very much after they listen to a message or leave a conversation. While many different factors can affect a listener’s ability to retain information after a speech, how the speech is organized is an important part of that process.For the speeches you will be delivering in a typical public speaking class, you will usually have just two or three main points. If your speech should be less than three minutes long, then two main points will probably work best. If your speech is between three and ten minutes in length, then it makes more sense to use three main points. According to LeFrancois (1999), people are more likely to remember information that is meaningful, useful, and of interest to them; different or unique; organized; visual; and simple. Two or three main points are much easier for listeners to remember than ten or even five. In addition, if you have two or three main points, you’ll be able to develop each one with examples, statistics, or other forms of support. This breakdown of support is called subordination, the act of placing in a lower rank or position. Using supporting or subordinate points help you to better understand how ideas are connected and how ideas or points are providing more information as you explain or provide more detail. Including support for each point will make your speech more interesting and more memorable for your audience. Narrowing Down Main Points When you write your specific purpose and review the research you have done on your topic, you will probably find yourself thinking of quite a few points that you’d like to make in your speech. Whether that’s the case or not, we recommend taking a few minutes to brainstorm and develop a list of points. In brainstorming, your goal is simply to think of as many different points as you can, not to judge how valuable or important they are. What information does your audience need to know to understand your topic? What information does your speech need to convey to accomplish its specific purpose? Consider the following example: Specific Purpose Brainstorming List of Points ▪ Define open source software. ▪ Define educationalsoftware. ▪ List and describe the software commonly used by school districts. ▪ Explain the advantages of using open source software. ▪ Explain the disadvantages of using open source software. ▪ Review the history of open source software. ▪ Describe the value of open source software. ▪ Describe some educational open source software packages. ▪ Review the software needs of my specific audience. ▪ Describe some problems that have occurred with open source software. Now that you have brainstormed and developed a list of possible points, how do you go about narrowing them down to just two or three main ones? When you look over the preceding list, you can then start to see that many of the points are related to one another. Your goal in narrowing down your main points is to identify which individual, potentially minor points can be combined to make main points. Specific Purpose Main Point 1: School districts use software in their operations. 1. Define educational software. 2. List and describe the software commonly used by school districts. Main Point 2: What is open-source software? 1. Define open-source software. 2. Review the history of open-source software. 3. Explain the advantages of using open-source software. 4. Describe the value of open-source software. 5. Explain the disadvantages of using open-source software. 6. Describe some problems that have occurred with open source software. Main Point 3: Name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. 1. Review the software needs of my specific audience. 2. Describe some educational open-source software packages. You may notice that in the preceding list, the number of subpoints under each of the three main points is a little disjointed or the topics don’t go together clearly. That’s all right. Remember that these are just general ideas at this point. It’s also important to remember that there is often more than one way to organize a speech. Some of these points could be left out and others developed more fully, depending on the purpose and audience. We’ll develop the preceding main points more fully in a moment. HELPFUL HINTS FOR PREPARING MAIN POINTS Now that we’ve discussed how to take a specific purpose and turn it into a series of main points, here are some helpful hints for creating your main points. Uniting Main Points Once you’ve generated a possible list of main points, you want to ask yourself this question: “When you look at your main points, do they fit together?” For example, if you look at the three preceding main points (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider), ask yourself, “Do these main points help my audience understand my specific purpose?” Suppose you added a fourth main point about open-source software for musicians—would this fourth main point go with the other three? Probably not. While you may have a strong passion for open-source music software, that main point is extraneous information for the speech you are giving. It does not help accomplish your specific purpose, so you’d need to toss it out. Keeping Main Points Separate The next question to ask yourself about your main points is whether they overlap too much. While some overlap may happen naturally because of the singular nature of a specific topic, the information covered within each main point should be clearly distinct from the other main points. Imagine you’re giving a speech with the specific purpose “to inform my audience about the health reasons for eating apples and oranges.” You could then have three main points: that eating fruits is healthy, that eating apples is healthy, and that eating oranges is healthy. While the two points related to apples and oranges are clearly distinct, both of those main points would probably overlap too much with the first point “that eating fruits is healthy,” so you would probably decide to eliminate the first point and focus on the second and third. On the other hand, you could keep the first point and then develop two new points giving additional support to why people should eat fruit. Balancing Main Points One of the biggest mistakes some speakers make is to spend most of their time talking about one of their main points, completely neglecting their other main points. To avoid this mistake, organize your speech so as to spend roughly the same amount of time on each main point. If you find that one of your main points is simply too large, you may need to divide that main point into two main points and consolidate your other main points into a single main point. If you have an hour to talk, then you may find that these three main points are balanced. However, you may also find them wildly unbalanced if you only have five minutes to speak because five minutes is not enough time to even explain what open-source software is. If that’s the case, then you probably need to rethink your specific purpose of ensuring that you can cover the material in the allotted time. Creating Parallel Structure for Main Points Another major question to ask yourself about your main points is whether or not they have a parallel structure. By parallel structure, we mean that you should structure your main points so that they all sound similar. When all your main points sound similar, it’s simply easier for your audiences to remember your main points and retain them for later. Let’s look at our sample (school districts use software in their operations; what is open source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). Notice that the first and third main points are statements, but the second one is a question. Basically, we have an example here of main points that are not parallel in structure. You could fix this in one of two ways. You could make them all questions: what are some common school district software programs; what is open-source software; and what are some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Or you could turn them all into statements: school districts use software in their operations; define and describe open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Either of these changes will make the grammatical structure of the main points parallel. Maintaining Logical Flow of Main Points The last question you want to ask yourself about your main points is whether the main points make sense in the order you’ve placed them. The next section goes into more detail of common organizational patterns for speeches, but for now, we want you to just think logically about the flow of your main points. When you look at your main points, can you see them as progressive, or does it make sense to talk about one first, another one second, and the final one last? If you look at your order, and it doesn’t make sense to you, you probably need to think about the flow of your main points. Often, this process is an art and not a science. But let’s look at a couple of examples. School Dress Codes Example Main Point One History of school dress codes Main Point Two Problems with school dress codes Main Point Three Eliminating school dress codes Rider Law Legislation Example Main Point One Why should states have rider laws? Main Point Two What are the effects of a lack of rider laws? Main Point Three What is rider law legislation? When you look at these two examples, what are your immediate impressions of the two examples? In the first example, does it make sense to talk about history, and then the problems, and finally how to eliminate school dress codes? Would it make sense to put history as your last main point? Probably not. In this case, the main points are in a logical sequential order. What about the second example? Does it make sense to talk about your solution, then your problem, and then define the solution? Not really! What order do you think these main points should be placed in for a logical flow? Maybe you should explain the problem (lack of rider laws), then define your solution (what is rider law legislation), and then argue for your solution (why states should have rider laws). Notice that in this example you don’t even need to know what “rider laws” are to see that the flow didn’t make sense. All speeches start with a general purpose and then move to a specific purpose that gives the who, what, where, and how for the speech. Transitioning from the specific purpose to possible main points means developing a list of potential main points you could discuss. Then you can narrow your focus by looking for similarities among your potential main points and combining ones that are similar. Shorter speeches will have two main points while longer speeches will generally have three or more main points. When creating your main points, make sure that they are united, separate, balanced, parallel, and logical. ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS Previously in this chapter, we discussed how to make your main points flow logically. This section is going to provide you with a number of organizational patterns to help you create a logically organized speech. TOPICAL By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is a topical organizational pattern, organizing by categories or dividing the topic into subtopics. The categories function as a way to help the speaker organize the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a topical speech pattern is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose. Let’s look at an example. Specific Purpose: To inform a group of high school juniors about Generic University Main Points 1. Life in the dorms 2. Life in the classroom 3. Life on campus In this case, we have a speaker trying to inform a group of high school juniors about Generic University. The speaker has divided the information into three basic categories: what it’s like to live in the dorms, what classes are like, and what life is like on campus. Almost anyone could take this basic speech and specifically tailor the speech to fit her or his own university or college. The main points in this example could be rearranged and the organizational pattern would still be effective because there is no inherent logic to the sequence of points. Let’s look at a second example. Specific Purpose: To inform a group of college students about the uses and misuses of Internet dating Main Points 1. Define and describe Internet dating. 2. Explain some strategies to enhance your Internet dating experience. 3. List some warning signs to look for in potential online dates. In this speech, the speaker is talking about how to find others online and date them. Specifically, the speaker starts by explaining what Internet dating is; then the speaker talks about how to make Internet dating better for her or his audience members; and finally, the speaker ends by discussing some negative aspects of Internet dating. Again, notice that the information is chunked into three categories or topics and that the second and third could be reversed and still provide a logical structure for your speech. COMPARISON/CONTRAST Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast organizational pattern, measuring similarities and differences between two or more subjects.While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example. Specific Purpose: To inform a group of physicians about Drug X, a newer drug with similar applications to Drug Y Main Points 1. Show how Drug X and Drug Y are similar. 2. Show how Drug X and Drug Y differ. Specific Purpose: To inform a group of physicians about Drug X, a newer drug with similar applications to Drug Y Main Points 1. Explain the basic purpose and use of both Drug X and Drug Y. 2. Show how Drug X and Drug Y are similar. 3. Show how Drug X and Drug Y differ. If you were using the comparison/contrast pattern for persuasive purposes, in the preceding examples, you’d want to make sure that when you show how Drug X and Drug Y differ, you clearly state why Drug X is clearly the better choice for physicians to adopt. In essence, you’d want to make sure that when you compare the two drugs, you show that Drug X has all the benefits of Drug Y, but when you contrast the two drugs, you show how Drug X is superior to Drug Y in some way. SPATIAL The spatial organizational pattern organizes information according to how things fit together in physical space, either geographically or directionally. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations. We’ll look at two examples here, one involving physical geography and one involving a different spatial order. Specific Purpose: To inform a group of history students about the states that seceded from the United States during the Civil War Main Points 1. Locate and describe the Confederate states just below the Mason-Dixon Line (Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee). 2. Locate and describe the Confederate states in the Deep South (South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida). 3. Locate and describe the western Confederate states (Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas). If you look at a basic map of the United States, you’ll notice that these groupings of states were created because of their geographic location to one another. In essence, the states create three spatial territories to explain. Now let’s look at a spatial speech unrelated to geography. Specific Purpose: To explain to a group of college biology students how the urinary system works Main Points 1. Locate and describe the kidneys and ureters. 2. Locate and describe the bladder. 3. Locate and describe the sphincter and urethra. In this example, we still have three basic spatial areas. If you look at a model of the urinary system, the first step is the kidney, which then takes waste through the ureters to the bladder, which then relies on the sphincter muscle to excrete waste through the urethra. All we’ve done in this example is create a spatial speech order for discussing how waste is removed from the human body through the urinary system. It is spatial because the organization pattern is determined by the physical location of each body part in relation to the others discussed. CHRONOLOGICAL The chronological organizational pattern organizes the main idea in time order or in a sequential pattern—whether backward or forward. Here’s a simple example. Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the books written by Winston Churchill Main Points 1. Examine the style and content of Winston Churchill’s writings prior to World War II. 2. Examine the style and content of Winston Churchill’s writings during World War II. 3. Examine the style and content of Winston Churchill’s writings after World War II. In this example, we’re looking at the writings of Winston Churchill in relation to World War II (before, during, and after). By placing his writings into these three categories, we develop a system for understanding this material based on Churchill’s own life. Note that you could also use reverse chronological order and start with Churchill’s writings after World War II, progressing backward to his earliest writings. Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the early life of Marilyn Manson Main Points 1. Describe Brian Hugh Warner’s early life and the beginning of his feud with Christianity. 2. Describe Warner’s stint as a music journalist in Florida. 3. Describe Warner’s decision to create Marilyn Manson and the Spooky Kids. In this example, we see how Brian Warner, through three major periods of his life, ultimately became the musician known as Marilyn Manson. CAUSAL The causal organizational pattern organizes and explains cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point, you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects. Let’s look at an example. Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the problems associated with drinking among members of Native American tribal groups Main Points 1. Explain the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans. 2. Explain the effects that abuse of alcohol has on Native Americans and how this differs from the experience of other populations. In this case, the first main point is about the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans (the cause). The second point then examines the effects of Native American alcohol consumption and how it differs from other population groups. However, a causal organizational pattern can also begin with an effect and then explore one or more causes. In the following example, the effect is the number of arrests for domestic violence. Specific Purpose: To inform local voters about the problem of domestic violence in our city Main Points 1. Explain that there are significantly more arrests for domestic violence in our city than in cities of comparable size in our state. 2. List possible causes for the difference, which may be unrelated to the actual amount of domestic violence. In this example, the possible causes for the difference might include stricter law enforcement, greater likelihood of neighbors reporting an incident, and police training that emphasizes arrests as opposed to other outcomes. Examining these possible causes may suggest that despite the arresting statistic, the actual number of domestic violence incidents in your city may not be greater than in other cities of similar size. SELECTING AN ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN Each of the preceding organizational patterns is potentially useful for organizing the main points of your speech. However, not all organizational patterns work for all speeches. Your challenge is to choose the best pattern for the particular speech you are giving. When considering which organizational pattern to use, you need to keep in mind your specific purpose as well as your audience and the actual speech material itself to decide which pattern you think will work best. Ultimately, speakers must really think about which organizational pattern best suits a specific speech topic. 12.8 OUTLINING YOUR SPEECH Upper skeleton from Andrew Bell's Anatomia Britannica (1770s-1780s) “Upper skeleton from Andrew Bell’s Anatomia Britannica (1770s-1780s)” by liverpoolhls is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 Think of an outline as a skeleton you must assemble bone by bone, gradually making it take form into a coherent whole. Or think of it as a puzzle in which you must put all the pieces in their correct places in order to see the full picture. Or think of it as a game of solitaire in which the right cards must follow a legitimate sequence in order for you to win. The more fully you can come to understand the outline as both rule-bound and creative, the more fully you will experience its usefulness and its power to deliver your message in a unified, coherent way. This means, of course, that there are no shortcuts, but there are helpful strategies. If you leave a bone out of a skeleton, something will fall apart. By the same token, if you omit a step in reasoning, your speech will be vulnerable to lapses in logic, lapses in the evidence you need to make your case, and the risk of becoming a disjointed, disorienting message. When you are talking informally with friends, your conversation might follow a haphazard course, but a public speech must not do so. Even in conversations with your friends, you might believe they understand what you mean, but they might not. In a prepared speech, you must be attentive to reasoning in logical steps so that your audience understands the meaning you intend to convey. This is where your outline can help you. Why Outline In order for your speech to be as effective as possible, it needs to be organized into logical patterns. Information will need to be presented in a way your audience can understand. This is especially true if you already know a great deal about your topic. You will need to take careful steps to include pertinent information your audience might not know and to explain relationships that might not be evident to them. Using a standard outline format, you can make decisions about your main points, the specific information you will use to support those points, and the language you will use. Without an outline, your message is liable to lose logical integrity. It might even deteriorate into a list of bullet points with no apparent connection to each other except the topic, leaving your audience relieved when your speech is finally over. A full-sentence outline lays a strong foundation for your message. It will call on you to have one clear and specific purpose for your message. As we have seen in other chapters of this book, writing your specific purpose in clear language serves you well. It helps you frame a clear, concrete thesis statement. It helps you exclude irrelevant information. It helps you focus only on information that directly bears on your 426 CHAPTER 12: PUBLIC SPEAKING thesis. It reduces the amount of research you must do. It suggests what kind of supporting evidence is needed, so less effort is expended in trying to figure out what to do next. It helps both you and your audience remember the central message of your speech. Finally, a solid full-sentence outline helps your audience understand your message because they will be able to follow your reasoning. Remember that live audiences for oral communications lack the ability to “rewind” your message to figure out what you said, so it is critically important to help the audience follow your reasoning as it reaches their ears. Tests Scope of Content When you begin with a clear, concrete thesis statement, it acts as kind of a compass for your outline. The test of the scope will be a comparison of each main point to the thesis statement. If you find a poor match, you will know you’ve wandered outside the scope of the thesis. Let’s say the general purpose of your speech is to inform, and your broad topic area is wind-generated energy. Now you must narrow this to a specific purpose. You have many choices, but let’s say your specific purpose is to inform a group of property owners about the economics of wind farms where electrical energy is generated. Your first main point could be that modern windmills require a very small land base, making the cost of real estate low. This is directly related to economics. All you need is information to support your claim that only a small land base is needed. In your second main point, you might be tempted to claim that windmills don’t pollute in the ways other sources do. However, you will quickly note that this claim is unrelated to the thesis. You must resist the temptation to add it. Perhaps in another speech, your thesis will address environmental impact, but in this speech, you must stay within the economic scope. Perhaps you will say that once windmills are in place, they require virtually no maintenance. This claim is related to the thesis. Now all you need is supporting information to support this second claim. Your third point, the point some audience members will want to hear, is the cost of generating electrical energy with windmills compared with other sources. This is clearly within the scope of energy economics. You should have no difficulty finding authoritative sources of information to support that claim. When you write in outline form, it is much easier to test the scope of your content because you can visually locate specific information very easily and then check it against your thesis statement. Tests the Balance and Proportion of the Speech Part of the value of writing a full-sentence outline is the visual space you use for each of your main points. Is each main point of approximately the same importance? Does each main point have the same number of supporting points? If you find that one of your main points has eight supporting points while the others only have three each, you have two choices: either choose the best three from the eight supporting points or strengthen the authoritative support for your other two main points. Remember that you should use the best supporting evidence you can find even if it means investing more time in your search for knowledge. Serves as Notes during the Speech Although we recommend writing a full-sentence outline during the speech preparation phase, you should also create a shortened outline that you can use as notes allowing for a strong delivery. If you were to use the full-sentence outline when delivering your speech, you would do a great deal of reading, which would limit your ability to give eye contact and use gestures, hurting your connection with your audience. For this reason, we recommend writing a short-phrase outline on 4 × 6 note cards to use when you deliver your speech. The good news is that your three main points suggest how you should prepare your note cards. Your first 4 × 6 note card can contain your thesis statement and other key words and phrases that will help you present your introduction. Your second card can contain your first main point, together with key words and phrases to act as a map to follow as you present. If your first main point has an exact quotation you plan to present, you can include that on your card. Your third note card should be related to your second main point, your fourth card should be about your third main point, and your fifth card should be related to your conclusion. In this way, your five note cards follow the very same organizational pattern as your full outline. When we discuss outlining, we are actually focusing on a series of outlines instead of a single one. Outlines are designed to evolve throughout your speech preparation process, so this section will discuss how you progress from a working outline to a full-sentence outline and, finally, a speaking outline. We will also discuss how using note cards for your speaking outline can be helpful to you as a speaker. 10.8 TYPES OF OUTLINES Working Outline A working outline is an outline you use for developing your speech. It undergoes many changes on its way to completion. This is the outline where you lay out the basic structure of your speech. You must have a general and specific purpose; an introduction, including a grabber; and a concrete, specific thesis statement and preview. You also need three main points, a conclusion, and a list of references. One strategy for beginning your working outline is to begin by typing in your labels for each of the elements. Later you can fill in the content. When you look ahead to the full-sentence outline, you will notice that each of the three main points moves from the general to the particular. Specifically, each main point is a claim, followed by particular information that supports that claim so that the audience will perceive its validity. For example, for a speech about coal mining safety, your first main point might focus on the idea that coal mining is a hazardous occupation. You might begin by making a very general claim, such as “Coal mining is one of the most hazardous occupations in the United States,” and then become more specific by providing statistics, authoritative quotations, or examples to support your primary claim. A working outline allows you to work out the kinks in your message. For instance, let’s say you’ve made the claim that coal mining is a hazardous occupation but you cannot find authoritative evidence as support. Now you must re-examine that main point to assess its validity. You might have to change that main point in order to be able to support it. If you do so, however, you must make sure the new main point is a logical part of the thesis statement–three main points–conclusion sequence. The working outline shouldn’t be thought of a “rough copy,” but as a careful step in the development of your message. It will take time to develop. Here is an example of a working outline: Name: Anomaly May McGillicuddy Topic: Smart dust General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To inform a group of science students about the potential of smart dust Main Ideas: 1. Smart dust is an assembly of microcomputers. 2. Smart dust can be used by the military—no, no—smart dust could be an enormous asset in covert military operations. (That’s better because it is more clear and precise.) 3. Smart dust could also have applications to daily life. Introduction: (Grabber) (fill in later) (Thesis Statement) Thus far, researchers hypothesize that smart dust could be used for everything from tracking patients in hospitals to early warnings of natural disasters and defending against bioterrorism. (Preview) Today, I’m going to explain what smart dust is and the various applications smart dust has in the near future. To help us understand the small of it all, we will first examine what smart dust is and how it works. We will then examine some military applications of smart dust. And we will end by discussing some nonmilitary applications of smart dust. (Transition) (fill in later) Main Point I: Dr. Kris Pister, a professor in the robotics lab at the University of California at Berkeley, originally conceived the idea of smart dust in 1998 as part of a project funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 1. (supporting point) 2. (supporting point) (Transition) (fill in later) Main Point II: Because smart dust was originally conceptualized under a grant from DARPA, military uses of smart dust have been widely theorized and examined. 1. (supporting point) 2. (supporting point) (Transition) (fill in later) Main Point III: According to the smart dust project website, smart dust could quickly become a common part of our daily lives. 1. (supporting point) 2. (supporting point) (Transition) (fill in later) Conclusion: (Bring your message “full circle” and create a psychologically satisfying closure.) This stage of preparation turns out to be a good place to go back and examine whether all the main points are directly related to the thesis statement and to each other. If so, your message has a strong potential for unity of focus. But if the relationship of one of the main points is weak, this is the time to strengthen it. It will be more difficult later for two reasons: first, the sheer amount of text on your pages will make the visual task more difficult, and second, it becomes increasingly difficult to change things in which you have a large investment in time and thought. You can see that this working outline can lay a strong foundation for the rest of your message. Its organization is visually apparent. Once you are confident in the internal unity of your basic message, you can begin filling in the supporting points in descending detail—that is, from the general (main points) to the particular (supporting points) and then to greater detail. The outline makes it visually apparent where information fits. You only need to assess your supporting points to be sure they’re authoritative and directly relevant to the main points they should support. Sometimes transitions seem troublesome, and that’s not surprising. We often omit them when we have informal conversations. Our conversation partners understand what we mean because of our gestures and vocal strategies. However, others might not understand what we mean but think they do, and so we might never know whether they understood us. Even when we include transitions, we don’t generally identify them as transitions. In a speech, however, we need to use effective transitions, phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next. The listener needs to know when a speaker is moving from one main point to the next. In the next type of outline, the full-sentence outline, take a look at the transitions and see how they make the listener aware of the shifting focus to the next main point. Full-Sentence Outline (or Preparation Script Outline) Your full-sentence outline is a preparation script for the delivery of your speech. It should contain full sentences only. There are several reasons why this kind of outline is important. First, you have a full plan of everything you intend to say to your audience so that you will not have to struggle with wordings or examples. Second, you have a clear idea of how much time it will take to present your speech. Third, it contributes a fundamental ingredient of good preparation, part of your ethical responsibility to your audience. This is how a full-sentence outline looks: Name: Anomaly May McGillicuddy Topic: Smart dust General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To inform a group of science students about the potential of smart dust. Main Ideas: 1. Smart dust is an assembly of microcomputers. 2. Smart dust could be an enormous asset in covert military operations. 3. Smart dust could also have applications to daily life. Introduction (Attention Getter) In 2002, famed science fiction writer, Michael Crichton, released his book Prey about a swarm of nanomachines that were feeding off living tissue. The nanomachines were solar powered, self-sufficient, and intelligent. Most disturbingly, the nanomachines could work together as a swarm as it took over and killed its prey in its need for new resources. The technology for this level of sophistication in nanotechnology is surprisingly more science fact than science fiction. In 2000, three professors of electrical engineering and computer Science at the University of California at Berkeley, Kahn, Katz, and Pister, hypothesized in the Journal of Communications and Networks that wireless networks of tiny microelectromechanical sensors, or MEMS; robots; or devices could detect phenomena including light, temperature, or vibration. By 2004, Fortune Magazine listed “smart dust” as the first in their “Top 10 Tech Trends to Bet On.” (Thesis Statement) Thus far researchers hypothesized that smart dust could be used for everything from tracking patients in hospitals to early warnings of natural disasters and as a defense against bioterrorism. (Preview) Today, I’m going to explain what smart dust is and the various applications smart dust has in the near future. To help us understand the small of it all, we will first examine what smart dust is and how it works. We will then examine some military applications of smart dust. And we will end by discussing some nonmilitary applications of smart dust. (Transition) To help us understand smart dust, we will begin by first examining what smart dust is. Body Main Point I: Dr. Kris Pister, a professor in the robotics lab at the University of California at Berkeley, originally conceived the idea of smart dust in 1998 as part of a project funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 1. According to a 2001 article written by Bret Warneke, Matt Last, Brian Liebowitz, and Kris Pister titled “Smart Dust: Communicating with a Cubic-Millimeter Computer” published in Computer, Pister’s goal was to build a device that contained a built-in sensor, communication device, and a small computer that could be integrated into a cubic millimeter package. 2. For comparison purposes, Doug Steel, in a 2005 white paper titled “Smart Dust” written for C. T. Bauer College of Business at the University of Houston, noted that a single grain of rice has a volume of five cubic millimeters. 1. Each individual piece of dust, called a mote, would then have the ability to interact with other motes and supercomputers. 2. As Steve Lohr wrote in the January 30, 2010, edition of the New York Times in an article titled “Smart Dust? Not Quite, But We’re Getting There,” smart dust could eventually consist of “Tiny digital sensors, strewn around the globe, gathering all sorts of information and communicating with powerful computer networks to monitor, measure, and understand the physical world in new ways.” (Transition) Now that we’ve examined what smart dust is, let’s switch gears and talk about some of the military applications for smart dust. Main Point II: Because smart dust was originally conceptualized under a grant from DARPA, military uses of smart dust have been widely theorized and examined. 1. According to the smart dust web site, smart dust could eventually be used for “battlefield surveillance, treaty monitoring, transportation monitoring, scud hunting” and other clear military applications. 1. Probably the number one benefit of smart dust in the military environment is its surveillance abilities. 1. Major Scott Dickson, in a Blue Horizons paper written for the US Air Force Center for Strategy and Technology’s Air War College, sees smart dust as helping the military in\ battlespace awareness, homeland security, and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) identification. 2. Furthermore, Major Dickson also believes it may be possible to create smart dust that has the ability to defeat communications jamming equipment created by foreign governments, which could help the US military not only communicate among itself but could also increase communications with civilians in military combat zones. 2. According to a 2010 article written by Jessica Griggs in new Scientist, one of the first benefits of smart dust could be an early defense warning for space storms and other debris that could be catastrophic. (Transition) Now that we’ve explored some of the military benefits of smart dust, let’s switch gears and see how smart dust may be able to have an impact on our daily lives. Main Point III: According to the smart dust project website, smart dust could quickly become a common part of our daily lives. 1. Everything from pasting smart dust particles to our finger tips to create a virtual computer keyboard to inventory control to product quality control has been discussed as possible applications for smart dust. 1. Steve Lohr, in his 2010 New York Times article, wrote, “The applications for sensor-based computing, experts say, include buildings that manage their own energy use, bridges that sense motion and metal fatigue to tell engineers they need repairs, cars that track traffic patterns and report potholes, and fruit and vegetable shipments that tell grocers when they ripen and begin to spoil.” 2. Medically, according to the smart dust web site, smart dust could help disabled individuals interface with computers. 1. Theoretically, we could all be injected with smart dust, which relays information to our physicians and detects adverse changes to our body instantly. 2. Smart dust could detect the microscopic formations of center cells or alert us when we’ve been infected by a bacterium or virus, which could speed up treatment and prolong all of our lives. (Transition) Today, we’ve explored what smart dust is, how smart dust could be utilized by the US military, and how smart dust could impact all of our lives in the near future. Conclusion (Summary) While smart dust is quickly transferring from science fiction to science fact, experts agree that the full potential of smart dust will probably not occur until 2025. Smart dust is definitely in our near future, but swarms of smart dust eating people as was depicted in Michael Crichton’s 2002 novel, Prey, isn’t reality. However, as with any technological advance, there are definite ethical considerations and worries related to smart dust. Even Dr. Kris Pister’s smart dust project website admits that as smart dust becomes more readily available, one of the trade-offs will be privacy. Pister responds to these critiques by saying, “As an engineer, or a scientist, or a hair stylist, everyone needs to evaluate what they do in terms of its positive and negative effect. If I thought that the negatives of working on this project were greater than or even comparable to the positives, I wouldn’t be working on it. As it turns out, I think that the potential benefits of this technology far outweigh the risks to personal privacy.” References Crichton, M. (2002). Prey. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Dickson, S. (2007, April). Enabling battlespace persistent surveillance: the firm, function, and future of smart dust (Blue Horizons Paper, Center for Strategy and Technology, USAF Air War College). Retrieved from USAF Air War College website: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cst/bh_dickson.pdf Griggs, J. (2010, February 6). Smart dust to provide solar early warning defense. New Scientist, 205(2746), 22. Kahn, J. M., Katz, R. H., & Pister, K. S. J. (2000). Emerging challenges: Mobile networking for “smart dust.” Journal of Communications and Networks, 2, 188–196. Lohr, S. (2010, January 30). Smart dust? Not quite, but we’re getting there. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com Pister, K., Kahn, J., & Boser, B. (n.d.). Smart dust: Autonomous sensing and communication at the cubic millimeter. Retrieved from http://robotics.eecs.berkeley.edu/~pister/SmartDust Steel, D. (2005, March). Smart dust: UH ISRC technology briefing. Retrieved from http://www.uhisrc.com Vogelstein, F., Boyle, M., Lewis, P., Kirkpatrick, D., Lashinsky, A.,…Chen, C. (2004, February 23). 10 tech trends to bet on. Fortune, 149(4), 74–88. Warneke, B., Last, M., Liebowitz, B., & Pister, K. S. J. (2001). Smart dust: Communicating with a cubic millimeter computer. Computer, 31, 44–51. When you prepare your full-sentence outline carefully, it may take as much as 1 ½ hours to complete the first part of the outline from your name at the top through the introduction. When you’ve completed that part, take a break and do something else. When you return to the outline, you should be able to complete your draft in another 1 ½ hours. After that, you only need to do a detailed check for completeness, accuracy, relevance, balance, omitted words, and consistency. If you find errors, instead of being frustrated, be glad you can catch these errors before you’re standing up in front of your audience. You will notice that the various parts of your speech, for instance, the transition and main points, are labeled. There are compelling reasons for these labels. First, as you develop your message, you will sometimes find it necessary to go back and look at your wording in another part of the outline. Your labels help you find particular passages easily. Second, the labels work as a checklist so that you can make sure you’ve included everything you intended to. Third, it helps you prepare your speaking outline. You’ll also notice the full references at the end of the outline. They match the citations within the outline. Sometimes while preparing a speech, a speaker finds it important to go back to an original source to be sure the message will be accurate. If you type in your references as you develop your speech rather than afterward, they will be a convenience to you if they are complete and accurate. Don’t think of the references as busy work or drudgery. Although they’re more time consuming than text, they are good practice for the more advanced academic work you will do in the immediate future. SPEAKING OUTLINE Your preparation script/full-sentence outline helps you prepare for the delivery of your speech with a clear and well organized message, but your speaking outline will include far less detail. Whenever possible, you will use key words and phrases, but in some instances, an extended quotation will need to be fully written on your speaking outline. Resist the temptation to use your full-sentence outline as your speaking outline. The temptation is real for at least two reasons. First, once you feel that you’ve carefully crafted every sequence of words in your speech, you might not want to sacrifice quality when you shift to vocal presentation. Second, if you feel anxiety about how well you will do in front of an audience, you may want to use your full-sentence outline as a “safety net.” In our experience, however, if you have your full sentence outline with you, you will end up reading, rather than speaking, to your audience. For now, it is enough to know you shouldn’t read, but instead, use carefully prepared note cards. Your speech has five main components: introduction, main point one, main point two, main point three, and the conclusion. Therefore we strongly recommend the use of five note cards: one for each of those five components. There are extenuating circumstances that might call for additional cards, but begin with five cards only. How will five note cards suffice in helping you produce a complete, rich delivery? Why can’t you use the full-sentence outline you labored so hard to write? First, the presence of your full-sentence outline will make it appear that you don’t know the content of your speech. Second, the temptation to read the speech directly from the full-sentence outline is nearly overwhelming; even if you resist this temptation, you will find yourself struggling to remember the words on the page rather than speaking extemporaneously. Third, sheets of paper are noisier and more awkward than cards. Fourth, it’s easier to lose your place using the full outline. Finally, cards just look better. Carefully prepared cards, together with practice, will help you more than you might think. Plan to use five cards. Use 4 × 6 cards. The smaller 3 × 5 cards are too small to provide space for a visually organized set of notes. With five cards, you will have one card for the introduction, one card for each of the three main points, and one card for the conclusion. You should number your cards and write on one side only. Numbering is helpful if you happen to drop your cards, and writing on only one side means that the audience is not distracted by your handwritten notes and reminders to yourself while you are speaking. Each card should contain key words and key phrases but not full sentences. Some speeches will include direct or extended quotations from expert sources. Some of these quotations might be highly technical or difficult to memorize for other reasons, but they must be presented correctly. This is a circumstance in which you could include an extra card in the sequence of note cards. This is the one time you may read fully from a card. If your quotation is important and the exact wording is crucial, your audience will understand that. How will note cards be sufficient? When they are carefully written, your practice will reveal that they will work. If during practice, you find that one of your cards doesn’t work well enough, you can rewrite that card. Using a set of carefully prepared, sparingly worded cards will help you resist the temptation to rely on overhead transparencies or PowerPoint slides to get you through the presentation. Although they will never provide the exact word sequence of your full-sentence outline, they should keep you organized during the speech. The “trick” to selecting the phrases and quotations for your cards is to identify the labels that will trigger a recall sequence. For instance, if the phrase “more science fact” brings to mind the connection to science fiction and the differences between the real developments and the fictive events of Crichton’s novel Prey, that phrase on your card will support you through a fairly extended part of your introduction. You must discover what works for you and then select those words that tend to jog your recall. Having identified what works, make a preliminary set of no more than five cards written on one side only, and practice with them. Revise and refine them as you would an outline. It is helpful to write delivery tips in a different color (i.e. change slide, plant feet, etc.) The following is a hypothetical set of cards for the smart dust speech: Card 1. Introduction: 2002, Prey, swarm nanomachines feed on living tissue. Kahn, Katz, and Pister, U C Berkeley engineering and computer sci. profs. hyp. Microelectromechanical (MEMS) devices could detect light, temp, or vib. Thesis Statement: Researchers hyp that s.d. could track patients, warn of natural disaster, act as defense against bioterrorism. Prev.: What smart dust is and how it works, military aps, nonmilitary aps. Transition: To help understand, first, what smart dust is. Card 2. I. Dr. Kris Pister, prof robotics lab UC Berkeley conceived the idea HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 443 in 1998 in a proj. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 1. 2001 article by Bret Warneke et al titled “Smart Dust: Communicating with a Cubic-Millimeter Computer” publ. in Computer, Pister wanted sensors, comm. devices, and computer in a cubic millimeter package. 2. Doug Steel of CT Bauer College of Bus at Houston noted grain of rice = 5 cm. 1. Each mote could interact w/ others. 2. (see extended quotation, next card) *show slide 2 Card 3. Quotation: Steve Lohr, NYT Jan 30 2005, “Smart Dust? Not Quite, but We’re Getting There.” Smart dust could eventually consist of “Tiny digital sensors, strewn around the globe, gathering all sorts of information and communicating with powerful computer networks to monitor, measure, and understand the physical world in new ways.” Card 4. II. Orig conceptualized under DARPA, military uses theor. and examined. 1. Smart Dust website, battlefield surveill., treaty monitor., transp. monitor., + scud hunting. 1. benefit, surveill. 1. Maj. Scott Dickson, Blue Horizons Paper for Ctr for Strat and Tech for USAF air war college, sees s.d. as help for battlespace awareness, homeland security, and WMD ID. 2. could also defeat comm jamming equipt by communicating among itself and w/ civilians in combat zones. 2. 2010 article Jessica Griggs New Scientist, early defense, storms and debris. Transition: Switch gears to daily lives. Card 5. III. s.d. project website: s.d. could become common in daily life. 1. Pasting particles for virtual computer keyboard to inventory control poss. 1. Steve Lohr, 2010, NYT, “The applications for sensor-based computing, experts say, include buildings that manage their own energy use, bridges that sense motion and metal fatigue to tell engineers they need repairs, cars that track traffic patterns and report potholes, and fruit and vegetable shipments that tell grocers when they ripen and begin to spoil.” 2. Medically, accdng to SD project website, help disabled. 1. interface w/ computers 2. injected, cd. relay info to docs and detect body changes instantly 1. cancer cells, bacteria or virus, speed up treatment, and so on. Transition: We expl. What SD is, how SD cd be used military, and how SD cd impact our lives. Card 6. Conclusion: Transf fiction to fact, experts agree potential 2025. Michael Crichton’s Prey isn’t reality, but in developing SD as fact, there are ethical considerations. Pister: privacy. Dr. Kris Pister: “As an engineer, or a scientist, or a hair stylist, everyone needs to evaluate what they do in terms of its positive and negative effect. If I thought that the negatives of working on this project were larger or even comparable to the positives, I wouldn’t be working on it. As it turns out, I think that the potential benefits of this technology far far outweigh the risks to personal privacy.” Using a set of cards similar to this could help you get through an impressive set of specialized information. But what if you lose your place during a speech? With a set of cards, it will take less time to refind it than with a full-sentence outline. You will not be rustling sheets of paper, and because your cards are written on one side only, you can keep them in order without flipping them back and forth to check both sides. What if you go blank? Take a few seconds to recall what you’ve said and how it leads to your next points. There may be several seconds of silence in the middle of your speech, and it may seem like minutes to you, but you can regain your footing most easily with a small set of well-prepared cards. Under no circumstances should you ever attempt to put your entire speech on cards in little tiny writing. You will end up reading a sequence of words to your audience instead of telling them your message. PART FIVE – PRESENTING 12.9: DELIVERY The four most common delivery styles for public speaking include speaking from memory, speaking impromptu, speaking from a manuscript, and extemporaneous speaking. Before writing became a common practice, orators would memorize their speeches, sometimes for months, before presenting to an audience. Memorized speaking requires delivery from memory still has its place in contemporary society, but the occasions for this type of speaking is usually reserved for introducing important persons, special events such as weddings and funerals, or other ceremonial events. As a student, you may have already experienced impromptu speaking. Impromptu speaking requires the speaker delivers without little to no preparation. You may also find yourself in this situation during your professional career. If so, there is a short script (or variation of a script) that you can follow: (1) Express thankfulness for the opportunity to speak, (2) Rephrase the question in your own words, (3) Answer the question to the best of your availability, and (4) Briefly explain how your answer speaks to the question. If you cannot answer the question in step three, then be honest, say that you do not have an adequate answer now but that you will follow-up with an answer later. Manuscript speaking requires the speaker reads every word from a pre-written speech. This delivery style is appropriate when the speaking occasion demands accuracy of information and/ or eloquence. News anchors speak from manuscript to deliver the evening news (the manuscript scrolls on a screen beneath the television camera) and politicians often do as well. When speaking from manuscript it is important to follow a few guidelines: (1) Type your manuscript in all-caps, (2) Double space between paragraphs, (3) Use italics and bold to emphasize words and phrases, and above all else (4) Rehearse speaking from the manuscript several times so that you can maintain good eye-contact with the audience when you speak. Extemporaneous speaking is considered the most effective speaking style. When delivering in an extemporaneous speaking style the speaker prepares well (with an outline) and practice in advance, giving full attention to all the facets of the speech—content, arrangement, and delivery. In this speaking style, you research your topic thoroughly, construct an outline that forces you to think through your main points and sub points as complete thoughts, and then deconstruct this sentence outline so that it serves as your key-word, key-phrase speaking notes. You thereby internalize your speech without quite memorizing it, and your notes are sparse so that you are not tempted to merely read the speech to your audience. The result is a delivery that harnesses the energy of spontaneity, dynamism, has a sense of immediacy, and is thus a more engaging experience for your audience. There is no foolproof recipe for good delivery. Each of us is unique, and we each embody different experiences and interests. This means each person has an approach, or a style, that is effective for her or him. This further means that anxiety can accompany even the most carefully researched and interesting message. Even when we know our messages are strong and well-articulated on paper, it is difficult to know for sure that our presentation will also be good. We are still obligated to do our best out of respect for the audience and their needs. Fortunately, there are some tools that can be helpful to you even the very first time you present a speech. You will continue developing your skills each time you put them to use and can experiment to find out which combination of delivery elements is most effective for you. WHAT IS GOOD DELIVERY? The more you care about your topic, the greater your motivation to present it well. Good delivery is a process of presenting a clear, coherent message in an interesting way. Communication scholar Stephen E. Lucas tells us: Good delivery…conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly, interestingly, and without distracting the audience. Most audiences prefer delivery that combines a certain degree of formality with the best attributes of good conversation—directness, spontaneity, animation, vocal and facial expressiveness, and a lively sense of communication (Lucas, 2009). Many writers on the nonverbal aspects of delivery have cited the findings of psychologist Albert Mehrabian, asserting that the bulk of an audience’s understanding of your message is based on nonverbal communication. Specifically, Mehrabian is often credited with finding that when audiences decoded a speaker’s meaning, the speaker’s face conveyed 55 percent of the information, the vocalics conveyed 38 percent, and the words conveyed just 7 percent (Mehrabian, 1972). Although numerous scholars, including Mehrabian himself, have stated that his findings are often misinterpreted (Mitchell), scholars and speech instructors do agree that nonverbal communication and speech delivery are extremely important to effective public speaking. In this section of the chapter, we will explain six elements of good delivery: conversational style, conversational quality, eye contact, vocalics, physical manipulation, and variety. And since delivery is only as good as the practice that goes into it, we conclude with some tips for effective use of your practice time. - CONVERSATIONAL STYLE Conversational style is a speaker’s ability to sound expressive and to be perceived by the audience as natural. It’s a style that approaches the way you normally express yourself in a much smaller group than your classroom audience. This means that you want to avoid having your presentation come across as didactic or overly exaggerated. You might not feel natural while you’re using a conversational style, but for the sake of audience preference and receptiveness, you should do your best to appear natural. It might be helpful to remember that the two most important elements of the speech are the message and the audience. You are the conduit with the important role of putting the two together in an effective way. Your audience should be thinking about the message, not the delivery. Stephen E. Lucas defines conversational quality as the idea that “no matter how many times a speech has been rehearsed, it still sounds spontaneous” [emphasis in original] (Lucas, 2009). No one wants to hear a speech that is so well rehearsed that it sounds fake or robotic. One of the hardest parts of public speaking is rehearsing to the point where it can appear to your audience that the thoughts are magically coming to you while you’re speaking, but in reality you’ve spent a great deal of time thinking through each idea. When you can sound conversational, people pay attention. • EYE CONTACT Eye contact is a speaker’s ability to have visual contact with everyone in the audience. Your audience should feel that you’re speaking to them, not simply uttering main and supporting points. If you are new to public speaking, you may find it intimidating to look audience members in the eye, but if you think about speakers you have seen who did not maintain eye contact, you’ll realize why this aspect of speech delivery is important. Without eye contact, the audience begins to feel invisible and unimportant, as if the speaker is just speaking to hear her or his own voice. Eye contact lets your audience feel that your attention is on them, not solely on the cards in front of you. Sustained eye contact with your audience is one of the mostimportant tools toward effective delivery. O’Hair, Stewart, and Rubenstein note that eye contact is mandatory for speakers to establish a good relationship with an audience (O’Hair, Stewart, & Rubenstein, 2001). Whether a speaker is speaking before a group of five or five hundred, the appearance of eye contact is an important way to bring an audience into your speech. Eye contact can be a powerful tool. It is not simply a sign of sincerity, a sign of being well prepared and knowledgeable, or a sign of confidence; it also has the power to convey meanings. Arthur Koch tells us that all facial expressions “can communicate a wide range of emotions, including sadness,compassion, concern, anger, annoyance, fear, joy, and happiness” (Koch, 2010). If you find the gaze of your audience too intimidating, you might feel tempted to resort to “faking” eye contact with them by looking at the wall just above their heads or by sweeping your gaze around the room instead of making actual eye contact with individuals in your audience until it becomes easier to provide real contact. The problem with fake eye contact is that it tends to look mechanical. Another problem with fake attention is that you lose the opportunity to assess the audience’s understanding of your message. Still, fake eye contact is somewhat better than gripping your cards and staring at them and only occasionally glancing quickly and shallowly at the audience. This is not to say that you may never look at your note cards. On the contrary, one of the skills in extemporaneous speaking is the ability to alternate one’s gaze between the audience and one’s notes. Rehearsing your presentation in front of a few friends should help you develop the ability to maintain eye contact with your audience while referring to your notes. When you are giving a speech that is well prepared and well rehearsed, you will only need to look at your notes occasionally. This is an ability that will develop even further with practice. Your public speaking course is your best chance to get thatpractice. • EFFECTIVE USE OF VOCALICS Vocalics, also known as paralanguage, is the sub-field of nonverbal communication that examines how we use our voices to communicate orally. This means that you speak loudly enough for all audience members (even those in the back of the room) to hear you clearly, and that you enunciate clearly enough to be understood by all audience members (even those who may have a hearing impairment or who may be English-language learners). If you tend to be soft spoken, you will need to practice using a louder volume level that may feel unnatural to you at first. For all speakers, good vocalic technique is best achieved by facing the audience with your chin up and your eyes away from your notecards and by setting your voice at amoderate speed. Effective use of vocalics also means that you make use of appropriate pitch, pauses, vocal variety, and correct pronunciation. If you are an English-language learner and feel apprehensive about giving a speech in English, there are two things to remember: first, you can meet with a reference librarian to learn the correct pronunciations of any English words you are unsure of; and second, the fact that you have an accent means you speak more languages than most Americans, which is an accomplishment to be proud of. If you are one of the many people with a stutter or other speech challenge, you undoubtedly already know that there are numerous techniques for reducing stuttering and improving speech fluency and that there is no one agreed-upon “cure.” The Academy Award–winning movie The King’s Speech did much to increase public awareness of what a person with a stutter goes through when it comes to public speaking. It also prompted some well-known individuals who stutter, such as television news reporter John Stossel, to go public about their stuttering (Stossel, 2011). If you have decided to study public speaking in spite of a speech challenge, we commend you for your efforts and encourage you to work with your speech instructor to make whatever adaptations work best for you. VOLUME Volume refers to the loudness or softness of a speaker’s voice. As mentioned, public speakers need to speak loudly enough to be heard by everyone in the audience. In addition, volume is often needed to overcome ambient noise, such as the hum of an air conditioner or the dull roar of traffic passing by. In addition, you can use volume strategically to emphasize the most important points in your speech. Select these points carefully; if you emphasize everything, nothing will seem important. You also want to be sure to adjust your volume to the physical setting of the presentation. If you are in a large auditorium and your audience is several yards away, you will need to speak louder. If you are in a smaller space, with the audience a few feet away, you want to avoid overwhelming your audience with shouting or speaking too loudly. RATE Rate is the speed at which a person speaks. To keep your speech delivery interesting, your rate should vary. If you are speaking extemporaneously, your rate will naturally fluctuate. If you’re reading, your delivery is less likely to vary. Because rate is an important tool in enhancing the meanings in your speech, you do not want to give a monotone drone or a rapid “machine-gun” style delivery. Your rate should be appropriate for your topic and your points. A rapid, lively rate can communicate such meanings as enthusiasm, urgency, or humor. A slower, moderated rate can convey respect, seriousness, or careful reasoning. By varying rapid and slower rates within a single speech, you can emphasize your main points and keep your audience interested. PITCH Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a speaker’s voice. Some speakers have deep voices and others have high voices. As with one’s singing voice range, the pitch of one’s speaking voice is determined to a large extent by physiology (specifically, the length of one’s vocal folds, or cords, and the size of one’s vocal tract). We all have a normal speaking pitch where our voice is naturally settled, the pitch where we are most comfortable speaking, and most teachers advise speaking at the pitch that feels natural to you. While our voices may be generally comfortable at a specific pitch level, we all have the ability to modulate, or move, our pitch up or down. In fact, we do this all the time. When we change the pitch of our voices, we are using inflections. Just as you can use volume strategically, you can also use pitch inflections to make your delivery more interesting and emphatic. If you ordinarily speak with a soprano voice, you may want to drop your voice to a slightly lower range to call attention to a particular point. How we use inflections can even change the entire meaning of what we are saying. For example, try saying the sentence “I love public speaking” with a higher pitch on one of the words—first raise the pitch on “I,” then say it again with the pitch raised on “love,” and so on. “I love public speaking” conveys a different meaning from “Ilove public speaking,” doesn’t it? There are some speakers who don’t change their pitch at all while speaking, which is called monotone. While very few people are completely monotone, some speakers slip into monotone patterns because of nerves. One way to ascertain whether you sound monotone is to record your voice and see how you sound. If you notice that your voice doesn’t fluctuate very much, you will need to be intentional in altering your pitch to ensure that the emphasis of your speech isn’t completely lost on your audience. Finally, resist the habit of pitching your voice “up” at the ends of sentences. It makes them sound like questions instead of statements. This habit can be disorienting and distracting, interfering with the audience’s ability to focus entirely on the message. The speaker sounds uncertain or sounds as though he or she is seeking the understanding or approval of the listener. It hurts the speaker’s credibility and it needs to be avoided. The effective use of pitch is one of the keys to an interesting delivery that will hold your audience’s attention. PAUSES Pauses are brief breaks in a speaker’s delivery that can emphasize 458 and enhance the clarity of a message. In terms of timing, the effective use of pauses is one of the most important skills to develop. Some speakers become uncomfortable very quickly with the “dead air” that the pause causes. And if the speaker is uncomfortable, the discomfort can transmit itself to the audience. That doesn’t mean you should avoid using pauses; your ability to use them confidently will increase with practice. Some of the best comedians use the well-timed pause to powerful and hilarious effect. Although your speech will not be a comedy routine, pauses are still useful for emphasis, especially when combined with a lowered pitch and rate to emphasize the important point you do not want your audience to miss. VOCAL VARIETY Vocal variety has to do with changes in the vocalics we have just discussed: volume, pitch, rate, and pauses. No one wants to hear the same volume, pitch, rate, or use of pauses over and over again in a speech. Your audience should never be able to detect that you’re about to slow down or your voice is going to get deeper because you’re making an important point. When you think about how you sound in a normal conversation, your use of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses are all done spontaneously. If you try to over-rehearse your vocalics, your speech will end up sounding artificial. Vocal variety should flow naturally from your wish to speak with expression. In that way, it will animate HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 459 your speech and invite your listeners to understand your topic the way you do. PRONUNCIATION The last major category related to vocalics is pronunciation, or the conventional patterns of speech used to form a word. Word pronunciation is important for two reasons: first, mispronouncing a word your audience is familiar with will harm your credibility as a speaker; and second, mispronouncing a word they are unfamiliar with can confuse and even misinform them. If there is any possibility at all that you don’t know the correct pronunciation of a word, find out. Many online dictionaries, such as the Wiktionary, provide free sound files illustrating the pronunciation of words. Many have commented on the mispronunciation of words such as “nuclear” and “cavalry” by highly educated public speakers, including US presidents. There have been classroom examples as well. For instance, a student giving a speech on the Greek philosopher Socrates mispronounced his name at least eight times during her speech. This mispronunciation created a situation of great awkwardness and anxiety for the audience. Everyone felt embarrassed and the teacher, opting not to humiliate the student in front of the class, could not say anything out loud, instead providing a private written comment at the end of class. One important aspect of pronunciation is articulation, or the 460 ability to clearly pronounce each of a succession of syllables used to make up a word. Some people have difficulty articulating because of physiological problems that can be treated by trained speech therapists, but other people have articulation problems because they come from a cultural milieu where a dialect other than standard American English is the norm. Speech therapists, who generally guide their clients toward standard American English, use the acronym SODA when helping people learn how to more effectively articulate: substitutions, omissions, distortions, and additions. • Substitutions occur when a speaker replaces one consonant or vowel with another consonant (water becomes wudda; ask becomes ax; mouth becomes mouf). • Omissions occur when a speaker drops a consonant or vowel within a word (Internet becomes Innet; mesmerized becomes memerized; p robably becomes prolly). • Distortions occur when a speaker articulates a word with nasal or slurring sounds (pencil sounds like mencil; precipitation sounds like persination; second sounds like slecond). • Additions occur when a speaker adds consonants or vowels to words that are not there (anyway becomes anyways; athletic becomes athaletic; blac k becomes buhlack; interpret becomes interpretate). Another aspect of pronunciation in public speaking is avoiding the use of verbal surrogates or “filler” words used as placeholders for actual words (like er, um, uh, etc.). You might be able to get away with saying “um” as many as two or three times in your speech before it becomes distracting, but the HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 461 same cannot be said of “like.” We know of a student who trained herself to avoid saying “like.” As soon as the first speech was assigned, she began wearing a rubber band on her left wrist. Each time she caught herself saying “like,” she snapped herself with the rubber band. It hurt. Very quickly, she found that she could stop inflicting the snap on herself, and she had successfully confronted an unprofessional verbal habit. • EFFECTIVE PHYSICAL MANIPULATION In addition to using our voices effectively, a key to effective public speaking is physical manipulation, or the use of the body to emphasize meanings or convey meanings during a speech. While we will not attempt to give an entire discourse on nonverbal communication, we will discuss a few basic aspects of physical manipulation: posture, body movement, facial expressions, and dress. These aspects add up to the overall physical dimension of your speech, which we call self- presentation. 462 POSTURE “Stand up tall!” I’m sure we’ve all heard this statement from a parent or a teacher at some point in our lives. The fact is, posture is actually quite important. When you stand up straight, you communicate to your audience, without saying a word, that you hold a position of power and take your position seriously. If however, you are slouching, hunched over, or leaning on something, you could be perceived as ill prepared, anxious, lacking in credibility, or not serious about your responsibilities as a speaker. While speakers often assume more casual posture as a presentation continues (especially if it is a long one, such as a ninety-minute class lecture), it is always wise to start by standing up straight and putting your best foot forward. Remember, you only get one shot at making a first impression, and your body’s orientation is one of the first pieces of information audiences use to make that impression. BODY MOVEMENT Unless you are stuck behind a podium because of the need to use a non-movable microphone, you should never stand in one place during a speech. However, movement during a speech should also not resemble pacing. One of our authors once saw a speaker who would walk around a small table where her speaking notes were located. She would walk around the table once, toss her chalk twice, and then repeat the process. Instead HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 463 of listening to what the speaker was saying, everyone became transfixed by her walk-and-chalk-toss pattern. As speakers, we must be mindful of how we go about moving while speaking. One common method for easily integrating some movement into your speech is to take a few steps any time you transition from one idea to the next. By only moving at transition points, not only do you help focus your audience’s attention on the transition from one idea to the next, but you also are able to increase your nonverbal immediacy by getting closer to different segments of your audience. Body movement also includes gestures, a movement of the hands, arms, or head, etc. to express an idea or feeling. These should be neither over dramatic nor subdued. At one extreme, arm- waving and fist-pounding will distract from your message and reduce your credibility. At the other extreme, refraining from the use of gestures is the waste of an opportunity to suggest emphasis, enthusiasm, or other personal connection with your topic. There are many ways to use gestures. The most obvious are hand gestures, which should be used in moderation at carefully selected times in the speech. If you overuse gestures, they lose meaning. Many late-night comedy parodies of political leaders include patterned, overused gestures or other delivery habits associated with a particular speaker. However, the well-placed use of simple, natural gestures to indicate emphasis, direction, size is usually effective. Normally, a gesture with one hand is enough. Rather than trying to have a gesture for every sentence, use just a few well-planned gestures. It is often more effective to make a gesture and hold it for a few moments than to begin waving your hands and arms around in a series of gestures. Finally, just as you should avoid pacing, you will also want to avoid other distracting movements when you are speaking. Many speakers have unconscious mannerisms such as twirling their hair, putting their hands in and out of their pockets, 464 jingling their keys, licking their lips, or clicking a pen while speaking. As with other aspects of speech delivery, practicing in front of others will help you become conscious of such distractions and plan ways to avoid doing them. FACIAL EXPRESSION Faces are amazing and convey so much information. As speakers, we must be acutely aware of what our face looks like while speaking. While many of us do not look forward to seeing ourselves on videotape, often the only way you can critically evaluate what your face is doing while you are speaking is to watch a recording of your speech. If video is not available, you can practice speaking in front of a mirror. There are two extremes you want to avoid: no facial expression and over-animated facial expressions. First, you do not want to have a completely blank face while speaking. Some people just do not show much emotion with their faces naturally, but this blankness is often increased when the speaker is nervous. Audiences will react negatively to the message of such a speaker because they will sense that something is amiss. If a speaker is talking about the joys of Disney World and his face doesn’t show any excitement, the audience is going to be turned off to the speaker and his message. On the other extreme end is the speaker whose face looks like that of an exaggerated cartoon character. Instead, HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 465 your goal is to show a variety of appropriate facial expressions while speaking. Like vocalics and gestures, facial expression can be used strategically to enhance meaning. A smile or pleasant facial expression is generally appropriate at the beginning of a speech to indicate your wish for a good transaction with your audience. However, you should not smile throughout a speech on drug addiction, poverty, or the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. An inappropriate smile creates confusion about your meaning and may make your audience feel uncomfortable. On the other hand, a serious scowl might look hostile or threatening to audience members and become a distraction from the message. If you keep the meaning of your speech foremost in your mind, you will more readily find the balance in facial expression. Another common problem some new speakers have is showing only one expression. One of our coauthors competed in speech in college. After one of his speeches (about how people die on amusement park rides), one of his judges pulled him aside and informed him that his speech was “creepy.” Apparently, while speaking about death, our coauthor smiled the entire time. The incongruity between the speech on death and dying and the coauthor’s smile just left the judge a little creeped out. If you are excited in a part of your speech, you should show excitement on your face. On the other hand, if you are at a serious part of your speech, your facial expressions should be serious. 466 DRESS While there are no clear-cut guidelines for how you should dress for every speech you’ll give, dress is still a very important part of how others will perceive you (again, it’s all about the first impression). If you want to be taken seriously, you must present yourself seriously. While we do not advocate dressing up in a suit every time you give a speech, there are definitely times when wearing a suit is appropriate. One general rule you can use for determining dress is the “step-above rule,” which states that you should dress one step above your audience. If your audience is going to be dressed casually in shorts and jeans, then wear nice casual clothing such as a pair of neatly pressed slacks and a collared shirt or blouse. If, however, your audience is going to be wearing “business casual” attire, then you should probably wear a sport coat, a dress, or a suit. The goal of the step-above rule is to establish yourself as someone to be taken seriously. On the other hand, if you dress two steps above your audience, you may put too much distance between yourself and your audience, coming across as overly formal or even arrogant. Another general rule for dressing is to avoid distractions in your appearance. Overly tight or revealing garments, over- the-top hairstyles or makeup, jangling jewelry, or a display of tattoos and piercings can serve to draw your audience’s attention away from your speech. Remembering that your message is the most important aspect of your speech, keep that message in mind when you choose your clothing and accessories. HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 467 SELF-PRESENTATION When you present your speech, you are also presenting yourself. Self-presentation, sometimes also referred to as poise or stage presence, is determined by how you look, how you stand, how you walk to the lectern, and how you use your voice and gestures. Your self-presentation can either enhance your message or detract from it. Worse, a poor self-presentation can turn a good, well-prepared speech into a forgettable waste of time. You want your self-presentation to support your credibility and improve the likelihood that the audience will listen with interest. Your personal appearance should reflect the careful preparation of your speech. Your personal appearance is the first thing your audience will see, and from it, they will make inferences about the speech you’re about to present. • VARIETY One of the biggest mistakes novice public speakers make is to use the same gesture over and over again during a speech. While you don’t want your gestures to look fake, you should be careful to include a variety of different nonverbal components while speaking. You should make sure that your face, body, and words are all working in conjunction with each other to support your message. 468 PRACTICE EFFECTIVELY You might get away with presenting a hastily practiced speech, but the speech will not be as good as it could be. In order to develop your best speech delivery, you need to practice—and use your practice time effectively. Practicing does not mean reading over your notes, mentally running through your speech, or even speaking your speech aloud over and over. Instead, you need to practice with the goal of identifying the weaknesses in your delivery, improving upon them, and building good speech delivery habits. When you practice your speech, place both your feet in full, firm contact with the floor to keep your body from swaying side to side. Some new public speakers find that they don’t know what to do with their hands during the speech. Your practice sessions should help you get comfortable. When you’re not gesturing, you can rest your free hand lightly on a lectern or simply allow it to hang at your side. Since this is not a familiar posture for most people, it might feel awkward, but in your practice sessions, you can begin getting used to it. Luckily, public speaking is an activity that, when done conscientiously, strengthens with practice. As you become aware of the areas where your delivery has room for improvement, you will begin developing a keen sense of what “works” and what audiences respond to. HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 469 SEEK INPUT FROM OTHERS Because we can’t see ourselves as others see us, one of the best ways to improve your delivery is to seek constructive criticism from others. This, of course, is an aspect of your public speaking course, as you will receive evaluations from your instructor and possibly from your fellow students. However, by practicing in front of others before it is time to present your speech, you can anticipate and correct problems so that you can receive a better evaluation when you give the speech “for real.” Ask your practice observers to be honest about the aspects of your delivery that could be better. Sometimes students create study groups just for this purpose. When you create a study group of classroom peers, everyone has an understanding of the entire creative process, and their feedback will thus be more useful to you than the feedback you might get from someone who has never taken the course or given a speech. If your practice observers seem reluctant to offer useful criticisms, ask questions. How was your eye contact? Could they hear you? Was your voice well modulated? Did you mispronounce any words? How was your posture? Were your gestures effective? Did you have any mannerisms that you should learn to avoid? Because peers are sometimes reluctant to say things that could sound critical, direct questions are often a useful way to help them speak up. If you learn from these practice sessions that your voice tends to drop at the ends of sentences, make a conscious effort to support your voice as you conclude each main point. If you learn that you have a habit of clicking a pen, make sure you don’t have a pen with you when you speak or that you keep it in your pocket. If your practice observers mention that you tend to hide your hands in the sleeves of your shirt or jacket, next time wear short sleeves or roll your sleeves up before beginning your speech. If you learn through practice that you tend to sway 470 or rock while you speak, you can consciously practice and build the habit of not swaying. When it is your turn to give feedback to others in your group, assume that they are as interested in doing well as you are. Give feedback in the spirit of helping their speeches be as good as possible. USE AUDIO AND/OR VIDEO TO RECORD YOURSELF Technology has made it easier than ever to record yourself and others using the proliferation of electronic devices people are likely to own. Video, of course, allows you the advantage of being able to see yourself as others see you, while audio allows you to concentrate on the audible aspects of your delivery. As we mentioned earlier in the chapter, if neither video nor audio is available, you can always observe yourself by practicing your delivery in front of a mirror. After you have recorded yourself, it may seem obvious that you should watch and listen to the recording. This can be intimidating, as you may fear that your performance anxiety will be so obvious that everyone will notice it in the recording. But students are often pleasantly surprised when they watch and listen to their recordings, as even students with very high anxiety may find out that they “come across” in a speech much better than they expected. A recording can also be a very effective diagnostic device. HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 471 Sometimes students believe they are making strong contact with their audiences, but their cards contain so many notes that they succumb to the temptation of reading. By finding out from the video that you misjudged your eye contact, you can be motivated to rewrite your notecards in a way that doesn’t provide the opportunity to do so much reading. It is most likely that in viewing your recording, you will benefit from discovering your strengths and finding weak areas you can strengthen. Your public speaking course is one of the best opportunities you will have to manage your performance anxiety, build your confidence in speaking extemporaneously, develop your vocal skills, and become adept at self-presentation. The habits you can develop through targeted practice are to build continuously on your strengths and to challenge yourself to find new areas for improving your delivery. By taking advantage of these opportunities, you will gain the ability to present a speech effectively whenever you may be called upon to speak publicly. FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION (VISUAL) AIDS Why should you use presentation aids? If you have prepared and rehearsed your speech adequately, shouldn’t a good speech with a good delivery be enough to stand on its own? While it is true that impressive presentation aids will not rescue a poor speech, it is also important to recognize that a good speech can often be made even better by the strategic use of presentation aids. Presentational aids are items other than the words of a speech that are used to support the intent of the speaker. In particular, they can be visual aids, audio aids or other supporting technology. Presentational aids can fulfill several 472 functions: they can serve to improve your audience’s understanding of the information you are conveying, clarify the message, emphasize points, enhance retention and recall of the message, add variety and interest to your speech, and enhance your credibility as a speaker. Let’s examine each of these functions. Improve Audience Understanding Human communication is a complex process that often leads to misunderstandings. If you are like most people, you can easily remember incidents when you misunderstood a message or when someone else misunderstood what you said to them. Misunderstandings happen in public speaking just as they do in everyday conversations. One reason for misunderstandings is the fact that perception and interpretation are highly complex individual processes. Most of us have seen the image in which, depending on your perception, you see either the outline of a vase or the facial profiles of two people facing each other. This shows how interpretations can differ, and it means that your presentations must be based on careful thought and preparation to maximize the likelihood that your listeners will understand your presentations as you intend them to. As a speaker, one of your basic goals is to help your audience understand your message. To reduce misunderstanding, presentation aids can be used to clarify or to emphasize. Clarify Clarification is important in a speech because if some of the information you convey is unclear, your listeners will come away puzzled or possibly even misled. Presentation aids can help clarify a message if the information is complex or if the point being made is a visual one. Diagrams, graphs, and models HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 473 are especially helpful in clarifying complex ideas for your audience. Figure 12.1 Coriolis Effect If your speech is about the impact of the Coriolis effect on tropical storms, for instance, you will have great difficulty clarifying it without a diagram because the process is a complex one. The diagram in Figure 10.1 “Coriolis Effect” would be effective because it shows the audience the interaction between equatorial wind patterns and wind patterns moving in other directions. The diagram allows the audience to process the information in two ways: through your verbal explanation and through the visual elements of the diagram. Emphasize When you use a presentation aid for emphasis, you impress your listeners with the importance of an idea. In a speech on water conservation, you might try to show the environmental proportions of the resource. When you use a conceptual drawing you show that if the world water supply were equal to ten gallons, only ten drops would be available and potable for 474 human or household consumption. This drawing is effective because it emphasizes the scarcity of useful water and thus draws attention to this important information in your speech. Figure 12.2 Water Supply Enhance Retention and Recall The second function that presentation aids can serve is to increase the audience’s chances of remembering your speech. A 1996 article by the US Department of Labor summarized research on how people learn and remember. The authors found that “83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses—11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch.” When your graphic images deliver information effectively and when your listeners understand them clearly, audience members are likely to remember your message long after your speech is over. Moreover, people often are able to remember information that is presented in sequential steps more easily than if that information is presented in an unorganized pattern. When you HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 475 use a presentation aid to display the organization of your speech, you will help your listeners to observe, follow, and remember the sequence of information you conveyed to them. This is why some instructors display a lecture outline for their students to follow during class. An added plus of using presentation aids is that they can boost your memory while you are speaking. Using your presentation aids while you rehearse your speech will familiarize you with the association between a given place in your speech and the presentation aid that accompanies that material. For example, if you are giving an informative speech about diamonds, you might plan to display a sequence of slides illustrating the most popular diamond shapes: brilliant, marquise, emerald, and so on. As you finish describing one shape and advance to the next slide, seeing the next diamond shape will help you remember the information about it that you are going to deliver. Add Variety and Interest The third function of presentation aids is simply to make your speech more interesting. While it is true that a good speech and a well-rehearsed delivery will already include variety in several aspects of the presentation, in many cases, a speech can be made even more interesting by the use of well-chosen presentation aids. For example, you may have prepared a very good speech to inform a group of gardeners about several new varieties of roses suitable for growing in your local area. Although your listeners will undoubtedly understand and remember your message very well without any presentation aids, wouldn’t your speech have greater impact if you accompanied your remarks with a picture of each rose? You can imagine that your audience would be even more enthralled if you had the ability to display an actual flower of each variety in a bud vase. 476 Similarly, if you were speaking to a group of gourmet cooks about Indian spices, you might want to provide tiny samples of spices that they could smell and taste during your speech. Enhance a Speaker’s Credibility Presentation aids alone will not be enough to create a professional image. As we mentioned earlier, impressive presentation aids will not rescue a poor speech. However, even if you give a good speech, you run the risk of appearing unprofessional if your presentation aids are poorly executed. This means that in addition to containing important information, your presentation aids must be clear, clean, uncluttered, organized, and large enough for the audience to see and interpret correctly. Misspellings and poorly designed presentation aids can damage your credibility as a speaker. Conversely, a high-quality presentation will contribute to your professional image. In addition, make sure that you give proper credit to the source of any presentation aids that you take from other sources. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR PRESENTATION TECHNOLOGY Although there are many types of visual aides, using presentation technology like PowerPoint or Prezi helps to ensure that your audience is able to view the visual aid. In addition, it helps to minimize distractions such as passing a photo or brochure throughout the audience or having a model or object displayed that is difficult to see. There are several things to consider when designing PowerPoint or Prezi slides. We will discuss mages, text, color, and consistency. Images Use images more than words. Choose high-resolution images HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 477 and make sure the images are large enough to be seen clearly. If you use a video clip, edit and embed the video clip–integrate it seamlessly into your speech. Color Be mindful of the value of contrast. If you choose a dark colored background, your text should be lightly colored. Conversely, if you choose a light colored background, use dark text. Stay with the same color scheme throughout your entire presentation. Text Limit the amount of text on a slide–avoid using full sentences. You should also keep in mind a basic principle of readability– choose fonts that are easy to read (minimize decorative fonts), avoid using all caps, and keep to maximum of two different styles of fonts on a slide. Your titles should be in at least 36-point type and other text should not be smaller than 24-point font. Consistency Remember your slide presentation should be viewed as a whole. The colors, sizes, and types of font should be unified (i.e. if you choose to use 36-point Ariel for your title on one slide, continue to use the same size and font for the title on every slide). If you decide to use visual aids, remember to keep your audience and purpose for your speech at the forefront of your mind. The visual aid should not be the focus. 478 SUMMARY In this chapter, we have discussed best practices for effective speaking. The chapter presented a variety of types of research and evidence and discussed how to locate, evaluate, use, and present research to meet your goals. We also examined how the decisions we make in preparing and delivering a speech are impacted by our audience, the speaking occasion, as well as our specific purpose or goal. Because informative speaking plays a key role in a variety of professional, personal, and civic contexts it is important that we continually build upon our speaking experience and skill sets. Indeed, we are always refining our ability to speak well. Listening to others’ presentations and taking note of their strengths in using presentation aids, delivery style, and clear organization can help us build upon our own best practices. Finally, we reviewed ethical decision making and the benefits to informed learning as an undergraduate student. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What qualities exemplify a good speech? 2. What do you consider to be your best strengths when speaking in public? In what areas do you feel you need the most improvement? 3. How can understanding your audience make for a more effective informative speech? KEY TERMS • articulation • audience analysis • biased questions • causal organizational pattern • chronological organizational pattern • cite/ citation • classification/ catalog • comparison/contrast organizational pattern • conversational style • definition/etymological definition • ethics • examples (brief, extended, hypothetical) • experts • extemporaneous speaking • general purpose • gestures • impromptu speaking • Information Literacy Model • informed learning • manuscript speaking • memorized speaking • neutral questions • non-print resources • open questions • paraphrasing • peers • periodicals • personal experience • plagiarism • presentational aids • primary questions • print resources • professional experience • quoting • reference works • references page • research • secondary questions • spatial organizational pattern • specific purpose • statistic • subordination • testimony • topical organizational pattern • transitions • Uniform Resource Locator (URL) • vocalics/ paralanguage REFERENCES ACLU. 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Retrieved from http://elearninginfographics.com/types-visual-content- improve-learner-engagement-infographic/ Hack College. (2011, November 23). Infographic: Get more out of Google [Infographic]. Retrieved from http://www.hackcollege.com/blog/2011/11/23/ infographic-get-more-out-of-google.html Koch, A. (2010). Speaking with a purpose (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. LeFrancois, G. R. (1999). Psychology for teaching, 10th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Lucas, S. (2011). The art of public speaking, 11th Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Madan, C.R., & Teitge, B.D. (2013, May 1). The benefits of 482 undergraduate research: The student’s perspective. The Mentor. Retrieved from https://dus.psu.edu/mentor/2013/05/ undergraduate-research-students-perspective/ Maybee, C., Bruce, C.S., Lupton, M., & Rebmann, K. (2013, June). Learning to use information: Informed learning in the undergraduate classroom. Library & Information Science Research, 35(3) 200–206. McCroskey, J. C., Wrench, J. S., & Richmond, V. P., (2003). Principles of public speaking. Indianapolis, IN: The College Network. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton. Mitchell, O. (n.d.). Mehrabian and nonverbal communication [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.speakingaboutpresenting.com/presentation- myths/mehrabian-nonverbal-communication-research O’Hair, D., Stewart, R., & Rubenstein, H. (2001). A speaker’s guidebook: Text and reference. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Paraphrase. (n.d.). 3 ways to paraphrase quoted material. In wikiHow. Retrieved May 22, 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Paraphrase-Quoted-Material Rowan, K. E. (2003). Informing and explaining skills: Theory and research on informative communication. Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates Publishers. Schrock, K. (n.d.). The 5 W’s of website evalution [Digital Image]. Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/ 308426274462317891/ Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 18: 292-301. Stossel, J. (2011, March 2). An Academy Award–winning movie, stuttering and me [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=42081 HUMAN COMMUNICATION: AN OPEN TEXT 483 Thompson, E. C. (1960). An experimental investigation of the relative effectiveness of organizational structure in oral communication. Southern Speech Journal, 26: 59-69. Zhang, L. (2016). 3 steps to a perfect informational interview. Retrieved from https://www.themuse.com/advice/3-steps-to- a-perfect-informational-interview Images The following images were available under the CC-BY-NC- SA 3.0 License via an archived copy of the open textbook, Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics • Coriolis Effect Diagram • Model of Communication Diagram • Petroglyph Diagram • Water Supply visualization Some images were retrieved from Pixabay available under a CC0 license. • Closeup of person completing a metal puzzle • Dartboard with darts •Public Speaking graphic The Thinker, Sculpture by Rodin	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.108482	Terri Johnson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104432/overview", "title": "CHAPTER 12: PUBLIC SPEAKING", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102154/overview	Painting the Mexican Revolution Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I want to develop a lesson on Mexican Muralism for a History of Mexico course that can also be used in art History courses My Audience: This OER is for high school and college learners in art and history My Team: WNA Existing Resources: Mexican Revolution New Resources: Photos that I have taken of artwork by Rivera, Kahlo, Orozco, Siquieros, and Tamayo Supports Needed: NA Our Timeline: July 2023 Art and Culture in 20th-Century Mexico Perhaps the most significant cultural development in the 20s and 30s was in the visual arts. Rufino Tamayo, Juan O’Gorman, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, and Diego Rivera began studying art in the decade before the outbreak of the Revolution, but they came into their own during this period. Their artistic sensibilities represented a departure from the classical and realist art forms favored during the Porfiriato, and together they developed a truly Mexican style. In line with the Revolution, art was made accessible to the people through murals. The Mexican Modernist School used large-scale murals to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes. This public art was used as a means to educate the populous, convey the ideals of the revolution, and instill national pride in Mexicans. Mexican Muralism and Revolutionary Art The Mexican Revolution had a dramatic effect on Mexican art. The government allied itself with intellectuals and artists in Mexico City and commissioned murals for public buildings to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes. The production of art in conjunction with government propaganda is known as the Mexican Modernist School, or the Mexican Muralist Movement. Many such works glorified the Mexican Revolution or redefined the Mexican people vis-à-vis their indigenous and colonial past. The first of these commissioned works was done by Fernando Leal, Fermin Revueltas, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera at San Ildefonso, a prestigious Jesuit boarding school. The muralist movement reached its height in the 1930s with four main artists: Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Jose Clemente Orozco, and Fernando Leal. It is now the most studied aspect of Mexico’s art history. These four artists were trained in classical European techniques and many of their early works were imitations of then-fashionable European paintings styles. Many Mexican government buildings featured murals glorifying Mexico’s pre-Hispanic past and incorporating it into the definition of Mexican identity. Many of these muralists also revived the fresco technique in their mural work, although some like Siqueiros moved to industrial techniques and materials such as the application of pyroxilin, a commercial enamel used for airplanes and automobiles. Diego Rivera Rivera painted his first significant mural, Creation, in the Bolivar Auditorium of the National Preparatory School in Mexico City in January 1922 while guarding himself with a pistol against right-wing students. In the autumn of 1922, Rivera participated in the founding of the Revolutionary Union of Technical Workers, Painters and Sculptors, and later that year he joined the Mexican Communist Party. His murals were greatly influenced by his leftist political leanings, dealing with Mexican society and reflecting the country’s 1910 Revolution. He developed his own native style based on large, simplified figures and bold colors. A strong Aztec influence was present in his works, and much of his art emulated the Mayan steles of the classical era. Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo de Rivera was a Mexican painter known for her self-portraits. While she painted canvases instead of murals, she is still considered part of the Mexican Modernist School due to the emphasis of Mexican folk culture and use of color in her works. She was married to muralist Diego Rivera and like Rivera was an active communist. Kahlo was influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as demonstrated by her use of bright colors, dramatic symbolism, and primitive style. She often included monkeys in her works; while this is usually a symbol of lust in Mexican mythology, Kahlo’s portrayal was tender and protective. Christian and Jewish themes were often depicted in Kahlo’s work. She combined elements of classic religious Mexican traditions with surrealist components in her paintings. Reflection To create this remix, I copied and pasted from the original rather than remixing it from the original OER textbook chapter...I'm concerned about whether or not the attribution will be correct once I publish it, so I suppose I will find out once I hit publish!! OK, so after I initially published this, I saw the tiny "View & Manage Authors" in the corner and was able to add the other authors manually :) This is the first time creating something using OER Commons tools, so I am excited to begin adding content in the future, as I have several completed curriculum projects that are housed is various repositories and in different formats. I can see the value of standardization so that resources care more accessible and usable, particularly now that the majority of classes use an LMS for content and assignments. My plan is to incorporate images that I have taken of murals in Mexico and at MoMA, include bios for Rufino Tamayo, Jose Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siquieros, and add an activity that can be used in History, Chicanx/Latinx Studies, and Art History courses.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.139857	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102154/overview", "title": "Painting the Mexican Revolution", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97749/overview	Education Standards Key_ IR and molecule quiz Key_ Molecules And Light Guided Inquiry key_ Pattern Identification IR Activity comp LP 2_ IR Spectroscopy Molecules And Light Guided Inquiry_ Student Handout No computer Key_ Pattern Identification IR Activity No Computer Pattern Identification IR Activity Pattern Identification IR Activity (no computer) Pattern Identifiction IR Activity Comp Printable cards for Pattern Identification IR Student copy_ IR and molecule quiz Light and Matter: Atomic and Molecular Interactions Overview In this unit students investigate the cause of sunburns, the function of sunscreen, and the ways in which chemists determine the molecular structure of matter by applying relationships about how light interacts with matter on an atomic or molecular level. Overview of Unit and Materials In this unit plan, students describe the various ways in which light interacts with matter on a molecular and atomic level to explain many macroscopic level observations. Absorption of lower energy light (such as radio, micro-, and IR waves) typically results in increased motion of molecules and the bonds between atoms in molecules. The absorption of this low energy light can be used to determine the bonding within molecules or to heat food in a microwave oven. The absorption and reflection of visible light results in the visible color observed by molecules. Emission of visible light by electrons in atoms produces atomic spectrum, which can be used to determine the composition of stars and salts. Higher energy EMR, such as UV or gamma rays, can break chemical bonds or ionize atoms. This can result in damage to DNA and tissue. Compounds in sunscreen are designed to absorb this light, frequently by breaking the chemical bonds in the sunscreen, to prevent damage to living tissue. This unit contains the following resources: - Word: How Light Interacts with Matter Student inquiry Activity - Word: Key for How Light Interacts with Matter - Powerpoint: How light interacts with matter (discussion guide for after the task cards) - Word: Patterns in IR spectroscopy with computers student handout (Patterns in Identification IR Activity (comp)) - Word: Key for Patterns in Identification IR activity comp - Powerpoint: Patterns in IR sectroscopy printable cards (Printable cards for pattern identification) - Word: Student handout to accompany IR spectroscopy without computers (Pattern identification IR activity (no computer)) - Word: Formative assessment on identifying molecules through IR (Student copy_IR and molecule quiz) - Word: Key for IR and molecule quiz Intro to Light and Matter Students use a Phet simulation to identify general patterns in the ways light interacts with matter. Using these general principles, students then work through six stations focusing on different types of light interacting with matter, relating molecular and atomic level interactions to common real-life applications and observations. Using light to investigate molecular structure By identifying patterns in how infrared light is absorbed by different classes of molecules, students describe how to distinguish between the molecular bonding structure of molecules with similar or identical chemical formulas. Also provided is a formative assessment in which students apply these concepts to identify compounds in different household substances by how they intearct with infrared radiation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.170452	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97749/overview", "title": "Light and Matter: Atomic and Molecular Interactions", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89238/overview	11_Congress 12_Presidency 13_Federal Courts 15_Bureaucracy 17_Foreign Policy 1_Government and Citizenship slides 2_Constitution and Founding 3_Federalism 4_Civil Liberties 5_Civil Rights 6_Public Opinion 7_Voting and Elections 8_The Media 9_Political Parties American Government OER Materials (in-person section) Overview These PowerPoint slides can be paired with the American Government 3e textbook by Openstax for in-class sections of the course. They provide matierial from the textbook, as well as data from the most recent elections, public opinion polls, and pew research center publications from within the last few years. This material provides both the political history of our country, as well as some pertinent information from current events affecting our political landscape. American Government OER Materials (in-person section) These slides are to be used in concert with the American Government 3e OER provided by Openstax. The textbook can be accessed using the link below: https://openstax.org/details/books/american-government-3e The slides cover chapters 1-13, 15, and 17 and enhance the course content by utilizing the most up to date data collected through media outlets from which a subscription was purchased or are considered open source information.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.198636	Jesse Cragwall	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89238/overview", "title": "American Government OER Materials (in-person section)", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117602/overview	Solving Linear Equations Overview Tutorial on Solving Linear Equations using Elmination Methods	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.214566	07/03/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117602/overview", "title": "Solving Linear Equations", "author": "Jose Serra" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108966/overview	Education Standards Modern Dance performance - Jacob's Pillow in Beckett, Ma. Overview Photo Image is by jacob's Pillow Photographer Christopher Duggan Modern Dance performance response - Defining your Aesthetic This assignment can be used for 9-12 grade high school students and secondary level education students in a dance appreciation, dance history or for a dance production course. I use this assignent in my 3 unit Dance Survey course at Modesto Junior College typically in week 2 of studying the Modern Dance genre. Modern Dance performance response - Defining your Aesthetic - This assignment includes a video of the Modesto Junior College dance students performing at the iconic Jacob's Pillow located in Beckett Ma. Jacob's Pillow in August 2023. Modern Dance pioneer Ted Shawn purchased the land in Beckett, Ma. in 1933. He built the first ever theater built for the sole purpose of showcasing dance in the United States. Jacob's Pillow today is a national tresaure that was givent the Metal of Arts by President Barack Obama in 2015. This video includes the choreography of Kim T. Davis titled "Within the Fault Line". This piece was selected by the American College Dance Festivla's national conference in May of 2023 at CSULB to represent the state of California to perform at Jacob's Pillow. Part 1 of this Assignment - - When viewing this 8 minutes dance titled "Within the Fault Line" write about the follwoing below: - Describe the music that the dancers are dancing to. Is the music fast, percussive, or is it slow and soft in quality? - How does the music make you feel? Does it make you want to get up out of your seat and start moving or clapping your hands? Or do you find yourself feeling calm and quiet? Describe your emotions and state of mind when listenting to the music that the dancers are performing to. - Describe the quality of the movement by using or incorporating some of the following words: physical, athletic, energizing, fast, risky, breathtaking, or engaging. - In your opinion do the costumes that the dancers are wearing support the dancing and the intention of the dance? Support your respponse. - In your own words describe the performing venue which may include the overall view of the stage, the environment that the stage in in. How does the performance stage add to the overall viewing expereince for the observer. Part 2 of this assignmnet: Based on some of the answers you provided in part 1 please construct a paragraph that defines whether this video is in the realm of your own personal aesthetic. Example, The paintings give me great aesthetic pleasure. The word aesthetic is defined as: concerned with the beauty or the appreciation of beauty. In essesnce your own personal aesthetic is either aligned with the artists creation of this dance or not. Your goal is for your paragraph to use the word "aesthetic" to define your feelings about the viewing of the choreography by Kim T. Davis' piece "Within the Fault Line" at the iconic Jacob's Pillow.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.239920	Kim Davis	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108966/overview", "title": "Modern Dance performance - Jacob's Pillow in Beckett, Ma.", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92578/overview	Markup Calculator Margin Calculator Overview Margin Calculator If You Are From a Business Company Or Running Any Business Then Here Is The Margin Calculator Tool For You to Calculate Your Profit And Loss And Grow Your Business. Margin Calculator If You Are From a Business Company Or Running Any Business Then Here Is The Margin Calculator Tool For You to Calculate Your Profit And Loss And Grow Your Business. Margin Calculator Margin Calculator If You Are From a Business Company Or Running Any Business Then Here Is The Margin Calculator Tool For You to Calculate Your Profit And Loss And Grow Your Business.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.258896	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92578/overview", "title": "Margin Calculator", "author": "Maloyall aksya" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89637/overview	FORESTS Overview This image is a indicator of the importancE of protecting our forest resources. Illegal cutting of trees for urban expnasion, agricultural or any other huan activities should not be condonded. Forests should be protected as they have an important role in soil and water conservation. CONSERVATION OF FOREST RESOURCES This image is a indicator of the importanc of protecting our forest resources. Illegal cutting of trees for urban expnasion, agricultural or any other huan activities should not be condonded. Forests should be protected as they have an important role in soil and water conservation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.274973	Patricia Mwangi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89637/overview", "title": "FORESTS", "author": "Case Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104116/overview	Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Implementation Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Math 150: Introduction Elementary Statistics with Probability course (OFAR) Used OpenStax Elementary Statistics OER book Curated chapter end activities from ASCCC OERI Statistics for Social Justice course from Canvas Commons. Created Welcoming liquid Syllabus for my class. Open Pedagogy helped to bring my student's voice and increase students' belonging in the class.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.288559	Syllabus	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104116/overview", "title": "Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Implementation", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107811/overview	Active Learning Worksheets to Pair with Openstax Astronomy Overview These worksheets were developed by Bryanne McDonough (PhD Candidate, Boston University) for a 6 week summer AS101 course taught at Boston University using the Openstax Astronomy 2e textbook. Each lesson was two hours long, so modification may be necessary for using these worksheets in a shorter class format, although many are already split into two parts. I'm open to feedback and would love to hear if you decide to use this resource in anyway: please contact Bryanne McDonough (bnmcd@bu.edu). Summary of Included Worksheets These worksheets were developed by Bryanne McDonough (PhD Candidate, Boston University) for a 6 week summer AS101 course taught at Boston University. Each lesson was two hours long, so modification may be necessary for using these worksheets in a shorter class format, although many are already split into two parts. Worksheets were typically introduced with example problem(s). Google Drive link to all worksheets The worksheets contain adaptations from other material, including questions from Openstax Astronomy 2e (indicated by numbers referencing the textbook), original problems (OP) written by the compiler, and a few questions from Cosmic Perspective (Pearson). Actual text of Cosmic Perspective questions were omitted for intellectual property reasons, question numbers reference the 9th edition. Below is an outline of the worksheets, including details about the topics covered, associated Openstax Astronomy 2e chapters, and learning objectives for the associated lesson. Learning objectives are mostly taken from Astronomy 2e, with minor modifications or reductions. Not all of the learning objectives for a lesson will be reinforced by the worksheets. Class 2 Worksheet Topics: Observing the sky, celestial sphere, and Eratosthenes measurement of Earth Chapters: 2.1, 2.2, 2.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Define the main features of the celestial sphere Describe how motions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars appear to us on Earth Explain how Greek astronomers were able to calculate Earth’s size Describe Ptolemy’s geocentric system of planetary motion Explain how Copernicus developed the heliocentric model of the solar system Explain how Galileo’s discoveries tilted the balance of evidence in favor of the Copernican model Class 3 Uses Kepler’s Law activity from University of Colorado Boulder (p45) (requires computer) Worksheet Topics: Kepler’s laws, ellipses, escape speeds Chapters: 3.1, 3.4, 3.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion Compare the orbital characteristics of the planets in the solar system Explain how an object (such as a satellite) can be put into orbit around Earth Explain how an object (such as a planetary probe) can escape from orbit Quantitatively analyze a planet’s period knowing its orbital distance or vice versa Class 4 Worksheet Topics: acceleration, velocity, forces, gravity Chapters: 3.2, 3.3, 3.6 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe Newton’s three laws of motion Define mass, volume, and density and how they differ Explain how Newton’s three laws of motion relate to momentum Define angular momentum Explain what determines the strength of gravity Describe how Newton’s universal law of gravitation extends our understanding of Kepler’s laws Explain how the planet Neptune was discovered Class 5 Uses Stellarium (requires computers) Worksheet Topics: celestial coordinates (and more celestial sphere practice), seasons Chapters: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain how right ascension and declination are used to map the sky Describe how the tilt of Earth’s axis causes the seasons Explain the difference between the solar day and the sidereal day Explain mean solar time and the reason for time zones Understand how calendars varied among different cultures Explain the origins of our modern calendar Class 6 Worksheet Topics: Moon phases, angular sizes, eclipses Chapters: 4.5, 4.6, 4.7 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain the cause of the lunar phases Understand how the Moon rotates and revolves around Earth Describe what causes tides on Earth Explain why the amplitude of tides changes during the course of a month Describe what causes lunar and solar eclipses Differentiate between a total and partial solar eclipse Explain why lunar eclipses are much more common than solar eclipses Understand and calculate angular sizes *End material on Exam 1* Class 7 Worksheet Topics: electromagnetic spectrum, frequency & wavelength, inverse square law Chapters: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and speed of light Explain how and why the amount of light we see from an object depends upon its distance Understand the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum and how they differ from one another Understand how each part of the spectrum interacts with Earth’s atmosphere Explain how and why the light emitted by an object depends on its temperature Describe the properties of light Explain how astronomers learn the composition of a gas by examining its spectral lines* Discuss the various types of spectra* in reading but discussed following class after exam Class 8 Exam Class 9 Worksheet Topics: spectra, energy levels, photon energy, frequency & wavelength, Doppler effect Chapters: 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain the behavior of electrons within atoms and how electrons interact with light to move among energy levels Explain how emission line spectra and absorption line spectra are formed Identify the various types of spectra Describe what ions are and how they are formed Explain why the spectral lines of photons we observe from an object will change as a result of the object’s motion toward or away from us Describe how we can use the Doppler effect to deduce how fast astronomical objects are moving through space Class 10 Worksheet Topics: solar energy and lifetime, fusion energy, hydrostatic equilibrium Chapters: 16.1, 16.2 (abbreviated), 16.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Identify different forms of energy Understand the law of conservation of energy Explain ways that energy can be transformed Explain how matter can be converted into energy Summarize the key nuclear reaction in the solar interior Describe the state of equilibrium of the Sun Understand the energy balance of the Sun Explain how energy moves outward through the Sun Class 11 Adapted from Sun \| NOVA Labs \| PBS, makes use of NASA helioviewer tool, requires computers Worksheet Topics: Sunspots, solar activity Chapters: All of 15 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain how the composition of the Sun differs from that of Earth Describe the various layers of the Sun and their functions Explain what happens in the different parts of the Sun’s atmosphere Describe the sunspot cycle and, more generally, the solar cycle Describe the various ways in which the solar activity cycle manifests itself, including flares, coronal mass ejections, prominences, and plages Explain what space weather is and how it affects Earth Class 12 Entirely original questions Worksheet Topics: climate change, CO2 cycle, solar cycle, interpreting graphs Chapters: 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Specify the origin and effect of Earth’s magnetic field Describe the chemical composition and possible origins of our atmosphere Explain the difference between weather and climate Explain the ways that life and geological activity have influenced the evolution of the atmosphere Describe the causes and effects of the atmospheric greenhouse effect and global warming Describe the impact of human activity on our planet’s atmosphere Describe the evidence for recent impacts on Earth Describe how impacts have influenced the evolution of life on Earth Discuss the search for objects that could potentially collide with our planet Outline the origins and subsequent diversity of life on Earth Explain the scarcity of impact craters on Earth compared with other planets and moons Class 13 Worksheet Topics: solar system formation, frost line, exoplanet orbits and transits, Planet Hunters Chapters: 14.3, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6 (only section on habitable exoplanets) Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the motion, chemical, and age constraints that must be met by any theory of solar system formation Explain the formation process of the terrestrial and giant planets Trace the evolution of dust surrounding a protostar, leading to the development of rocky planets and gas giants Evaluate evidence for planets around forming stars based on the structures seen in images of the circumstellar dust disks Compare the indirect and direct observational techniques for exoplanet detection Explain what we have learned from our discovery of exoplanets Discuss the kinds of planetary systems we are finding around other stars Class 14 Inspired by The Drake Equation – What are the Chances of Extraterrestrial Life? — Information is Beautiful, from which numbers are sourced Worksheet Topics: Drake equation Chapters: 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 30.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Discuss the assumption underlying the Copernican principle and outline its implications for modern-day astronomers Understand the questions underlying the Fermi paradox Describe the characteristics of a habitable environment Identify where in the solar system life is most likely sustainable and why Describe some key missions and their findings in our search for life beyond our solar system Explain the use of biomarkers in the search for evidence of life beyond our solar system Understand the various SETI programs scientists are undertaking Describe the chemical and environmental conditions that make Earth hospitable to life List efforts by humankind to communicate with other civilizations via messages on spacecraft Describe some of the extreme conditions on Earth, and explain how certain organisms have adapted to these conditions End of material on Exam 2* Class 15 Worksheet Topics: surface-area-to-volume ratio, radioactive dating (simple) Chapters: 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 (optional: 7.4 for review of solar system formation) Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe how the objects in our solar system are identified, explored, and characterized Describe the types of small bodies in our solar system, their locations, and how they formed Model the solar system with distances from everyday life to better comprehend distances in space Describe the characteristics of the giant planets, terrestrial planets, and small bodies in the solar system Explain what influences the temperature of a planet’s surface Explain why there is geological activity on some planets and not on others Explain how astronomers can tell whether a planetary surface is geologically young or old (lab) Describe different methods for dating planets Class 16 Exam, no worksheet Class 17 Part 1 adapted from GEOLOGIC MAPPING OF THE MOON Worksheet Topics: lunar and Mercurian geological features Chapters: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Discuss what has been learned from both manned and robotic lunar exploration Describe the composition and structure of the Moon Differentiate between the major surface features of the Moon Describe the history of the lunar surface Describe the properties of the lunar “soil” Explain the process of impact crater formation Discuss the use of crater counts to determine relative ages of lunar landforms Summarize the current “giant impact” concept of how the Moon formed Describe Mercury’s structure and composition Explain the relationship between Mercury’s orbit and rotation Describe the topography and features of Mercury’s surface Summarize our ideas about the origin and evolution of Mercury Class 18 This activity refers to the CORGI tool, which received mixed feedback when used in class, so I included the activity in the worksheet format instead Worksheet Topics: atmospheric weight (Venus and Mars), water on Mars Chapters: Chapter 10.1, starting at “Rotation of the Planets”, 10.3-10.5; Overview \| Venus – NASA Solar System Exploration (subbed for the longer 10.2) Lesson Learning Objectives: Compare the basic physical properties of Earth, Mars, and Venus, including their orbits Describe the general features of the surface of Venus Explain why the surface of Venus is inhospitable to human life Describe the general composition and structure of the atmosphere on Venus Explain how the greenhouse effect has led to high temperatures on Venus Discuss the main missions that have explored Mars Compare the volcanoes and canyons on Mars with those of Earth Describe the general conditions on the surface of Mars Describe the general composition of the atmosphere on Mars Explain what we know about the polar ice caps on Mars and how we know it Describe the evidence for the presence of water in the past history of Mars Class 19 Worksheet Topics: storms, wind speeds, rate of change Chapters: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Provide an overview of the composition of the giant planets Chronicle the robotic exploration of the outer solar system Summarize the missions sent to orbit the gas giants Describe the basic physical characteristics, general appearance, and rotation of the giant planets Describe the composition and structure of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune Compare and contrast the internal heat sources of the giant planets Describe the discovery and characteristics of the giant planets’ magnetic fields Discuss the atmospheric composition of the giant planets Describe the cloud formation and atmospheric structure of the gas giants Characterize the giant planets’ wind and weather patterns Understand the scale and longevity of storms on the giant planets Class 20 Worksheet Topics: jovian moons, orbital resonance, dwarf planets Chapters: 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Briefly describe the system of moons around each of the jovian planets Describe key characteristics of the Galilean Moons, Titan, Triton and Charon Explain how tidal forces generate the geological activity we see on Europa and Io and the tidal locking of Pluto and Charon Compare the orbital characteristics of Pluto with those of the planets Describe information about Pluto’s surface deduced from the New Horizons images Describe the two theories of planetary ring formation Explain how the rings of Uranus and Neptune differ in composition and appearance from the rings of Saturn Describe how ring structure is affected by the presence of moons Class 21 Worksheet Topics: mass of asteroids & Kuiper belt, comets Chapters: 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the composition, classification, and orbits of the various types of asteroids Discuss what was learned from spacecraft missions to several asteroids Recognize the threat that near-Earth objects represent for Earth and possible defensive strategies Characterize the general physical appearance of comets Explain the range of cometary orbits Describe the size and composition of a typical comet’s nucleus Discuss the atmospheres of comets Explain the proposed fate of comets that enter the inner solar system Describe the composition of the Oort cloud and Kuiper Belt Class 22 Class topic: meteors (no worksheet) Class 23 Exam 3 (Chapters 2.1, 2.2, 2.4) Observing the Sky Worksheet Topics: Observing the sky, celestial sphere, and Eratosthenes measurement of Earth Chapters: 2.1, 2.2, 2.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Define the main features of the celestial sphere Describe how motions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars appear to us on Earth Explain how Greek astronomers were able to calculate Earth’s size Describe Ptolemy’s geocentric system of planetary motion Explain how Copernicus developed the heliocentric model of the solar system Explain how Galileo’s discoveries tilted the balance of evidence in favor of the Copernican model In-Class Worksheet: Class 2 - Observing the Sky Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 1 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on May 25. Guidance: Solving celestial sphere problems can seem tricky, and there’s many ways to think about them. Here’s one: Identify where the celestial equator is on the sky. Work backwards from the poles or equator. On the equator (latitude = 0°), the celestial equator would be directly overhead (altitude = 90°). On a pole (latitude = ± 90°), the celestial equator would be on your horizon (altitude = 0°). So the celestial equator is always at an altitude of (90°-your latitude). Identify where the object of interest (usually a point on the ecliptic plane) lies with respect to the celestial equator. The ecliptic plane is tilted by 23.5° with respect to the equator. The equinoxes are the points where the ecliptic crosses the celestial equator, and the solstices are where the ecliptic is ± 23.5° above the celestial equator. Part 1: The Celestial Sphere (2.35) a. What is the altitude (degrees above horizon) of the north celestial pole (NCP) in the sky from your latitude? b. What is the altitude of the NCP at the North Pole? c. At the equator? OP: a) At what altitude will the Sun appear in the sky in Boston (latitude ~ 42°) at noon on the vernal equinox? b) On the Summer Solstice? Part 2: Eratosthenes Optional space for notes - Instructor will complete the following question on the board: (2.41) Suppose Eratosthenes had found that, in Alexandria, at noon on the first day of summer, the line to the Sun makes an angle 30° with the vertical. What, then, would he have found for Earth’s circumference? OP: You are part of a group of humans in the far future exploring new planets in different solar systems. Unfortunately, you have crash landed on a new world and most of the useful scientific equipment is broken. To leave the planet without this equipment, you’ll need to know the planet’s mass and radius. The captain has tasked you with figuring out the planet’s radius. Some members of your crew are 1500 km South of you, and report that the planet’s tall, narrow, tree-like plants cast no shadow when the Sun is on the Zenith (local noon). At your location, you find one of these trees and measure that it is 20 meters tall, and the shadow it casts at noon is 2.5 meters long. What is the radius of this planet? (Hint: tan(angle) = opposite/adjacent) (Chapters 3.1, 3.4, 3.5) Kepler's Laws and Escape Speeds Uses Kepler’s Law activity from University of Colorado Boulder (p45) (requires computer) Worksheet Topics: Kepler’s laws, ellipses, escape speeds Chapters: 3.1, 3.4, 3.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion Compare the orbital characteristics of the planets in the solar system Explain how an object (such as a satellite) can be put into orbit around Earth Explain how an object (such as a planetary probe) can escape from orbit Quantitatively analyze a planet’s period knowing its orbital distance or vice versa Part 1: https://www.colorado.edu/sbo/sites/default/files/attached-files/1010manual_s20.pdf Part 2: Escape speeds (OP1)Complete the following table Planet/moon \| Mass (kg) \| Radius (m) \| Escape Speed (m/s) \| Earth \| 5.97 x 1024 \| 6,378,000 \| 11,200 \| (Earth’s) Moon \| 7.3 x 1022 \| 1,738,000 \| \| Mars \| 6.42 x 1023 \| 3,397,000 \| \| Jupiter \| 1.9 x 1027 \| 71,492,000 \| If you have time, discuss this as a group: Some groups have proposed using the Moon as a base for future exploration of the rest of the solar system. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of that? (Chapters 3.2, 3.3, 3.6) Gravity and Newton Worksheet Topics: acceleration, velocity, forces, gravity Chapters: 3.2, 3.3, 3.6 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe Newton’s three laws of motion Define mass, volume, and density and how they differ Explain how Newton’s three laws of motion relate to momentum Define angular momentum Explain what determines the strength of gravity Describe how Newton’s universal law of gravitation extends our understanding of Kepler’s laws Explain how the planet Neptune was discovered In-Class Worksheet: Class 4 - Gravity and Newton Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 1 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on May 31. Part 1: Motion and Forces OP1a: You get a chance to drive a pretty nice car. It accelerates at a rate of 30 m/s2 and weighs 1,500 kg. What force does the engine need to apply to achieve that acceleration? OP1b: After 1 second, the car stops accelerating and is going at a constant velocity of 30 m/s. How long will it take to travel 3 km? OP2: How long does it take light to travel between Earth and the Sun (1.5 x 1011 m)? Convert your answer to minutes. Recall, the speed of light: c = 3 x 108 m/s. (3.25) Two asteroids begin to gravitationally attract one another. If one asteroid has twice the mass of the other, which one experiences the greater force? Which one experiences the greater acceleration? (3.26) How does the mass of an astronaut change when she travels from Earth to the Moon? How does her weight change? (Mass of Earth = 5.97 x 1024 kg; mass of Moon = 7.3 x 1022) (3.31) Suppose astronomers find an earthlike planet that is twice the size of Earth (that is, its radius is twice that of Earth’s). What must be the mass of this planet such that the gravitational force (Fgravity) at the surface would be identical to Earth’s? OP2a: In class 2, you were asked a question about identifying a planet’s radius based on shadows. You found that the radius was about 12,000 km. Through careful experimentation, your colleagues have determined that the acceleration due to gravity on this planet is 5.3 m/s2. What is the mass of this planet? Be careful with your units! OP2b: What is the density of this planet? (Remember: density = mass / volume) Part 2: Proportional Reasoning (3.30) By what factor would a person’s weight be increased if Earth had 10 times its present mass, but the same volume? OP3: If a planet has 0.6 times the mass of Earth and 0.7 times the radius of Earth, what would its density be, as a factor of Earth’s density (⍴⊕)? (Use proportional reasoning, you don’t need to know the density of Earth!) OP4: A planet has the same density as Earth, but a radius that is 1.2 times the Earth’s. What is this planet’s mass in Earth masses (M⊕)? (Chapters 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4) Coordinates, Seasons, and Time Uses Stellarium (requires computers) Worksheet Topics: celestial coordinates (and more celestial sphere practice), seasons Chapters: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain how right ascension and declination are used to map the sky Describe how the tilt of Earth’s axis causes the seasons Explain the difference between the solar day and the sidereal day Explain mean solar time and the reason for time zones Understand how calendars varied among different cultures Explain the origins of our modern calendar Worksheet: Class 5 - Coordinates, Seasons, and Time Part 1: Launch Stellarium - https://stellarium-web.org/ Step 1: The Sun Set the time and day to now. Select the Sun, what is the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun right now? Predict: will the RA and dec of the Sun be different one day from now? Test: Set the time forward by one day and record the RA and dec coordinate of the Sun. Predict: What will be the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun on the Summer Solstice? Test: Set the time to the Summer Solstice and record the Sun’s coordinates. Predict: what will be the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun on the Autumnal Equinox? Test: Set the day to the Autumnal Equinox and record the Sun’s coordinates. Predict: What will be the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun on the Autumnal Equinox in 2030? Test: Set the day to the Autumnal Equinox and the year to 2030. Are the RA and dec coordinates significantly different? Predict: What will the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun be on the Winter Solstice? On the Vernal (Spring) Equinox? Test: What are the RA and dec coordinates of the Sun on the Winter Solstice? On the Vernal Equinox? Explore: By changing the time of year, can you find the range of RA that the Sun could be found in at some point in the year? The range of declination that the Sun covers in one year? Step 2: A different star Set the time to tonight and select a random star (not a planet or the Sun). Record the RA and dec coordinates, along with the name of the star. Predict: Will the RA and declination position of this star change significantly over one year? Test: Change the time month by month, does the RA and declination of the star change significantly? Think: Why does the Sun change coordinates significantly over the year? Why don’t the RA/dec coordinates of other stars change significantly? Part 2: Celestial Coordinates practice What is the altitude of the Sun at noon on the summer solstice, as seen from a place on the Tropic of Cancer? What is the Sun’s RA and dec? From the same location, what is the altitude of the Sun at noon on one of the equinoxes? What is the Sun’s RA and dec? (4.52) What is the altitude of the Sun at noon on December 22, as seen from a place on the Tropic of Cancer? Mars is tilted by 25° relative to its orbital plane. At what latitude (measured in degrees from the equator) is the arctic circle? At what latitudes would be the equivalent of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn Optional: (4.35) The day on Mars is 1.026 Earth-days long. The martian year lasts 686.98 Earth-days. The two moons of Mars take 0.32 Earth-day (for Phobos) and 1.26 Earth-days (for Deimos) to circle the planet. You are given the task of coming up with a martian calendar for a new Mars colony. Would a solar or lunar calendar be better for tracking the seasons? (Chapters 4.5, 4.6, 4.7) Moon, Eclipses, Tides Worksheet Topics: Moon phases, angular sizes, eclipses Chapters: 4.5, 4.6, 4.7 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain the cause of the lunar phases Understand how the Moon rotates and revolves around Earth Describe what causes tides on Earth Explain why the amplitude of tides changes during the course of a month Describe what causes lunar and solar eclipses Differentiate between a total and partial solar eclipse Explain why lunar eclipses are much more common than solar eclipses Understand and calculate angular sizes In-Class Worksheet: Class 6 - Moon, Eclipses, Tides Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 1 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on June 2. Guidance: Draw a picture that represents the Earth (with the North Pole coming out of the page) the Sun, and the orbit of the Moon. Indicate the motion, Earth should rotate in the same direction as the Moon orbits. Recall that the Sun appears at its highest at local noon and is on the opposite side of Earth from a person at local midnight. Part 1: Moon Phases and Times (OP1) Fill out the table: Phase \| Draw relative positions: Sun, Earth, Moon \| Time Moon rises \| Time Moon is on meridian \| Time Moon sets \| New Moon \| \|\|\|\| First Quarter \| \|\|\|\| Full Moon \| \|\|\|\| Third Quarter \| (OP2) From this table you can interpolate, or continue to draw simple diagrams to answer: About what time would a waxing crescent rise? About what time would a waning gibbous set? Optional: A friend claims that the Moon spends more time above the horizon at night than during the day. Explain why they are wrong. Why is that a common misconception? Part 2: Optional space for notes on example: What is the angular size of the Sun as seen from Earth? What is, on average, the angular size of the Moon as seen from Earth? (OP3) The Moon’s orbit is not perfectly circular. What is the angular size of the Moon when it is closest to Earth (at perigee), when it is 3.63 x 108 m from Earth? (OP4) What is the angular size of the Moon when it is furthest from Earth (at apogee), when it is 4.06 x 108 m from Earth? (OP5) The textbook states that there are two types of solar eclipses: total, where the full Sun is blocked, and annular, where an outer ring of the Sun is still visible. Based on your answers above, if a solar eclipse happened when the Moon was at perigee, what type of eclipse would it be? What type of solar eclipse would happen when the Moon was at apogee? Why? (Chapters 5.1, 5.2, 5.3) Electromagnetic Spectrum Worksheet Topics: electromagnetic spectrum, frequency & wavelength, inverse square law Chapters: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the relationship between wavelength, frequency, and speed of light Explain how and why the amount of light we see from an object depends upon its distance Understand the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum and how they differ from one another Understand how each part of the spectrum interacts with Earth’s atmosphere Explain how and why the light emitted by an object depends on its temperature Describe the properties of light Explain how astronomers learn the composition of a gas by examining its spectral lines* Discuss the various types of spectra* in reading but discussed following class after exam In-Class Worksheet: Class 7 - Electromagnetic Spectrum Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Tuesday, June 6. Guidance: The equation for frequency and wavelength of a light wave is: c = f x λ, where c is the speed of light (3x108m/s), f is frequency (with units of inverse time, usually Hertz, or s-1), and the symbol lambda, λ, is the wavelength of light (with unit of distance). The inverse square law, meaning the amount of light received (flux, Φ) from an object is proportional to the intrinsic brightness (luminosity, L) of the object and inversely proportional to the object’s distance squared (d2): Φ = L ÷ (4πd2) ∝ L ÷ d2. Step 1: (5.41) What is the wavelength of the carrier wave of a campus radio station, broadcasting at a frequency of 97.2 MHz (million cycles per second or million hertz)? (5.42) What is the frequency of a red laser beam, with a wavelength of 670 nm? (5.43) You go to a dance club to forget how hard your astronomy midterm was. What is the frequency of a wave of ultraviolet light coming from a blacklight in the club, if its wavelength is 150 nm? OP1: How bright is the Sun relative to Earth at different locations in our solar system? Recall, 1 AU is the average distance between Earth and the Sun. At Mercury (d = 0.387 AU) At Mars (d = 1.524 AU) At Saturn (d = 9.54 AU) At Pluto (d = 39.48 AU) OP2: Star A is half as luminous but twice as close as Star B. Which star appears brighter at Earth and by how much? Optional: An old-school classroom television emitted sound waves with frequencies around 20,000 Hz, and wavelengths of about 0.0172 meters. What is the speed of sound? Optional: Test your knowledge (or practice for an exam) by filling in the blanks with arbitrary values: Star A has ______ the luminosity of Star B. Star A has a distance from Earth that is _____ the distance of Star B. (Example values: twice, a third, five times, etc..) Part 2: (5.45) If the emitted infrared radiation from Pluto has a wavelength of maximum intensity at 75,000 nm, what is the temperature of Pluto assuming it follows Wien’s law? (OP3) A star has a surface temperature of 4000 Kelvin, at what wavelength will it emit the most light? (OP4) Star A has a surface temperature of 4000 Kelvin and Star B has a surface temperature of 6000 Kelvin. Which star emits more light in the infrared part of the spectrum? Optional: Humans have a temperature of about 310 Kelvin. If we were perfect blackbody emitters, what wavelength would we emit light in? What part of the spectrum is that in? Optional: Why do humans and other animals appear as bright shapes when using infrared “night vision” goggles? (Chapters 5.4, 5.5, 5.6) Learning from Spectra Worksheet Topics: spectra, energy levels, photon energy, frequency & wavelength, Doppler effect Chapters: 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain the behavior of electrons within atoms and how electrons interact with light to move among energy levels Explain how emission line spectra and absorption line spectra are formed Identify the various types of spectra Describe what ions are and how they are formed Explain why the spectral lines of photons we observe from an object will change as a result of the object’s motion toward or away from us Describe how we can use the Doppler effect to deduce how fast astronomical objects are moving through space In-Class Worksheet: Class 9 - Learning from Spectra Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Wednesday, June 7. Guidance: The equation for frequency and wavelength of a light wave is: c = f x λ, where c is the speed of light (3x108m/s), f is frequency (with units of inverse time, usually Hertz, or s-1), and the symbol lambda, λ, is the wavelength of light (with unit of distance). The equation that relates a photon’s energy, E, to its frequency, f, is E=h x f, where h is called Planck’s constant, where h=6.626x10-34 Joule-seconds. The energy levels of a hydrogen atom: Part 1: Energy Levels and Photons (OP1) a. If an electron in a hydrogen atom moves from energy level n=1 to level n=3, did the atom absorb or emit a photon? (OP1) b. What is the difference in energy between levels n=3 and n=1? (OP1) c. What is the frequency of a photon with the energy in part b? (OP1) d. What is the wavelength of that photon? What part of the spectrum is that photon in? (OP3) A hydrogen atom is excited with a photon in energy level n=3. What energy photon would be required to ionize that atom? (OP2) Complete the following table by finding the difference in energy, whether a photon would have been absorbed or emitted for the change to occur, and what the wavelength of that photon would be. Original level \| Resultant level \| Energy difference \| Photon absorbed or emitted? \| Photon wavelength \| n=5 \| n=1 \| \|\|\| n=3 \| n=5 \| \|\|\| n=1 \| n=3 \| \|\|\| n=4 \| n=3 \| Optional: Identify all the photon energies and wavelengths for the Lyman and Paschen series of transitions. Which parts of the spectrum do the Lyman and Paschen series affect? Part 2: Doppler effect (OP4) In Hydrogen, the transition from level 3 to level 2 emits a photon with a rest wavelength 652.6 nm. Identify the speed and direction of motion for stars where this line is observed at a wavelength of: 651.2 nm 653.4 nm For each star above, is the light being redshifted or blueshifted? (OP5) You just missed a green line train and now it is moving away from you. From astronomy class, you know that light from an object moving away from you should be redshifted, but the cars still look green. The train is moving at the average speed of trains on the B-branch, 3.17 m/s. Assume light reflected from the green part of the train is 550 nm. What wavelength does the green light get shifted to? What color is this wavelength? Why don’t humans notice the Doppler effect on light in everyday situations? (OP6) Astronomers observe a cloud of hydrogen gas and notice an emission line at a wavelength of 659.2 nm. They know that in a laboratory, that wavelength is measured at 652.6 nm. Is the cloud of gas moving toward or away from Earth? Is the cloud of gas redshifted or blueshifted? How fast is the cloud moving along the line of sight to Earth? If time allows: From measuring other lines in a Hydrogen cloud’s spectrum, an astronomer has found that the cloud is moving at 400 km/s away from Earth. They ask you if you can look at the spectrum and find if the cloud has an emission line at the wavelength of a photon emitted from the n=4 to n=1 transition. At what wavelength should you look? (Note, this is a multi-step problem.) (Chapters 16.1, 16.2 [abbr.], 16.3) Power from the Sun Part 1 adapted from University of Indiana activity Worksheet Topics: solar energy and lifetime, fusion energy, hydrostatic equilibrium Chapters: 16.1, 16.2 (abbreviated), 16.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Identify different forms of energy Understand the law of conservation of energy Explain ways that energy can be transformed Explain how matter can be converted into energy Summarize the key nuclear reaction in the solar interior Describe the state of equilibrium of the Sun Understand the energy balance of the Sun Explain how energy moves outward through the Sun In-Class Worksheet: Class 10 - Power from the Sun Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Thursday, June 8. Part 1: Calculating the lifetime of the Sun (Adapted from University of Indiana activity) The Sun begins with a “full tank” of hydrogen, and reaches its end when only half the hydrogen is converted to helium. To estimate the lifetime of the Sun we need to figure out how much fuel the Sun has, and the rate it is burning that fuel. HINT: For estimates, use simple math and round off numbers. You may use a calculator, but should not need to. This is an “order of magnitude” calculation. Use scientific notation. A. How much fuel does the Sun have? The mass of the Sun is 2 x 1033 grams. Each gram contains about 6 x 1023 hydrogen nuclei. The Sun’s energy is produced by nuclear reactions in the core of the Sun, from the conversion of four hydrogen nuclei into helium. For each helium nucleus created, 5 x 10 -12 joules of energy are produced. (For purposes of an estimate, assume the Sun starts made entirely of hydrogen.) How many joules of energy can the Sun produce in its lifetime? Remember that the Sun can only use half of its hydrogen, and that four hydrogen atoms are used to create each helium atom. B. How much energy does the Sun produce each second? The average amount of energy falling on the Earth each second from the Sun corresponds to the energy output of fourteen 100-watt light bulbs for each square meter at the Earth’s equator at noon. At the distance of the Earth, the energy from the Sun is 1400 watts per square meter or 1400 joules of energy per second per square meter (a watt is a unit of energy per second, a joule is a unit of energy). This much energy flows outward from the Sun in each square meter of the surface of a sphere with a radius equal to the distance of the Earth from the Sun (1 AU, 1.5 x 108 km or 1.5 x 1011 meters). How much total energy does the Sun produce each second? Compute the surface area of a sphere with a radius of the Earth’s orbit. The formula for the surface area of a sphere is A=4 π r2. Multiply the area of the sphere in square meters by the energy per square meter per second (watts per square meter) that falls on the Earth, to compute the total energy output of the Sun each second. C. Estimate how long it will take the Sun to run out of fuel. Divide the total energy the Sun can produce in its lifetime by the amount of energy it radiates each second to determine the number of seconds the Sun will shine. Convert the length of time in from seconds to years (one year contains approximately 3 x 107 seconds). In fact, the Sun will shine less than this amount of time, because it will burn hydrogen at a somewhat faster rate as it ages. Part 2: Hydrostatic equilibrium and more fusion practice (16.19) Earth’s atmosphere is in hydrostatic equilibrium. What this means is that the pressure at any point in the atmosphere must be high enough to support the weight of air above it. How would you expect the pressure on Mt. Everest to differ from the pressure in your classroom? Explain why. (16.20) Explain what it means when we say that Earth’s oceans are in hydrostatic equilibrium. Now suppose you are a scuba diver. Would you expect the pressure to increase or decrease as you dive below the surface to a depth of 200 feet? Why? (16.29) Estimate the amount of mass that is converted to energy when a proton (m = 1.67x10-27 kg) combines with a deuterium nucleus (m = 3.3435 x 10-27 kg) to form 3He. (16.30) How much energy is released when a proton combines with a deuterium nucleus to produce 3He? (Hint: You found the mass converted in 16.29) Optional: Suppose all of the matter in your body were suddenly converted into energy according to E=mc2. How much energy would be released? You can estimate a mass of about 75 kg. Compare this to the energy released by a 1-megaton H-bomb (4x1015 J). Optional CHALLENGE (not on test): The pressure of the air is equal to the weight of a column of air above a unit area on the land surface. If the pressure on the surface of Earth is 10,332 kg/m2, what is the total mass of Earth’s atmosphere? (Hint: Use unit analysis. You will also need to know the radius of Earth, 6378 km, and the equation for the surface area of a sphere: SA=4πr2.) (Chapter 15) The Sun and Solar Storms Adapted from Sun \| NOVA Labs \| PBS, makes use of NASA helioviewer tool, requires computers Worksheet Topics: Sunspots, solar activity Chapters: All of 15 Lesson Learning Objectives: Explain how the composition of the Sun differs from that of Earth Describe the various layers of the Sun and their functions Explain what happens in the different parts of the Sun’s atmosphere Describe the sunspot cycle and, more generally, the solar cycle Describe the various ways in which the solar activity cycle manifests itself, including flares, coronal mass ejections, prominences, and plages Explain what space weather is and how it affects Earth In-Class Worksheet: Class 11 - The Sun and Solar Storms Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Monday, June 12. Sun Lab from PBS Nova Labs This activity will make use of an excellent tool from Nova Labs to look at images of sunspots on the Sun - including one from today! On your own time, you may want to explore some of the other resources available on this site for learning about the Sun. Step 1: Visit: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/labs/lab/sun/ and click “CHALLENGE” to get started. Then select the first option: “Solar Cycle” Step 2: The website will walk you through instructions for counting spots. You will be counting both individual sunspots and groups of sunspots. Step 3: Count the number of spots and groups in the image. Record your answer here before going to the next step: Groups _________ Spots ________ Step 4: Turns out counting can be hard! How did your results compare? Did you over or under count? Step 5: Now do the next five images. Record your values for R Image 1 \| Image 2 \| Image 3 \| Image 4 \| Image 5 \| Are your counts under or over the official (averaged) estimates? Why do you think this is? Optional: Compare your counts with other members of your group. Step 6: Answer: What makes counting sunspots difficult? Why is the official sunspot number an average from multiple scientists? (OP) Step 7: Now select “open investigation” at the bottom left. (A better version of the same tool can be found here: https://student.helioviewer.org/) This will bring up near real-time solar data. On the top left, select “Sun spots” under “Make an observation.” How many groups and spots can you count today? (If you have events turned on, you can count more than just those flagged.) Groups _________ Spots ________ (OP) Step 8: Now we will compare different types of observations of the Sun in the same area. Pick a sunspot group and keep track of that spot on the image. Switch to the “magnetic field” observation. Disturbances from the “typical” magnetic field are shown as white or black. Is there a disturbance in the magnetic field observation where you observed sun spots? Now switch to the “Flares and active regions” observation. More active regions are brighter (whiter). Are there active regions in the area you observed sunspots? Switching between the observation of sunspots and the observation of active regions, are regions where sunspots are present more or less active than regions without sunspots? (OP) Step 9: Switch back to the “sunspots” observation. Just above the “make an observation” field is a field for “time step”. Select 1 year as the time step. Click through at least 11 years of sunspot observations on this day. Is there a notable difference in the number of sunspots in each of the observations taken over the last 11 years? Optional/if time allows: Explore different types of observations of the Sun during the last few days, or over the last few years. Use this space to write down any observations. (Chapters 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5) Climate Change Entirely original questions Worksheet Topics: climate change, CO2 cycle, solar cycle, interpreting graphs Chapters: 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Specify the origin and effect of Earth’s magnetic field Describe the chemical composition and possible origins of our atmosphere Explain the difference between weather and climate Explain the ways that life and geological activity have influenced the evolution of the atmosphere Describe the causes and effects of the atmospheric greenhouse effect and global warming Describe the impact of human activity on our planet’s atmosphere Describe the evidence for recent impacts on Earth Describe how impacts have influenced the evolution of life on Earth Discuss the search for objects that could potentially collide with our planet Outline the origins and subsequent diversity of life on Earth Explain the scarcity of impact craters on Earth compared with other planets and moons In-Class Worksheet: Class 12 - The Earth Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Tuesday, June 13. Part 1: Climate Change Figure 1: Based on air bubbles trapped in ice that froze at different points in the Earth’s history, scientists can measure the historic concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere. Today, these measurements are taken directly. What feature(s) do you notice in this plot? The CO2 cycle can regulate CO2 levels in Earth’s atmosphere over time. Do you see evidence of this in Figure 1? Explain. Figure 2: In blue, the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere (the same measure as in Figure 1). In gray is the amount of CO2 that humans have been emitting. Compare the timescales (range on the x-axis) between Figure 1 and Figure 2. What is different about Figure 2? What feature(s) do you notice in Figure 2? Is there a trend between the total amount of atmospheric CO2 and the total amount of CO2 emissions? Why did CO2 emissions start increasing in the mid-1800s? Figure 3: This plot shows the total amount of power received by the Earth from the Sun in yellow. The average temperature on the surface of Earth is shown in red. The darker lines show an 11-year average while the thinner lines show the year-to-year variation. What feature(s) do you notice in this plot? Do you see evidence for the 11-year solar cycle in this plot? (Hint: look at the thin yellow lines.) Is there a trend between the total solar irradiance and average temperature for at least some years? Which years? Based on Figures 1, 2, and 3, what can you conclude about the cause of the rising temperatures over the last few decades? Based on Figures 1, 2, and 3, what actions should humans take to not cause further climate change? (If time allows) On the next page are some arguments made by people who don’t want to believe in climate change. Using evidence from the plots, how could you respond to these points? The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and the global temperature have always changed over time. Now is no different. This is the coldest winter in years, that shows that global warming is a lie! We’re probably just getting more light from the Sun than usual. Even if the climate is changing, it’s not the fault of human activity. (Chapters 14.3, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6) Solar System Formation and Exoplanets Final activity makes use of Planet Hunters citizen science project, requires computer Worksheet Topics: solar system formation, frost line, exoplanet orbits and transits, Planet Hunters Chapters: 14.3, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6 (only section on habitable exoplanets) Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the motion, chemical, and age constraints that must be met by any theory of solar system formation Explain the formation process of the terrestrial and giant planets Trace the evolution of dust surrounding a protostar, leading to the development of rocky planets and gas giants Evaluate evidence for planets around forming stars based on the structures seen in images of the circumstellar dust disks Compare the indirect and direct observational techniques for exoplanet detection Explain what we have learned from our discovery of exoplanets Discuss the kinds of planetary systems we are finding around other stars In-Class Worksheet: Class 13 - S.S. Formation and Exoplanets Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Wednesday, June 14. Part 1: Solar System Formation There are two main reasons why planets in the outer solar system grew to be larger and less dense than planets in the inner solar system. Let’s explore both: Types of Material This table will help you answer the following questions: Material Type \| Examples \| Temperature below which material will condense \| Relative abundance (by mass) \| Rough estimate for density when solid \| Hydrogen and Helium gas \| Hydrogen, helium \| Very low, did not condense in nebula \| 98% \| N/A \| Hydrogen compounds \| Water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) \| 150 K \| 1.4% \| 1 g/cm3 \| Rocks \| Various minerals \| 500-1300 K \| 0.4% \| 2.5 g/cm3 \| Metals \| Iron, nickel, aluminum \| 1000 - 1600 K \| 0.2% \| 7.9 g/cm3 \| (OP) What are hydrogen compounds? (Hint: Look at the molecular formula in the examples above.) (OP) The “frost line” (also called the “ice” or “snow” line) occurs where the temperature of the solar nebula dips below 150 K. Why do scientists call this point the frost/ice/snow line? (OP) Earth and the other terrestrial planets formed inside the frost line, where it was too hot for hydrogen compounds to condense but cool enough for rocks and metals to condense. What percentage of the solar nebula (by mass) was able to condense and be accreted within the frost line? (OP) What percentage of the solar nebula (by mass) was able to condense and be accreted outside the frost line (where it was cold enough for hydrogen compounds to condense)? (OP) How massive could Earth have become if it had been able to accrete hydrogen compounds in addition to rocks and metals? (Hint: Use equal ratios - % availableMEarth) (OP) Why are the planets formed in the outer solar system less dense on average than planets formed in the inner solar system? Amount of Material Planets grew by accreting material along the path of their orbit about the Sun. Let’s calculate the length of that path for Earth and Saturn. Guidance: The circumference of a path is C=2πR, where R is the radius. In the case of planets, the radius of its orbit would be the average distance, or semi-major axis, a. The semi-major axis in units of AU is related to the period, P, of the planet around Sun-like stars in units of years by: P2=a3. What is the length of the path Earth follows around the Sun in units of AU? Recall, the period of Earth’s orbit around the Sun is 1 year. What is the length of the path Saturn follows around the Sun in units of AU? The period of Saturn’s orbit around the Sun is 29 years. Summary: Consider your answers to the previous sets of questions to answer: Why did planets that formed in the outer solar system grow to be more massive than planets formed in the inner solar system? Base your answer on what you found above. Part 2: Exoplanet orbits and transits Guidance: The “depth” of a transit is the fraction of light from the star that is blocked by a transiting planet. The depth will be equal to the square of the ratio of the planet’s radius to a star’s radius: depth = (Rplanet/Rstar)2. When measuring transits, we can identify the period of a planet based on the time between two transits. When the planet is orbiting a star that does not have the same mass as the Sun, we have to modify Kepler’s third law as: P2=a3/M, where P is the period in years, a is the semi-major axis in AU, and M is the mass of the star in units of solar masses. A solar mass, or M☉, is the mass of the Sun, and a useful unit for measuring masses of stars. So the mass of our Sun is 1M☉ and a star twice as massive as the Sun would be 2M☉. When using M☉ in P2=a3/M, you DO NOT plug in the mass of the Sun in kg, just like you don’t plug in the number of seconds in a year. (21.25) Calculate the transit depth for an M dwarf star that is 0.3 times the radius of the Sun with a gas giant planet the size of Jupiter. (OP) The M dwarf star has a mass that is 0.22 times the mass of the Sun. The Jupiter-like planet causes a transit to occur every 292 days. What is the semi-major axis of the Jupiter-like planet’s orbit? (21.26) If a transit depth of 0.00001 can be detected with the Kepler spacecraft, what is the smallest planet that could be detected around a 0.3 Rsun M dwarf star? (OP) Based on variations in the timing of an observed exoplanet transit around a star with a mass of 2 M☉, scientists predict that another planet should be present and orbiting at a distance of 2 AU. How frequent should transits from this second planet be? (Hint: transit frequency will be the period of this planet) Optional - More practice: (Remember: in the equation above, P should be in years.) Mass of Star in M☉ \| Period \| Semi-major axis \| 10 \| 563 days \| \| 8 \| 0.86 AU \| \| 3 \| 250 days \| \| 0.5 \| 3 AU \| \| 0.25 \| 78 days \| Planet Hunters Visit: https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/nora-dot-eisner/planet-hunters-tess (link on Blackboard) (Optional) Make an account if you would like to keep track of work, or potentially get credit for helping find a new planet! Complete the short tutorial. Start looking for transits! Click and drag to indicate a potential transit. After doing a few, you will hit a simulated light curve. You will know it’s a simulated curve if you get a pop-up after telling you how you did. How did you do at spotting the transits in a simulated light curve? (Chapter 30) Are we alone? (Drake equation) Inspired by The Drake Equation – What are the Chances of Extraterrestrial Life? — Information is Beautiful, from which numbers are sourced Worksheet Topics: Drake equation Chapters: 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 30.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Discuss the assumption underlying the Copernican principle and outline its implications for modern-day astronomers Understand the questions underlying the Fermi paradox Describe the characteristics of a habitable environment Identify where in the solar system life is most likely sustainable and why Describe some key missions and their findings in our search for life beyond our solar system Explain the use of biomarkers in the search for evidence of life beyond our solar system Understand the various SETI programs scientists are undertaking Describe the chemical and environmental conditions that make Earth hospitable to life List efforts by humankind to communicate with other civilizations via messages on spacecraft Describe some of the extreme conditions on Earth, and explain how certain organisms have adapted to these conditions In-Class Worksheet: Class 14 - Are we alone? Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 2 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Wednesday, June 14. Guidance: The Drake equation is: N = R* x fP x ne x fl x fi x fc x L. These variables are explained in the table below. Calculate your estimate (est.) for the number of communicating civilizations in the Milky Way by picking reasonable values (generally somewhere between the optimistic and skeptical estimates) for these variables. Meaning \| Open questions \| Drake est. \| Skeptic est. \| Opti-mist est. \| Your est. \| \| R* \| mean rate of star formation \| Star formation rate varies as a galaxy ages so hard to tell what the current value is \| 10 yr-1 \| 7 yr-1 \| 7 yr-1 \| \| fP \| fraction of stars that have planets \| Will have a better estimate as we continue finding exoplanets Can all types of stars host planets? \| 0.5 = 50% \| 0.22 = 22% \| 0.9 = 90% \| \| ne \| mean number of planets that could support life per star with planets (aka number of habitable planets per star) \| Can all types of stars host habitable planets? What does habitable mean? How common are insulating atmospheres? Does life require water? Can life survive in environments that would seem impossible even for Earth extremophiles? Study of exoplanets will help us get better estimate \| 2 \| 0.01 \| 0.3 \| \| fl \| fraction of life-supporting planets that develop life \| What chance events are necessary for life to occur and how rare are they? How did life develop on Earth? How many planets with the right conditions won’t form life for whatever reason? Complete guess \| 1 = 100% \| 0.001 = 0.1% \| 0.1 = 10% \| \| fi \| fraction of planets with life where life develops intelligence \| What does intelligence mean? Is intelligence the natural outcome of evolutionary processes? Are there unknown barriers to developing intelligence? What are the odds of life developing past single-cell organisms? Complete guess \| 0.01 = 1% \| 0.001 = 0.1% \| 0.01 = 1% \| \| fc \| fraction of intelligent civilizations that develop communication \| Do they develop radio communication? Do they have a desire for wide communication? Is there a different way to communicate that we haven’t yet discovered? Complete guess \| 0.01 = 1% \| 0.01 = 1% \| 0.01 = 1% \| \| L \| mean length of time that civilizations can communicate \| How long, if ever, do intelligent civilizations broadcast advertising that they are out there? How frequent do they broadcast? (Earth has no current program to broadcast “we are here” despite having radio communications for 125 years). Complete guess \| 104 years \| 104 years \| 107 years \| (OP1) Calculate the value of N, the number of communicating civilizations in the galaxy, for the skeptical, optimistic, and your estimates by multiplying each number together in the respective column. Make sure to use the fractional representation, and not the percentages. For example, the original Drake estimate would be: N = 10 x 0.5 x 2 x 1 x 0.01 x 0.01 x 10,000 = 10 Meaning \| Open questions \| Drake est. \| Skeptic est. \| Optimist est. \| Your est. \| \| N \| Number of communicating civilizations in galaxy \| All open questions for each part of the equation \| 10 \| (OP2) Based on your estimate, is it surprising that we have not found evidence of a communicating civilization yet? (Chapter 7) The Solar System Worksheet Topics: surface-area-to-volume ratio, radioactive dating (simple) Chapters: 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 (optional: 7.4 for review of solar system formation) Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe how the objects in our solar system are identified, explored, and characterized Describe the types of small bodies in our solar system, their locations, and how they formed Model the solar system with distances from everyday life to better comprehend distances in space Describe the characteristics of the giant planets, terrestrial planets, and small bodies in the solar system Explain what influences the temperature of a planet’s surface Explain why there is geological activity on some planets and not on others Explain how astronomers can tell whether a planetary surface is geologically young or old (lab) Describe different methods for dating planets In-Class Worksheet: Class 15 - The Solar System Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Wednesday, June 21. Guidance: Surface area of a sphere: A = 4 π R2 Volume of a sphere: V = 4/3 π R3 For radioactive dating: after one half life, half of the original, parent isotope will remain. The amount that decayed will be converted to the daughter isotope. Construct a simple table to track how much will have decayed over a few half-lives. If you prefer, you can also use an equation: Surface area to volume ratio: (OP) What is the surface area to volume ratio of Mars (radius = 3397 km)? (OP) What is the ratio of the surface-area-to-volume ratios of Mars to Earth? (OP) Which planet, Mars or Earth, will cool faster? How much faster? (OP) Would you expect Mars to have more or less geological activity than Earth? Why? Radioactive Dating: (OP) A rock sample from Earth contains 2 grams of the radioactive parent isotope, Potassium-40 and 14 grams of the daughter isotope, Argon-40. The half-life of Potassium-40 is 1.31 billion years. How old is the rock sample? (CP8.50b) [Carbon-14 Dating] (OP) How many half-lives of Carbon-14 (5,730 years) have passed since the formation of Earth (4.5x109 years)? (OP) What percent of Carbon-14 would remain in a rock that solidified around the time the Earth formed? (Use (½)(# of half-lives) to get the fractional value) (OP) Can Earth’s age be established with Carbon-14 dating? Why or why not? Optional: If 50 grams of Carbon-14 are originally present in a sample, how much will be left after 5 half-lives? Optional: A rock sample from Earth contains 0.5 grams of the radioactive parent isotope, Potassium-40 and 1.5 grams of the daughter isotope, Argon-40. The half-life of Potassium-40 is 1.31 billion years. How old is the rock sample? Optional: (7.36) A radioactive nucleus has a half-life of 5×108 years. Assuming that a sample of rock (say, in an asteroid) solidified right after the solar system formed, approximately what fraction of the radioactive element should be left in the rock today? (Chapter 9) The Moon and Mercury Part 1 adapted from GEOLOGIC MAPPING OF THE MOON Worksheet Topics: lunar and Mercurian geological features Chapters: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Discuss what has been learned from both manned and robotic lunar exploration Describe the composition and structure of the Moon Differentiate between the major surface features of the Moon Describe the history of the lunar surface Describe the properties of the lunar “soil” Explain the process of impact crater formation Discuss the use of crater counts to determine relative ages of lunar landforms Summarize the current “giant impact” concept of how the Moon formed Describe Mercury’s structure and composition Explain the relationship between Mercury’s orbit and rotation Describe the topography and features of Mercury’s surface Summarize our ideas about the origin and evolution of Mercury In-Class Worksheet: Class 17 - The Moon and Mercury Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions or concepts; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Thursday, June 22. Part 1: Geological Mapping of the Moon Adapted from LPI Education/Public Outreach Science Activities Apollo 15 Landing Site: Examine this image and use it to answer the following questions. There are a number of indicators of whether one unit is superposed (on top of) on another unit. One of these indicators is called an embayment relation. This occurs when a unit is deposited in fluid form, for instance as lava flows or as sediment that settled out of water. In this case the younger unit embays the older unit, or in other words, it fills in low spots of the older unit at the contact. When one feature embays another it often looks like the water of a bay flowing around land features, and this is where the term embay comes from. Look carefully at the contact between the mare and terra for an embayment relation. On this basis, which unit (mare or terra) is younger? Why? Now look at the number of craters on each of the two units. Do the crater densities show the same relative ages of the mare and highlands as you just determined? If not, can you think of possible reasons why? The major structure in this photograph is the curvy trough, called Hadley Rille. What would you call this structure? (Hint: Look over the definitions in the glossary) What are the relative ages of the mare and Hadley Rille? What principle did you use to recognize this age relation? Look at the large, round impact crater alongside Hadley Rille. This is Hadley crater. What are the relative ages of Hadley crater and Hadley Rille? Why? Now, reconstruct the geologic history of the area surrounding Hadley Rille by numbering the following units and structures in the order in which they formed (unit 1 formed first). ______ Hadley Crater ______ Mare ______ Highlands ______ Hadley Rille Based on everything you’ve learned about the mare, what kind of rock do you think it might be (lava flows, sediments, coal, etc.). What is necessary for you to know for sure? Look at the slightly brighter region of mare away from the contact with the highlands (terra). This region contains an abundance of very small craters with noncircular shapes. Compare and contrast their appearance (their size, shape, and relief) with that of Hadley crater, by listing their similarities and differences. Are these unusual craters older or younger than the mare? Why? How might the origin of the unusual craters have differed from the origin of Hadley crater? Can you think of a process that could have formed them? Optional: Can you make a list of things that would be different if Earth had no Moon? Don’t restrict your answer to astronomy and geology. Think about our calendars and moonlit romantic strolls, for example. Part 2: Mercury (OP) Why does the presence of a magnetic field suggest some part of Mercury’s core is still molten? Take a look at images of “scarps” or cliffs on Mercury: (OP) Indicate the direction to the Sun on the image on both images. (OP) Were the scarps formed before or after the impacts that caused most of the craters on Mercury’s surface? Why? (OP) The Moon has too little iron, Mercury too much. How can both of these anomalies be the result of giant impacts? Explain how the same process can yield such apparently contradictory results. (More room to write on next page) Glossary Geologic unit - A group of rocks/ an area with the same definite characteristics. Contact - The boundary between different geologic units. Structures - Physical features that affect the shapes of geologic units, such as channels and faults. Channel - A narrow, winding depression generally carved by flowing liquid like water or lava. Fault - A large break in a planet's crust, across which the crust has moved. Relative age - The age of a geologic unit or structure relative to another geologic unit or structure. The unit or structure is "older than" or "younger than" another one. Geologic history - The basic history of how the geologic units in an area were formed and what happened over time. Scientists use two principles to decode the geologic history of an area from an overhead photograph or a geologic map: Principle of superposition - Whatever unit lies on top of, or superposes, other units is the youngest unit. The bottom unit had to be there first in order for a younger unit to form on top. Principle of cross-cutting relations - Structures such as faults and channels which disrupt geologic units, are younger than the units they disrupt, or cross-cut. Studying geology using pictures is called photogeology. It is different from studying geology on the ground, because all the observations are made from a distance. Impact craters are circular, raised-rimmed depressions formed by explosions that occur when comets and asteroids collide with the Moon. Impact craters provide an important tool for determining the relative ages of different units: Older units have more impact craters on them. and younger units have fewer impact craters. The number of craters in an area of specified size is called crater density; thus, older units have a higher crater density than younger units. (Chapter 10) Venus and Mars This activity refers to the CORGI tool, which received mixed feedback when used in class, so I included the activity in the worksheet format instead Worksheet Topics: atmospheric weight (Venus and Mars), water on Mars Chapters: Chapter 10.1, starting at “Rotation of the Planets”, 10.3-10.5; Overview \| Venus – NASA Solar System Exploration (subbed for the longer 10.2) Lesson Learning Objectives: Compare the basic physical properties of Earth, Mars, and Venus, including their orbits Describe the general features of the surface of Venus Explain why the surface of Venus is inhospitable to human life Describe the general composition and structure of the atmosphere on Venus Explain how the greenhouse effect has led to high temperatures on Venus Discuss the main missions that have explored Mars Compare the volcanoes and canyons on Mars with those of Earth Describe the general conditions on the surface of Mars Describe the general composition of the atmosphere on Mars Explain what we know about the polar ice caps on Mars and how we know it Describe the evidence for the presence of water in the past history of Mars In-Class Worksheet: Class 18 - Venus and Mars Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions or concepts; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Friday, June 23. Guidance: A Pascal is a unit of pressure that is equal to 1 Newton of force per square meter. Recall that force = mass x acceleration. The acceleration in this case is that due to gravity on a planet: a=GM/R2. See Blackboard for full example using Earth. Part 1: Atmospheric Weight The atmospheric surface pressure on Venus is estimated to be about 9.2x106 Pa. Venus has a radius of 6,052 km and a mass of 4.9x1024 kg. The following parts will walk you through computing the total mass of the atmosphere. What is the acceleration due to gravity at Venus’ surface? What is the total mass of the atmosphere per square meter? What is the total surface area of Venus? What is the total mass of the atmosphere of Venus? How does this compare to the mass of Earth’s atmosphere (about 5x1018kg)? (Use a ratio.) Repeat the same steps as in 1., but for Mars. Mars has an average atmospheric surface pressure of just 600 Pa. Mars has a radius of 3,390 km and a mass of 6.39x1023 kg. What is the total mass of the atmosphere of Mars? (optional, practice for exam) Why has Venus experienced a runaway greenhouse effect, but not Earth? (optional, practice for exam) In what way is the high surface temperature of Venus relevant to concerns about global warming on Earth today? Part 2: Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning: Liquid water on Mars The claim is that Mars, now mostly dry and geologically dead, once had liquid water on its surface. Various missions, both orbiters and landers/rovers, have uncovered evidence that supports this claim. Use reliable sources on the Internet (e.g., your textbook, NASA, ESA, other space agencies, Scientific American, Science.org, The Planetary Society, etc.) to identify at least three distinct pieces of evidence that liquid water once existed on Mars. Explain why that piece of evidence supports the claim. Be sure to cite both where you got the information and where the original source (which rover/lander/orbiter). You may complete this activity with a CORGI guide, or on the following pages. If done as a Corgi guide, submit the link on Blackboard. Evidence #1: Reasoning (how does this evidence support the claim?): Source: Evidence #2: Reasoning: Source: Evidence #3: Reasoning: Source: Optional - Other supporting evidence: Conclusion: Does the evidence support the claim that there was once liquid water on Mars? Explain. (Chapter 11) The Giant Planets Worksheet Topics: storms, wind speeds, rate of change Chapters: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 Lesson Learning Objectives: Provide an overview of the composition of the giant planets Chronicle the robotic exploration of the outer solar system Summarize the missions sent to orbit the gas giants Describe the basic physical characteristics, general appearance, and rotation of the giant planets Describe the composition and structure of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune Compare and contrast the internal heat sources of the giant planets Describe the discovery and characteristics of the giant planets’ magnetic fields Discuss the atmospheric composition of the giant planets Describe the cloud formation and atmospheric structure of the gas giants Characterize the giant planets’ wind and weather patterns Understand the scale and longevity of storms on the giant planets In-Class Worksheet: Class 19 - The Giant Planets Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions or concepts; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Monday, June 26. Guidance: Wind speed is given by: speed = distance/time. The distance will be the circumference of the storm at the distance where you are calculating the speed. Circumference of a circle is C=2πR, where R is the radius. Rate of change is given by: rate = change/time. (11.27) Calculate the wind speed at the edge of Neptune’s Great Dark Spot, which was 10,000 km in diameter and rotated in 17 d. (OP) Example 11.1 gives the answer for the wind speed at the edge of Jupiter’s Great Red Spot. The Great Red Spot rotates once every 6 days and has a radius of 10,000 km. What is the wind speed halfway between the edge and the center of the spot (5,000 km from the center)? (OP) According to the book, in 1979 the Great Red Spot had a diameter of 25,000 km and in 2000 had a diameter of 20,000km. Assuming the rate of shrinkage remains the same, in what year will the Great Red Spot have a diameter equal to Earth? In what year will the Great Red Spot disappear? Do you think a constant rate of shrinkage is a good assumption? (CP 11.52) [Disappearing Moon] (a) (b) (Chapter 12) Rings, Moons, Dwarf Planets Worksheet Topics: jovian moons, orbital resonance, dwarf planets Chapters: 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5 Lesson Learning Objectives: Briefly describe the system of moons around each of the jovian planets Describe key characteristics of the Galilean Moons, Titan, Triton and Charon Explain how tidal forces generate the geological activity we see on Europa and Io and the tidal locking of Pluto and Charon Compare the orbital characteristics of Pluto with those of the planets Describe information about Pluto’s surface deduced from the New Horizons images Describe the two theories of planetary ring formation Explain how the rings of Uranus and Neptune differ in composition and appearance from the rings of Saturn Describe how ring structure is affected by the presence of moons In-Class Worksheet: Class 20 - Moons, Rings, Pluto Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions or concepts; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Tuesday, June 27. Guidance: An orbital resonance is when two orbits have periods that are perfect fractions (e.g. ½). Kepler’s third law for objects orbiting a different mass than the Sun is: P2=a3/M, where P is in years, a is in AU, and M is in solar masses. Part 1: Orbits and Resonances (12.26) The average distance of Enceladus from Saturn is 238,000 km; the average distance of Titan from Saturn is 1,222,000 km. How much longer does it take Titan to orbit Saturn compared to Enceladus? Is there a resonance? (OP) Is there an orbital resonance relationship between Saturn’s moon Titan (period = 15.945 days) and Hyperion (period = 21.277 days)? What is it? (Optional, 12.24) Saturn’s A, B, and C Rings extend 75,000 to 137,000 km from the center of the planet. Use Kepler’s third law to calculate the difference between how long a particle at the inner edge and a particle at the outer edge of the three-ring system would take to revolve about the planet. (Optional, OP) The following table provides information about the density of the Galilean moons and their orbital distance. Moon \| Orbital Distance (km) \| Density (g/cm3) \| Io \| 4.21x105 \| 3.57 \| Europa \| 6.71x105 \| 2.97 \| Ganymede \| 1.07x106 \| 1.94 \| Callisto \| 1.88x106 \| 1.86 \| Is there a trend between the orbital distance of a Galilean moon and its density? What might explain the cause of this trend? Part 2: Dwarf Planets 4. (OP) Choose one of the recognized dwarf planets (besides Pluto) and use credible sources to find out how and when it was discovered, how it was named, and anything interesting about it. The recognized dwarf planets, not including Pluto, are: Ceres, Haumea, Eris, and Makemake. (Chapter 13) Asteroids and Comets Worksheet Topics: mass of asteroids & Kuiper belt, comets Chapters: 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4 Lesson Learning Objectives: Describe the composition, classification, and orbits of the various types of asteroids Discuss what was learned from spacecraft missions to several asteroids Recognize the threat that near-Earth objects represent for Earth and possible defensive strategies Characterize the general physical appearance of comets Explain the range of cometary orbits Describe the size and composition of a typical comet’s nucleus Discuss the atmospheres of comets Explain the proposed fate of comets that enter the inner solar system Describe the composition of the Oort cloud and Kuiper Belt In-Class Worksheet: Class 21 - Asteroids and Comets Instructions: Work with your classmates to understand the problems and write your answers below. Exam 3 may include similar questions or concepts; write your steps or notes on this worksheet so it can serve as a study guide. Due: You may turn this worksheet in to your instructor at the end of class, electronically via Blackboard, or at the beginning of next class. This worksheet will be considered late after 9:00AM on Wednesday, June 28. Guidance: The volume of a sphere is given by: V = 4/3 π R3. Density is: density=mass/volume. (13.26) The mass of the asteroids is found mostly in the larger asteroids, so to estimate the total mass we need to consider only the larger objects. Suppose the three largest asteroids—Ceres (1000 km in diameter), Pallas (500 km in diameter), and Vesta (500 km in diameter)—account for half the total mass. Assume that each of these three asteroids has a density of 3 × 103 kg/m3 and calculate their total mass. Multiply your result by 2 to obtain an estimate for the mass of the total asteroid belt. How does this compare with the mass of the Oort cloud (~1027 kg from Example 13.1)? (13.27) Make a similar estimate for the mass of the Kuiper belt. The three largest objects are Pluto, Eris, and Makemake (each roughly 2000 km). In addition, assume there are eight objects (including Haumea, Orcus, Quaoar, Ixion, Varuna, and Charon, and objects that have not been named yet) with diameters of about 1000 km. Assume that all objects have Pluto’s density of 2 × 103 kg/m3. Calculate twice the mass of the largest 11 objects and compare it to the mass of the main asteroid belt. (OP) Label each part of the diagram below: (OP) Using the numbers on the diagram on the previous page, describe what each component is and how it forms. (Optional) Describe, in order, the changes that happen to a comet as it gets closer to the Sun. (Optional) Make a Venn diagram or otherwise compare and contrast the similarities and differences between asteroids and comets. (Optional, CP 12.47) [Adding up asteroids]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.699574	Bryanne McDonough	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107811/overview", "title": "Active Learning Worksheets to Pair with Openstax Astronomy", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113905/overview	BHS 180: Child, Family, and Adult Advocacy Overview Survey of the behavioral health and social services professions, including scope of practice and training requirements. Exploration of employment opportunities in the field and self-assessment/academic planning for a career in mental health. Overview of mental health disorders and first responder skills in a mental health crisis situation. BHS 180: Child, Family, and Adult Advocacy Course Description The role of advocacy in relation to multiple systems affecting children, families, and adults. Emphasis on identifying appropriate supports, community resources, and "wrap-around" services to help foster healthy family and child development, social welfare, and recovery. General Education Competency Written Communication Course Content - Overview of behavioral health and social services professions, career opportunities, and employment trends - Self-assessment, alignment with workplace demands - Personal issues affecting the helping professional - Self-care and revitalization - Overview of mental health disorders and whole health interventions - Mental health first aid - Initial development of professional portfolio - Educational and career planning Course Learning Outcomes - Define advocacy and explain professional/ethical standards for - advocacy. (1) - Practice using common advocacy strategies and tactics and discuss when - each may be applicable/valuable. (2) - Describe the role of parental rights related to advocacy. (3) - Describe the procedures involved in due process, grievance and appeals - in behavioral health systems. (3) - Describe familial considerations involved in advocacy. (4) - Describe the importance of whole health integration in advocacy to - ensure appropriate educational access and opportunity. (5) - Describe the role and importance of whole health integration in - Describe the role and importance of whole health integration in - advocacy when working with justice-involved persons. (7) - Identify several funding sources and whole health integrated related - services that can help address the needs of individuals with behavioral - health issues. (8) - Demonstrate how to navigate multiple systems to develop an advocacy - plan relevant to a child and his/her family. (8) - Describe the importance of the wraparound process and how it relates - to child and family advocacy. (8) - Identify integrated healthcare community supports and resources for - children and families that can be made available through advocacy. (8) Required Assessment - Due dates and specific assignments for each week are posted on the Canvas Navigation Menu under SYLLABUS or MODULES. All due dates are also in the Course Calendar • Students must complete each assignment by the posted due dates and times • Students may complete assignments, if available, prior to the due dates. • Course grades are based on the 1 Quiz, 5 Discussion Boards, 2 assignments and 1 Advocacy Plan. • 1 Quiz total 10% • 5 Discussion Boards total 25% • 2 Assignments total 25% • 1 Advocacy Plan total 40% Canvas Commons Link Course Common Cartridge Download Download this file and use it to upload the course to an LMS that isn't Canvas.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.728545	03/05/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113905/overview", "title": "BHS 180: Child, Family, and Adult Advocacy", "author": "Micah Weedman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100243/overview	Math 1130 Building Mathematical Models Using Variation Math 1130 Circles Math 1130 Complex Numbers Math 1130 Ellipses Math 1130 Exponential Functions Math 1130 Exponential Growth and Decay Math 1130 Factoring of Binomials and Trinomials MATH 1130 Functions Math 1130 Graphing Techniques,Transformations Math 1130 Graphs of Equations in Two Variables Math 1130 Hyperbolas Math 1130 Inequalities Math 1130 Library of Function MATH 1130 Lines Math 1130 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations Math 1130 Logarithmic Functions Math 1130 nth Roots and Rational Exponents Math 1130 Parabola Math 1130 Polynomial Functions Graphs Math 1130 Polynomials and Power Functions MATH 1130 Problem Solving Math 1130 Properties of Logarithms Math 1130 Quadratic Equations Math 1130 Quadratic Functions Properties and their Zeros Math 1130 Quadratic Inequalities Math 1130 Radical Equations Math 1130 Rational Expressions Math 1130 Solving Equations Math 1130 Synthetic Division MATH 1130 Systems of Equations Math 1130 The real zeros of a polynomial function Math 1130 College Algebra DE Overview This course is comprised of four units: - Linear Function Family - Quadratic Function Family - Conics and Polynomial Function Families - Exponential and Logarithmic Function Families Each unit has guided notes with keys, warm up or review Kahoot! activities, as well as activities and projects. Introduction Use the Meet & Greet the Function Families Project as a first day introduction to the different families of fundtions: This course is comprised of four units: - Linear Function Family - Quadratic Function Family - Conics and Polynomial Function Families - Exponential and Logarithmic Function Families Each unit has guided notes with keys, warm up or review Kahoot! activities, as well as activities and projects. MyOpenMath MyOpenMath Help Video Playlist A YouTube playlist has been created to help instructors navigate MyOpenMath. A multitude of videos have been created to help walk new users through everything they need to use MyOpenMath in their courses. Access the playlist at: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PL4DaWQ8GB98Q0VLyE9QCmrb697U8UUc4T Can’t find what you need? Email chambersjh@roanestate.edu to request additional video help. Copying the MyOpenMath Math 1130: College Algebra Dual Enrollment To copy the MyOpenMath Math 1130: College Algebra Dual Enrollment course that is to be used in conjunction with the materials in the OER Commons, begin by visiting https://www.myopenmath.com/ and then following these three easy steps: Step 1: Log in to MyOpenMath by typing in the username and password you selected when creating your MyOpenMath account. Step 2: Once you are logged in, click the “Add a New Course” button under the section titled “Courses you’re teaching”. Step 3: To copy the promoted course, Math 1130: College Algebra Dual Enrollment, select “Copy a template or promoted course”. A box will open with all the available templates and promoted courses. Scroll down until you see Math 1130: College Algebra Dual Enrollment. To minimize the number of courses you have to scroll through, you can filter by level by selecting “Level” and checking College Algebra. Linear Family Unit Kahoots: Linear Function Family Kahoots! Projects: 4 Activities Inverse and Symmetry with Equations Algebra in Our World packet (Answer Key) Find a System - short activity Linear Equations City Task Key Guided Note Instructor Keys: The first unit of study is about linear functions. The unit consists of the following sections: - Linear Equations in One Variable - Linear Inequalities - Functions - Domain, Range, and Piecewise Functions - Lines - Graphs of Equations - Linear Models and Applications - Variation - Systems of Equations and Inequalities - Problem Solving Quadratic Family Unit Kahoots: Quadratic Function Kahoot Links Projects: PBL_Storyboard_-_Quadratics_Deep_Dive Quadratic Deep Dive Resource Citation Project Out of Shape - Transformations shifting, stretching, compressing, reflecting Properties of Exponents Activity Quadratic Formula Project Resources Guided Notes Instructor Key: The second unit of study is about quadratic functions. The unit consists of the following sections: - Factoring Ploynomials - Rational Expressions - Exponents and Scientific Notation - Complex Numbers - Radical Equations - Quadratic Equations - Quadratic Functions - Transformation of Functions - Inequalities involving Quadratic Functions Conics and Polynomial Family Unit Kahoots: Conics and Polynomial Family Kahoots! Projects: Project Cubic Function Carry On Luggage Guided Notes Instructor Keys: Polynomial and Power Functions Key The third unit is about conics and polynomial functions. The unit consists of the following sections: - The Parabola - Circles - The Ellipse - The Hyperbola - Dividing Polynomials - Polynomial Functions - Graphs of Polynomial Functions - Zeros of Polynomial Functions Exponential and Logarithmic Family Unit Kahoots: Exponential and Logarithmic Kahoots! Projects: A Saturating Exponential OER Resource ALEX _ Alabama Learning Exchange Exponential growth versus polynomial growth Resource Exponential growth versus polynomial growth Graphs of Exponential Functions OER Graphs of Exponential Functions Resource Link to the Project and Resource Citation Guide Notes Intructor Keys: The fourth unit is about exponential and logarithmic functions. The unit consists of the following sections: - Exponential Functions - Logarithmic Functions - Properties of Logarithms - Exponential and Logarithmic Equations - Exponential and Logarithmic Models	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.789176	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100243/overview", "title": "Math 1130 College Algebra DE", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56679/overview	12.4 Epistasis, Y linked patterns of inheritance, multiple alleles, ABO blood group (part 3) Overview Codominance patterns of inheritance, multiple alleles, ABO blood group Video Lecture that covers topics in : Codominance patterns of inheritance, multiple alleles, ABO blood group Topic: Codominance patterns of inheritance, multiple alleles, ABO blood group	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.802376	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56679/overview", "title": "12.4 Epistasis, Y linked patterns of inheritance, multiple alleles, ABO blood group (part 3)", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88431/overview	Beginning Academic ESL Past and Past Progressive Overview Introduction of past tense and past progressive tense for beginning level academic English. Past and Past Progressive Past and Past Progressive Grammar Focus: Simple Past Tense and Past Progressive Tense - Audio Activity: - "Don't You Want Me?" By Human League - or other past tense songs: Pink, Rasputin, Adele and Gloria Gaynor - Introduction to Past Tense VS Past Progressive - Present Current Event news story Watch this video about using simple past and past progressive tenses Copyright Information: [oomongzu]. (2016, Aug 5). Past Continuous Tense vs Past Simple [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/0_lrUe7sAAc Do a little practice using the past and past progressive tenses Copyright Information: [kisdobos]. (2017, Aug 31). A Single Life [Video File]. Retrieved from https://en.islcollective.com/video-lessons/single-life-past-simple-vs-past-continuous-practice - Go to the discussion board What time did you .....? and post video responses to the questions there. - Go to VOA: A Day in Photos - Pick any date to review the "Day in Photos" for that day. Copy the link address. - Send me the link by email - Look at the photos for that day, and then choose one photo. - Think about what was happening when the photo was taken. - Tell a story using the past tense and past progressive tense about the photo. - For example, who are the people? What happened just before the photo was taken?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:51.819328	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88431/overview", "title": "Beginning Academic ESL Past and Past Progressive", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91423/overview	Social Justice Mathematics Project 3: "Median Household Incomes Over Time" Overview In this project students will explore changes in income over time for the three largest racial/ethnic groups: Whites, Blacks and Hispanics. Students Will: - Graph real data income data from different ethnic groups over time. - Make decisions about which data set is best for comparison. - Graph differences in income between ethnic groups. - Compute the differences in income for each of the groups - Draw conclusions about the characteristics of the graphs and the average rate of change. - General Education (Quantitative Reasoning) Social Justice Mathematics "Median Household Incomes by Ethnicity: Exploring Data" The following data from the US Census Bureau [1] gives the the median incomes of three largest racial groups in the US. You will use this data to evaluate disparities between whites and Blacks/Hispanics in household income. \| White Alone not Hispanic \| Black Alone \| Hispanic any race \| \|\|\|\|\|\| Year \| Number (thousands) \| Median income \| Number (thousands) \| Median income \| Number (thousands) \| Median income \| \|\|\| Current \| 2020 \| Current \| 2020 \| Current \| 2020 \| \|\|\|\| 2020 \| 85,336 \| 74,912 \| 74,912 \| 17,358 \| 45,870 \| 45,870 \| 18,349 \| 55,321 \| 55,321 \| 2019 \| 84,868 \| 76,057 \| 77,007 \| 17,054 \| 45,438 \| 46,005 \| 17,667 \| 56,113 \| 56,814 \| 2018 \| 84,727 \| 70,642 \| 72,820 \| 17,167 \| 41,361 \| 42,636 \| 17,758 \| 51,450 \| 53,036 \| 2017 (40) \| 84,706 \| 68,189 \| 72,005 \| 17,019 \| 39,365 \| 41,568 \| 17,336 \| 50,167 \| 52,974 \| 2017 \| 84,681 \| 68,145 \| 71,958 \| 16,997 \| 40,258 \| 42,511 \| 17,318 \| 50,486 \| 53,311 \| 2016 \| 84,387 \| 65,041 \| 70,157 \| 16,733 \| 39,490 \| 42,596 \| 16,915 \| 47,675 \| 51,425 \| 2015 \| 84,445 \| 62,950 \| 68,778 \| 16,539 \| 36,898 \| 40,314 \| 16,667 \| 45,148 \| 49,328 \| 2014 \| 84,228 \| 60,256 \| 65,948 \| 16,437 \| 35,398 \| 38,742 \| 16,239 \| 42,491 \| 46,505 \| 2013 (39) \| 84,432 \| 60,329 \| 67,146 \| 16,009 \| 35,324 \| 39,315 \| 16,088 \| 39,687 \| 44,171 \| 2013 (38) \| 83,641 \| 58,270 \| 64,854 \| 16,108 \| 34,598 \| 38,507 \| 15,811 \| 40,963 \| 45,592 \| 2012 \| 83,792 \| 57,009 \| 64,391 \| 15,872 \| 33,321 \| 37,635 \| 15,589 \| 39,005 \| 44,055 \| 2011 \| 83,573 \| 55,412 \| 63,912 \| 15,583 \| 32,229 \| 37,173 \| 14,939 \| 38,624 \| 44,549 \| 2010 (37) \| 83,314 \| 54,460 \| 64,794 \| 15,265 \| 32,124 \| 38,220 \| 14,435 \| 37,631 \| 44,772 \| 2009 (36) \| 83,158 \| 54,461 \| 65,865 \| 14,730 \| 32,584 \| 39,407 \| 13,298 \| 38,039 \| 46,004 \| 2008 \| 82,884 \| 55,530 \| 66,924 \| 14,595 \| 34,218 \| 41,239 \| 13,425 \| 37,913 \| 45,692 \| 2007 \| 82,765 \| 54,920 \| 68,731 \| 14,551 \| 33,916 \| 42,445 \| 13,339 \| 38,679 \| 48,406 \| 2006 \| 82,675 \| 52,423 \| 67,467 \| 14,354 \| 31,969 \| 41,143 \| 12,973 \| 37,781 \| 48,623 \| 2005 \| 82,003 \| 50,784 \| 67,476 \| 14,002 \| 30,858 \| 41,001 \| 12,519 \| 35,967 \| 47,789 \| 2004 (35) \| 81,628 \| 48,910 \| 67,187 \| 13,809 \| 30,095 \| 41,341 \| 12,178 \| 34,271 \| 47,078 \| 2003 \| 81,148 \| 47,777 \| 67,404 \| 13,629 \| 29,645 \| 41,823 \| 11,693 \| 32,997 \| 46,552 \| 2002 \| 81,166 \| 46,900 \| 67,669 \| 13,465 \| 29,026 \| 41,880 \| 11,339 \| 33,103 \| 47,763 \| [1] US Census Bureau (2022) Table H-5. Race and Hispanic Origin of Householder -- Households by Median and Mean Income Social Justice Mathematics Project "Median Household Incomes by Ethnicity: Working with Data" Compare the following data to the data in the previous page. Explain why the values for median and mean are different? How is each computed and why in the case of income does the data appear to be so different? Make up or find smaller data sets that illustrate how differences in median and mean can vary. \| White Alone not Hispanic \| Black Alone \| Hispanic Any Race \| \|\|\| Year \| Mean income \| Mean income \| Mean income \| \|\|\| Current \| 2020 \| Current \| 2020 \| Current \| 2020 \| \| 2020 \| 104,754 \| 104,754 \| 67,593 \| 67,593 \| 75,193 \| 75,193 \| 2019 \| 106,659 \| 107,990 \| 66,553 \| 67,384 \| 75,058 \| 75,995 \| 2018 \| 98,261 \| 101,290 \| 58,665 \| 60,473 \| 70,945 \| 73,132 \| 2017 (40) \| 95,759 \| 101,117 \| 58,029 \| 61,276 \| 67,663 \| 71,449 \| 2017 \| 93,453 \| 98,682 \| 58,593 \| 61,872 \| 68,319 \| 72,142 \| 2016 \| 89,757 \| 96,818 \| 57,445 \| 61,964 \| 66,815 \| 72,071 \| 2015 \| 85,585 \| 93,508 \| 54,352 \| 59,384 \| 63,612 \| 69,501 \| 2014 \| 82,465 \| 90,255 \| 51,230 \| 56,069 \| 57,534 \| 62,969 \| 2013 (39) \| 81,228 \| 90,406 \| 50,454 \| 56,155 \| 57,617 \| 64,127 \| 2013 (38) \| 79,340 \| 88,305 \| 49,629 \| 55,237 \| 54,644 \| 60,818 \| 2012 \| 77,843 \| 87,922 \| 47,737 \| 53,918 \| 53,422 \| 60,339 \| 2011 \| 76,063 \| 87,731 \| 47,255 \| 54,504 \| 52,352 \| 60,383 \| 2010 (37) \| 73,333 \| 87,249 \| 44,957 \| 53,488 \| 51,394 \| 61,147 \| 2009 (36) \| 73,240 \| 88,576 \| 46,046 \| 55,688 \| 52,229 \| 63,165 \| 2008 \| 74,102 \| 89,307 \| 46,533 \| 56,081 \| 51,572 \| 62,154 \| 2007 \| 73,182 \| 91,586 \| 46,631 \| 58,358 \| 50,828 \| 63,610 \| 2006 \| 71,745 \| 92,334 \| 45,127 \| 58,077 \| 50,575 \| 65,088 \| 2005 \| 68,603 \| 91,152 \| 42,454 \| 56,408 \| 47,138 \| 62,632 \| 2004 (35) \| 65,258 \| 89,645 \| 40,633 \| 55,817 \| 45,877 \| 63,021 \| 2003 \| 63,887 \| 90,132 \| 40,131 \| 56,617 \| 44,468 \| 62,736 \| 2002 \| 62,115 \| 89,622 \| 40,011 \| 57,730 \| 44,887 \| 64,765 \| Social Justice Mathematics "Median Household Incomes by Ethnicity: Plotting the Data" You will be analyzing a data set provided by the US Census bureau about changes in median income for three ethnic groups (White, Hispanic, Black). You will be utilizing your TI-84 Calculator to graph the data. You must answer each of the following questions. 1. Graph the year vs. ethnic group data. In the TI calculator, you can create three graphs in which L1 represents the year. In each of the three graphs L2, L3, and L4 will represent the income for each ethnic group. Also, if you are using the TI calculator, only use 5 rows of data that are about equally spaced. If you are using your calculator you must take a picture of your graph and include it in you submission document. If you are using EXCEL, you will use the scatter plot function. Use all the data if you are using EXCEL. (5 pts) 2. Graph the year vs. Gap Between White and Hispanic Incomes and Year vs. Gap Between White and Black Incomes on separate graphs (Hint: You must first compute the Gap Between White and Hispanic Incomes by taking L2 - L3 in L5, and then compute the Gap Between White and Hispanic Incomes by taking L2-L4 in L6). Also, if you are using the TI calculator, only use 5 rows of data that are about equally spaced Again, if you are using EXCEL, you will use the scatter plot function, and use all the years. (5 pts) Social Justice Mathematics Project "Median Household Incomes by Ethnicity: Analyzing data and drawing conclusions" 1. Describe any trends that you observe regarding the first graph of data such as: - Is one group's data set consistently higher than the other? (1 pt) - Does the data for each graph generally trend up, down, or is there some other pattern? (1 pt) - Do you know the names of any curves that might be good at estimating/following the points? (1 pt) 2. Describe any trends that you observe regarding the graph of household income gap data such as: - Do the income differences (between Whites and Hispanics and between Whites and Blacks) generally follow identical patterns or do they diverge significantly? (1 pt) - Are there years when the income differences drop or widen significantly? (1 pt) - Would it be fair to use linear equations to model the gap differences or is there some other curve that makes more sense? (1 pt) - What data is missing from the data sets that might be important to consider? (1 pt) 3. Explain each of the following: - Why do you think the differences persist over time? (2 pts) - What do you think may be the causes for significant increases/decreases in gaps between Whites and other ethnic groups during some years? (2 pts) - What are ways that you can think of to decrease gaps between Whites and other ethnic groups? (2 pts) - Are some gaps in income acceptable? Why or why not? (2 pts)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.008380	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91423/overview", "title": "Social Justice Mathematics Project 3: \"Median Household Incomes Over Time\"", "author": "Statistics and Probability" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87544/overview	GenderMag Twitter GenderMag YouTube Team Discussion: Cognitive Styles when Using Technology Overview What cognitive styles do you use to interact with technology? PRE-REQ: https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87536 Pre-Requisites Team Discussion: Cognitive Styles Begin getting to know your team by contributing to the team discussion: 1. Describe your thoughts about the cognitive styles reading (1+ paragraph) 2. Respond to two different people. Include how your facet values are similar or different from your teammate's Learn More Additional resources below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.030329	Psychology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87544/overview", "title": "Team Discussion: Cognitive Styles when Using Technology", "author": "Information Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75430/overview	Are Libraries Still Relevant? Assessing Digital Humanities Tools- Use of Scalar at a Research University Collaboration, Consultation, or Transaction COLLABORATION: Digital humanities project showcase Commentary on Digital Publishing in African American Studies- Continuing the Dialogue and Expanding the Collaborations Digital humanities in the library isn't a service Digital Humanities: New Roles for Libraries Digital Publishing Seen from the Digital Humanities Getting Started with Omeka - A Tutorial How to evaluate digital scholarship http://ceball.com/ Humanities Scholars and Library-Based Digital Publishing Open Access Publishing "Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy", Kathleen Fitzpatrick Promoting Diversity and Sustainability in the Scholarly Publishing Ecosystem_ The University of Michigan's MPublishing Redefines the Role of Libraries in Publishing Publishing Without Walls Race, memory, and the digital humanities conference W&M 2017 Scalar 2.0 — Trailer Scholarly Adventures in Digital Humanities - Making The Modernist Archives Publishing Project Supporting Digital Scholarship in Research Libraries Scalability and Sustainability Tenure, promotion and digital publication. The Historian's Craft, Popular Memory, and Wikipedia The humanities center: Fostering interdisciplinary collaboration The Necessity of Digital Publishing in Exploring the Black Experience Using DH tools to examine neglected indigenous texts Using social media to promote academic research- Identifying the benefits of twitter for sharing academic work What 'counts'? When does service become scholarship? WordPress Tutorial for Beginners 2020 - How to Create Your First WordPress Website Digital Publishing in the Humanities Overview Digital culture is changing. Social technologies are impacting how scholars work, learn and engage with one another both inside and outside of their institutions. In postsecondary education, it is becoming increasingly vital to share your work and practice online. Open and digital channels help colleagues solicit advice, seek out support/collaboration, offer free professional development, share information and resources, and learn in networked communities with common interests. Besides developing a digital presence, higher education staff, administrators and scholars are utilizing social media and digital technologies to support their work, add to their professional development, engage with peers, learn in the collective and publicly in digital spaces and places. Using openly licensed content, this OER helps fill the gap between the digital divide and familiarizes users with the digital publishing world. By using this OER, students and professional scholars alike will gain insight into how to use digital publishing tools to their advantage, have a better understanding of the challenges surrounding digital publishing, and learn how to create and engage in innovative and collaborative digital projects. Open Educational Resource Narrative Overview: We are currently living in a digital age in which access to the internet has connected us to an almost unlimited amount of information. As a result, the manner in which research is shared and communicated among scholars is changing rapidly. This Open Educational Resource was created with the intention to help college students understand how digital publishing is contributing to those changes. Need for Resource: Digital culture is changing. Social technologies are impacting how scholars work, learn and engage with one another both inside and outside of their institutions. In postsecondary education, it is becoming increasingly vital to share your work and practice online. Open and digital channels help colleagues solicit advice, seek out support/collaboration, offer free professional development, share information and resources, and learn in networked communities with common interests. Besides developing a digital presence, higher education staff, administrators and scholars are utilizing social media and digital technologies to support their work, add to their professional development, engage with peers, learn in the collective and publicly in digital spaces and places. Using openly licensed content, this OER helps fill the gap between the digital divide and familiarizes users with the digital publishing world. By using this OER, students and professional scholars alike will gain insight into how to use digital publishing tools to their advantage, have a better understanding of the challenges surrounding digital publishing, and learn how to create and engage in innovative and collaborative digital projects. Methodology: This OER uses a combination of guided readings, digital projects, discussion questions, and videos to help users understand issues related to digital publishing. Additionally, the instructor view of this OER contains summaries of the readings, answer prompts, and learning objectives to help teachers guide students as they work. By presenting this information through a range of resources, it will showcase how diverse digital publishing activities can be, and it will give students an opportunity to explore different styles of learning (logical, physical, social, etc.). Although these questions and activities were designed to facilitate conversations among students, the majority of the work in this OER can be completed individually or in a classroom setting. Learning Objectives: Because this OER is an introductory tool that encourages exploration and working at one's own pace, a formal assessment of students' knowledge, such as taking a summative exam, seems counterproductive. Instead, learning objectives for these materials should be measured through student self-assessment. Student self-assessment are methods that allow students to rate their own confidence in their work and their understanding of course content. Throughout each section of this OER, there are prompts for students to reflect on their learning and think about remaining questions they have about a given topic. Instructors should these reflection posts to gauge the effectiveness of this resource and the growth in knowledge of their students. What is Digital Publishing in the Humanities? Readings: I chose these readings because all of the articles focus on introducing the concept of digital publishing and current trends within the digital humanities and digital publishing fields. The first two readings discuss the transition from print to digital within scholarly communication and how that shift impacts humanities scholars. The last two readings are more narrowly focused, discussing the effect of open access in digital publishing and offering recommendations for how library publishers can help humanities scholars reach broader audiences through interdisciplinary and open access publishing. After reading these articles, students should have working definitions of key digital publishing terms, have a better understanding of the gap between print and digital scholarly approaches, and have an introductory-level understanding of the benefits and challenges associated with digital publishing. Activities: I developed these activities for students because they facilitate the exploration of digital publishing topics and resources. The first activity is intended to help students become familiar with examples of digital publishers and issues and controversies surrounding digital publishing. The second activity is intended to give students the opportunity to analyze and critique an online humanities journal. The third activity allows students to explore digital publishing using their own interests as a catalyst, and, hopefully, the range of projects students choose to research will show have diverse and varied digital publishing is. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: - What can you do with Digital Publishing? - Advantages - Develop a personal research or project website - Create a private course blog - Write an interactive, "Choose Your Own Adventure"-like story - Incorporate media and text to develop a narrative - Generate tutorials or reusable resources for your classroom - Disadvantage - Link Rot - Advantages - Do you consider social media a digital publishing medium for academic works? Why or why not? - Yes - Social media provide academics with one of the most direct routes for sharing their work. - social media can overcome resource gaps and mitigate social inequalities across a variety of domains - No - Too informal - No established system of peer review - social media replicates pre-existing structural inequalities and simply rewards those who have more resources and status - Yes - What digital projects are you interested in exploring? - If students are not responsive to this question or are slow to participate, explore digital projects on the Library of Congress website. Giving students examples of well researched and reviewed projects might help spark an interest in them. Additional Resources: These resources are meant to help introduce students to resources that analyze issues related to digital humanities and digital publishing more in-depth. Both the Fitzpatrick video and the Batterhshill et al. article address the gap between print and digital scholarly approaches. They also are both provocation tools that will, hopefully, help students think more broadly about digital publishing and it will affect the future of academia. Ultimately, I put these works in the "Additional Resources" section because they are full length videos and books, so I wanted to give students the option to look through them on their own time. Overview: When we talk about the value chain of scholarly communication, one important aspect to consider is that of the publisher of academic work. Due to the impact of digital publishing, people who are not traditional publishers are increasingly able to fulfill that function. For instance, scholars are becoming publishers, as they publish their work on their personal websites or blogs. Libraries are becoming publishers when they use the content in their repositories to create online journals. Depending on how one interprets the word "publisher," Google, Amazon, and Wikipedia can even be considered digital publishers. Beyond democratizing the publication process, digital publishing has presented a plethora of opportunities for modern researchers. For example, emergent technologies are providing academics with new ways to present scholarship without the constraints of print formats, such as online monographs, journals, exhibits, webpages, and audio or visual projects. Additionally, digital publishing has made it easier for scholars to communicate with their peers and collaborate on projects, and it has given a platform for marginalized and underrepresented scholars to promote their work. However, digital publishing has also presented new challenges within the academic world. While both journal and monograph publishing have established ecosystems of peer review and accreditation, currently there are no formal channels for publication or consistent peer review standards for digital projects. Furthermore, digital publications tend to be less stable than print materials, causing some digital scholars to worry whether their work will still be available and shareable in perpetuity. Using the resources and activities below, begin your investigation into the world of digital publishing. Readings: SODP Staff. (2019, July 25). Digital trends: The future of scholarly communications. State of Digital Publishing. https://www.stateofdigitalpublishing.com/opinion/the-future-of-scholarly-communication/. Borgman, C. (2009). The digital future is now: A call to action for the humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(4). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000077/000077.html. Fitzpatrick, K. (2013). Open access publishing. In D. Cohen & T. Scheinfeldt (Eds.), Hacking the Academy: New Approaches to Scholarship and Teaching from Digital Humanities. University of Michigan, 35-38. Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv65swj3.11. Fenlon, K., Senseney, M., Bonn, M., & Swatscheno, J. (2019). "Humanities scholars and library-based digital publishing: New forms of publication, new audiences, new publishing roles." Journal of Scholarly Publishing 50(1), 159-182. https://doi.org/10.3138/jsp.50.3.01. Activities: - Google digital publishing projects. What projects, books, and journals appear? What do these resources have in common? What is different about them? - Explore the Digital Humanities Quarterly website. What are its strengths as a digital journal? What are its weaknesses? - Search your university's digital publishing resources. Where would you go to learn more about digital publishing at your university? Who would you direct your questions to? How could these resources be further developed? Discussion Questions: - What is the value of an online humanities resource as opposed to print resources? What are the disadvantages - Do you consider social media a digital publishing medium for academic works? Why or why not? - What digital projects are you interested in exploring? Reflection: What aspect of digital publishing mosts interests you? What initial questions do you have about digital publishing? Additional Resources: Claire Battershill, Helen Southworth, Alice Staveley, Michael Widner, Elizabeth Willson Gordon, & Nicola Wilson. (2017). Scholarly Adventures in Digital Humanities: Making The Modernist Archives Publishing Project. Palgrave Macmillan. http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1520214. Fitzpatrick, K. [Hall Center]. (2017, April 14). Planned obsolescence: Publishing, technology, and the future of the academy [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OH-n9wyBi14&ab_channel=HallCenter. Digital Publishing Tools Overview Readings: I chose these readings because they both revolve around how the digital revolution has transformed the writing of history. Wolff's article focuses more on the digital shift from print materials to online tools, Tracy's article focuses more on how universities can incorporate digital publishing technology into their libraries, and the "Using Social Media..." article conveys the idea that social media can be used as an academic publishing platform. Instructors can use both of these articles to introduce their students to the concept of digital publishing and the tools researchers might use to publish their work. After reading these articles, students should have a greater understanding of why humanities scholarship has largely transitioned from print publishing to digital publishing, and they know how academic libraries promote the use of digital publishing. Ideally, knowing how libraries use digital publishing tools will encourage students to learn more about specific digital publishing programs/tools/etc. within their own universities. Activities: These activities are meant to help students gain hands-on experience with different digital publishing platforms. Additionally, by analyzing examples of different digital publishing projects, it should help broaden students' understanding of what digital publishing in the humanities can be. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: How do digital publishing tools give more agency to scholars over the creation and dissemination of their research? How do digital publishing tools create obstacles for scholars? More Agency Cost-Effective Publishing Provides an Interactive Reading Experience to Users Wider Reach Obstacles Many digital projects rely on the effort and expertise of more than one individual (IT, copyright issues, programmers, etc.) - What is the process of deciding which tool is best for your project? What types of questions should you ask yourself to determine which digital publishing tool is right for you? - Questions to ask yourself - What type of data am I working with? - How do I want visitors to interact with my data? - How will my work be evaluated? - Will I be collaborating on this project with other researchers? Does this publishing tool have a seamless sharing process? - Questions to ask yourself Additional Resources: These resources are meant to help students gain a deeper understanding of different digital publishing tools. For example, the article Specifically, the video tutorials are meant to guide students as they start using the digital publishing platform of their choice. I decided to include the videos in the additional resources section because rather than having students watch all the videos, I thought it would be better to allow to focus on watching tutorials for the tools they are most interested in. Overview: Digital humanities publishing tools are changing what it means to create and share scholarly objects and publications. Digital publishing platforms allow users to share artifacts and research to wider audiences, collaborate in new ways, and rethink how libraries, museums, and exhibits should be structured. One benefit of digital publishing tools is that they are shifting the dissemination of humanities research from a “pull” model to a “push” model. A pull model requires people who are interested in ongoing humanities research to search through publications to obtain the information. In the pull model, the audience must have the initiative to find specific research. On the other hand, a push model allows scholars to transmit the information more directly to potentially interested parties. In the push model, it is the researcher who initiates communication with the audience. That level of agency and the potential for scholars to draw wide attention to their research are attractive to scholars and suggests that digital publishing tools can help promote research across disciplines. However, one potential challenge to using digital publishing tools is, depending on which tool you use, it might require some prior publishing knowledge. For example, to use the e-book file format EPUB, users will need to be quite familiar with the syntax of XML and XHTML. While not all digital publishing tools demand a strong background in coding, some users may find learning how to use different publishing platforms difficult. Because different digital publishing tools have different purposes, experience levels, interactivity, and engagement, it is important to let your digital project dictate which tool you use. Regardless of which tool you use, some important items to consider include: - Data exportability – can visitors easily download, share, and cite your research? - Self-expression – how can you personalize your project to make it stand out from other articles, websites, videos, etc.? - Resources and training – can you easily find resource guides, videos, tutorials, and other useful information to help with sharing your project online? Using the resources and activities below, explore different digital publishing tools and determine which ones might fit best with your interests. Readings: Tracy, D. (2016). Assessing Digital Humanities Tools: Use of Scalar at a Research University. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 16(1), 165-191. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/88908. Wolff, R. (2013). The Historian’s Craft, Popular Memory, and Wikipedia. In J. Dougherty & K. Nawrotzki (Eds.), Writing History in the Digital Age. (pp. 64-74). University of Michigan Press. http://www.jstor.com/stable/j.ctv65sx57.10. Klar S., Krupnikov Y., Ryan J.B., Searles K., Shmargad Y. (2020). "Using social media to promote academic research: Identifying the benefits of twitter for sharing academic work." PLOS ONE, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229446. Activities: Explore these different digital publishing tools. Which one most interests you? What types of projects might be each tool be best suited for? - Omeka - Omeka is an open source platform commonly used by librarians, archivists, and museum professionals to create dynamic online exhibits that showcase collections of digital images, text, and other multi-media formats in one seamless site. There is a basic version of the software that can be hosted through the web and a more advanced version that requires web-hosting from an institution. - Example project using Omeka: Digital Jane Austen - Scalar - Scalar is an online platform designed for humanities scholars to create “books” that re-imagine publishing, visual presentations, and linked information. It allows users to design media-rich, non-linear publications that utilize extensive tagging. - Example project using Scalar: Making the Perfect Record - WordPress - WordPress is a popular, open source blogging platform that has digital humanities plugins such as Comment Press and Future of the Book. - Example project using WordPress: The Uses of Scale in Literary Study Discussion Questions: How do digital publishing tools give more agency to scholars over the creation and dissemination of their research? How do digital publishing tools create obstacles for scholars? What is the process of deciding which tool is best for your project? What types of questions should you ask yourself to determine which digital publishing tool is right for you? Reflection: Which digital publishing tool is your favorite? Would you want to publish any current projects you are working on using any of these tools? Additional Resources: Surfside PPC. (2019, November 11). WordPress Tutorial for Beginners 2020 - How to Create Your First WordPress Website [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwiEcmbPjo0&ab_channel=SurfsidePPC. Kimberly Arleth. (2016, March 6). Getting Started with Omeka - A Tutorial [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FncO08PeK9o&ab_channel=KimberlyArleth. VectorsJournal. (2016, October 16). Scalar 2.0 — Trailer [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6k4IpSOgHY&feature=youtu.be&ab_channel=vectorsjournal. Collaboration Readings: I chose these readings because they all analyze different aspects of collaboration within digital publishing. McGrath's article is more introspective and tracks her progression from a humanities student who did not value collaboration to a journalist who views collaboration as a major asset. This type of article is targeted at humanities students who are either unfamiliar with collaboration or are hesitant to commit themselves to collaborative projects. Once they have been introduced to humanities collaboration, Tzoc's article is intended to provide students with examples of digital projects and spark curiosity. Finally, Blanke, Pierazzo, and Stokes' article is more technical and will teach students how to think about digital publishing and collaboration in new ways (e.g., as a range of ongoing activities). After reading these articles, students should have a better understanding of why collaboration in the humanities field is important. They should also know how digital publishing has enhanced collaboration efforts in the humanities. Activities: In order to be effective collaborators, students will need to learn how to have strong communication and organization skills. These activities are meant to help students become familiar with different project management tools and strengthen their interpersonal skills. After gaining some hands-on experience with these tools, students have a better idea of how to develop a collaboration plan that is sustainable, organized, and well thought-out. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: - Besides sharing skills and experiences, how else might humanities scholars benefit from collaboration? - One major benefit of collaboration is that it reveals your processes and assumptions about research and writing - Collaborative writing groups can function like a regular peer-review process - Collaboration will teach you who you are as a colleague and partner - What challenges to collaboration have you faced in your academic career so far? What are some techniques to teach collaboration skills in an educational environment? - Potential Challenges: - Ineffective Meetings: Meetings without structure can cause people to have conversations that spin without purpose - Little Transparency or Inadequate Information Sharing: When you have team members whose work depends on that of other team members, they need to share their progress, concerns, and barriers - Conflicting Styles of Decision Making: People process information differently. Some people process information quickly and are able to respond with an answer right away. Some people need to process away from the group and think slowly through all the options. Styles of decision making can differ significantly and cause eruptions of frustration - Potential Techniques to Teach Collaboration Skills: - Institute a “We All Answer” Policy: Make your policy that everyone in a group should offer a suggestion while brainstorming. This helps groups avoid having one person dominate conversation - Institute a “No Bad Ideas” Policy: Write everything your group comes up with - regardless of how outlandish - down on paper and give it a chance without judgment. This encourages team members to think creatively without rejection, which gives them confidence. - Potential Challenges: - What are some ways you might approach a person to initiate collaboration with them? How do digital approaches for collaboration differ from in-person approaches? - Build a good online resume and update it frequently - Join social networks such as ResearchGate - Share ideas, files and publications and be active in asking and responding questions - Contact appropriate people and share your topics with them Additional Resources: These resources are meant to showcase collaborative digital humanities projects and resources. The UBC video is intended to allow students to hear digital humanists discuss the collaborative process in their own words. The University of Rochester video is meant to introduce students to an example of a digital humanities collaborative space. After watching these videos, students will hopefully have a deeper understanding of how to initiate, plan, and create interdisciplinary humanities projects. Overview: Collaboration is on the upswing in the humanities. The rise of digital publishing has heralded a new frontier in scholarship and research communications, as digital publishing platforms offer innovative ways for researchers to collaborate, communicate, and share their research discoveries with peers. However, because of the stereotypically isolating nature of research, collaboration can be a tough sell to graduate students in the humanities. They are not taught how to collaborate effectively, and it can be hard to see what stands to be gained when monographs and journal articles are widely viewed as the standards for success. Thus, digital publishing is helping to break down those barriers to collaboration in two major ways. First, digital publishing in the humanities questions the assumption about what humanities publishing should look like. Traditionally, humanities publishing is focused around creating scholarly monographs, articles, or faithful visual representations of media. However, as advancements technology allow for allow dynamic flexibility in data visualization, humanities researchers are now starting to view publishing as a range of modelling activities that aim to develop and communicate interpretations. Instead of generating scholarship with the limitation that it must conform to the expectations of either a book or a journal article, digital publishing enables scholars to create digital projects that communicate their work in whatever way works best for them. Second, digital publishing is creating opportunities for collaboration among multidisciplinary groups including researchers, scholars, students, technologists, and librarians. For example, some academic libraries have created digital publishing centers to help students and faculty become more familiar with the process of publishing an e-book. Projects like these lay the groundwork for continued collaborations and connections among the library, classroom learning, and academic scholarship and require knowledge and experience that extends through disciplinary boundaries and across academic units. Thus, through collaboration, scholars are able to to fill skills gaps and develop expertise and community around a given topic. Using the resources and activities below, explore various forms of collaboration within digital publishing and think about digital projects you would like to develop that might require interdisciplinary collaboration. Readings: McGrath, L. (2013, September 3). Collaboration in the Humanities. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/gradhacker/collaboration-humanities. Tzoc, E. (2016). Libraries and faculty collaboration: Four digital scholarship examples. Journal of Web Librarianship, 10(2), 124–136. 10.1080/19322909.2016.1150229. Blanke, T., Pierazzo, E., & Stokes, P. (2014). Digital publishing seen from the digital humanities. Logos, 25(2), 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1163/1878-4712-11112041. Activities: As previously discussed, digital publishing has created new opportunities for collaboration among multidisciplinary groups. But what if you're not sure how to start planning collaborative projects? Below are three examples of potential resources you might use to initiate digital collaboration. Click on the links to learn more about each resource. Think of different scenarios/projects where it might be beneficial to use each resource. Choose your favorite resource of these three and write how you might use it to help manage an upcoming project of yours. - DevDH.org - Development for the Digital Humanities - Developed by Jennifer Guiliano and Simon Appleford, with contributions from many others, this site provides a series of lectures that cover different stages of a project, including translating research questions into digital projects, teams and partners, publicity, budgets, and more - The Socio-Technical Sustainability Roadmap - The STSR is housed in the Visual Media Workshop at University of Pittsburgh and is a "structured group exercise that guides participants through the process of creating effective sustainability plans" for digital projects. It is designed as a series of modules that help project teams plan and create social and technical infrastructure that will ensure the sustainability and preservation of digital work - PM4DH: Project Management for the Digital Humanities - The PM4DH is a guide to project management developed by the Emory Center for Digital Scholarship. It is organized into five phases: proposal, initiation, planning, execution, and closing. The "Create a Workplan" section under the Execution phase includes a variety of templates that can be used to document project risks, issues, communication plans, meeting summaries, and more Discussion Questions: - Besides sharing skills and experiences, how else might humanities scholars benefit from collaboration? - What challenges to collaboration have you faced in your academic career so far? What are some techniques to teach collaboration skills in an educational environment? - What are some ways you might approach a person to initiate collaboration with them? Reflection: What aspects of digital collaboration do you enjoy the most? What ideas for digital projects do you have after reading these articles? Additional Resources: UBC-V Public Humanities Hub. (2020, November 3). COLLABORATION: Digital humanities project showcase [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9oNTDR6AOs4&ab_channel=UBC-VPublicHumanitiesHub. University of Rochester. (2017, March 7). The humanities center: Fostering interdisciplinary collaboration [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RvLE042R9FU&ab_channel=UniversityofRochester. Libraries + Digital Publishing Services Readings: I chose these readings because they all have different perspectives on how libraries should support digital publishing, and they explore different aspects of digital publishing in libraries. For example, both Muñoz's and Vinopal & McCormick's articles focus on developing sustainable digital publishing programs in libraries. However, Vinopal & McCormick's article argues that libraries should build their digital publishing programs around patrons' projects while Muñoz argues that libraries should focus on helping librarians lead by example and create their own DH initiatives and projects. Additionally, Green's focuses on how libraries can build infrastructure to support innovative scholarly publishing, and Hawkins' article examines how the shift from physical to virtual publishing has impacted libraries from a financial standpoint. After reading these articles, students should have a better understanding of how libraries create and support digital publishing initiatives. These readings should also give students greater insight into how digital publishing works from the librarian's perspective. Ideally, this knowledge will help students in planning their own publications and working with digital librarians. Activities: These activities are meant to help students understand how libraries are translating traditional library services into digital ones. By investigating different library publishing programs, students will be able to see first-hand how libraries, on their own or in collaboration with their university presses, are publishing open access journals, developing subscription-based journal publishing programs, publishing monographs and conference proceedings, and digitizing and publishing parts of their physical collections. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: - Why do you think libraries are increasingly involved in scholarly publishing? - For-profit models of publishing are becoming more costly for users and institutions - The rise of digital technologies has catalyzed new modes of dissemination - Shrinking funding for university presses and scholarly publishers constrains their ability to meet needs for promotion and tenure demands and scholarly publication - Why types of digital publishing issues can librarians help scholars with? - Content Creation: Librarians can assist scholars develop their ideas and gather content for their research and digital publication - Content Management: Librarians have the expertise to help scholars plan the organization and curation of their digital content - Dissemination: With digital publications, there’s a multitude of ways that people can discover, access, and cite research. Libraries are engaged in the technical structures and workflows around research impacts, alternative metrics for tracking publications, and presentations in new venues, such as social media - What publishing resources exist within your library? What publishing resources would you like to see your library implement? - Answers may vary Additional Resources: These resources are meant to give students an in-depth look at how libraries are responding to the rise in digital scholarship. After reviewing these resources, students should understand how libraries are using digital publishing services to keep up with the changing demands of their patrons. Overview: Digital publishing is redefining role of libraries in facilitating new modes of scholarly communications and publication among researchers. Openly accessible forms of scholarly publication can enable scholars to reach new audiences, foster understandings, and find ways for their research to impact society and people in broader ways beyond what scholars normally anticipate. While this trend has made sharing information easier, it has also presented new challenges for academic libraries in terms of how they provide services for digital scholarship and publishing. One benefit of the rise of digital publishing is it has allowed librarians to provide a broad clientele with relatively easy-to-use solutions for many digital research needs. Furthermore, it has enabled librarians to take a more holistic and innovative approach to their work. For example, in today’s scholarly landscape, there is an exponentially increasing number of open access publications and data repositories that provide cost-effective and more democratic ways for scholars to engage in publishing and disseminating scholarship to public audiences. As a result, modern librarians are engaging more fully in scholarly research workflows. By connecting to new points in the research life cycle librarians can bring a host of expertise and resources to help faculty realize their scholarship and publication in new ways. Despite this breadth of services and expertise, librarians find themselves challenged to respond effectively to an ever-growing number of requests for web-based spaces and tools to collaborate on scholarly research. For example, although scholars often underestimate the complexity of their publishing requests by describing their needs using the catch-all term "website," such requests actually represent a diverse set of activities which may be achieved in a variety of ways: with a wiki or basic blog, with more complex tools like a custom-designed database with public or private web access, integration with platforms elsewhere, or some combination of all of these. Support for these projects can be equally varied and may require anything from a single consultation about available enterprise-level tools, to semester-long training and advice for a course's student projects, or an open ended commitment to implement a new tool or manage a scholarly digital collection. Using the resources and activities below, explore how librarians are responding to different aspects of publishing in the digital age. As you read through these case studies, think about why innovative digital initiatives and services successfully develop at some institutions and how librarians support the development of those initatives. Readings: Muñoz, T. (2012). Digital Humanities in the Library Isn’t a Service. Trevor Muñoz: Writing. http://trevormunoz.com/notebook/2012/08/19/doing-dh-in-the-library.html. Vinopal, J., & McCormick, M. (2013). Supporting Digital Scholarship in Research Libraries: Scalability and Sustainability. Journal of Library Administration, 53(1), 27–42. 10.1080/01930826.2013.756689. Green, H. (2017). Publishing without walls: Building a collaboration to support digital publishing at the university of illinois. Fire!!!, 3(2), 21-36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5323/fire.3.2.0021. Hawkins, K. (2012). Promoting diversity and sustainability in the scholarly publishing ecosystem: The university of michigan's mpublishing redefines the role of libraries in publishing. Educational Technology, 52(6), 8-10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44430191. Activities: Explore these digital library publishing programs. How do these programs engage with their patrons? How do they take a holistic approach to librarianship? - Library Publishing Directory - This annual directory, complied and published by the Library Publishing Coalition, documents the publishing activities of academic and research libraries, including information about the number and types of publications they produce, the services they offer authors, how they are staffed and funded, and their future plans. - Library Publishing Toolkit - The Library Publishing Toolkit looks at the broad and varied landscape of library publishing through discussions, case studies, and shared resources. From supporting writers and authors in the public library setting to hosting open access journals and books, this collection examines opportunities for libraries to leverage their position and resources to create and provide access to content. - Professional Development Opportunities - Developed and maintained by the Library Publishing Coalition, this guide provides links to courses, webinars, and videos relevant to library publishing. - SPARC Guide to Campus-Based Publishing Partnerships - This comprehensive guide from the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC) helps libraries, presses, and academic units to define effective partnerships capable of supporting innovative approaches to campus-based publishing. Discussion question: - Why do you think libraries are increasingly involved in scholarly publishing? - Why types of digital publishing issues can librarians help scholars with? - What publishing resources exist within your library? What publishing resources would you like to see your library implement? Reflection: What programs do you think libraries should implement to promote the use of digital publishing tools? What questions do you still have about the role libraries play in publishing digital scholarship? Additional Resources: Rutgers CommInfo. (2014, March 20). Digital Humanities: New Roles for Libraries [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNWODM9SK9M&ab_channel=RutgersCommInfo. Bartlett, L. [TEDXTalk]. (2020, January 8). Are Libraries Still Relevant? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sG7zYoUq_bs&ab_channel=TEDxTalks. Evaluating Digital Scholarship Readings: I chose these readings because they all center around the ideas of what counts as digital scholarship, why tenure is important for scholars, and how to evaluate the academic merits of a piece of digital scholarship. Sample's article argues that digital scholarship is simply a creative or intellectual act that it is public and circulates in a community of peers that evaluates and builds upon it. Stark's article builds on that idea by considering how departments are evaluating digital scholarship and informing young scholars of what the review process. Raben's article delves more deeply into why obtaining tenure matters and why electronic media is not as highly regarded by the gatekeepers of tenure. Finally, Presner's article discusses possible guidelines for the evaluation of digital scholarship in the humanities. After reading these articles, students should have a better understanding of how universities' reluctance to fully embrace digital scholarship as profound scholarship limits scholars in the projects they choose to pursue. Furthermore, students should become more familiar with publishers, scholars, and other institutions that are leading the way in helping the academic establishment recognize the value of online publication. Activities: These activities are meant to help students see what guidelines currently exist for evaluating digital scholarship. Although there are no universal standards for digital evaluation, students are encouraged to investigate the similarities and differences between these organizations' standards and determine what a strong, standardized set of guidelines might look like. Ideally, analyzing these guidelines, students will be prompted to develop their own standards for evaluation. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: - What guidelines do you think review committees should follow when evaluating digital scholarship? - Nature of Digital Projects - How does the digital component contribute something that couldn’t otherwise be communicated? - Collaboration - Did the project consult outside experts to assess the project’s content and technical structure? - How does the project relate with other digital scholarship projects? - Usability - Does the project use accepted standards for web design, metadata, and encoding? - Sustainability - How does the project address issues of digital preservation? - Is there documentation or is the site code made available? - Other Considerations - Was the project grant funded? - Did the project result in any conference presentations or print publications? - Nature of Digital Projects - Research your institutions guidelines promotion and tenure review process. Is the process inclusive of digital scholarship? What guidelines do you agree with, and which guidelines might you want to change? - Write up your own guidelines for evaluating digital scholarship. Discuss how you wrote your guidelines with a partner. - Answers may vary Additional Resources: These resources are intended to provide students with some examples of what a digital portfolio might look like for a scholar and what an online review committee might look like for a university. After engaging with these resources, students should have greater insight into how to share and submit their digital work for review and how a review committee undergoes the process of acquiring, evaluating, editing, producing, publishing, delivering, marketing, and preserving interactive scholarly works. Overview: To receive tenure college and university professors have long been required to write scholarly monographs or articles, engage in serious research, and teach effectively. In recent years, however, the emergence of digital scholarship has revolutionized, and complicated, the publishing and tenure processes in unexpected ways. For example, the question of what “counts” as scholarship has become critical in higher education. As new electronic media have enabled academics to communicate scholarly material in innovative formats, scholars have attempted to determine what when a piece of work—service, teaching, editing, mentoring, coding, etc.—become scholarship. While some academics have a more liberal definition of what counts as scholarship than others, the rise in digital publishing has helped lend credibility to more untraditional forms of research. Despite this transformation led by digital technology, many universities and institutions have not integrated new forms of scholarship into hiring, tenure and promotion guidelines. Furthermore, of the institutions that do have evaluation practices for digital scholarship, they tend to vary widely from department to department and university to university. Since the evaluation standards for digital humanities work is so varied and most reviewers familiar with evaluating traditional, document-based forms of publishing, many faculty in the humanities are disincentivized from publishing digital humanities work. As a result, most digital-born and collaborative work tends to be done by faculty who have already received tenure. Thus, for faculty with little experience with digital humanities work, the task of creating, defending, and evaluating said work can be daunting. Using the resources below, learn about different institutions' standards for evaluating digital scholarship. As you read through these articles, reflect on why it might be important for libraries and universities develop guidelines for evaluating digital-born scholarship. Readings: Sample, M. (2013). When does service become scholarship?. WordPress. https://www.samplereality.com/2013/02/08/when-does-service-become-scholarship/. Starkman, R. (2013). What 'counts'?. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2013/02/20/essay-issues-related-what-digital-scholarship-counts-tenure-and-promotion. Raben, J. (2007). Tenure, promotion and digital publication. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 1(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/001/1/000006/000006.html. Presner, T. (2012). How to evaluate digital scholarship. Journal of Digital Humanities, 1(4). http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-4/how-to-evaluate-digital-scholarship-by-todd-presner/. Activities: While there currently are no universal standards for evaluating digital humanities work, there are a couple of central figures leading conversations about the need for such baseline ideas. Several of these organizations and their guidelines for tenure review committees on evaluating digital humanities scholarship and collaborative projects are below. Look through these organizations' standards. Think about which recommendations you like or dislike and why. - Modern Language Association - Principal professional association in the United States for scholars of language and literature. The MLA has developed guidelines designed to help departments and faculty members implement effective evaluation procedures for hiring, reappointment, tenure, and promotion. They apply to scholars working with digital media as their subject matter and to those who use digital methods or whose work takes digital form - American Historical Association - Oldest professional association of historians in the United States. The AHA has created guidelines for the professional evaluation of digital scholarship by historians to help clarify the policies associated with the evaluation of scholarly work in digital forms - George Mason University - Public research university that has extended some of the tenure review principles to evaluating graduate-level work Discussion Questions: - What guidelines do you think review committees should follow when evaluating digital scholarship? - Research your institutions guidelines promotion and tenure review process. Is the process inclusive of digital scholarship? What guidelines do you agree with, and which guidelines might you want to change? - Write up your own guidelines for evaluating digital scholarship. Discuss how you wrote your guidelines with a partner. Reflect: What do you think about these conversations related what should "count" as scholarly work? What questions do you still have about tenure and digital publishing? Additional Resources: Ball, Cheryl. Tenure portfolio, done digitally with primarily digital scholarship. http://ceball.com/. Harvey, A. (2019). A Digital Publishing Initiative. Stanford University. https://blog.supdigital.org/press-release/. Marginalized Communities + Digital Publishing Readings: These readings all center around the necessity of digital publishing for scholars who explore issues related to marginalized communities. Fenton's article discusses the work of five digital humanities scholars whose research is pioneering new approaches to the digital humanities scholarship. Harris's article argues for accessible and credible platforms for publishing media-rich scholarship centering Blackness. McClaurin's article provides commentary on her experiences as a black woman scholar within the Afro-American Studies and Women's Studies disciplines have compelled her to move towards digital publishing tool. Finally, Wernimont's introduction to a Feminisms and Digital Humanities special issue challenges readers to use digital publishing to redefine the humanities disciplines. After reading these articles, students should gain deeper insights into why diversity in humanities research is important and how digital publishing is making research more accessible. Furthermore, students should begin to see how digital publishing has the potential to facilitate the creation and dissemination of transformative work in the humanities fields. Activities: These activities are meant to expose students to digital projects that are created by marginalized people and focus on telling the histories of underrepresented groups. After gaining hands-on experience with these projects and analyzing how these scholars take advantage of the digital space to preserve and communicate history, students should have a better understanding of how digital publishing helps give marginalized and underrepresented scholars a platform to promote their work. Discussion Question with Answer Prompts: - Why do you think digital publishing might give more options for scholars with marginalized identities to share their work as opposed to publishing in a more traditional medium, like a journal article? - Academic journals rely upon gaining acceptance from others who may have vested interests in the status quo, so it may be useful to seek other outlets. - Beyond giving scholars more opportunities for publishing, how else can the digital humanities discipline amplify marginalized voices? - Making a concerted effort to include underrepresented people in review committees, editor boards, etc. Additional Resources: These resources are intended to give students the opportunity to hear how scholars discuss diversity and inclusion in a conference setting. After listening to scholars discuss how they used digital publishing tools to analyze research related to marginalized communities, students should have a better idea of how to lead and facilitate conversations about race, gender, sexuality, etc. in the humanities fields with their peers. Overview: The digital humanities have supported a remarkable diversity of teaching, scholarship and service. In addition to introducing scholars to innovative ways to conduct research, publish work, and communicate with other scholars, digital humanities asks scholars to think about the construction of race, gender, class, sexuality and nation through representations and absences in the cultural archive, examining that archive both in close detail and at massive scale, and using new forms of scholarly production and collaboration to draw others into the project as well. Some of the most impactful ways the digital humanities is promoting such work is through providing new, virtual space for marginalized communities to interact with one another and publish their work to wider audiences. The opportunity for interaction is especially prevalent among younger scholars and scholars who are active on social media. For instance, a 2016 study conducted by the Nielsen Company found that African American Millennials are driving social change and leading digital advancement, raising awareness about issues ranging from social activism to diversifying television programming and more. In traditional print scholarship, communicating the full context of these online posts would be a challenge for humanities scholars. The nature of social media environments requires more than an analysis of an image: the entire post, conversation thread, and hashtag stream that a user accesses must be considered. However, through digital publishing, these valid forms of expression are able to be captured in full and the potential of scholars who interrogate these types of sources are not limited. Additionally, the accessibility of digital publishing makes it easier for scholars to create articles, special issues, and other projects that critique the humanities disciplines and push the field to be more inclusive. The transformative digital humanities will not be found only among the members of marginalized communities. Nor will it be found only where the funding is and where the easily recognized and intensively supported digital humanities projects are. Rather, the humanities have the potential to be transformed into a more diverse and inclusive discipline through the intersection of these two areas; an intersection that is made possible through digital publishing. Using the resources below, examine how humanities scholars from marginalized communities are using digital publishing tools to share their work. Readings: Fenton, W. (2017). The new wave in digital humanities. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-learning/article/2017/08/02/rising-stars-digital-humanities. Harris, F. (2017). The necessity of digital publishing in exploring the black experience. Fire!!!, 3(3), 66-79. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5323/fire.3.2.0066. McClaurin, I. (2017). Commentary on Digital Publishing in African American Studies: Continuing the Dialogue and Expanding the Collaborations. Fire!!!, 3(2), 80-103. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5323/fire.3.2.0080. Wernimont, J. (2015). Introduction to Feminisms and DH special issue. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 9(2). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/9/2/000217/000217.html. Using the resources below, investigate how digital publishing effects scholars from marginalized communities. Activities: Below are several digital projects created to showcase the history of people from maginalized communities. As you look through them, think about how these scholars analyze the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality. How does the use of technology enhance these projects? - Colored Conventions Project - The Colored Conventions Project is a scholarly and community research project dedicated to bringing the seven decades-long history of nineteenth-century Black organizing to digital life. Mirroring the collective nature of the nineteenth-century Colored Conventions, CCP uses innovative, inclusive models and partnerships to locate, transcribe, and archive the documentary record related to this nearly forgotten history and to curate digital exhibits that highlight its stories, events and themes. - Mapping the Gay Guides - Mapping the Gay Guides aims to understand often ignored queer geographies using the Damron Address Books, an early but longstanding travel guide aimed at gay men since the early 1960s. Similar in function to the green books used by African Americans during the Jim Crow era to help identify businesses that catered to black clients in the South, the Damron Guides aided a generation of queer people to identity sites of community, pleasure, and politics. By associating geographical coordinates with each location mentioned within the Damron Guides, MGG provides an interface for visualizing the growth of queer spaces between 1965 and 1980. Discussion Questions: - Why do you think digital publishing might give more options for scholars with marginalized identities to share their work as opposed to publishing in a more traditional medium, like a journal article? - Beyond giving scholars more opportunities for publishing, how else can the digital humanities discipline amplify marginalized voices? Reflect: Which reading interested you the most? What topics related to digital publishing and diversity, equity, and inclusion do you want to further explore? Additional Resources: UBC-V Public Humanities Hub. (2020, November 4). Using DH tools to examine neglected indigenous texts: Edward ahenakew’s old keyam by deanna reder [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0Tk4_x1YcU&list=PLD4qpgyh1kvL9jqLBJAlIgzfO3ikearSZ&index=4&ab_channel=UBC-VPublicHumanitiesHub. Live from William & Mary. (2017, October 26). Race, memory, and the digital humanities conference w&m 2017. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PlTSk1QPx-U&ab_channel=LivefromWilliam%26Mary. Reflection Now that you have completed the various readings, activities, and discussion questions throughout this resource, reflect on the work you have done. On a word document, write a short reflection (approx. 300 words) summarizing key ideas about digital publishing and positing any remaining questions you might have. Think about what digital projects you would like to work on in the future.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.127923	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75430/overview", "title": "Digital Publishing in the Humanities", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96661/overview	Fern p000077 Overview Golden back fern. Back of pinnae. Image credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Golden lobes of fern around dark stem	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.148002	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96661/overview", "title": "Fern p000077", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90168/overview	cinema scenes version seven Overview cinema scenes version seven cinema scenes version seven cinema scenes version seven	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.164365	02/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90168/overview", "title": "cinema scenes version seven", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89821/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli methylene blue 100x p000003 Overview This micrograph was taken at 100X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained for 1 minute with methylene blue stain prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph White background with thousands of small, blue Escherichia coli cells scattered across.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.176588	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89821/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli methylene blue 100x p000003", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76671/overview	Food Choice Worksheet Overview Worksheet for food choices. It allows students to see what they are eating and how it affects them on a daily basis. Food Choice Worksheet Part I. Using Food Labels Choose three food items to evaluate. You might want to select three similar items, such as regular, low-fat, and fat-free salad dressing, or three very different items. Record the information from their food labels in the table below. Including a table is optional Food Items \| \|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| Serving size \| \| \| \| Total calories \| cal \| cal \| cal \| Total fat—grams \| g \| g \| g \| —% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Saturated fat—grams \| g \| g \| g \| —% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Trans fat—grams \| g \| g \| g \| Sodium—milligrams \| mg \| mg \| mg \| —% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Carbohydrates (total)—grams \| g \| g \| g \| —% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Dietary fiber—grams \| g \| g \| g \| —% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Sugars—grams \| g \| g \| g \| Protein—grams \| g \| g \| g \| Vitamin A—% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Vitamin C—% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Calcium—% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| Iron—% Daily Value \| % \| % \| % \| How do the items you chose compare? You can do a quick nutrient check by totaling the Daily Value percentages for nutrients you should limit (total fat, sodium) and the nutrients you should favor (dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, iron) for each food. Which food has the largest percent Daily Value sum for nutrients to limit? For nutrients to favor? Food Items \| \| \| \| Calories \| cal \| cal \| cal \| % Daily Value total nutrients to limit (total fat, sodium) \| % \| % \| % \| % Daily Value total nutrients to favor (fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, iron) \| % \| % \| % \| Part II. Evaluating Fast Food Complete the chart below for the last fast-food meal you or someone you know ate. Add up your totals for the meal. Compare the values for fat, protein, carbohydrate, and sodium content for each food item and for the meal as a whole with the levels suggested by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Calculate and compare the percentage of total calories derived from fat, saturated fat, protein, and carbohydrate using the formulas given. You can obtain nutritional information by asking for a nutritional information brochure when you visit a restaurant or by visiting the restaurant’s Web site: Arby’s (http://www.arbys.com), Burger King (http:// www.burgerking.com), Jack in the Box (http://www.jackinthebox.com), KFC (http://www.kfc.com), McDonald’s (http://www.mcdonalds.com), Subway (http://www.subway.com), Taco Bell (http://www.tacobell. com), Wendy’s (http://www.wendys.com). Food Items \| Dietary Guidelines \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Totalb \| Serving size (g) \| \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| Calories \| cal \| cal \| cal \| cal \| cal \| cal \| cal \| \| Total fat—grams \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| \| —% caloriesa \| 20–35% \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| Saturated fat—grams \| \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| —% caloriesa \| <10% \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| Protein—grams \| \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| —% caloriesa \| 10–35% \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| Carbohydrate—grams \| \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| g \| —% caloriesa \| 45–65% \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| % \| Sodium \| 800 mg \| mg \| mg \| mg \| mg \| mg \| mg \| mg \| a To calculate the percentage of total calories from each food energy source (fat, carbohydrate, protein), use the following formula: (number of grams of energy source) × (number of calories per gram of energy source) (total calories in serving of food item) (Note: Fat and saturated fat provide 9 calories per gram; protein and carbohydrate provide 4 calories per gram). For example, the percentage of total calories from protein in a 150-calorie dish containing 10 grams of protein is (10 grams of protein) × (4 calories per gram) = 40 = 0.27, or 27% of total calories from protein (150 calories) 150 b For the Total column, add up the total grams of fat, carbohydrate, and protein contained in your sample meal and calculate the percentages based on the total calories in the meal. (Percentages may not total 100% due to rounding.) For sodium values, add up the total number of milligrams.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.214554	01/26/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76671/overview", "title": "Food Choice Worksheet", "author": "Amanda Foss" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82998/overview	Syllabus S2021 - Ana Garcia-Garcia Chemistry 2: Fundamental Chemistry Overview This introductory course is designed to prepare the student for Chemistry 2. Students will develop problem-solving skills related to the nature of matter, chemical reactions, stoichiometry, energy transformations, as well as atomic and molecular structure. This 4-unit course is transferable to CSU and UCSC systems. Syllabus and Sample Assignment Chemistry 2: Fundamental Chemistry Section 0610 Monterey Peninsula College Late Spring 2021 Dr. Ana Garcia-Garcia	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.231979	Liz Yata	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82998/overview", "title": "Chemistry 2: Fundamental Chemistry", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76071/overview	Understanding Emerging Technologies Overview A series of six videos explaining several models for understanding emerging/exponential technologies and the driving forces behind these technologies. Includes a handout for note taking. Welcome to Understanding Emerging Technologies What's The Future? Hard to tell, but understanding that we live in an age of exponential technologies (and challenges) can help us have a clearer vision. This series presents some models for understanding what is happening, and what might happen! Download the handout to help take notes! Slides can be downloaded from Slideshare. The Six Ds of Exponential Technology An explanation of the Six Ds of Exponential Technology, the book BOLD by Peter Diamandis and Steven Kotler (http://amzn.to/2FbuQ2a). Drivers of Exponential Growth Gartner Hype Cycle Technology Adoption Life Cycle How to Cross the Chasm	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.252436	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76071/overview", "title": "Understanding Emerging Technologies", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64978/overview	Actors' Timelines Overview Hello, This is a very simple activity to practice the present perfect using the lifes of two famous actors, Brad Pitt and Tom Cruise. Regards - Which time line corresponds to which actor? ______________________ ______________________ - Make sentences in the Simple Past or in Present Perfect. When using the Present Perfect, try to include the following words: \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.267136	04/06/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64978/overview", "title": "Actors' Timelines", "author": "Sergio Gomez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113396/overview	OER Storytelling Tara ONeill Overview OER Fellows are invited to remix this OER Storytelling Template to share their stories of impact with Open Educational Resources (OER). Tara's OER Story of Impact This video describes my experiences with OER materials, and the personal and professional benefits I have experienced doing so. As a prior elementary school teacher accustomed to sharing resources with my colleagues, whether it be classroom materials, lesson plans, curriculum, resources or thematic units, I was really drawn to the idea that this can also be done in higher education. I'm one of only a few early childhood instructors on my campus, so it's easy to feel isolated in my field. I knew that my community college peers were doing wonderful work, not just in Arizona, but nation wide. Prior to learning about and adopting OER materials, I didn't have access to the texts, lesson plans, or other materials they used. Now I can see what others are doing and learn from them as I adopt, adapt, and create my own OER materials. I feel not only more informed and have access to updated material, but also part of an OER community working together to provide the best possible educational experience possible for preservice early educators. The use of OER materials has helped me not only become a better teacher, but also mor connected to other early childhood educators nationwide.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.284263	02/23/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113396/overview", "title": "OER Storytelling Tara ONeill", "author": "Tara O'Neill" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93661/overview	Nassella pulchra 1 p000071 Overview Nassella seeds germinated in water to observe germination process. Photo credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva Micrograph Light background with long, yellow and tan rod covered with tiny white, hairlike projections.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.300837	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93661/overview", "title": "Nassella pulchra 1 p000071", "author": "Botany" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97539/overview	BIO-061 Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview BIO-061 Syllabus BIO-061 COURSE DESCRIPTION An intensive course designed for all Life Science majors to prepare the student for upper division courses in organismal and population biology. Course materials include plant structure and function, animal systems and behavior, ecological diversity and dynamics, and evolutionary theory, including population genetics. This course, along with Biology 60, is intended to fulfill a year of transferable lower division general biology. Some field trips are required. STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES - Design and implement controlled experiments using the scientific method, analyze the data using statistical analysis, and present the data in a scientific paper. - Identify and describe representative eukaryotic lineages, including the major phyla within Kingdoms Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, as well as relevant life history, anatomy, and physiology of the organisms - Explain evolutionary theory with an emphasis on natural selective forces and use of the Hardy-Weinberg equation. - Describe ecological principles and forces including population dynamics, community interactions, and ecosystem connections, with reference to climate change and conservation biology. - Critical Thinking: Students will be able to demonstrate higher-order thinking skills about issues, problems, and explanations for which multiple solutions are possible. Students will be able to explore problems and, where possible, solve them. Students will be able to develop, test, and evaluate rival hypotheses. Students will be able to construct sound arguments and evaluate the arguments of others.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.320471	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97539/overview", "title": "BIO-061 Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89619/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 4: Solar Rotation and Sunspots Overview Galileo, in 1612, demonstrated that the Sun rotates on its axis with a rotation period of approximately one month. Our star turns in a west-to-east direction, like the orbital motions of the planets. The Sun, however, is a gas and does not have to rotate rigidly, the way a solid body like Earth does. Modern observations show that the Sun’s rotation speed varies according to latitude; that is, it’s different as you go north or south of the Sun’s equator. Between 1826 and 1850, Heinrich Schwabe, a German pharmacist and amateur astronomer kept daily records of the number of sunspots. What he was looking for was a planet inside the orbit of Mercury, which he hoped to find by observing its dark silhouette as it passed between the Sun and Earth. Unfortunately, he failed to find the hoped-for planet, but his diligence paid off with an even more important discovery: the sunspot cycle. He found that the number of sunspots varied systematically, in cycles about a decade long. In this laboratory, you will engage in tracking the Sun like Galileo and Schwabe during a six-day cycle and then do a simple calculation of the rotational period of our sun. --------------------------------------- Distant Nature: Astronomy Exercises 2016 by Stephen Tuttle under license "Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike". ASTR 1020 - Lab 4: Solar Rotation and Sunspots Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.342287	01/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89619/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 4: Solar Rotation and Sunspots", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92594/overview	The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5] Overview The fifth episode of "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast", featuring Paul Stacey, and discussing the notion of The Commons. The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5] Episode 5 - Made iwth Creative Commons Originally published on May 22nd, 2017 In episode 5, I'm joined by Paul Stacey (Associate Director of Global Learning, Creative Commons) to discuss a recent project entitled 'Made with Creative Commons'. Paul and I discuss the 'necessary preconditions; for an organisation to benefit from Creative Commons, using Kickstarter for open projects, and notions of The Commons for contemporary organisations. The resources referred to in this episode are: - Made With Creative Commons page with a free download of CC BY-SA versions of book in .pdf, .epub, .mobi, and editable GDoc. Links to Amazon and Ctrl-Alt-Delete (the publisher) for those who want a print version. - The Kickstarter campaign, and - Project posts on Medium Hosts: Adrian Stagg & Paul Stacey	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.365525	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92594/overview", "title": "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 5]", "author": "Adrian Stagg" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76907/overview	Communication Skills Overview I've just updated this image with something that's a little easier to toss into a presentation. Enjoy. Original document created by Dayanand Hattiambire Levels of Communication Skills Good Communication Good communication skills are essential in your online course. There are many different ways you’ll communicate with your instructor and other students in your class, so we’ve created this module to introduce you to common terms you’ll need to know and familiarize you with some concepts that we hope will lead you to success in your class. Our job in this module is to teach you: - the vocabulary that may be used to describe communication in your online class, - how communication is different for you as a student when you’re learning online, - some of the advantages and disadvantages of academic online communication, and - how to become an effective communicator in your online course. Definitions Let’s begin with a few definitions. First let’s talk about the two types of communication that can be used in an online class: - Asynchronous communication is when you, your classmates, and your instructor participate in online discussions at different times, rather than in real time. So if you send your instructor a question via email, participate in an online discussion forum, or post to a blog for your class, you are communicating asynchronously. - Synchronous communication happens in real time, like having a class discussion in a traditional setting or talking to a teacher after class. But you can communicate synchronously in an online environment too, through the use of tools like online chat; Internet voice of video calling systems like Skype or Google Hang-outs; or through the use of web-based video conferencing software like WebEx, Zoom, or Collaborate. Discussion Boards The discussion board (also known as a discussion forum, or message board) is one of the most popular features in a Course Management System, and it’s one place where your asynchronous classroom discussions can occur. Your instructor may post the first message (or prompt) and ask students to reply to their initial post, or they may choose to allow students to post a topic (or thread) and engage the class in the online conversation that way. Both methods are equally effective, and discussions in your online courses are likely to vary, just like your discussions in a traditional class can differ depending on your instructor and their personal teaching style Blogs Think of a blog as a website journal or diary. Blogs are usually run by an individual or a small group. Entries are made periodically and typically displayed in reverse chronological order (so, the most recent post will appear first). Most blogs are set up to allow readers to post comments below each entry, and it is often just as informative to read the comments and criticisms of fellow readers as it is to read the initial blog post. Some instructors may require you to post or review blogs during your online course, and they can be a useful source of information. Keep in mind, though, that blogs are typically personal communication platforms, so be sure to double-check facts or information you might find on a blog with a verified source before using it in your research. Now that we’ve talked a little bit about different kinds of asynchronous communication, let’s talk about some forms of synchronous communication. Chat Many Course Management Systems have a text-based chat feature that will allow you to exchange messages with others who are online at the same time as you. Sometimes instructors will use the chat feature as a way to hold office hours or a study session. Because chat happens in real time, there is a sense of immediate gratification—you don’t have to wait several hours (or more) for a response like you might have to with email. Video Calls Skype is a free software application that will enable you to make voice and video phone calls over the internet. Once you download, register, and install the software for Skype, you’ll probably want to plug in a headset or a microphone and speakers so that you can hear others and they can hear you more clearly. If you are using video, you’ll need a web cam, but many newer computers and laptops now include this as part of their standard equipment. Video Conferencing Video Conferencing software applications like Zoom, Collaborate, or WebEx are designed to support larger groups than Skype. They can provide a virtual experience that closely replicates an on-campus classroom. Many videoconferencing applications include useful features like: - the ability to share desktops, - the ability to share files - online chat windows - break-out rooms for small group work So your computer can truly become a window into a live classroom where students and instructors can interact and collaborate at the same time. Netiquette Finally, “netiquette”, which is the correct or acceptable way to communicate online—it’s the code of online etiquette you should abide by, especially when in an academic or professional setting. This goes for both synchronous and asynchronous communication. Netiquette includes respectful behavior, appropriate language, and an acknowledgement of other people’s privacy interests. Remember, your classroom discussions should be much more formal than the type of discussions you may have with your friends on Facebook or Twitter. Student Q&A Now that we’ve covered some of the basic terminology, let’s start digging a little deeper into these topics. Here are some typical questions that students have about communicating online Student 1: Ok, so you’ve told us about the differences between synchronous and asynchronous communication. But what does this mean for me? Online class communication often takes place asynchronously rather than in real time, giving you a chance to research, write, and edit your answers, instead of being put “on the spot” during class. Think of this as an opportunity for you to really reflect and compose your thoughts carefully before you make a response. Synchronous sessions are similar to what you experience in your traditional classes. Discussions can often be more lively this way, because interactions are immediate since everyone is in the virtual room at the same time. They can also help an online class bond more quickly, if used early in the semester. Student 2: Will my online communications be permanent? Yes–when you communicate asynchronously online, you create a permanent record of your words. All of your electronic communication will be dated, and because of this it can be easily organized, stored and reviewed (usually for grading purposes) at a later date. Because your words are enduring, it is a good idea to compose your electronic communications carefully before posting. Student 3: I generally feel more comfortable talking online than in person. Is online communication easier than face-to-face communication in a classroom, too? It can be. When you communicate through email, private messages, a discussion board, or a blog, you’re somewhat anonymous. Your instructor and classmates may not know your age, gender, race, ethnicity, or other physical characteristics. Some students find that this environment gives them extra confidence if they are normally shy or tongue-tied in front of instructors or other students. Student 4: This isn’t really a question, but more of a concern. I’m worried that there will be more potential for misunderstanding when I’m communicating online than when I’m communicating face-to-face. This is a valid concern, because the teacher and your classmates cannot see your body language or hear your voice, written words can sometimes be misinterpreted. Review your written communications in an online course carefully before posting and try to remove any language that could be interpreted as offensive or inappropriate. Student 5: Can I make friends in an online course? Absolutely! If you’re normally reserved in front of other people, an online environment can make it feel like you can express your ideas more freely. Discussion boards and blogs often create a real sense of community as you respond to your instructor’s and other students’ posts, and they respond to yours. In an online course everyone has a chance (and is expected) to speak. Student 6: I get that email and discussion boards will be important, but will any of my online course communication be synchronous? I thought that I would be able to do all of my online work on my own schedule… It depends on the course, but it is likely! Many online instructors use online chat, Skype and videoconferencing tools like Zoom, Collaborate/CCCConfer, or WebEx. It will also provide a nice contrast to the asynchronous communication you’ll be doing in your course, because it presents an opportunity to be more interactive. You’ll want to check your syllabus early on to see if your instructor has scheduled any synchronous sessions for your online course, and make note of those dates and times—as we already pointed out, these will take place in real time, and you don’t want to miss class! Student 7: Can you give me some tips for writing effectively in an online educational environment? I don’t want to get started on the wrong foot. If you can write well, you’ll already have an advantage in an online course: effective writing is essential to your success. But we do have some more suggestions that you should find helpful: - Always proof your writing for spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors. - Keep your posts concise. - Avoid slang and offensive language. - Look for opportunities to collaborate with other students in the course. - If you find you’ve written a negative comment, try reframing it in a way that is more conducive for creating discussion. It’s ok to disagree with someone, but being disagreeable or making personal attacks is not. Student 8: Ok, so how do I go about writing a respectful and respectable discussion post? First, make sure that you read your instructor’s directions and follow them carefully. This is the most basic way of showing respect for your instructor and the others in the classroom. Second, take your time before you respond, when your online instructor posts topical questions to a discussion board, and he or she is requesting your informed response. Email Netiquette In this last section we’ll review a term we introduced earlier in the module, “netiquette” and extend this to include email etiquette, a particularly important part of taking almost any class today (whether it’s online or face-to-face). Just as a reminder, “netiquette” is the correct or acceptable code of conduct for communicating online. Here’s your challenge: based on the tips we’ve talked about today, help Brittany compose an email to her history professor asking when the midterm will take place. At each step you’ll be presented with two choices of sentences or phrases—simply select the choice you think is best. - The salutation. - “Dear Professor Kennedy,” - “Hi,” Correct answer: a. When addressing your teacher, include a title such as “Professor” or “Instructor,” unless they ask you to address them otherwise. If you’re unsure of your instructor’s title, you can simply ask your teacher in a preliminary email. - The question/concern. - “do u kno when the midterm will b? thx” - “I hope you’re well. I was wondering: do we have a date set for the midterm?” Correct answer: b. Even though it might be a convenient shortcut for texting or Instant Messaging with your friends, don’t write email or a private message to your instructor or others in “text speak.” Punctuate your message correctly, check your spelling carefully, and begin the first word of each sentence with a capital letter. Showcase your brilliance! - The wrap-up and sign-off. - “Thank you so much for your help! Sincerely, Brittany.” - “THANKS SO MUCH!!!!!!!!!” Correct answer: a. Don’t use all capital letters for certain words or phrases in emails or private messages. Readers often interpret emails written in all caps as if the writer is yelling at them. Great job, and thanks for getting Brittany off on the right track with her instructor! Before you leave we want to leave you with one final, feline acronym that will help you remember 3 important aspects of email etiquette: RAR! R: Respond. Respond to email and private messages in a timely manner; don’t let more than two days elapse before replying to your instructor or another student. A: Attach. If you’ve included an attachment with your email, mention it in the body of the email. Then double-check that you actually included the attachment before you hit “send.” R: Re-read. This goes for emails, as well as any other written text you submit in your course. One of the biggest advantages of taking an online class is that you can really take your time to think about and formulate your responses before you deliver them. Conclusion You’re now ready to take on any online communication challenges you may encounter in your course. Congratulations on finishing the Online Communication Skills module, and don’t forget to RAR!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.395057	02/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76907/overview", "title": "Communication Skills", "author": "Christopher Rowe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76240/overview	This Day in Astronomical History Overview This new astronomical calendar, compiled by textbook lead author, Andrew Fraknoi lists, month by month, 158 astronomical anniversaries and birthdays that are important for the history of our understanding of the universe. While many such calendars exist, this one differs by focusing on real astronomical research (and not so much on anniversaries of human space flight.) And it includes a more diverse group of scientists, including more women and more people of color. The calendar is available without charge at: http://bit.ly/astrodates Overview This new astronomical calendar, compiled by lead author Andrew Fraknoi, lists, month by month, 158 astronomical anniversaries and birthdays that are important for the history of our understanding of the universe. While many such calendars exist, this one differs by focusing on real astronomical research (and not so much on anniversaries of human space flight.) And it includes a more diverse group of scientists, including more women and more people of color. The calendar is available without charge at: http://bit.ly/astrodates	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.409958	Lecture Notes	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76240/overview", "title": "This Day in Astronomical History", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89470/overview	Open For Anti-Racism Template Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. How To Remix This Template OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Once logged in, click the remix button on this resource to make your own version of this template. Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. Delete this section and instructions in other sections before publishing. When you are ready to publish, click next to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click publish. Action Plan Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be anti-racist here. Course Description Add your course description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes. Attach your syllabus here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your syllabus, and save. Anti-Racist Assignment / Module Describe your anti-racist assignment or module. Attach your assignment or module here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your assignment or module, and save. Paste any relevant links that others would find helpful.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.425039	Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89470/overview", "title": "Open For Anti-Racism Template", "author": "Allyn Leon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96057/overview	German Level 4, Activity 04: Ab ins Kino / Off to the Movies (Face-to-Face) Overview Students will plan a trip to a movie in Vienna, using the computer to plan the travel, figure out how to purchase their tickets, discuss favorite movies and actors/actresses, and figure out what snacks to have at the movie. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project German activities in our new Let’s Chat! German pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysgerman Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. Off to the Movies / Ab ins Kino Description Students will plan a trip to a movie in Vienna, using the computer to plan the travel, figure out how to purchase their tickets, discuss favorite movies and actors/actresses, and figure out what snacks to have at the movie. Semantic Topics Movies, Film, Movie Theater Food, Essen im Kino, Freindship, Freundschaft Products Music video about a relationship. Musikvideo über eine Beziehung Practices How to interact in a relationship. Determining what is important in relationships. Wie man in einer Beziehung interagiert. Bestimmen, was in Beziehungen wichtig ist Perspectives Cultural norms in relationships both with an English speaking individual and German speaking individual. Kulturelle Normen in Beziehungen sowohl zu einer englischsprachigen als auch zu einer deutschsprachigen Person NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.2 Students understand and interpret spoken and written language on a variety of topics - Standard 5.1 Students use German both within and beyond the school setting - Standard 3.1 Students reinforce and further their knowledge of other disciplines through German. Idaho State Content Standards - Objective: Comm 1.1 Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - Objective: Conn 1.2 Relation information studied in other subjects to the target language and culture. - Objective Comt 1.2 Discuss personal preferences in activities and events both within and beyond the classroom. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can figure out how to get from one place to another in a foreign city. - I can discuss my preferences about and describe movies. - I can invite someone to a movie with me. Materials Needed Warm-Up 1. Discuss the Can-Do Statements. - Diskutieren Sie die Kann-Aussagen. 2. Divide the students up into groups of twos or threes. - Teilen Sie die Schüler in Zweier- oder Dreiergruppen auf. 3. The students are friends studying abroad in Vienna. - Die Studenten sind Freunde, die in Wien im Ausland studieren. 4. One student asks another if they would like to go to the movies. - Ein Student fragt einen anderen, ob er ins Kino gehen möchte. 5. The Students discuss their favorite German/Austrian Actors/Actresses, Filmmaker, and Films. - Die Studierenden diskutieren ihre liebsten deutschen/österreichischen Schauspieler/innen, Filmemacher und Filme. - use the links below to compare and discuss the 2021 Box office #1 films in Austria against the 2021 Box office #1 films in the United States. - Wenn es die Zeit erlaubt, verwenden Sie die nachstehenden Links, um die 2021 Box Office #1-Filme in Österreich mit den 2021 Box Office #1-Filmen in den Vereinigten Staaten zu vergleichen und zu diskutieren. - List of 2021 Box Office Number one Films in Austria - List of 2021 Box Office Number one Films in the United States Main Activity Using computers or their cell phones have the students... Mithilfe von Computern oder ihren Mobiltelefonen haben die Schüler... 1. Research the movies available to see in Vienna. - recherchieren Sie die Filme, die in Wien zu sehen sind. 2. Decide on which movie to see. - Entscheiden Sie, welchen Film Sie sehen möchten. 3. Create directions to the Theater from the University of Vienna, Universitätsring 1, 1010 Wien, Austria. - Erstellung einer Anfahrtsbeschreibung zum Theater der Universität Wien, Universitätsring 1, 1010 Wien, Österreich. 4. Decide what food/snacks they will be ordering and eating at the movie theater. - Entscheiden, welche Speisen/Snacks sie im Kino bestellen und essen. Wrap-Up Have the students present their movie plans to the rest of the class. - Lassen Sie die Schüler ihre Filmpläne dem Rest der Klasse präsentieren. Have the students invite the others to the movie, give a short description of the movie, and see who would like to join them. - Lassen Sie die Schüler die anderen zum Film einladen, geben Sie eine kurze Beschreibung des Films und sehen Sie, wer mitmachen möchte.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.514077	Shawn Moak	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96057/overview", "title": "German Level 4, Activity 04: Ab ins Kino / Off to the Movies (Face-to-Face)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93528/overview	POLSC 240 Political Theory Syllabus Political Science 240--Political Theory: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Center political philosophers from the underside of modernity i.e. non-Western colonial/decolonial thinkers. Develop final project for students to engage the canon with their critiques of white supremacy as the social, political and economic system. Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be anti-racist here. POLSC 240: Political Theory Syllabus Albert Ponce Ph.D. Political Science 240: Political Theory This course will provide a survey of Western political philosophy from the ancient to the modern period. We will cover prominent theories and concepts in the historical tradition of political thought as well as considering the periodization of political problems. In addition, we will also analyze theories and their potential application to modern political issues. Lecture, therefore, is designed for you to clarify and refine your ideas through critical questions. The goal is for you to come prepared to critically analyze the ideas, themes and concepts derived from the readings and engage in class discussion. Our goal is to examine foundational questions, such as, ‘What is justice?,’ ‘What is freedom?’ and “What is political” and explore their historical and contemporary significance. 4CD Statement in support of Social Justice Reform: Required Texts: PDF’s are uploaded on CANVAS NO COST! Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Dover Thrift Editions)Paperback – June 4, 2004 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Author) ISBN-13: 978-0486434148 The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, (International Publishers, 2014) We will read the daily news, for our collective purposes I have selected NEW YORK TIMES www.nytimes.com as a DVC student you can sign-up for free access. (see email instructions) CANVAS: link via Insite Portal Students are responsible for accessing readings (files tab), discussions and announcements on course webpage. Materials including syllabus, study guides, news stories etc. will be posted at this site. If you have any problems call CANVAS 24/7 Helpline: 1-844-303-5586 \| Grading Scale Total Points: 350points 315-350 A 314-280 B 279-245 C 244-210 D 209-below F Expectations and Appropriate Classroom behavior: I expect you all to take the topics that we discuss and learn about seriously and make an effort to learn them well. To do this, it is essential that you read all assigned readings. Reading the news daily will assist you in linking course concepts to contemporary issues and debates. We will also be discussing differing concepts, ideas and theories, so I hope that everyone will take the time to acknowledge that lecture must be a safe space for all individuals regardless of difference or background, to talk openly and without fear of harassment. This includes undocumented, LGTBQ+, racial groups or religions which represent all our students. Any sexist, racist, or dehumaninzing ideas, acts will not be tolerated. This course will prepare you for the challenges in upper-division political science and social sciences courses. Taking (good) notes is a key to success!! Developing your reflexive note taking skills will provide necessary lifelong tools towards achieving your goals. Lastly, academic integrity is well laid out by Diablo Valley College (see course catalog-and below), so please do your own work. In supporting an enriching learning environment students must conduct themselves appropriately. Violations of DVC Student Code of Conduct will be reported to Dean of Student Life, and may require a meeting with the dean before being allowed to return to class. Student Code of Conduct (pages 35-42 DVC Catalog): Student Learning Outcomes: A. Compare and contrast various political theories and theorists. B. Recognize fundamental political concepts (i.e. freedom, equality, justice, the individual, nature, citizenship, democracy, exploitation, alienation, violence, revolution) as expressed by major political thinkers. C. Discern the assumptions and values that underlie selected political ideologies. D. Relate aspects of political thought of the past to current political ideologies/thought. E. Apply various theoretical approaches to contemporary political problems and assess their strengths and weaknesses. F. Recognize concepts and principles of political thought in the routine operations of political systems. G. Analyze elements of political behavior and the implication of actions taken by leaders and constituents of secular and/or religious movements. Disability Support Services Statement: The staff of the DSS is committed to the establishment of a positive learning environment focusing on academic integrity, sensitivity to our students, and achievement of student success. Students who require alternative formats for course materials or adaptive equipment due to specific disability may request them through the Disability Support Services office. For information related to DVC Disabled Student Services Undocumented Student Resources: As a DVC faculty UndocuAlly feel free to see me about resources or refer to: CCCCD ‘in Defense of Diversity and Inclusion’ Food Pantry: DVC has a food pantry for more information on dates/times for pick-up see link Tutoring is essential for your success! DVC offers free academic support for students. Please visit the DVC Tutoring Services webpage for information about tutoring across the college: DVC also offers free online tutoring through NetTutor, which you can access through the link to in Canvas. Because students who use student support services such as tutoring are more successful in their classes, please make time in your schedule to seek out tutoring support this semester. https://www.dvc.edu/current/tutoring-services/academic-support-center.html Academic Dihonesty and Plagiarism: PLAGIARISM IS THEFT. Do not cheat. Penalties include earning an F (zero points) for the assignment, or an F for the course, or even dismissal from the college. Examples of academic dishonesty include copying from another student, copying from a book or class notes, or smart phone/watch during a closed book exam, submitting materials authored by or revised by another person as the students own work, copying a passage or text directly from a published source without appropriately citing or recognizing that source, doing an assignment or other academic work for another student, securing or supplying in advance a copy of an examination or quiz without the knowledge or consent of the instructor, sharing or receiving the questions from an on-line quiz with another student, taking an on-line quiz with the help of another student, and colluding with another student or students to engage in academic dishonesty. Also, submitting a paper written by you for a course other than this section, purchasing a paper, or having someone else do your work on a paper are all forms of academic dishonesty. Academic Dishonesty: Academic dishonesty is defined as: an act of deception in which a student claims credit for the work or effort of another person or uses unauthorized materials or fabricated information in any academic work. Academic dishonesty is a violation of the DVC Student Code of Conduct and will not be tolerated. Academic dishonesty diminishes the quality of scholarship at Diablo Valley College and hurts the majority of students who conduct themselves honestly. Diablo Valley College defines plagiarism (see pages 32-33 of DVC Catalog) as: representing someone else’s words, ideas, artistry, or data as one’s own, including copying another person’s work (including published and unpublished material, and material from the Internet) without appropriate referencing, presenting someone else’s opinions and theories as one’s own, or working jointly on a project, then submitting it as one’s own Assignments \| Discussion Board: 4 postings (MINIMUM 350 words) 40 points each = 160 points You will be prompted to post on ‘Discussion Board’ 4 times during the semester. Our first post in due by FEB 4th (This is your INTRODUCTION to the class along with a reflection of questions posed MINIMUM 350 words). You are also expected/required to respond to your peer’s postings. Postings will all have due dates of Friday’s 11:59pm unless otherwise noted. NOTE: On right hand bottom include TOTAL WORD COUNT e.g. WORD COUNT: 575 Words Discussion Board Guidelines: You will be required to submit FOUR (4) postings during the semester. The first is your introduction to the class (see ‘Discussion Post 1’). The subsequent Four (4) postings will be reflections prompted by professor questions specific to the readings. You can advance your understanding of the course readings by linking concepts, themes, events, laws etc to our contemporary period. Politics is everywhere and these reflections will have you develop the critical analytic skills needed to make sense of your role in society. Furthermore, you will build the capacity to ask critical questions of law, society and yourself. See below for steps to ensure you will earn maximum points by following these steps. - Respond to posted questions by incorporating key concepts from readings (This is how you will earn maximum points.) - Keep discussion grounded to textual and factual ANALYSIS-NOT OPINION (see ‘Key Concepts’ handout on what constitutes Analysis). - Be respectful of diverse viewpoints-we are all here to learn and grow (see step 2). - Make analytic connections across readings to achieve fullest points. - Interaction with your peers is essential, when responding to AT LEAST ONE student in discussion be sure to follow guidelines detailed above and based on academic sources. - Include TOTAL WORD COUNT listed right bottom of post. Essay response (1) = 90 points You will be given prompt 2 weeks in advance and develop your essay. 2 Questions (45pts each) will be from theorists in first part of our course. Politics, anti-racist, abolition theory & solutions presentation: 100 points You will prepare a presentation of your topic, central thesis/argument and supporting academic evidence-make this fun by selecting a political issue/topic linked social movement or injustice linked to theorists/thinkers from our syllabus in “Modern, decolonial, anti-racist & abolition theory section” you would like to know more about or advocate for. Helpful tips: Get creative-this will be fun, include visual aids, artwork, photos, short video clips will assist your presentation. This will be an OER Open Educational Resources & Open Pedagogy assignment (specific guidelines forthcoming). ___________Schedule-Political Theory (Schedule subject to change)__________ Week 1 Education as Liberation & Ancient Political Thought Jan 24-30th Introduction/Overview Watch: Snoop Dogg Reading: Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (preface, Ch. 1 pgs. 43-50, Ch. 2 pgs 71-75) Watch: Frontline t’s American Carnage Week 2. Jan 31-Feb 6th Reading: Socrates’ Defense Discussion Post 1 (350 words MINIMUM) due Week 3: Feb 7th-Feb 13th Reading: Plato, The Republic Week 4 Feb 14-20th Reading: Plato, The Republic Discussion Post 2 (350 words MINIMUM) due Week 5 Early Modern, Social Contract Theory & Colonization Feb 21-27th Reading: Machiavelli on the Science of Government Reading: Hobbes Theory of the Rational State Week 6 Feb 28-Mar 6th Reading: John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (Begin on page 105 (pdf) Essay 2: Sections: 1-6, 8, 9, 12, 14-16,18-19) Week 7 Mar 7-Mar 13th Reading: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (pgs 9-42) Week 8. Mar 14-20th Essay DUE Week 9: Modern and decolonial, anti-racist & Abolition theory Mar 21-25th Reading: Karl Marx & Freidrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (pgs.14-34) Reading: Karl Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts –(pgs. 28-35 & 36-39) SPRING BREAK March 26-April 3rd Week 10: April 4-10th Reading: Karl Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts –(pgs 28-35 & 36-39) Reading: Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Introduction & Ch 1: Overview) Watch: 13th documentary Wacth: Jodi Dean: Communism or Feudalism Week 11: April 11-17th Reading: Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Introduction & Ch 1: Overview) Discussion Post 3 (350 words MINIMUM) due Week 12: April 18-24th Reading: Frantz Fanon, Preface & Ch 1: ON VIOLENCE pg 7 (preface by Jean Paul Sartre) and through Fanon's chapter on Violence at least though pg 50.) Week 13: April 25-May 1st Reading: continue Frantz Fanon, On Violence Suggested (not required) Nelson Maldonado-Torres, Notes on Decolonizing Philosophy: Against Epistemic Extractivism and Toward the Abolition of the Canon Watch: Battle of Algiers Week 14: May 2-May 8th Reading: Anibal Quijano, Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism and Latin America (p. 533-543) Reading: Maria Lugones, Coloniality of Gender (p. 1-6) Watch: Abolition 101 Discussion Post 4 Anti-racist & decolonial presentation outline due Week 15: May 9-15th Reading: Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, From #Black Lives to Black Liberation (CH 7) Watch: Angela Y. Davis, Prison Industrial Complex Week 16: May 16-20th. Anti-racist & decolonial theory & solutions Presentation	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.593700	Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93528/overview", "title": "Political Science 240--Political Theory: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Albert Ponce" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95089/overview	simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_400x, p000126 Overview p000126 sipmle squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_400x p000126 sipmle squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_400x p000126 sipmle squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_400x one layer surface cells top layer is flat \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.607479	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95089/overview", "title": "simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_400x, p000126", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67310/overview	Dramaturgy Overview Dramaturgy, a chapter from Media Studies 101 Adapted from Media Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook Dramaturgy Adapted fromMedia Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook by Media Texthack Team, BCcampus, Victoria, B.C. Media Studies 101 by Media Texthack Team is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Dramaturgy Adapted from Media Studies 101: A Creative Commons Textbook by Media Texthack Team, BCcampus, Victoria, B.C. Media Studies 101 by Media Texthack Team is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective on identity that uses the metaphor of theater to explore issues of identity formation and reformation. Dramaturgy assumes a place, a moment, and an audience to whom the identityis being presented. This places identity formation both in a social context (such as a classroom, a chatroom, a family, etc) as well as at a particular point in time. This implies that identities can shiftwith varying contexts and moments. The key aspect to dramaturgy, however, is the concept of the audienceand an individual’s relationship with that audience in that specific time and place. As with impressions management, the individual actor must control their presentation of self so as to evoke from this audience a desired reaction to that presentation. So you can probably start to see elements of both impressions management (reacting to audiences) and looking-glass self (imagining the audience) within dramaturgy. However, dramaturgy extends the metaphor of the stage even further, and this is where things get particularly interesting. A key element of dramaturgy is the concept of the front- and backstage. In face-to-face interactions, the front- and backstage are two related but separate areas, where the front is the space in which the performance of self takes place, and the back is where that performance is prepared. For example, to borrow Goffman’s own example (1997), for a waiter, the frontstage is the restaurant floor, where the waiter performs their identity as waiter for the diners. The backstage is the kitchen, where that identity is relaxed, until another order is up. As the waiter passes through the kitchen doors, they become the waiter once more, playing their assigned role. It may be useful to look at one specific communicative arena, online social networking sites, from the perspective of dramaturgy, and ask the question: where is the backstagein an online performance of self? The internet blurs the line between frontstage and backstage, and thus problematizes it. An individual can be simultaneously front- and backstage. Their World of Warcraft avatar, for example, can be performing to an audience, but at the same time you, as the extension of that avatar, can be alone in your room in front of the computer (maybe making snide comments about the people your avatar is talking to in a chat window). The backstage and the frontstage co-exist simultaneously instead of concurrently. Another good example of this is when the virtual boundaries between front and backstage break down – like when someone is chatting in two windows, and mistakenly sends a comment meant for one recipient to another, or when someone tries to send a friend a private message via Facebook Messenger, but ends up posting it on a public wall instead. Whether online or off, the goal of a dramaturgical performance of self is the same – to project to a known audience a desired and desirable perception of self, and to maintain that dramatic portrayal in a consistent manner. Whether you are playing the role solo or in a team, these goals remain the same. Dramaturgy acknowledges that identities are pluralistic– we have many identities that we put on and off as we move through time and space, and enter and exit different social contexts. As such, to achieve these goals, one has to be able to quickly switch and negotiate roles, or performative masks, as they move between different social contexts.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.634252	05/25/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67310/overview", "title": "Dramaturgy", "author": "Katie Winkelstein-Duveneck" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114899/overview	Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, Resources, and Recording Session Abstract This session focuses on developing a sustainable OER project at the departmental level. By scaling up to a departmental initiative, faculty embrace core benefits of OER (collaboratively sharing, adapting, adopting, and creating), while maximizing the impact on student learning and success in their program. Join three faculty from the Phoenix College Dental and Allied Health Department to discuss how they leveraged individual OER projects into a collaborative effort to infuse their curriculum and program with OER and open pedagogy. During the session, participants will identify challenges, discuss potential solutions, and develop strategies for implementing OER engagement across their program or department. Each presenter will share their OER projects while discussing how it fits within the departmental scope by supporting curriculum, addressing the needs of students, and creating opportunities beyond the typical text or assignment. The session will provide an open dialogue so that participants can share ideas and generate a plan to grow OER within their respective departments. Presenter(s) - Ben Aloe, Phoenix College - LaQuera Darrow, Phoenix College - Rosa Querry, Phoenix College - Andrea Catana, Phoenix College Resources Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.653334	04/03/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114899/overview", "title": "Chewing More Than you can Bite Off: How to Leverage OER at the Departmental Level", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115915/overview	HIST 2381: African American History Syllabus 2020 Overview This is a survey of the social, political, economic, cultural, and intellectual history of people of African descent in the formation and development of the United States to the Civil War/Reconstruction era up to the present. African American History includes the study of African origins and legacy, trans-Atlantic slave trade, experiences of African Americans during Colonial, Revolutionary, Early National, Antebellum, Civil War/Reconstruction, segregation, disenfranchisement, civil rights, migrations, industrialization, world wars, the Harlem Renaissance, and the conditions of African Americans in the Great Depression, Cold War and post-Cold War eras. This course will enable students to understand African American history as an integral part of U.S. history. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample syllabus for a course on African American history. About This Resource The sample syllabi and assignments included here were submitted by participants in a one-day virtual workshop entitled, "Teaching the Global African Diaspora" for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. These are draft documents that may subsequently have been revised in light of feedback and discussion during the event. This resource was contributed by Shawna Williams, Department of History, Humanities & Liberal Arts, Houston Community College.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:34:52.671874	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115915/overview", "title": "HIST 2381: African American History Syllabus 2020", "author": "Syllabus" }

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