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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61390/overview
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Chapter 9.2: Types of Law and Jurisdiction
Overview
Types of Law and Jurisdiction
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students will be able to:
- Discuss the different types of law
- Discuss the different types of jurisdiction
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the different types of law
- Discuss the different types of jurisdiction
Types of Law
Types of Law
There are two basic types of law in any legal system- Civil and Criminal. Below is a table differentiating the two:
Types Of Jurisdiction
Types Of Jurisdiction
Every court system has jurisdiction over certain cases, from enforcing traffic laws to hearing capital murder charges. There are three types of jurisdictions:
- Original Jurisdiction– the court that gets to hear the case first. For example, Municipal courts typically have original jurisdiction over traffic offenses the occur within city limits.
- Appellate Jurisdiction– the power for a higher court to review a lower courts decision. For example, the Texas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over the District Courts (See the hierarchy of Texas Court Structure in this Unit).
- Exclusive Jurisdiction– only that court can hear a specific case. For example, only the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Court can hear appeals for death penalty sentences.
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading Review Questions
Use the internet to define “penal”. Explain the difference between CIVIL law and CRIMINAL law.
Use the internet to define “preponderance of evidence”. Explain it in your own words. How is this different from “beyond a reasonable doubt”?
Give an example of a criminal act and a civil issue. DO NOT USE THE EXAMPLE IN THE TEXT.
Use the internet to define “jurisdiction” Use these responses in the blanks below.
(A) ORIGINAL (B) APPELLATE (C) EXCLUSIVE
If a case can only be heard by a specific court it falls under the ___ jurisdiction of that court. If that same court has the power to hear a case first, before it may be passed to another, it falls under their ___ jurisdiction. Finally, courts that hear cases that are passed to them from a lower court have ___ jurisdiction over cases.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.041922
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01/08/2020
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61390/overview",
"title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Chapter 9.2: Types of Law and Jurisdiction",
"author": "Annette Howard"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28797/overview
|
Measuring the Size of the Economy: Gross Domestic Product
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the components of GDP on the demand side and on the supply side
- Evaluate how economists measure gross domestic product (GDP)
- Contrast and calculate GDP, net exports, and net national product
Macroeconomics is an empirical subject, so the first step toward understanding it is to measure the economy.
How large is the U.S. economy? Economists typically measure the size of a nation’s overall economy by its gross domestic product (GDP), which is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given year. Measuring GDP involves counting the production of millions of different goods and services—smart phones, cars, music downloads, computers, steel, bananas, college educations, and all other new goods and services that a country produced in the current year—and summing them into a total dollar value. This task is straightforward: take the quantity of everything produced, multiply it by the price at which each product sold, and add up the total. In 2016, the U.S. GDP totaled $18.6 trillion, the largest GDP in the world.
Each of the market transactions that enter into GDP must involve both a buyer and a seller. We can measure an economy's GDP either by the total dollar value of what consumers purchase in the economy, or by the total dollar value of what is the country produces. There is even a third way, as we will explain later.
GDP Measured by Components of Demand
Who buys all of this production? We can divide this demand into four main parts: consumer spending (consumption), business spending (investment), government spending on goods and services, and spending on net exports. (See the following Clear It Up feature to understand what we mean by investment.) Table shows how these four components added up to the GDP in 2016. Figure (a) shows the levels of consumption, investment, and government purchases over time, expressed as a percentage of GDP, while Figure (b) shows the levels of exports and imports as a percentage of GDP over time. A few patterns about each of these components are worth noticing. Table shows the components of GDP from the demand side.
| Components of GDP on the Demand Side (in trillions of dollars) | Percentage of Total | |
|---|---|---|
| Consumption | $12.8 | 68.8% |
| Investment | $3.0 | 16.1% |
| Government | $3.3 | 17.7% |
| Exports | $2.2 | 11.8% |
| Imports | –$2.7 | –14.5% |
| Total GDP | $18.6 | 100% |
What does the word “investment” mean?
What do economists mean by investment, or business spending? In calculating GDP, investment does not refer to purchasing stocks and bonds or trading financial assets. It refers to purchasing new capital goods, that is, new commercial real estate (such as buildings, factories, and stores) and equipment, residential housing construction, and inventories. Inventories that manufacturers produce this year are included in this year’s GDP—even if they are not yet sold. From the accountant’s perspective, it is as if the firm invested in its own inventories. Business investment in 2016 was $3 trillion, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP, accounting for about two-thirds of the GDP in any year. This tells us that consumers’ spending decisions are a major driver of the economy. However, consumer spending is a gentle elephant: when viewed over time, it does not jump around too much, and has increased modestly from about 60% of GDP in the 1960s and 1970s.
Investment expenditure refers to purchases of physical plant and equipment, primarily by businesses. If Starbucks builds a new store, or Amazon buys robots, they count these expenditures under business investment. Investment demand is far smaller than consumption demand, typically accounting for only about 15–18% of GDP, but it is very important for the economy because this is where jobs are created. However, it fluctuates more noticeably than consumption. Business investment is volatile. New technology or a new product can spur business investment, but then confidence can drop and business investment can pull back sharply.
If you have noticed any of the infrastructure projects (new bridges, highways, airports) launched during the 2009 recession, you have seen how important government spending can be for the economy. Government expenditure in the United States is close to 20% of GDP, and includes spending by all three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The only part of government spending counted in demand is government purchases of goods or services produced in the economy. Examples include the government buying a new fighter jet for the Air Force (federal government spending), building a new highway (state government spending), or a new school (local government spending). A significant portion of government budgets consists of transfer payments, like unemployment benefits, veteran’s benefits, and Social Security payments to retirees. The government excludes these payments from GDP because it does not receive a new good or service in return or exchange. Instead they are transfers of income from taxpayers to others. If you are curious about the awesome undertaking of adding up GDP, read the following Clear It Up feature.
How do statisticians measure GDP?
Government economists at the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), within the U.S. Department of Commerce, piece together estimates of GDP from a variety of sources.
Once every five years, in the second and seventh year of each decade, the Bureau of the Census carries out a detailed census of businesses throughout the United States. In between, the Census Bureau carries out a monthly survey of retail sales. The government adjusts these figures with foreign trade data to account for exports that are produced in the United States and sold abroad and for imports that are produced abroad and sold here. Once every ten years, the Census Bureau conducts a comprehensive survey of housing and residential finance. Together, these sources provide the main basis for figuring out what is produced for consumers.
For investment, the Census Bureau carries out a monthly survey of construction and an annual survey of expenditures on physical capital equipment.
For what the federal government purchases, the statisticians rely on the U.S. Department of the Treasury. An annual Census of Governments gathers information on state and local governments. Because the government spends a considerable amount at all levels hiring people to provide services, it also tracks a large portion of spending through payroll records that state governments and the Social Security Administration collect.
With regard to foreign trade, the Census Bureau compiles a monthly record of all import and export documents. Additional surveys cover transportation and travel, and make adjustments for financial services that are produced in the United States for foreign customers.
Many other sources contribute to GDP estimates. Information on energy comes from the U.S. Department of Transportation and Department of Energy. The Agency for Health Care Research and Quality collects information on healthcare. Surveys of landlords find out about rental income. The Department of Agriculture collects statistics on farming.
All these bits and pieces of information arrive in different forms, at different time intervals. The BEA melds them together to produce GDP estimates on a quarterly basis (every three months). The BEA then "annualizes" these numbers by multiplying by four. As more information comes in, the BEA updates and revises these estimates. BEA releases the GDP “advance” estimate for a certain quarter one month after a quarter. The “preliminary” estimate comes out one month after that. The BEA publishes the “final” estimate one month later, but it is not actually final. In July, the BEA releases roughly updated estimates for the previous calendar year. Then, once every five years, after it has processed all the results of the latest detailed five-year business census, the BEA revises all of the past GDP estimates according to the newest methods and data, going all the way back to 1929.
Visit this website to read FAQs on the BEA site. You can even email your own questions!
When thinking about the demand for domestically produced goods in a global economy, it is important to count spending on exports—domestically produced goods that a country sells abroad. Similarly, we must also subtract spending on imports—goods that a country produces in other countries that residents of this country purchase. The GDP net export component is equal to the dollar value of exports (X) minus the dollar value of imports (M), (X – M). We call the gap between exports and imports the trade balance. If a country’s exports are larger than its imports, then a country has a trade surplus. In the United States, exports typically exceeded imports in the 1960s and 1970s, as Figure(b) shows.
Since the early 1980s, imports have typically exceeded exports, and so the United States has experienced a trade deficit in most years. The trade deficit grew quite large in the late 1990s and in the mid-2000s. Figure (b) also shows that imports and exports have both risen substantially in recent decades, even after the declines during the Great Recession between 2008 and 2009. As we noted before, if exports and imports are equal, foreign trade has no effect on total GDP. However, even if exports and imports are balanced overall, foreign trade might still have powerful effects on particular industries and workers by causing nations to shift workers and physical capital investment toward one industry rather than another.
Based on these four components of demand, we can measure GDP as:
Understanding how to measure GDP is important for analyzing connections in the macro economy and for thinking about macroeconomic policy tools.
GDP Measured by What is Produced
Everything that we purchase somebody must first produce. Table breaks down what a country produces into five categories: durable goods, nondurable goods, services, structures, and the change in inventories. Before going into detail about these categories, notice that total GDP measured according to what is produced is exactly the same as the GDP measured by looking at the five components of demand. Figure provides a visual representation of this information.
| Components of GDP on the Supply Side (in trillions of dollars) | Percentage of Total | |
|---|---|---|
| Goods | ||
| Durable goods | $3.0 | 16.1% |
| Nondurable goods | $2.5 | 13.4% |
| Services | $11.6 | 62.4% |
| Structures | $1.5 | 8.1% |
| Change in inventories | $0.0 | 0.0% |
| Total GDP | $18.6 | 100% |
Since every market transaction must have both a buyer and a seller, GDP must be the same whether measured by what is demanded or by what is produced. Figure shows these components of what is produced, expressed as a percentage of GDP, since 1960.
In thinking about what is produced in the economy, many non-economists immediately focus on solid, long-lasting goods, like cars and computers. By far the largest part of GDP, however, is services. Moreover, services have been a growing share of GDP over time. A detailed breakdown of the leading service industries would include healthcare, education, and legal and financial services. It has been decades since most of the U.S. economy involved making solid objects. Instead, the most common jobs in a modern economy involve a worker looking at pieces of paper or a computer screen; meeting with co-workers, customers, or suppliers; or making phone calls.
Even within the overall category of goods, long-lasting durable goods like cars and refrigerators are about the same share of the economy as short-lived nondurable goods like food and clothing. The category of structures includes everything from homes, to office buildings, shopping malls, and factories. Inventories is a small category that refers to the goods that one business has produced but has not yet sold to consumers, and are still sitting in warehouses and on shelves. The amount of inventories sitting on shelves tends to decline if business is better than expected, or to rise if business is worse than expected.
Another Way to Measure GDP: The National Income Approach
GDP is a measure of what is produced in a nation. The primary way GDP is estimated is with the Expenditure Approach we discussed above, but there is another way. Everything a firm produces, when sold, becomes revenues to the firm. Businesses use revenues to pay their bills: Wages and salaries for labor, interest and dividends for capital, rent for land, profit to the entrepreneur, etc. So adding up all the income produced in a year provides a second way of measuring GDP. This is why the terms GDP and national income are sometimes used interchangeably. The total value of a nation’s output is equal to the total value of a nation’s income.
The Problem of Double Counting
We define GDP as the current value of all final goods and services produced in a nation in a year. What are final goods? They are goods at the furthest stage of production at the end of a year. Statisticians who calculate GDP must avoid the mistake of double counting, in which they count output more than once as it travels through the production stages. For example, imagine what would happen if government statisticians first counted the value of tires that a tire manufacturer produces, and then counted the value of a new truck that an automaker sold that contains those tires. In this example, the statisticians would have counted the value of the tires twice-because the truck's price includes the value of the tires.
To avoid this problem, which would overstate the size of the economy considerably, government statisticians count just the value of final goods and services in the chain of production that are sold for consumption, investment, government, and trade purposes. Statisticians exclude intermediate intermediate goods, which are goods that go into producing other goods, from GDP calculations. From the example above, they will only count the Ford truck's value. The value of what businesses provide to other businesses is captured in the final products at the end of the production chain.
The concept of GDP is fairly straightforward: it is just the dollar value of all final goods and services produced in the economy in a year. In our decentralized, market-oriented economy, actually calculating the more than $18 trillion-dollar U.S. GDP—along with how it is changing every few months—is a full-time job for a brigade of government statisticians.
| What is Counted in GDP | What is not included in GDP |
|---|---|
| Consumption | Intermediate goods |
| Business investment | Transfer payments and non-market activities |
| Government spending on goods and services | Used goods |
| Net exports | Illegal goods |
Notice the items that are not counted into GDP, as Table outlines. The sales of used goods are not included because they were produced in a previous year and are part of that year’s GDP. The entire underground economy of services paid “under the table” and illegal sales should be counted, but is not, because it is impossible to track these sales. In Friedrich Schneider's recent study of shadow economies, he estimated the underground economy in the United States to be 6.6% of GDP, or close to $2 trillion dollars in 2013 alone. Transfer payments, such as payment by the government to individuals, are not included, because they do not represent production. Also, production of some goods—such as home production as when you make your breakfast—is not counted because these goods are not sold in the marketplace.
Visit this website to read about the “New Underground Economy.”
Other Ways to Measure the Economy
Besides GDP, there are several different but closely related ways of measuring the size of the economy. We mentioned above that we can think of GDP as total production and as total purchases. We can also think of it as total income since anything one produces and sells yields income.
One of the closest cousins of GDP is the gross national product (GNP). GDP includes only what country produces within its borders. GNP adds what domestic businesses and labor abroad produces, and subtracts any payments that foreign labor and businesses located in the United States send home to other countries. In other words, GNP is based more on what a country's citizens and firms produce, wherever they are located, and GDP is based on what happens within a certain county's geographic boundaries. For the United States, the gap between GDP and GNP is relatively small; in recent years, only about 0.2%. For small nations, which may have a substantial share of their population working abroad and sending money back home, the difference can be substantial.
We calculate net national product (NNP) by taking GNP and then subtracting the value of how much physical capital is worn out, or reduced in value because of aging, over the course of a year. The process by which capital ages and loses value is called depreciation. We can further subdivide NNP into national income, which includes all income to businesses and individuals, and personal income, which includes only income to people.
For practical purposes, it is not vital to memorize these definitions. However, it is important to be aware that these differences exist and to know what statistic you are examining, so that you do not accidentally compare, say, GDP in one year or for one country with GNP or NNP in another year or another country. To get an idea of how these calculations work, follow the steps in the following Work It Out feature.
Calculating GDP, Net Exports, and NNP
Based on the information in Table:
- What is the value of GDP?
- What is the value of net exports?
- What is the value of NNP?
| Government purchases | $120 billion |
| Depreciation | $40 billion |
| Consumption | $400 billion |
| Business Investment | $60 billion |
| Exports | $100 billion |
| Imports | $120 billion |
| Income receipts from rest of the world | $10 billion |
| Income payments to rest of the world | $8 billion |
Step 1. To calculate GDP use the following formula:
Step 2. To calculate net exports, subtract imports from exports.
Step 3. To calculate NNP, use the following formula:
Key Concepts and Summary
Economists generally express the size of a nation’s economy as its gross domestic product (GDP), which measures the value of the output of all goods and services produced within the country in a year. Economists measure GDP by taking the quantities of all goods and services produced, multiplying them by their prices, and summing the total. Since GDP measures what is bought and sold in the economy, we can measure it either by the sum of what is purchased in the economy or what is produced.
We can divide demand into consumption, investment, government, exports, and imports. We can divide what is produced in the economy into durable goods, nondurable goods, services, structures, and inventories. To avoid double counting, GDP counts only final output of goods and services, not the production of intermediate goods or the value of labor in the chain of production.
Self-Check Questions
Country A has export sales of $20 billion, government purchases of $1,000 billion, business investment is $50 billion, imports are $40 billion, and consumption spending is $2,000 billion. What is the dollar value of GDP?
Hint:
GDP is C + I + G + (X – M). GDP = $2,000 billion + $50 billion + $1,000 billion + ($20 billion – $40 billion) = $3,030
Which of the following are included in GDP, and which are not?
- The cost of hospital stays
- The rise in life expectancy over time
- Child care provided by a licensed day care center
- Child care provided by a grandmother
- A used car sale
- A new car sale
- The greater variety of cheese available in supermarkets
- The iron that goes into the steel that goes into a refrigerator bought by a consumer.
Hint:
- Hospital stays are part of GDP.
- Changes in life expectancy are not market transactions and not part of GDP.
- Child care that is paid for is part of GDP.
- If Grandma gets paid and reports this as income, it is part of GDP, otherwise not.
- A used car is not produced this year, so it is not part of GDP.
- A new car is part of GDP.
- Variety does not count in GDP, where the cheese could all be cheddar.
- The iron is not counted because it is an intermediate good.
Review Questions
What are the main components of measuring GDP with what is demanded?
What are the main components of measuring GDP with what is produced?
Would you usually expect GDP as measured by what is demanded to be greater than GDP measured by what is supplied, or the reverse?
Why must you avoid double counting when measuring GDP?
Critical Thinking Question
U.S. macroeconomic data are among the best in the world. Given what you learned in the Clear It Up "How do statisticians measure GDP?", does this surprise you, or does this simply reflect the complexity of a modern economy?
What does GDP not tell us about the economy?
Problem
Last year, a small nation with abundant forests cut down $200 worth of trees. It then turned $100 worth of trees into $150 worth of lumber. It used $100 worth of that lumber to produce $250 worth of bookshelves. Assuming the country produces no other outputs, and there are no other inputs used in producing trees, lumber, and bookshelves, what is this nation's GDP? In other words, what is the value of the final goods the nation produced including trees, lumber and bookshelves?
References
U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of Economic Analysis. “National data: National Income and Product Accounts Tables.” http://bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=9&step=1.
U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau. “Census of Governments: 2012 Census of Governments.” http://www.census.gov/govs/cog/.
United States Department of Transportation. “About DOT.” Last modified March 2, 2012. http://www.dot.gov/about.
U.S. Department of Energy. “Energy.gov.” http://energy.gov/.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. “Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.” http://www.ahrq.gov/.
United States Department of Agriculture. “USDA.” http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome.
Schneider, Friedrich. Department of Economics. “Size and Development of the Shadow Economy of 31 European and 5 other OECD Countries from 2003 to 2013: A Further Decline.” Johannes Kepler University. Last modified April 5, 2013. http://www.econ.jku.at/members/Schneider/files/publications/2013/ShadEcEurope31_Jan2013.pdf.
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oercommons
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28800/overview
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Comparing GDP among Countries
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how we can use GDP to compare the economic welfare of different nations
- Calculate the conversion of GDP to a common currency by using exchange rates
- Calculate GDP per capita using population data
Comparing GDPs
It is common to use GDP as a measure of economic welfare or standard of living in a nation. When comparing the GDP of different nations for this purpose, two issues immediately arise. First, we measure a country's GDP in its own currency: the United States uses the U.S. dollar; Canada, the Canadian dollar; most countries of Western Europe, the euro; Japan, the yen; Mexico, the peso; and so on. Thus, comparing GDP between two countries requires converting to a common currency. A second issue is that countries have very different numbers of people. For instance, the United States has a much larger economy than Mexico or Canada, but it also has almost three times as many people as Mexico and nine times as many people as Canada. Thus, if we are trying to compare standards of living across countries, we need to divide GDP by population.
Converting Currencies with Exchange Rates
To compare the GDP of countries with different currencies, it is necessary to convert to a “common denominator” using an exchange rate, which is the value of one currency in terms of another currency. We express exchange rates either as the units of country A’s currency that need to be traded for a single unit of country B’s currency (for example, Japanese yen per British pound), or as the inverse (for example, British pounds per Japanese yen). We can use two types of exchange rates for this purpose, market exchange rates and purchasing power parity (PPP) equivalent exchange rates. Market exchange rates vary on a day-to-day basis depending on supply and demand in foreign exchange markets. PPP-equivalent exchange rates provide a longer run measure of the exchange rate. For this reason, economists typically use PPP-equivalent exchange rates for GDP cross country comparisons. We will discuss exchange rates in more detail in Exchange Rates and International Capital Flows. The following Work It Out feature explains how to convert GDP to a common currency.
Converting GDP to a Common Currency
Using the exchange rate to convert GDP from one currency to another is straightforward. Say that the task is to compare Brazil’s GDP in 2013 of 4.8 trillion reals with the U.S. GDP of $16.6 trillion for the same year.
Step 1. Determine the exchange rate for the specified year. In 2013, the exchange rate was 2.230 reals = $1. (These numbers are realistic, but rounded off to simplify the calculations.)
Step 2. Convert Brazil’s GDP into U.S. dollars:
Step 3. Compare this value to the GDP in the United States in the same year. The U.S. GDP was $16.6 trillion in 2013, which is nearly eight times that of GDP in Brazil in 2012.
Step 4. View Table which shows the size of and variety of GDPs of different countries in 2013, all expressed in U.S. dollars. We calculate each using the process that we explained above.
| Country | GDP in Billions of Domestic Currency | Domestic Currency/U.S. Dollars (PPP Equivalent) | GDP (in billions of U.S. dollars) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brazil | 4,844.80 | reals | 2.157 | 2,246.00 |
| Canada | 1,881.20 | dollars | 1.030 | 1,826.80 |
| China | 58,667.30 | yuan | 6.196 | 9,469.10 |
| Egypt | 1,753.30 | pounds | 6.460 | 271.40 |
| Germany | 2,737.60 | euros | 0.753 | 3,636.00 |
| India | 113,550.70 | rupees | 60.502 | 1,876.80 |
| Japan | 478,075.30 | yen | 97.596 | 4,898.50 |
| Mexico | 16,104.40 | pesos | 12.772 | 1,260.90 |
| South Korea | 1,428,294.70 | won | 1,094.925 | 1,304.467 |
| United Kingdom | 1,612.80 | pounds | 0.639 | 2,523.20 |
| United States | 16,768.10 | dollars | 1.000 | 16,768.10 |
GDP Per Capita
The U.S. economy has the largest GDP in the world, by a considerable amount. The United States is also a populous country; in fact, it is the third largest country by population in the world, although well behind China and India. Is the U.S. economy larger than other countries just because the United States has more people than most other countries, or because the U.S. economy is actually larger on a per-person basis? We can answer this question by calculating a country’s GDP per capita; that is, the GDP divided by the population.
The second column of Table lists the GDP of the same selection of countries that appeared in the previous Tracking Real GDP over Time and Table, showing their GDP as converted into U.S. dollars (which is the same as the last column of the previous table). The third column gives the population for each country. The fourth column lists the GDP per capita. We obtain GDP per capita in two steps: First, by multiplying column two (GDP, in billions of dollars) by 1000 so it has the same units as column three (Population, in millions). Then divide the result (GDP in millions of dollars) by column three (Population, in millions).
| Country | GDP (in billions of U.S. dollars) | Population (in millions) | Per Capita GDP (in U.S. dollars) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brazil | 2,246.00 | 199.20 | 11,275.10 |
| Canada | 1,826.80 | 35.10 | 52,045.58 |
| China | 9,469.10 | 1,360.80 | 6,958.48 |
| Egypt | 271.40 | 83.70 | 3,242.90 |
| Germany | 3,636.00 | 80.80 | 44,999.50 |
| India | 1,876.80 | 1,243.30 | 1,509.50 |
| Japan | 4,898.50 | 127.3 | 38,479.97 |
| Mexico | 1,260.90 | 118.40 | 10,649.90 |
| South Korea | 1,304.47 | 50.20 | 25,985.46 |
| United Kingdom | 2,523.20 | 64.10 | 39,363.50 |
| United States | 16,768.10 | 316.30 | 53,013.28 |
Notice that the ranking by GDP is different from the ranking by GDP per capita. India has a somewhat larger GDP than Germany, but on a per capita basis, Germany has more than 10 times India’s standard of living. Will China soon have a better standard of living than the U.S.? Read the following Clear It Up feature to find out.
Is China going to surpass the United States in terms of standard of living?
As Table shows, China has the second largest GDP of the countries: $9.5 trillion compared to the United States’ $16.8 trillion. Perhaps it will surpass the United States, but probably not any time soon. China has a much larger population so that in per capita terms, its GDP is less than one fifth that of the United States ($6,958.48 compared to $53,013). The Chinese people are still quite poor relative to the United States and other developed countries. One caveat: For reasons we will discuss shortly, GDP per capita can give us only a rough idea of the differences in living standards across countries.
The world's high-income nations—including the United States, Canada, the Western European countries, and Japan—typically have GDP per capita in the range of $20,000 to $50,000. Middle-income countries, which include much of Latin America, Eastern Europe, and some countries in East Asia, have GDP per capita in the range of $6,000 to $12,000. The world's low-income countries, many of them located in Africa and Asia, often have GDP per capita of less than $2,000 per year.
Key Concepts and Summary
Since we measure GDP in a country’s currency, in order to compare different countries’ GDPs, we need to convert them to a common currency. One way to do that is with the exchange rate, which is the price of one country’s currency in terms of another. Once we express GDPs in a common currency, we can compare each country’s GDP per capita by dividing GDP by population. Countries with large populations often have large GDPs, but GDP alone can be a misleading indicator of a nation's wealth. A better measure is GDP per capita.
Self-Check Question
Is it possible for GDP to rise while at the same time per capita GDP is falling? Is it possible for GDP to fall while per capita GDP is rising?
Hint:
Yes. The answer to both questions depends on whether GDP is growing faster or slower than population. If population grows faster than GDP, GDP increases, while GDP per capita decreases. If GDP falls, but population falls faster, then GDP decreases, while GDP per capita increases.
The Central African Republic has a GDP of 1,107,689 million CFA francs and a population of 4.862 million. The exchange rate is 284.681CFA francs per dollar. Calculate the GDP per capita of Central African Republic.
Hint:
Start with Central African Republic’s GDP measured in francs. Divide it by the exchange rate to convert to U.S. dollars, and then divide by population to obtain the per capita figure. That is, 1,107,689 million francs / 284.681 francs per dollar / 4.862 million people = $800.28 GDP per capita.
Review Question
What are the two main difficulties that arise in comparing different countries's GDP?
Critical Thinking Question
Cross country comparisons of GDP per capita typically use purchasing power parity equivalent exchange rates, which are a measure of the long run equilibrium value of an exchange rate. In fact, we used PPP equivalent exchange rates in this module. Why could using market exchange rates, which sometimes change dramatically in a short period of time, be misleading?
Why might per capita GDP be only an imperfect measure of a country’s standard of living?
Problems
Ethiopia has a GDP of $8 billion (measured in U.S. dollars) and a population of 55 million. Costa Rica has a GDP of $9 billion (measured in U.S. dollars) and a population of 4 million. Calculate the per capita GDP for each country and identify which one is higher.
In 1980, Denmark had a GDP of $70 billion (measured in U.S. dollars) and a population of 5.1 million. In 2000, Denmark had a GDP of $160 billion (measured in U.S. dollars) and a population of 5.3 million. By what percentage did Denmark’s GDP per capita rise between 1980 and 2000?
The Czech Republic has a GDP of 1,800 billion koruny. The exchange rate is 25 koruny/U.S. dollar. The Czech population is 20 million. What is the GDP per capita of the Czech Republic expressed in U.S. dollars?
|
oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.115893
|
Module
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28800/overview",
"title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Macroeconomic Perspective, Comparing GDP among Countries",
"author": null
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|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61391/overview
|
Chapter 9.3: Criminal Law Penalties
Overview
Criminal Law Penalties
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students will be able to
- Distinguish the difference between misdemeanors and felonies
- Understand the gradation of criminal penalties in Texas
By the end of this section, you’ll be able to
- Distinguish the difference between misdemeanors and felonies
- Understand the gradation of criminal penalties in Texas
Misdemeanors, Felonies, and Penalties
Misdemeanors, Felonies, and Penalties
There are two types of crime: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are considered crimes of a less serious nature, and felonies are defined as serous crimes.[1]
| Offense | Punishment | Court |
| Capital Murder (Capital Felony)– Examples: Murder of a law enforcement official, prison guard, or firefighter on duty; commits murder with other types of felonies; murder for hire; mass murder; murder of someone under the age of 10 | Life or Death Penalty | District Court |
| First degree felony– Examples: Murder; theft of property worth over $200,000 | 5-99 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Second degree felony– Examples: Manslaughter; theft of property worth between $100,000-200,000 | 2-20 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Third degree felony– Examples: Impersonating someone online; theft of property worth $20,000-100,000 | 2-10 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| State jail felony– Examples: Possession of 4 ounces to 1lb of marijuana; theft of property worth $15,000-20,000 | 180 days-2 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Class A Misdemeanor– Examples: Resisting arrests; theft of property worth $500-1,500 | 1 year in prison, maximum fine of $4,000 | County Court |
| Class B Misdemeanor– Examples: Terroristic threat; theft of property worth $20-500 | 180 days in prison, maximum fine of $2,000 | County Court |
| Class C Misdemeanor– Examples: Sexting with someone 17 or younger; theft of property worth less than $20 | Maximum fine $500 | Justice of the Peace or Municipal Courts |
- Texas Penal Code http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/?link=PE
↵
Reading Review Questions
1. Describe the similarities and differences between a misdemeanor and a felony.
2. Which type of Texas court hears felonies of any kind? What two general punishments could one expect when found guilty of a felony?
3. Put these crimes in order (with 1 being the most serious)
_____ terroristic threat
_____ possession of 8 oz of marijuana
_____ property theft valued at $50,000
_____ murder for hire
_____ sexting with a minor
_____ manslaughter
_____ murder
_____ resisting arrest
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.135290
|
01/08/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61391/overview",
"title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Chapter 9.3: Criminal Law Penalties",
"author": "Annette Howard"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26309/overview
|
Criminal Law Penalties
Overview
Criminal Law Penalties
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students will be able to
- Distinguish the difference between misdemeanors and felonies
- Understand the gradation of criminal penalties in Texas
By the end of this section, you’ll be able to
- Distinguish the difference between misdemeanors and felonies
- Understand the gradation of criminal penalties in Texas
Misdemeanors, Felonies, and Penalties
Misdemeanors, Felonies, and Penalties
There are two types of crime: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are considered crimes of a less serious nature, and felonies are defined as serous crimes.[1]
| Offense | Punishment | Court |
| Capital Murder (Capital Felony)– Examples: Murder of a law enforcement official, prison guard, or firefighter on duty; commits murder with other types of felonies; murder for hire; mass murder; murder of someone under the age of 10 | Life or Death Penalty | District Court |
| First degree felony– Examples: Murder; theft of property worth over $200,000 | 5-99 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Second degree felony– Examples: Manslaughter; theft of property worth between $100,000-200,000 | 2-20 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Third degree felony– Examples: Impersonating someone online; theft of property worth $20,000-100,000 | 2-10 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| State jail felony– Examples: Possession of 4 ounces to 1lb of marijuana; theft of property worth $15,000-20,000 | 180 days-2 years in prison, maximum fine of $10,000 | District Court |
| Class A Misdemeanor– Examples: Resisting arrests; theft of property worth $500-1,500 | 1 year in prison, maximum fine of $4,000 | County Court |
| Class B Misdemeanor– Examples: Terroristic threat; theft of property worth $20-500 | 180 days in prison, maximum fine of $2,000 | County Court |
| Class C Misdemeanor– Examples: Theft of property worth less than $20 | Maximum fine $500 | Justice of the Peace or Municipal Courts |
- Texas Penal Code http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/?link=PE
↵
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:56.152848
|
07/26/2018
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26309/overview",
"title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Criminal Law Penalties",
"author": "Kris Seago"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61397/overview
|
Chapter 11.2: Texas Revenue
Overview
Texas Revenue
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, students will be able to:
- Explain the different types of taxes
- Be familiar with the various revenue sources for Texas
- Explain the budgetary process of Texas
- Explain the budget expenditures of Texas
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the different types of taxes
- Be familiar with the various revenue sources for Texas
- Explain the budgetary process of Texas
- Explain the budget expenditures of Texas
Taxation
Taxation
Types of taxes
Any government relies on a variety of taxes in order to make revenue to spend on public services. There are different types of taxes:
- Income tax– taxes collected from an individual’s income (There is no state income tax in Texas);
- General sales tax– based on taxes collected from retail prices of items;
- Excise tax– taxes collected on specific products such as tobacco and gasoline;
- Ad valorem tax– taxes based according to the value of the property.
The federal government’s number one tax source for revenue is income tax- The 16th Amendment of the United States Constitution authorized an income tax. The state of Texas’ main revenue source are from sales tax. Article 8 of the Texas Constitution describes the “Taxation and Revenue” specifics. Local governments heavily rely on property taxes as their main source of tax revenue.[1]
Other Revenue Sources
There are also other tax revenue sources that the state of Texas receives from various sources such as:
- Federal grants in aid– these types of funds come from the federal government to aid state or local governments, and sometimes require matching monies from the receiving government and/or are to be used for a specific use.
- Borrowing– The Texas Constitution does allow for the state or local governments to borrow funds through bonds. There are two types of bonds:
- General-obligation bonds: Bonds repaid from taxes, usually approved by taxpayers through vote;
- Revenue bonds: Typically paid through the revenue made from the projects created by the bond i.e. sports facilities, public college dorms.[2]
- Economic Stabilization Fund– The “Rainy Day Fund” is a type of savings account for the state of Texas. Since 1990, any surplus from previous budget cycles, and collections from oil and gas production are deposited into this account- the Texas Constitution limits the balance of the Rainy Day Fund to no more than 10% of the general revenue deposited during the preceding budget cycle. At the end of fiscal year 2016, Texas’ Rainy Day Fund was approximately $9.7 billion dollars. The Texas Constitution authorizes the Legislature to utilize monies from the Rainy Day Fund for a budget deficit, projected revenue shortfall, or any other purpose they choose.
“Appropriations for the first two circumstances require approval by three-fifths of the Legislature, while a general-purpose appropriation needs a two-thirds majority for passage. The Legislature has made seven appropriations totaling $10.6 billion from the ESF since its inception, most recently in 2013. All were approved by two-thirds votes. The purposes for these appropriations have included water projects, disaster relief, public education, economic development, and health and human services. Only one appropriation—$3.2 billion in 2011, representing 34 percent of the fund balance at that time—was made to cover a budget gap (for fiscal 2011).”[3]
Texas Revenue
Texas Revenue
The tax revenue of Texas for 2016-2017 biennium [4]
The estimated total state revenue for the 2016-2017 biennium is $214 billion dollars. The percentage breakdown for certain line items is: 34% will come from federal funds; 28% will be derived from sales taxes; 8% from licenses, fees, fines and penalties; 2.4% from cigarette, tobacco, and alcohol taxes; and 1.8% from the lottery.
- https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/
↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/
↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/economy/fiscal-notes/2016/september/rainy-day.php
↵ - https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/transparency/revenue/
↵
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Texas Budget and Revenue. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution
Reading Review Questions
In general, what is the primary source of any state’s revenue? Which type does Texas NOT have? Specifically, what is the main source of revenue for Texas?
What is a grant-in-aid? Where does it come from? What are TWO common requirements to receive this funding?
How does a state “borrow” money? Explain the two types.
What is the “nickname” of the Economic Stabilization Fund? What is it and why might it be utilized?
Who must approve of access to the ESF? List 6 general reasons the ESF has been accessed in the past?
For 2016-2017, what percentage of Texas revenue came from Federal Funding? Approximately how much is that in dollars? Which source provided 59.9 billion in revenue for Texas? What percentage that is?
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.173987
|
01/08/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61397/overview",
"title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas Revenue and Budget, Chapter 11.2: Texas Revenue",
"author": "Annette Howard"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53072/overview
|
Appendix A: The Declaration of Independence
Overview
Appendix A from United States Government - Austin Community College: The Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. —That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, —That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. —Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The 56 signatures appear on the original document.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.197895
|
04/04/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/53072/overview",
"title": "United States Government - Austin Community College, Appendices, Appendix A: The Declaration of Independence",
"author": "Deb Hoag"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79235/overview
|
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or
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:56.223730
|
Heather F. Adair
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79235/overview",
"title": "Foundations for College Success, Memory, Learning Activities",
"author": "Forrest Lane"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79255/overview
|
Learning Activities
Activity 9.1
Send an email (https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2015/04/16/advice-students-so-they-dont-sound-silly-emails-essay)
Practice constructing emails that are professional in nature and clearly communicate their intended message. Send an email to one of your professors constructed with the points made above in mind. Let the professor know you are sending the email as part of a class and would appreciate a reply. You might want to send one to each of your professors to ensure a timely response. Remember:
Greeting (Good Morning, Good Evening, Dear Dr….)
The body of your email, complete with what you need to know, or what action you need taken.
Closing (Regards, Thank you, Sincerely)
And, your full name. Often there are people in a class with the same first name.
Using the steps in the advisor section above, schedule your advising appointment for next semester.
Advisors are always available to help you and can reaffirm you are on the right track. However, advising appointments are short in nature and sometimes hard to get, so the more you can figure out on your own, the better off you will be.
Check https://www.shsu.edu/dept/registrar/calendars/advance-registration.html for the date advising opens and the Registration Schedule.
Activity 9.2
Calculating Quality Points and GPA
As we discussed earlier in the chapter, calculating a GPA can seem very intimidating. However, once you know which numbers to plug into the formulas, it is really very simple! In this activity, we will calculate a semester GPA by hand. Grab a piece of scratch paper and a calculator and let’s get started!
Sammy Bearkat took the courses outlined below and posted the following grades for each course:
ENGL 1301 | B |
HIST 1302 | A |
SOCI 2319 | C |
BIOL 1408 | B |
UNIV 1101 | A |
First, let’s start by determining the number of quality points Sammy earned for each course. Let’s do the first one together. Sammy earned a B in ENGL 1301. A “B” is worth 3 points per credit hour (reference the table earlier in the chapter). Three points per credit hour for the B x 3 credit hours (ENGL 1301 is worth 3 hours because the second number is a “3”) = 9 quality points. Calculate the remaining quality points for all courses listed above.
You have determined how many credit hours each course is worth and how many quality points Sammy earned for each course, so let’s do some simple addition. Add up all the credit hours for the courses. Next, add up all the quality points. You should have two numbers: total number of credit hours and total number of quality points earned. Now, let’s calculate Sammy’s semester GPA. Take the number of quality points and divide it by the total number of hours. You should see that Sammy’s semester GPA is a 3.07.
Using the Semester GPA Prognosticator
Now that we have an understanding of how to calculate a semester GPA by hand, let’s learn how to use the semester GPA tool for quick and easy use.
From the SAM Center webpage, select the option for Advisor Tools. Scroll down the page until you see the section titled GPA Calculators. Select the link for Semester GPA Calculator. For each of the scenarios below, use the Semester GPA Calculator to determine the semester GPA.
KINE 2115 | A | BIOL 1408 | B | MATH 1314 | B | ||
UNIV 1101 | B | MATH 1332 | C | GEOG 1401 | C | ||
ENGL 1301 | A | HIST 1301 | A | POLS 2306 | B | ||
HIST 1301 | B | POLS 2305 | F | ENGL 1301 | B | ||
KINE 1331 | B | ARTS 1301 | D | ||||
MUSI 1310 | C |
Using the Overall GPA Calculator
We have learned how to calculate a semester GPA by hand and by using the Semester GPA tool, so let’s take a look at the Overall GPA Calculator. This tool allows you to see how your cumulative or overall GPA is affected by your semester grades. The Overall GPA Calculator also allows you to account for a course you might be repeating. From the SAM Center webpage, select the option for Advisor Tools. Scroll down the page until you see the section titled GPA Calculators. Select the link for GPA Prognosticator. Don’t let the title intimidate you—this Excel sheet will allow you to see how your overall GPA will change with your new grades!
Once you have the GPA Prognosticator open, access your unofficial transcript. After your unofficial transcript loads, scroll to the very bottom of the page. At the bottom, you will see three different lines for GPAs displayed: total institution, total transfer, and overall. If you did not complete coursework (i.e., dual credit courses) prior to arriving at the university, there will be no information displayed, and all three lines will show 0.0 for GPA. After you successfully complete your first semester of classes, you will see information listed in the Total Institution and Total Overall lines. If you did complete coursework prior to arriving at the university, the total GPA hours and quality points you earned from those courses will show in the Total Transfer and Total Overall lines. Credits received by examination (e.g., AP, IB, CLEP) do not earn a grade and thus will not affect your GPA. As you begin taking courses, your total transfer GPA will not change. However, those GPA hours and quality points are important as they still count toward your overall GPA.
To get familiar with the GPA Prognosticator, let’s first see how your overall GPA would change if you made all As for this term. In the overall GPA calculator, you will see a portion in the top left that says, “ENTER Current Hours Attempted.” This is where you will enter your GPA hours from your unofficial transcript, using the information listed in the Overall line item. If you have not completed any coursework, your unofficial transcript will show 0, which is normal, so place that number in the appropriate box. Next, in the box that says, “ENTER Current Grade Points,” enter the quality points listed on your unofficial transcript from the information listed in the Overall line item; this will also show 0 if you have not yet completed any coursework. If you have dual credit courses, you should see a GPA displayed in the “Projected GPA is” box. If you did not have any GPA hours or quality points to enter, your projected GPA will be blank.
In the New Courses section of the spreadsheet, enter in your course information, along with the total number of hours associated with each course. Enter As for each course and watch as your Projected GPA changes! If you have no previous coursework, your GPA should now show as a 4.0. If you did have previous coursework completed, you will now see what your projected Overall GPA would be if you made all As this term.
Now that we are a little more familiar with the spreadsheet, let’s use the following case study to see how Sammy’s overall GPA would be affected:
Case Study 1: Sammy is struggling to meet the 2.5 overall GPA requirement for his accounting major. Sammy is in his last semester of coursework needed to graduate but has to make the right grades to meet the 2.5 GPA requirement. Currently, his GPA is a 2.42. His unofficial transcript shows 105 GPA hours and 255 quality points in the Overall line item. Sammy is currently enrolled in 15 hours for the fall term but has never taken any of these courses before, so none of them are repeats. What grades does Sammy need to meet the 2.5 GPA requirement?
Case Study 2: Sammy finished his last semester of coursework for his accounting major but unfortunately did not make the grades needed to raise his GPA to the 2.5 mark required for graduation. For the next term, Sammy must return to SHSU to repeat a course and raise his GPA to the 2.5 requirement. In his last semester, Sammy took ACCT 4316, ACCT 4317, BUAD 3355, MGMT 4390, and ACCT 3347. In addition to the 2.5 overall GPA requirement, Sammy must make a C or better in any course with the ACCT prefix. Unfortunately, in his last term, Sammy posted a D in ACCT 3347. Sammy is showing 120 GPA hours and 294 quality points in his Overall line item on the unofficial transcript. Sammy is already required to repeat ACCT 3347 for a better grade because a D does not suffice. Using the Repeated Courses section of the Overall GPA calculator, enter in Sammy’s ACCT 3347 course, the old grade of D, and use the “What If” column to project what grade Sammy would need to make in his repeat of ACCT 3347 to meet the 2.5 overall GPA requirement for graduation.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.269627
|
Heather F. Adair
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79255/overview",
"title": "Foundations for College Success, Advising, Learning Activities",
"author": "Forrest Lane"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79219/overview
|
Readings
Overview
The goal of this chapter is to help support your academic success by helping you avoid or effectively manage problems and challenges in college involving your health or wellness. The Health in College section defines components of health and presents evidence-based strategies to help lower your risks for illness or injury. The Wellness in College section defines elements of wellness along a mind-body-spirit continuum and emphasizes the roles each can play in your well-being. Look for information in bold font to assist you in acquiring key knowledge.
Introduction
Why Learn About Health and Wellness in College?
Are you surprised to find information on health and wellness in a first-year college seminar course? If you answered yes, I’m not surprised! But your academic success in college depends on many factors, and two that are important but often overlooked are your health and well-being.
Table 1 lists the top 10 problems or challenges a representative sample of college students in the United States reported experiencing over the previous 12 months that negatively impacted their academic performance (American College Health Association, 2020). The percentage of the sampled students reporting each one is also listed.
Table 1.
Top 10 Problems or Challenges Negatively Impacting College Students’ Academic Performance
Problem or Challenge | Percentage |
Procrastination | 47.2% |
Stress | 30.4% |
Cold/Virus or other respiratory illness or Flu | 24.4% |
Anxiety | 21.1% |
Sleep difficulties | 20.3% |
Depression | 17.9% |
Ongoing or chronic medical conditions | 16.3% |
Finances | 14.2% |
Intimate Relationships | 12.2% |
Family | 10.8% |
Note: Adapted from “National College Health Assessment Undergraduate Student Reference Group Executive Summary Fall 2019,” by the American College Health Association, 2020. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-III_Fall_2019_Undergraduate_Reference_Group_Executive_Summary.pdf
How many do you see that involve health and wellness? My answer is, “All of them!” Stress, anxiety, and depression can manifest as procrastination or sleep difficulties and can affect concentration, critical thinking, and attendance. Chronic stress and sleep deprivation can lower immune function and lead to infections like colds and flu with symptoms that interfere with academic activities. Problems with finances or important relationships can be stressful and damaging to college student success and are hard to manage if students feel anxious, depressed, or fatigued.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
- Demonstrate awareness of recommendations for attitudes, behaviors, and activities to support their own health.
- Demonstrate awareness of models for wellness and resources to support each dimension of wellness in college success.
- Identify strategies to improve their own health and wellness in college.
References
American College Health Association. (2020). American college health association-national college health assessment III: Undergraduate student reference group executive summary fall 2019. Silver Spring, MD: Author.
Health in College
What Do We Mean by “Health”?
Although health and wellness are overlapping and interconnected concepts, health is defined as the condition of being sound in body, mind, or spirit, especially freedom from physical disease or pain (Merriam-Webster, n.d.-a). In other words, health can be identified as the normal or optimal functioning of all components of a human being—body, mind, and spirit—and the absence of disease, illness, dysfunction, or pain. Health has three components: physical, mental, and spiritual.
- Physical refers to how well your body functions so you can comfortably perform desired daily activities.
- Mental refers to how well your brain functions to feel, think, and take in information.
- Spiritual refers to how well your mind functions to maintain self-awareness and connectedness with things outside yourself as well as a sense of purpose and meaning in your life.
The health of individuals and populations is determined by many factors: (a) behaviors, or what they do; (b) environment, or where and with what or whom they do it; and (c) resources, or whatever affects and directs their environment and behavior. Some resources, like the behavior of working out in the environment of a gym, are within an individual’s control, and some resources, like muscle strength determined by genetics and physiologic development, are not. Successful students maximize the positive impact of behaviors and environmental elements under their control by knowing their options, prioritizing their goals, and applying their resources to make good choices. They are also aware and accepting of things beyond their control and adapt in ways to maximize the positive and minimize any negative impact.
How Can Students Stay Healthy in College?
Table 2 lists the top conditions reported by a representative sample of U.S. college students as diagnosed by a health care professional within the last 12 months.
Table 2. Top 10 Health Conditions Diagnosed in College Students
Illness | Frequency |
Respiratory illnesses | 59.7% |
Urinary tract infection | 10.8% |
Stomach or intestinal virus or bug, food poisoning, or gastritis | 9.7% |
Orthopedic injury | 9.7% |
Concussion | 3.3% |
Mononucleosis (mono) | 2.2% |
Chlamydia or Gonorrhea | 1.8% |
Note: Adapted from “National College Health Assessment Undergraduate Student Reference Group Executive Summary Fall 2019,” by the American College Health Association, 2020. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-III_Fall_2019_Undergraduate_Reference_Group_Executive_Summary.pdf
Students can stay healthy in college and prevent or avoid these health issues by directing their attitudes, behaviors, and activities toward optimizing goals in five areas: nutrition, activity and exercise, rest and sleep, safety, and health maintenance.
Nutrition
Humans need protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water for adequate functioning of body and mind. Most adults need an average of 1800-2400 kilocalories (kcals) per day to fuel the chemical, electrical, and mechanical processes required to keep us alive, awake, thinking, and moving.
These 10 tips can help you maintain adequate nutrition:
- Vary your meals. Eat a variety of foods to obtain all necessary nutrients for health. Recreational Sports and the Nutrition Graduate Program at Sam Houston State University provide a resource called Nutrition Education, and you can sign up to get help from graduate dietetic interns to learn how to eat better while in college.
- Stock healthy foods. Keep healthy foods and snacks in your room, kitchen, or backpack. Watch for added calories and fats by reading labels. If you are struggling with food insecurity, check out the SHSU Food Pantry, organized by the Food Pantry@SHSU student organization.
- Avoid stress eating. The key is to recognize you feel stressed, not hungry. Take a moment when you are stressed out and consider how you feel physically. Do you have a headache, is your jaw or neck tight, do you feel jitters or “butterflies” in your chest or stomach, do you feel lightheaded or tingly? Address the stress without food.
- Drink enough water. Stay hydrated to improve your concentration and avoid headaches. Many chemical reactions in your body depend on a water molecule, like burning fat or building muscle. The Institute of Medicine (2005) recommends 72 ounces of water per day for women and 96 ounces per day for men.
- Limit sugary beverages. Unlike sugars in fruits that are accompanied by vitamins, minerals, and fiber, sucrose (table sugar) adds nothing to your body except calories. For instance, drinking just one 12 ounce sugary soda per day adds an average of one extra pound every 23 days!
- Eat your produce. Consume fruits and vegetables for filling fluid and fiber as well as vitamins and minerals. Fresh is best, but any fruit or vegetable when prepared without added sugar or fat is a healthier choice. You have adult taste buds now—try those Brussels sprouts, you never know!
- Limit junk food. Stay away from the oils, sugars, calories, and preservatives they contain. Chips, cookies, candies, and donuts are mostly “empty calories” as they do not provide necessary nutrients, which is why we call them junk foods! Spend your calories wisely and make better nutritional choices for your body and brain.
- Watch your portions. The typical American diet contains too much of the wrong foods – red meat and breads, potatoes, and table sugar that make us 12th in the world for obesity (Central Intelligence Agency, 2016). For help with figuring portion sizes and keeping track of calories, try the Start Simple with MyPlate app.
- Indulge only occasionally. Treat yourself once in a while, maybe as a reward for a week of healthy eating. But make it an intentional choice. Be mindful of what and how much you are eating; a package of chocolate chip cookies will undo the healthful eating of a whole week, so plan your splurge thoughtfully.
- Watch for disordered eating. Binge eating disorder is the most common eating disorder in the United States, and anorexia or bulimia with starvation and/or purging by self-induced vomiting or use of medications are potentially life threatening. For help, visit the Student Health Center or the Student Counseling Center.
To learn about how nutrition can impact your academic performance, watch the TEDEd Share video, “How the food you eat affects your brain” by Mia Nacamulli.
"How the food you eat affects your brain" by Mia Nacamulli, TedED,
located at https://youtu.be/xyQY8a-ng6g
Attributions
How the food you eat affects your brain" by Mia Nacamulli, TedED, located at https://youtu.be/xyQY8a-ng6g
References
American College Health Association. (2020). American college health association-national college health assessment III: Undergraduate student reference group executive summary fall 2019. Silver Spring, MD: Author.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2016). The world fact book. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2228rank.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2020). Dietary guidelines for Americans 2020-2025. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/sites/default/files/2021-03/Dietary_Guidelines_for_Americans-2020-2025.pdf
Activity and Exercise
Adults need at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity each week (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2018). Benefits of aerobic exercise include improved heart health and mental health, with improvements noted in symptoms of anxiety and depression. Exercise can also increase physical stamina and executive function (cognitive processes important for reasoning, planning, and problem solving).
Here are 10 tips for maintaining adequate activity and exercise:
- Walk to class. Burn calories, get fit, and reduce stress while doing the perfect exercise for our bodies.
- Bike to class. Burn calories, get there faster, and save money on gas and parking.
- Hit the gym. Choose free weights, machine weights, or cardiovascular equipment at SHSU’s Recreational Sports Center.
- Take a class. Recreation Sports at SHSU offers group fitness classes, virtual classes on-demand, personal training, fitness workshops, certifications, free weights, weight machines, and cardiovascular exercise equipment. There are even virtual fitness classes, free to SHSU students registered with Recreation Movement.
- Play a sport. Intramural Sports offers flag football, basketball, volleyball, soccer, softball, racquetball, golf, and tennis. Club Sports offers climbing, inline hockey, lacrosse, marksmanship, martial arts-hapkido, paintball, powerlifting, quidditch, rugby, soccer, tennis, trap and skeet, ultimate frisbee, volleyball, and wrestling.
- Stretch out daily. The American College of Sports Medicine (2018) recommends healthy adults do flexibility exercises (stretches, yoga, or tai chi) for all major muscle-tendon groups—neck, shoulders, chest, trunk, lower back, hips, legs, and ankles—at least two times a week, holding each stretch for a total of 60 seconds.
- Vary your routine. Mix it up and work different muscles to avoid boredom. Aquatics and Safety offers an outdoor seasonally heated swimming pool, lap lanes, water volleyball, water basketball, swim instruction, and American Red Cross safety training courses.
- Share the activity. Bring a friend for mutual accountability and more fun. Outdoor Recreation offers adventure trips, clinics and workshops on outdoor activities and skills, a climbing center, and equipment rentals for camping, climbing, or water recreation.
- Find open spaces. Use the spaces on and around the SHSU campus to walk, run, or play. Keep an eye out for signs on campus marking an updated walking route, and learn more about local options at Texas Parks and Wildlife’s Interactive Map of Huntsville State Park Trails.
- Enjoy your activity. Find ways to have fun while staying active. This will make sticking with the activity easier, and increase your odds of incorporating physical exercise and mobility into your regular health routine.
References
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2018). Physical activity guidelines for Americans (2nd ed.). https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/physical_activity_guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf
American College of Sports Medicine. (2018). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (10th ed). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer.
Rest and Sleep
Most adults need 7 to 9 hours of sleep daily. Sleep is a biological requirement for humans, and it allows rebuilding and repair of body and mind from the physical, mental, and emotional stresses of the day. Without it, academic and social functioning, and physical and mental health, are compromised.
Here are 10 tips for maintaining adequate rest and sleep:
- Keep a schedule. Go to sleep and wake up at the same times each day to train your body and mind.
- Sleep 7+ hours. Get 7–9 hours of sleep each night to optimize your academic performance.
- Nap for 20. Nap for no more than 20 minutes to avoid compromising your sleep that night.
- Avoid bed studying. Find another place to study to help avoid bedtime anxiety and insomnia.
- Create bedtime routines. Shower, journal, pray, take a bath—just do it every night.
- Avoid bedtime consumption. Abstain from eating or drinking (especially caffeine) for at least 3 hours before bed.
- Set the mood. Make your room dark and quiet, or use a sleep mask and ear plugs, for more restful sleep.
- Negotiate sleep time. Set healthy boundaries with friends, family, roommates, and significant others.
- Avoid all-nighters. Increase concentration and critical thinking tomorrow by sleeping tonight.
- Appreciate your rest. Protect your physical and mental health with adequate sleep.
Sleep = Brainpower
For more on the importance of sleep in learning, watch the TEDEd Share video by Claudia Aguirre
"What would happen if you didn’t sleep?" by Claudia Aguirre, TedED,
located at https://youtu.be/dqONk48l5vY
Attributions
"What would happen if you didn’t sleep?" by Claudia Aguirre, TedED, located at https://youtu.be/dqONk48l5vY
Safety in College
Events like weather emergencies present risks to safety and are beyond our control, although SHSU KatSafe helps with preparedness. But other risks for injury or trauma increase with our lack of awareness of our surroundings. This can occur from distractions from new environments or experiences. It can also occur from altered perceptions due to lack of sleep or from alcohol or other substances, which affect judgment and increase risk for injury from violence or self-harm. It can even occur from poorly controlled chronic health conditions like asthma or diabetes. Students can expect to improve their health and sense of well-being as well as their knowledge, physical fitness, self-awareness, social interactions, and prospects for financial security and a satisfying occupation while at college, but they must also be prepared to protect themselves as much as possible from risks to their health and safety.
Violence
A risk category not often discussed is violence. Under the federal law known as the Jeanne Clery Act, universities that receive federal student aid must report certain categories of offenses, crimes, and arrests involving their campuses. In the Daily Crime Log, as reported by SHSU for the Huntsville campus to date in calendar year 2020, there have been reports of the following occurring in campus housing and other areas on campus: robbery, burglaries, thefts, simple assaults, vandalism, stalking, dating violence, forcible sex offenses, and arrests for drug abuse and liquor law violations.
In one study of undergraduate students from colleges in the Northeast, non-consensual sexual contact by physical force or inability to consent was reported by 26.4% of women, 23.1% of transgender, genderqueer, and nonbinary individuals, and 6.9% of men (Cantor et al., 2019). This study also showed students are at highest risk for nonconsensual sexual contact in the first few months of their first and second semesters.
References
Cantor, D., Fisher, B., Chibnall, S., Townsend, R., Lee, H., Bruce, C., & Thomas, G. (2019, September 3). Report on the AAU campus climate survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. Association of American Universities. https://www.aau.edu/key-issues/campus-climate-and-safety/aau-campus-climate-survey-2019.
Alcohol Use
Another important risk category for college students is alcohol use. Harmful and underage drinking increases students’ risks for academic problems like missing class and getting behind in homework. Other increased risks are for injuries, assault, involvement with the police, unsafe sexual behavior, sexual assault, and physical and mental health problems, including alcohol use disorder, suicide attempts, and death.
The following is from an agency of the National Institutes of Health: “Thousands of college students are transported to the emergency room each year for alcohol overdose, which occurs when there is so much alcohol in the bloodstream that areas of the brain controlling basic life-support functions—such as breathing, heart rate, and temperature control—begin to shut down.
Signs of this dangerous condition can include the following:
- Mental confusion, stupor
- Difficulty remaining conscious or inability to wake up
- Vomiting
- Seizures
- Slow breathing (fewer than eight breaths per minute)
- Irregular breathing (10 seconds or more between breaths)
- Slow heart rate
- Clammy skin
- Dulled responses, such as no gag reflex (which prevents choking)
- Extremely low body temperature, bluish skin color, or paleness
Alcohol overdose can lead to permanent brain damage or death, so a person showing any of these signs requires immediate medical attention. Do not wait for the person to have all the symptoms, and be aware a person who has passed out can die. Call 911 if you suspect alcohol overdose.” (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2019, College Drinking, paragraph 25, Alcohol Overdose and College Students.)
Here are ten tips for maintaining adequate safety from injury and trauma are:
- Know your contacts. Give someone - a trusted friend or roommate - your emergency contact names and numbers, and let someone know your plans when going out. Keep the following numbers in your phone:
- SHSU University Police (936-294-1000) or 911 for immediate assistance or to report crimes1
- SHSU University Police (936-294-1800) for nonemergency, security escort, or vehicle assist
- Silent Witness to anonymously report crimes or suspicious activity
- SHSU Title IX Office. Students can also call 936-294-3080 to report alleged gender-based discrimination, sexual misconduct, or retaliation by or against an SHSU student, faculty member, or staff employee.
- Huntsville Memorial Hospital Sexual Assault Resources (1-888-801-5565)
Anyone, of any sex, race, and ability, gender, gender identity, and gender expression can experience sexual assault. If you’ve been sexually assaulted - even if you are not sure - you can speak to the SANE (Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner) on-call. A dedicated SANE nurse will return your call within 30 minutes with free, confidential help day or night.
- Be a buddy. Do what you can to protect someone whose senses or judgment are compromised – protest, distract, or get help when you see anyone being assaulted or forced to do anything against their will or if unable to consent. Bearkats should not be bystanders! (Learn more about the bystander effect at Psychology Today.)
- Avoid “bars & cars.” Avoid illicit drug use or drinking to the point of mental or physical impairment. At that point, you have already destroyed brain cells. How many can you spare? There is no “safe” level of alcohol or drug use for driving, and you could be betting your life on whether a designated driver stays sober.
- Be KatSafe. Pay attention to the KatSafe Information for emergency information regarding active shooter or bomb threats, evacuations, medical emergencies, or inclement weather that put SHSU campuses and students at risk.
- Advocate for yourself. Speak up for what you need so you can get it, and speak up for what you want to avoid. Peer pressure does not disappear at high school graduation. It is usually easier to recover from embarrassment or other social consequences than from injury due to trauma or violence. Be proactive with your safety.
- Quit smoking/vaping. Avoid injury to tissues in your mouth, throat, and lungs from inhaled chemicals that increase your risks for bronchitis and pneumonia short term, and facial wrinkles and cancer long term. Watch for new data on risks from chemicals inhaled in concentrated form with vaping - preliminary data are negative. To get help on campus to quit, visit the Student Health Center or the Student Counseling Center.
- Wear protective gear. Avoid ankle sprains, shin splints, foot/knee pain, slips, trips, and falls with supportive shoes for walking on campus or exercising. Avoid injury when biking or playing sports with appropriate helmet, gloves, pads, etc.
- Unload your backpack. Avoid back, shoulder, and neck pain or injuries by lightening the load and going through your pack daily, balancing the load by wearing your backpack properly with straps over both shoulders, and concentrating on good posture while carrying your backpack.
- Identify health providers. To insure continued medical care for chronic medical conditions, transfer health records from your primary care provider to a local physician, the SHSU Student Health Center, or the SHSU Physicians Clinic in Conroe.
- Play your part. There is hope and treatment for anyone in any situation who is thinking about harming or killing themselves. We need everyone alive and well—only you can play your part, and everyone’s part is important.
References
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2019, November 15). College drinking. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/college-drinking
[1] A victim of sexual assault can seek help, medical or otherwise, without contact with law enforcement by confidential report of the incident to a designated CSA (Campus Security Authority): residential advisors, provosts, deans, directors, advisors, coaches, and others who have received required training.
Crisis
The following resources are available if you or a friend are in crisis:
Student Counseling Center Walk-In Clinic (for crisis intervention)
1608 Avenue J., Box 209, Huntsville, TX 77341-2059
Phone: 936.294.1720 | Fax: 936.294.2639
24-Hour Referral Sources
From their website: “Crisis intervention services are designed to assist students who are confronting life-threatening circumstances, current or recent traumatic experiences, serious mental illness, and concerns about the safety of self or others. Crisis situations include but are not limited to the following:
- Students who are suicidal and/or are making overt references to suicide
- Students who are unable to provide basic levels of care for themselves
- Students who are so profoundly depressed that assessment for hospitalization should be considered
- Students who are unable to resolve a crisis and experiencing severe anxiety.”
The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention provides resources for those who may be in crisis, and recommends: “If a person says they are considering suicide:
- Take the person seriously
- Stay with them
- Help them remove lethal means
- Escort them to mental health services or an emergency room.”
- On campus: the Student Health Center, Counseling Center, or University Police Department
- Off campus in Huntsville: Huntsville Memorial Hospital or Huntsville Police Department
- Tri-County MHMR
7045 Hwy 75 South, Huntsville, TX 77340
Phone: (936) 295-0072 - Suicide Hotline: 1-800-273-8255
- Crisis Hotline: 1-800-784-2433
To learn more about suicide prevention, watch the AFSP National’s video College Students and Mental Health.
"It's Real: College Students and Mental Health?" by AFSPNational,
located at https://youtu.be/YN69VIDKBFs
Attributions
"It's Real: College Students and Mental Health?" by AFSPNational, located at https://youtu.be/YN69VIDKBFs
Health Maintenance
Protecting your health includes proper nutrition, activity, sleep, and safety, but there are also some directed activities against specific risks to your health involving infectious diseases, sexual contact, stress management, and mental health conditions.
Read these 10 tips for maintaining adequate protection against infectious diseases such as pink eye, respiratory infections like colds or flu (influenza), mono (mononucleosis), strep throat (streptococcal pharyngitis), bronchitis and pneumonia, gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, and bacterial dermatitis, and sexually transmitted infections:
- Wash your hands for 20 seconds with soap and water or with alcohol-based hand rub before and after eating, using the bathroom, touching your face, having sex, shaking hands, and after coughing or sneezing.
- Avoid your face. Try not to touch your eyes, nose, or mouth. Follow your doctor’s or the manufacturer’s recommendations for contact lens wear and cleaning. Replace liquid eyeliners or mascaras every 3 months.
- Stay home sick. Per the Student Absence Notification Policy, a nonemergency student absence includes minor illness, regular doctor's visit, dentist appointments, or prearranged trips. An emergency student absence includes unprecedented / emergency situations and/or the absence is for an extended period.
- Avoid ill friends. Provide lots of sympathy, homework help, and soup packets, but stay away from people who are feverish, snotty, sneezy, coughing, pukey, or who have diarrhea or open sores. You will not be able to help them or yourself if you get sick, too.
- Get your shots - influenza vaccine every year and the three-shot vaccine series against HPV (human papilloma virus that causes genital warts and cervical or penile cancer). And stay up to date on recommendations for the COVID-19 vaccine. Contact the Student Health Center for more information.
- See a doctor. Get medical care when you are sick or in pain. For mild symptoms, you can try these over-the-counter remedies:
Mild symptom Medication to try Example of brand name No longer mild; see a doctor if... Fever, aches, pain acetaminophen Tylenol High fever, severe pain Sore throat benzocaine Cepacol Difficulty swallowing Cough or congestion guaifenesin Mucinex Difficulty breathing Upset stomach bismuth Pepto-Bismol Vomiting everything or severe abdominal pain Heartburn or "sour stomach" calcium carbonate Tums Vomiting blood or severe abdominal pain Diarrhea loperamide Imodium Multiple loose stools or stools with blood Skin inflammation hydrocortisone Cortisone creme Infected skin Skin itching diphenhydramine Benadryl cream Spreading rash - Get yourself tested. Any genital discharge, pain, itching, sore, or lump should be evaluated by a health care provider. Because some do not cause symptoms, the only way to know for sure if you have a sexually transmitted infection (STI) is to get tested. Per Texas law testing is confidential, even if younger than 18.
- Always use protection. Using a condom correctly every time you have sex reduces the risk of pregnancy and infection with all STIs. (You can still get certain STIs, like herpes or HPV, from skin to skin contact with your partner.) Learn more from the CDC’s Condom Fact Sheet.
- Discuss important issues. Consent, known infection risks, STI testing results, means of protection from infection and pregnancy, and mutually acceptable sex practices are the minimum topics for safe sex with a new partner. No one reads minds, so be clear about your expectations and protect your health.
- Think about pregnancy. If you decide to be sexually active while in college, take the opportunity with your health provider to discuss contraception (birth control).
Just In Case…
Watch the Planned Parenthood video, "How Does the Morning After Pill/Emergency Contraception Work?" Emergency contraception is available at the Student Health Center and 24-hour pharmacies, including the one in Huntsville.
"How Does the Morning After Pill/Emergency Contraception Work?" by Planned Parenthood,
located at https://youtu.be/zN8fEakox5I
Attributions
"How Does the Morning After Pill/Emergency Contraception Work?" by Planned Parenthood, located at https://youtu.be/zN8fEakox5I
Wellness in College
What Do We Mean by “Wellness”?
Wellness is defined as the quality or state of being in good health, especially as an actively sought goal (Merriam-Webster, n.d.-b). Wellness can be viewed as the intentional presence of physical, mental, and spiritual health. The SHSU Health Campus Initiative ELEVATE promotes the “healthy choice as the easy choice” by using the eight dimensions of wellness model which also includes the three components of health: physical, mental, and spiritual.
The eight components of wellness are:
- Physical wellness is about maintaining a healthy body through good nutrition, regular exercise, and avoidance of harmful habits.
- Intellectual (or Mental) wellness includes an openness to new concepts and participation in creative, stimulating mental activities.
- Spiritual wellness is about developing our sense of purpose and meaning in life and is based on a core set of values and beliefs.
- Emotional wellness is the awareness and acceptance of feelings and emotions.
- Social wellness is the ability to interact with others and to live up to the expectations and demands of our personal roles. Social emotional learning is the awareness and understanding of emotions in oneself and in others; an ability to manage one’s own emotions; tolerance to differences in others’ values, cultures, and perspectives; flexibility in one’s own interpersonal behavior; and an ability to take an active role in cultivating productive relationships with others (Wyatt & Bloemker, 2013).
- Environmental wellness is an awareness of the delicate state of the earth and the effects of your daily habits on the physical environment.
- Financial wellness involves being aware of your financial situation and managing it, so you are prepared for financial changes. (See Unit 3: Financial Literacy.)
- Occupational wellness is the ability to enjoy a chosen career and/or contribute to society through volunteer activities.
A list of resources and websites to support your wellness are provided here:
Resource | Website |
OrgLINK (Student Organizations) | https://shsu.campuslabs.com/engage/ |
Huntsville Walker County Religious Organizations | http://www.chamber.huntsville.tx.us/list/ql/religious-organizations-21 |
Student Counseling Center | https://www.shsu.edu/counseling |
Student Activities | https://www.shsu.edu/studentactivities |
Greek Life | https://www.shsu.edu/greeklife |
Leadership Initiatives | https://www.shsu.edu/leadership |
Student Money Management Center | https://www.shsu.edu/dept/smmc/
|
Career Services | https://www.shsu.edu/dept/career-services/ |
Watch Joanne Davila’s TEDxSBU talk Skills for Healthy Romantic Relationships
"Skills for Healthy Romantic Relationships" by Joanne Davila, TEDx,
located at https://youtu.be/gh5VhaicC6g
References
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.-b). Wellness. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved December, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wellness.
Wyatt, J. B., & Bloemker, G. A. (2013). Social and emotional learning in a freshman seminar. Higher Education Studies, 3(1), 106-114
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Heather F. Adair
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2.3 Centers of Diversity for Common Crops
2.4 Global Movement of Food Crops
2.5 Considerations for the Future
2_The-Origin-Evolution-and-Diversity-of-Horticulture-Crops
Biodiversity Intl. & CIAT: Agrobiodiversity
CIAT: Where Our Food Comes From
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-british-tea-heist-9866709/
Rabobank: World Fruit Map
TeachEthnobotany: Crop Diversity & Global Food Systems with Dr. Colin Khoury
The Origin, Evolution, and Diversity of Horticulture Crops
Overview
Title Image: "Origins...” by Khoury, C.K. et al. from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Demonstrate understanding of origin, evolution, and diversity of plant life.
Match major crops with original regions of domestication.
Match major crops with wild progenitors.
Key Terms
field crops - plants grown commercially in large areas
forage crops - plants grown specifically to be grazed by livestock or conserved as hay
fruit crops - plants grown to produce sweet and fleshy, seed-bearing food
vegetable crops - plants grown with parts that are to be consumed by humans or other animals as food
Introduction
The crops that are most familiar to us today, as gardeners, farmers, and grocery store shoppers, were each domesticated in different areas of the planet. Many crops were primarily spread by human movement, while other crops were independently domesticated in more than one place. The area that a crop is believed to have originated is known as its “center of origin” (also known as its “center of diversity”).
It is important to learn the origins of agriculture across the globe, as well as identify regions of diversity for important crops in order to promote the equitable sharing of resources derived from collected plants; to ensure the conservation of germplasm of wild relatives, ancestors, and landraces of these crops; and to promote agricultural diversity and the wider use of genetically diverse and environmentally resilient crops.
Identifying Centers of Diversity
Excerpt adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Over a century ago, advances in botany, linguistics, phytogeography and genetics made it possible to begin identifying the geographical origins of food crops (de Candolle, 1908). Building on this work, and informed by extensive travels over five continents, the Russian scientist N. I. Vavilov (Figure 9.2.1) proposed a number of independent ‘centers of origin’ of cultivated food plants around the world. These ‘centers of origin’ were places where he saw a diversity of traditional varieties for a wide range of crops, growing alongside their wild relatives. These reported centers of origin included Central America and Mexico; parts of the Andes, Chile and Brazil–Paraguay; the Mediterranean; the Near East; Ethiopia; Central Asia; India; China; and Indo-Malaysia (Figure 9.2.2) (Valivov, 1926, 1951, 1992).
Vavilov's interest in the centers of origin of crops was practical, as these regions were postulated to hold tremendous genetic variation that could be useful to the improvement of agriculture. Such variation was the product of adaptation of plants over relatively long periods of time to diverse environments and cultural practices. In these regions, for example, he hoped to find early-maturing varieties suitable for northern latitudes, and disease-resistant forms providing a solution to the mass starvation caused by cyclical failures of the wheat crop (Pringle, 2011). Since Vavilov, the regions of origin and diversity of different crops have been debated, investigated and refined, benefiting from an expanding body of archaeological, linguistic, genetic and taxonomic information (Harlan, 1951, 1971, 1975; Zhukovsky, 1965, 1968; Sinskaya, 1969; Zeven & Shukovsky, 1975; Zeven & de Wet, 1982; Hawkes, 1983; Price & Bar-Yosef, 2011).
‘Centers of diversity’ came to be preferred over ‘centers of origin’, to account for the understanding that high concentrations of crop varieties and related wild species are not located precisely where crops were initially domesticated in every case (Zeven & de Wet, 1982). Crop radiation from primary centers of diversity has also been more extensively documented, including identification of ‘secondary centers of diversity’ and other designations for more recent diversification patterns of some crops—e.g. Phaseolus bean in Southwestern Europe (Santalla et al., 2002), as well as barley (Tolbert et al., 1979) and oat (Diederichsen, 2008) in North America.
Centers of Diversity for Common Crops
We will explore the centers of diversity for a handful of common vegetable, fruit, field, and forage crops that the readers may be familiar with. Researchers have yet to come to a consensus as to the exact number and location of agricultural centers of origin. As previously noted, eight original Vavilvovian centers of origin included Central America and Mexico; parts of the Andes, Chile and Brazil–Paraguay; the Mediterranean; the Near East; Ethiopia; Central Asia; India; China; and Indo-Malaysia, although centers of diversity for individual crops may not conform to this theory.
This section will detail a selection of common crops native to each continent or otherwise defined regions on the globe. The information presented here is selected from The Seed Garden: The Art and Practice of Seed Saving, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture’s map of Origins and Primary Regions of Diversity of Agricultural Crops (Figure 9.2.3), and the University of Purdue’s website for their History of Horticulture course. This list, while not comprehensive, is intended to introduce students to the native regions of a few familiar crops.
North America
Vegetables
- Sunchoke, Helianthus tuberosus
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Blueberries and cranberries, Vaccinium spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea dentata
- Grapes, Vitis spp.
- Hazelnut, Corylus americana
- Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana
- Raspberries, Rubus spp.
- Strawberry, Fragaria virginiana
- Walnut, Juglans nigra
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Tepary bean, Phaseolus acutifolius
Miscellaneous
- Sunflower, Helianthus annuus
Central America and Mexico
Vegetables
- Peppers, Capsicum spp.
- Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Avocado, Persea americana
- Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
- Papaya, Carica papaya
- Pumpkin, Cucurbita moschata
- Squash, Cucurbita pepo
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Amaranth, Amaranthus cruentus, A. hypochondriacus
- Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
- Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
- Runner bean, Phaseolus coccineus
- Maize, Zea mays
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Bourbon cotton, Gossypium purpurascens
- Upland cotton, Gossypium hirsutum
Miscellaneous
- Cocoa, Theobroma cacao
- Vanilla, Vanilla spp.
South America
Vegetables
- Cassava, Manihot utilissima
- Peppers, Capsicum spp.
- Peanut, Arachis hypogaea
- Potato, Solanum tuberosum
- Tomato, Solanum lycopersicum
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Papaya, Carica spp.
- Pineapple, Ananas comosus
- Pumpkin, Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata
- Strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Adzuki bean, Vigna angularis
- Amaranth, Amaranthus caudatus
- Common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris
- Lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus
- Quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Egyptian cotton, Gossypium barbadense
Miscellaneous
- Mate, Ilex paraguariensis
Africa
Vegetables
- Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus
- Yam, Dioscorea rotundata
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Melons, Cucumis melo
- Watermelon, Citrullus lanatus
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- African millet, Eleusine coracana
- Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata
- Pearl millet, Pennisetum spicatum
- Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Castor bean, Ricinus communis
- Sesame, Sesamum indicum
Miscellaneous
- Coffee, Coffea arabica
Europe
Vegetables
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Cabbage, Brassica oleracea
- Turnip, Brassica rapa
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Cherries and plums, Prunus spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea sativa
- Currants, Ribes spp.
- Hazelnut, Corylus avellana
- Raspberries, Rubus idaeus
- Walnut, Juglans regia
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Oats, Avena spp.
Forage Crops
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Flax, Linum usitatissium
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Rape, Brassica napus
Middle East and the Mediterranean Region
Vegetables
- Artichoke, Cynara cardunculus
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Beet, Beta vulgaris
- Cabbage, Brassica oleracea
- Celery, Apium graveolens
- Leeks, Allium ampeloprasum
- Lettuce, Lactuca sativa
- Onion, Allium cepa
- Spinach, Spinacia oleracea
- Turnip, Brassica rapa
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Cherries and plums, Prunus spp.
- Date, Phoenix dactylifera
- Fig, Ficus carica
- Grape, Vitis vinifera
- Pears, Pyrus communis
- Quince, Cydonia oblonga
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Barley, Hordeum vulgare
- Chickpea, Cicer arietinum
- Fava bean, Vicia faba
- Lentil, Lens culinaris
- Oats, Avena spp.
- Pea, Pisum sativum
- Rye, Secale cereale
- Sesame, Sesamum spp.
- Wheat, Triticum spp.
Forage Plants
- Alfalfa, Medicago sativa
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
- Vetch, Vicia spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Black mustard, Brassica nigra
- Flax, Linum usitatissimum
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Rape, Brassica napus
Asia (excluding the Middle East)
Vegetables
- Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis
- Cabbage, Brassica rapa
- Carrot, Daucus carota
- Celery, Apium graveolens
- Cucumber, Cucumis sativus
- Eggplant, Solanum melongena
- Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus
- Yam, Dioscorea alata
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Almond, Amygdalus communis
- Apple, Malus pumila
- Apricots, cherries, peaches, nectarines, and plums, Prunus spp.
- Bananas, Musa spp.
- Chestnut, Castanea mollissima
- Citrus fruits, Citrus spp.
- Kiwi, Actinidia deliciosa
- Mango, Mangifera indica
- Melons, Cucumis melo
- Pear, Pyrus asiatica
- Persimmon, Diospyros kaki
- Raspberries, Rubus crataegifolius
- Walnut, Juglans regia
Field Crops (Cereals and Legumes)
- Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum
- Millet, Panicum spp.
- Rice, Oryza sativa
- Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor
- Soybean, Glycine max
Forage Crops
- Clover, Trifolium spp.
Oil and Fiber Plants
- Coconut, Cocos nucifera
- Cotton, Gossypium herbaceum
- Hemp, Cannabis indica
- Flax, Linum usitatissium
- Olive, Olea europaea
- Oriental cotton, Gossypium nanking
- Sesame, Sesamum indicum
- Tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum
Miscellaneous
- Cinnamon, Cinnamomum spp.
- Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum
- Tea, Camellia sinensis
Australia and the Pacific Region
Vegetables
- Taro, Colocasia esculenta
Fruit and Nut Crops
- Coconut, Cocos nucifera
- Macadamia nut, Macadamia integrifolia
Global Movement of Food Crops
Excerpt adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
The geographical isolation that contributed to the development of variation in cultivated food plants also largely restricted this diversity to its primary regions or nearby areas throughout most of recorded history, although notable long-distance migrations of some crops have been recognized—e.g. sorghum and millets between Africa and South Asia (Fuller et al., 2011) and maize in the Americas (Staller et al., 2006)). The exchange of food crops, diseases, ideas, and populations between the New World and the Old World following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 is referred to as the Columbian Exchange (Nunn & Quian, 2010). According to Charles Mann in his work 1493, “To ecologists, the Columbian Exchange is arguably the most important event since the death of the dinosaurs.”
The ‘age of discovery’ and in particular the Columbian Exchange marked key accelerations in the movement of food plants, as they were introduced to colonizing countries and to new regions with growing colonial establishments and emerging export-oriented production (McKinney, 1999; Diamond, 2004; Romão, 2000). The movement of food crops during the Columbian exchange happened quite quickly for many of these plants. Potatoes, for example, were first seen by European explorers in 1551 and were already being cultivated in the Canary Islands by 1567 (Domingo et al., 2007). Cultivation in new agricultural areas was in many cases remarkably successful, in part owing to escape from crop-specific pests and pathogens (Jennings & Cock, 1977). Complementarity in terms of production season or dietary needs also facilitated some crops' rapid acceptance—e.g. maize in Italy (Nabhan, 1993).
The expansion of human settlement, driven by ever more efficient transportation and increases in global trade, have decoupled the consumption of crops from their production (Fader et al., 2013). Bananas, a crop requiring tropical growing conditions, are now consumed in at least 167 countries, including all temperate regions (FAO, 2015). Ongoing economic and agricultural development, as well as globalization trends, have made a greater variety of major food commodities available to consumers in countries worldwide, but in turn increased homogeneity in the global food system (Khoury et al., 2014; Kearney, 2010); these developments and trends include increasing consumer purchasing power in developing regions, the rise of supermarkets and convenience foods, greater consumption outside the home, urbanization, refrigerated transport, agricultural subsidies, industrial food technologies, and facilitated trade agreements. Given this homogenization in global food supplies, the geographical decoupling of agricultural production and food consumption (Fader et al., 2013; Porkka et al., 2013; D’Ordorico et al., 2014; MacDonald et al., 2015), as well as greater consumption of packaged and processed food products (Kearney, 2010), it is increasingly feasible to imagine not only mistakenly attributing the origin of potatoes to Ireland, tomatoes to Italy (Figure 9.2.4), and chilli peppers to Thailand, but also losing the connection of crops with a geographical origin entirely.
Considerations For the Future
Equitable Sharing of Resources
The search for useful plants is as old as horticulture itself. However, professional plant hunting reached its height in the 1800s, when rapid advances in transportation and the development of the Wardian case (a special terrarium designed for moving plants over long sea voyages) led to an explosion in plant collecting. Plant hunters were usually hired by European and North American government agencies or wealthy aristocrats to collect new species from other countries.
While some plant collectors operated with permission from the host country, others who did not have consent would illegally enter out-of-bound areas and steal plants. One famous example of botanical theft is the story of how tea (Camellia sinensis) seeds, along with other secrets of the tea trade, were smuggled out of China. In 1848, England’s East India Company hired Robert Fortune to sneak into China’s interior in disguise to steal plants and information, which would later be used to establish tea plantations in India—an English colony at that time. The East India Company went on to dominate the tea trade, amassing funds that would otherwise have gone to Chinese tea growers (Rose, 2010).
In 1992, the United Nations Environment Programme’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil set in place the Convention on Biological Diversity. The objectives are
the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including appropriate access to genetic resources and appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and appropriate funding.
Thanks to the Convention on Biological Diversity, plant germplasm is now considered a country’s natural resource. Plant collectors may only work with prior governmental permission under specific collection permits, with specific material transfer agreements that outline how benefits will be shared if germplasm is commercialized (McMahon, 2020).
Germplasm Conservation
The genes of ancestors, wild relatives, and landrace varieties of modern crops are vital for breeding efforts that will allow humans to produce enough food to support rapidly growing populations. The genetic material (or “germplasm”) of these plants can be used to introduce pest and disease resistance, environmental adaptability, and increased productivity.
Many important species, including wild relatives and ancestors of modern crops, are threatened by habitat loss caused by human development. Landrace and heirloom varieties that are the product of millennia of careful plant selection are also at risk of being lost as more farmers give up traditional methods in favor of modern crops or quit farming altogether. There are many organizations dedicated to protecting germplasm by collecting seed to store ex situ in seed banks and botanic gardens and in situ by conserving native habitats of agriculturally important species.
Agricultural Biodiversity
Modern agriculture is based around monoculture plantings where a single crop is grown over large expanses. This practice allows for better uniformity in the planting, cultivation, and harvest of the crop. However, when the same species, variety, and sometimes genetically identical clones, are grown over large areas on an annual basis, they are often more susceptible to pest and disease pressures, meaning that crops will require more inputs or risk loss in yields.
The world relies on just three crops—rice, wheat and maize—for more than 50% of its plant-derived calories, and yield of these crops has plateaued. While there is a need for breeding and improvement programs for these major crops, there are tens of thousands of alternative crops that have been used for human food since the origin of agriculture. These alternative crops, such as quinoa, amaranth, and millet, can complement and even substitute our modern staples.
Despite the environmental and nutritional need for these alternative crops, their cultivation is decreasing rather than increasing. The practice of agricultural biodiversity encourages the thoughtful use of alternative crops that better suit the environment where they are grown, in order to meet the nutritional needs of our growing population. The organization Biodiversity International defines agricultural biodiversity as:
the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fiber, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic) as well as the diversity of the agroecosystems.
The practice of agricultural biodiversity, in conjunction with continued breeding improvements of modern crops, is a more nuanced approach to agriculture that promotes adapting the crop to the environment rather than the other way around. Studying agricultural centers of origin and identifying centers of diversity for various crops will allow for better crop selection in the future.
Dig Deeper
For an interactive resource that aids exploring links between regional food systems and the primary regions of diversity, visit the International Center for Tropical Agriculture website.
To review a map highlighting the trade of fruit across the globe for the year 2016, check out the Rabobank website.
To learn more about “The Great British Tea Heist”, check out this article in the Smithsonian Magazine
For more information about agrobiodiversity, visit the Alliance Biodiversity website.
For an interview where Dr. Khouri shares how collaborative work brings together multidisciplinary expertise to inform conservation strategies for crops and their wild relatives, develop conservation indicators for international agreements, and support evidence-based decision making toward more sustainable food systems, watch the video below or follow this YouTube link.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Excerpts adapted from "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide" by Khoury, C.K. et al., Proceedings of the Royal Society of the Biological Sciences is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Title Image: "Origins and primary regions of diversity of agricultural crops” by Khoury, C.K. et al. from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is licensed under CC BY 4.0
References
Bioversity International (2017). Mainstreaming agrobiodiversity in sustainable food systems: Scientific foundations for an agrobiodiversity index. Rome (Italy): Bioversity International, 180 p. ISBN: 978-92-9255-070-7
Colley, M., Zystro, J., Buttala, L. A., & Siegel, S. (2015). The seed garden: The art and practice of seed saving. Seed Savers Exchange.
de Candolle, A. (1908). Origin of cultivated plants. New York, NY: D Appleton.
Diamond, J. (2004). The wealth of nations. Nature 429, 616–617.
Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature (London), 418(6898), 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019
Diamond, J. (2005). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies. W.W. Norton.
Diederichsen, A. (2008). Assessments of genetic diversity within a world collection of cultivated hexaploid oat (Avena sativa L.) based on qualitative morphological characters. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 55, 419–440.
Domingo Ríos, D., Ghislain, M., Rodríguez, F. & Spooner, D.M. (2007). What is the origin of the European potato? Evidence from the Canary Island landraces. Crop Sci. 47, 1271–1280.
D'Odorico. P., Carr, J.A., Laio, F., Ridolfi, L. & Vandoni, S. (2014). Feeding humanity through global food trade. Earth's Future 2, 458–469.
Fader, M., Gerten, D., Krause, M., Lucht, W. & Cramer, W. (2013) Spatial decoupling of agricultural production and consumption: quantifying dependences of countries on food imports due to domestic land and water constraints. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 014046.
FAO. (2015). FAOSTAT. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. See http://faostat3.fao.org/.
Fuller, D.Q., Boivin, N., Hoogervorst, T., Allaby, R. (2011). Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals. Antiquity 85, 544–558.
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Harlan, J.R. (1975). Crops and man. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America.
Hawkes, J.G. (1983). The diversity of crop plants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jennings, P.R. & Cock, J.H. (1977). Centres of Origin of crops and their productivity. Econ. Bot. 31, 51–54.
Kearney, J. (2010). Food consumption trends and drivers. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 365, 2793–2807.
Khoury, C.K., Bjorkman, A.D., Dempewolf, H., Ramirez-Villegas, J., Guarino, L., Jarvis, A., Rieseberg, L.H. & Struik, P.C. (2014). Increasing homogeneity in global food supplies and the implications for food security. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 4001–4006.
Janick, J. (2008). Lecture 5: Centers of Origin of Crop Plants. Purdue University. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec05.pdf
MacDonald, G.K., Brauman, K.A., Sun, S., Carlson, K.M., Cassidy, E.S., Gerber, J.S. & West, P.C. (2015). Rethinking agricultural trade relationships in an era of globalization. Bioscience 65, 275–289.
McKinney, S. (1999). Bligh!: The whole story of the mutiny aboard HMS Bounty. Victoria, British Columbia: TouchWood Editions.
Mann, C.C. (2011). 1493: Uncovering the new world Columbus created (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf.
McMahon, M. (2020). Plant science: Growth, development, and utilization of cultivated plants (Sixth edition.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Nabhan, G. (1993). Songbirds, truffles, and wolves: an American naturalist in Italy. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Nunn, N. & Qian, N. (2010). The Columbian Exchange: A history of disease, food, and ideas. Journal of Economic Perspectives 24(2), 163–188. Retrieved 22 February 2022 from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/nunn/files/nunn_qian_jep_2010.pdf
Porkka, M., Kummu, M., Siebert, S. & Varis, O. (2013). From food insufficiency towards trade dependency: a historical analysis of global food availability. PLoS ONE 8, e82714.
Price, T.D. & Bar-Yosef, O. (2011). The origins of agriculture: new data, new ideas. An introduction to supplement 4. Curr. Anthropol. 52, S163–S174.
Pringle, P. (2011). The murder of Nikolai Vavilov: the story of Stalin‘s persecution of one of the great scientists of the twentieth century. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
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Romão, R.L. (2000). Northeast Brazil: a secondary center of diversity for watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Gen. Res. Crop Evol. 47, 207–213.
Rose, S. (2010). The great British tea heist. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 21 February 2022 from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-great-british-tea-heist-9866709/
Santalla, M., Rodino, P & De Ron, M. (2002). Allozyme evidence supporting southwestern Europe as a secondary centre of genetic diversity for the common bean. Theor. Appl. Genet. 104, 934–944.
Sinskaya, E.N. (1969). Historical geography of cultivated floras (at the dawn of agriculture). Leningrad, USSR: Kolos.
Staller, J., Tykot, R. & Benz, B. (2006). Histories of maize: multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Tolbert, D.M., Qualset, C.O., Jain, S.K., Craddock, J.C. (1979). A diversity analysis of a world collection of barley. Crop Sci. 19, 789–794.
Vavilov, N.I. (1926). Tzentry proiskhozhdeniya kulturnykh rastenii [The centres of origin of cultivated plants]. Works Appl. Bot. Plant Breed. 16, 1–248.
Vavilov, N.I. (1951). The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated plants (transl. K Start). Cron. Bot. 13, 1–366.
Vavilov NI. (1992). Origin and geography of cultivated plants (transl. D Löve). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Zeven, A.C. & Zhukovsky, P. (1975). Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centres of diversity: excluding most ornamentals, forest trees and lower plants. Wageningen, The Netherlands: CAPD.
Zhukovsky, P.M. (1965). Main gene centres of cultivated plants and their wild relatives within the territory of the U.S.S.R. Euphytica 14, 177–188.
Zhukovsky, P.M. (1968). New centres of origin and new gene centres of cultivated plants including specifically endemic microcentres of species closely allied to cultivated species. Bot. J. (Russian Bot Z.) 53, 430–460.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.538075
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Anna McCollum
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87625/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People, The Origin, Evolution, and Diversity of Horticulture Crops",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87629/overview
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6.3 Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
6.4 Plants and Symbolism
6.5 The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
6_The-Social-Spiritual-and-Cultural-Importance-of-Plants
In Defense of Plants
Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World
Smithsonian: National Museum of the American Indian
UNESCO: Día de los Muertos
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants
Overview
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
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Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Describe the social, spiritual, and cultural importance of plants to historical and contemporary communities of people.
Give specifics of how different cultures incorporate plants into their lives.
Key Terms
cultural keystone species – the culturally significant species that shape in a major way the cultural identity of a people, as reflected in the fundamental roles these species have in diet, materials, medicine, and/or spiritual practice
Introduction
Humans depend on plants for food, medicine, and ecosystem services, as well as our mental and physical health. Throughout human history, there are many examples of human cultures that have also assigned special social, spiritual, and symbolic value to plants. As a result, people plant and cultivate species that have special meaning to their lives and communities work to preserve the ecosystems where these culturally important plants are found.
Ann. Garibaldi and Dr. Nancy. Turner termed plants “cultural keystone species” and described them in their article “Cultural Keystone Species: Implications for Conservation and Restoration”:
The species that play these special cultural roles vary widely from one region to another and from one culture to another. In general, however, the species most closely associated with indigenous and local peoples, wherever they reside, are the ones they depend upon most extensively to meet their needs for food, clothing, shelter, fuel, medicine, and other necessities of life. These are the species that become embedded in a people's cultural traditions and narratives, their ceremonies, dances, songs, and discourse. These are also the species for which a people will have developed the most detailed names and associated vocabulary, and the ones on which they focus in their immediate activities and conversations.
This lesson will highlight a selection of stories, ceremonies, and individual species that demonstrate the social, spiritual, and cultural importance that plants have historically played in human societies.
Spiritual Importance of Plants
There are countless examples of plants being used in religious and other spiritual ceremonies. For example, aromatic plants are often used to create fragrant incense and oils that are important for religious ceremonies (Dafni et al., 2020). Many religions include descriptions of plants in their writings and oral traditions. One common motif across various religions and cultures is the creation story, where the creation of life on earth is described; naturally, plants feature prominently in many such stories. The following is a selection of creation tales from across the globe.
North America: The Cherokee Story of Earth Making
The Cherokee believed that water covered everything in the beginning. Living creatures lived above a rainbow in the heavens. Conditions were crowded, and the creatures wanted to move below to where the water was. A water beetle dove into the water and came up from the depths with some mud. The mud spread over the water, but it was too soft to live on. Next, a buzzard flew over the mud, and the flapping of its wings dried the earth and created valleys and mountains (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984). A great spirit made plants and animals. But before making humans, the spirit directed the plants and animals to stay awake for 7 days. Of the animals, only the owl and mountain lion were able to stay awake. Of the plants, only cedar, pine, laurel, and holly stayed awake the entire seven days. These plants were rewarded by being made evergreen, which meant they could keep their foliage through the winter (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984).
The Cherokee also have a creation story involving Star Woman. They believe that Star Woman lived with her family in the heavens, when she fell through a hole below a tree in her father’s garden. As she was falling through the air toward the water below, a turtle came up to make a space for her to land. Similar to the previous story, water spider (or muskrat) brought some mud up from below the water and spread it over the turtle’s shell, but the mud was too soft to live on. A buzzard flew over the mud to dry it, and this land became the earth. When Star Woman landed, her body produced corn, beans, squash, and other plants, and her tears became rivers. Star Woman brought the spark of consciousness to the earth and became the mother of all humans (Ywahoo, & Du Bois, 1987). Similar accounts of Star Woman or Sky Woman appear in many creation stories of indigenous North American people (Kimmerer, 2020).
Central America: The Mayan Creation Story
The Popol Vuh, or “Book of the Community,” of the K’iche’ Maya is the story of Maya creation. In this story, divine beings wanted to create human beings with hearts and minds who could “keep the days” (Smithsonian, n.d.). The deities attempted to create humans to praise them from mud, but the mud people were destroyed because they were not beautiful. Next, beings were created from the pith of reeds, but they were destroyed because they lacked compassion and gratitude. Beings were then made from the sun’s energy, but they were destroyed because of their intelligence—because they believed they were equal to the gods. Last, humans were made from baskets of yellow and white corn. The corn was ground and mixed with water and shaped into people (Kimmerer, 2020); the people of the corn were true and enduring humans (Figure 9.6.1) (Smithsonian, n.d.).
Africa: The Wakaranga Story of How the Moon Fathered the Earth
The Wakaranga people are from the area known as Zimbabwe today. Their creation story begins with God creating a man that he called “Moon”. Moon lived at the bottom of the sea, but he wished to live on the earth. When Moon came to the earth, he found it was empty, without and plants or animals. When Moon wept, God sent him Morningstar as a wife. Morningstar gave birth to all the plants, which spread out and covered the earth. The first part of the story ends with Moon and Morningstar living a life of plenty in their green paradise (Beier, 1966).
The Middle East: The Biblical Account of the Garden of Eden
The Bible of the Christian religion and the Tanakh of Judaism begin with a description of the earth as “formless and empty” with the Spirit of God hovering over the water. Over six days, the creator separated light and darkness, as well as water, sky, and land; then God created vegetation, the sun, the moon, and the stars, as well as living creatures and human beings. The Quran of Islam has a similar description of creation by Allah over six days, including the creation of water, the heavens and the earth, life from the water, the sun and the moon, and human beings.
The Tanakh, the Bible, and the Quran each include similar accounts of the first man, Adam, and first woman, Eve, who lived in a garden paradise. According to the Biblical account, their only instruction was to not eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil or they would die. After temptation from a serpent, Adam and Eve tasted the forbidden fruit and were cast out of the garden (Figure 9.6.2). God told Adam, “cursed is the ground for thy sake; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life” (Genesis 3:17, King James Version).
Asia: The Chinese Legend of P'an Ku
P’an Ku (also written Pangu) is the first human in the Chinese Daoist legend of creation (Figure 9.6.3). Heaven and Earth had been comingled like an egg. According to the story, this egg-like mass split apart, and Heaven, Earth, and P’an Ku grew in size over the following 18,000 years (Kramer, 1961). P’an Ku created the world: his tears became the Yangste River, his breath made the wind, and his eyes were the sun and the moon. When P’an Ku died, his body broke into five pieces and formed China’s five sacred mountains: the Ti, Sung, Heng, Heng, and Hua mountains. P’an Ku’s hair became the earth’s vegetation (Franz, 1995).
Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
Ceremonies are markers for important milestones including birth, graduation, marriage, and death. Throughout human history, plants have been an important element in each these ceremonies. This section will explore how a variety of cultures have incorporated plants into commemorative ceremonies for their departed loved ones, a tradition that continues across much of the world today.
Shanidar Neanderthal
Laying flowers and plants in memory of a deceased loved one has been a common practice for much of human history, as well as for human’s close relatives the Neanderthals. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) were widespread across Europe and Western Asia for a long time, starting about 400,000 years ago (Gibbons, 2015), before they were replaced by or assimilated by modern humans (Homo sapiens). In fact, studies show that many groups of humans share about 2% of their DNA with Neanderthals. These genes are associated with hair and skin color, height, sleeping patterns, and other traits (Dannemann & Kelso, 2017).
In 1950s, researchers began to excavate and study the remains of several Neanderthals found in the Shanidar cave in Iraq (Figure 9.6.4). The remains are believed to be 60,000 years old. Three of the skeletons (two male adults and one infant) were believed to have been buried by their community, while four seem to have died in a partial cave collapse (Lee, 2007).
Botanists who specialize in the study of pollen examined the soil that was collected from around the buried human remains and found samples that contained pollen from flowering species of plants including yarrow (Achillea spp.), hollyhock (Althaea rosea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and grape hyacinth (Muscari spp.) (Figure 9.6.5), as well as from the evergreen Ephedra. The locations where the pollen was found suggest the possibility that these flowers were arranged, possibly as a wreath, around the body, and perhaps the deceased was laid on a cushion of the evergreen branches of Ephedra (Lee, 2007). If this were true, this may be the earliest evidence of flowers used in a burial.
Neolithic China
Since 6,000 BCE, ornate burials in Neolithic China have incorporated the red mineral cinnabar (mercury sulfide) as a part of the burial ceremony. The brilliant red cinnabar was spread on the body and below the coffin during the burials of high-status deceased. Excavations of burials dated to somewhere between 2,200 BCE and 1,800 BCE suggest that plants were also a part of traditional burials for some regions.
Researchers analyzing remains at the Shengedaliang site found that leaves of plants from the borage family (Boraginaceae) were spread in layers along with cinnabar (Wu et al., 2016). Scientists did not identify the exact species of the leaves used in the burial, but they were able to identify the family as Boraginaceae. Plants in this family are valued for their medicinal and ornamental characteristics, and species include common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis), cucumber herb (Trigonotis peduncularis), and several other blue flowering herbs such as Eritrichium rupestre, Lithospermum zollingeri, and Microula sikkimensis (Wu et al., 2016). They proposed the following explanation for why leaves were featured in these ancient burials:
Leaves symbolize life in many modern human societies. Leaves of species are used to symbolize various aspects of human life, e.g. love, joy, loyalty, fertility and sympathy from birth to death at religious and social occasions such as funerals or weddings (Heilmeye, 2001). The presence of “special” leaves fossil also may indicate the strong sense of life in the otherwise desert environment that made people to treat leaves differently as a sign of energy and life and may also be an additional indicator of social inequality. Thus, the association with leaves fossil from a member of the Boraginaceae family may indicate a type of “plant worship.” (Wu et al., 2016)
Tutankhamen's Tomb
Many readers will already know that wealthy ancient Egyptians had lavishly decorated tombs. Of all such ornate burials, one of the most well-known examples is that of the pharaoh Tutankhamen, or “King Tut”, who ruled from 1336 to 1327 BCE. Botanical imagery was used throughout Tutankhamen’s tomb, including motifs of lotus flowers (Nymphaea lotus), papyrus reeds (Cyperus papyrus), and mandrake fruit (Mandragora officinarum). The mummified body of Tutankhamen was decorated with a wreath of olive leaves (Olea europaea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and lotus petals. The inner coffin included a floral collar arranged in nine rows, featuring date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), pomegranate leaves (Punica granatum), and ashwagandha berries (Withania somnifera). Another wreath of cornflowers, water lily petals (Nymphaea caerulea), olive leaves and wild celery was wrapped around the second coffin.
Mexico and Central America
While not a burial as with the other examples, el Día de los Muertos or Day of the Dead has been celebrated in Mexico and other Latin American countries for 3,000 years. The ceremony began during the time of the Aztecs, when the goddess Mictecacihuatl was believed to allow spirits to return to commune with living family members. This ceremony was also practiced by the Maya and Toltec (Anderson, 2016). With the arrival of the Spanish and the spread of Catholicism in the 16th century, the ritual was blended with All Saints Day. This ceremony coincides with the end of the maize harvest at the beginning of November (UNESCO, 2008).
Marigold (Tagetes spp.), Tillandsia spp., arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), and cockscomb (Celosia spp.) are some of the species placed at the graves or used for flower altars that families build for their deceased loved ones Toltec (Anderson, 2016). While each of these plants has brilliant-colored flowers or foliage, marigold (also called cempasuchil in Central America) is especially fragrant. Families believe that the bright colors and strong fragrance of these blooms will lead their loved ones home, which is why altars are often heavily decorated with marigold flowers and petals (UNESCO, 2008).
Plants and Symbolism
Human cultures throughout history have assigned symbolic meaning to many species of plants. This symbolism may be derived from the uses of the plants or from observation of characteristics of the species. This section will highlight some of the symbolic meanings given to a small selection of plants from a few regions of the world.
North America
- Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana): renewal of life, blessing and thanksgiving, love and happiness, good luck (Native, n.d.c)
- Sweet grass (Heirochloe odorata): healing, peace, and spirituality (Native, n.d.d)
- Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.): relaxation, healing, and peace (Native, n.d.f)
- White pine (Pinus strobus): longevity, wisdom, harmony with nature, peace (Native, n.d.b)
- Western red cedar (Thuja plicata): generosity and providence (Native, n.d.a) sacred, a gift from the creator (Garibaldi & Turner, 2004)
Middle East and Mediterranean Region
- Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus): life and fertility, tenderness, fidelity, and reliability (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009d)
- Lily (Lilium candidum): youth, innocence, power, love, glory (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009b)
- Myrtle (Myrtus communis): immortality, eternity, regrowth and vitality, authority, beauty, youth, and victory (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Blue water lily (Nymphea caerulea): eternal life, revival, reanimation (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009a)
- Basil (Ocimum basilicum): love, mourning (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Rose (Rosa spp.): spring, love, beauty, charm, transitory state (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009c)
- Rosmary (Rosmarinus officinalis): faithful remembrance, love and fidelity (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Greek sage (Salvia fruticose): purity, justice (Dafni et al., 2020)
East Asia
- Japanese maple (Acer palmatum): changed feelings (Seaton, 1995)
- Chrysanthemum or kiku (Chrysanthemum spp.): longevity, endurance, resilience, integrity (Saddhono et a., 2014), cheerfulness under adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera): purity, truth, perfection, immortality (Seaton, 1995)
- Peony (Paeonia spp.): brightness, prosperity (Seaton, 1995)
- Bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.): power, nobility, purity, honesty, solemnity, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), modesty (Seaton, 1995)
- Japanese Black Pine (Pinus thunbergiana): longevity, luck, diligence, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), friendship in adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Plum or ume (Prunus mume): new hope, longevity (Saddhono et a., 2014), perseverance, virtue, sweetness
- Cherry blossoms (Prunus serrulata): coolness, serenity, happiness, the ephemeral nature of life (Saddhono et a., 2014), loyalty, patriotism, a life lived joyfully (Seaton, 1995), celebrated with annual hanami (hana means “flower” and mi is “to look) flower viewing parties
- Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda, W. sinensis): luck (Saddhono et a., 2014), youth (Seaton, 1995)
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
Plants have played a crucial role in the social and spiritual aspects of cultures throughout human history. These traditional ceremonies and beliefs have linked people to the larger environments and ecosystems they inhabit. People conserve and protect what they care about, and culturally, this care is often reflected in ceremonies and traditions. Ecologist, author, and member of the Potawatomi Nation Dr. Robin Wall Kimmerer proposes an explanation for this in her book Braiding Sweetgrass:
Many Indigenous traditions still recognize the place of ceremony and often focus their celebrations on other species and events in the cycle of the seasons. In a colonist society the ceremonies that endure are not about land; they’re about family and culture, values that are transportable from the old country. Ceremonies for the land no doubt existed there, but it seems they did not survive emigration in any substantial way. I think there is wisdom in regenerating them here, as a means to form bonds with this land (Kimmerer, 2020).
The phenomena of “plant blindness” could undermine humanity’s connection with plant life. The term plant blindness was coined by researchers Dr. James H. Wandersee and Dr. Elisabeth E. Schussler (1999) to describe “(a) the inability to see or notice the plants in one’s own environment; (b) the inability to recognize the importance of plants in the biosphere and in human affairs; (c) the inability to appreciate the aesthetic and unique biological features of the life forms belonging to the Plant Kingdom; and (d) the misguided, anthropocentric ranking of plants as inferior to animals and thus, as unworthy of human consideration.” Learning more about the plants in our home landscapes, taking the time to explore the natural world, visiting a local public garden, and learning about the processes of plant sciences in courses such as this one are all good first steps to develop a deeper appreciation for plant life.
Dig Deeper
To learn more about traditional beliefs about the natural world, check out Family of Earth and Sky: Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World.
Learn more about the plants and animals on your next nature walk. Join the Discover Life in America in their citizen science efforts to document biodiversity in East Tennessee and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Discover Life in America website.
Robin Wall Kimmerer is a mother, scientist, decorated professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation. She is the author of Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teaching of Plants and Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. She lives in Syracuse, New York, where she is a SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor of Environmental Biology, and the founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment. In this video from The Commons at the University of Kansas, Robin takes us on a guided nature tour of Clark Reservation State Park in Jamesville, NY as Spring welcomes back migrating creatures and sends a message to wake up those who have taken a Winter rest.
Exploring your local public garden is a great way to learn more about the incredible diversity of plants that grow in your area and across the world. To find your closest botanical garden, check out the American Public Gardens Association map
You don’t need to visit a national park of botanic garden to learn more about plants. In this video from In Defense of Plants, host Matt introduces many plants commonly found in suburban environments. To learn more about In Defense of Plants, visit the In Defense of Plants website.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
References
Beier. (1966). The origin of life and death: African creation myths. Heinemann.
“Creation story of the Maya”. (n.d.). Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian. Retrieved 17 March 2022 from https://maya.nmai.si.edu/the-maya/creation-story-maya
Dannemann, M. & Kelso, J. (2017). The Contribution of Neanderthals to Phenotypic Variation in Modern Humans. American Journal of Human Genetics, 101(4), 578–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.010
Erdoes, R. & Ortiz, A. (1984). American Indian myths and legends (1st ed.). Pantheon Books.
Franz, M.L. von. (1995). Creation myths (Rev. ed.). Shambhala.
Garibaldi, & Turner, N. (2004). Cultural keystone species: implications for ecological conservation and restoration. Ecology and Society, 9(3), 1–. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00669-090301
Gibbons, J. (2015). Why did Neanderthals go extinct? Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from https://www.si.edu/stories/why-did-neanderthals-go-extinct
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JULY: Lotus. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(9), 2461–2464. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp166
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JUNE: Lilies. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(7), 1893–1895. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp088
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: OCTOBER: Roses. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(13), 3611–3613. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp215
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: SEPTEMBER: Cornflower. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(12), 3297–3299. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp247
Kimmerer, R.W. (2020). Braiding sweetgrass: indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge, and the teachings of plants. Milkweed Editions.
King James Bible. (1994). Zondervan. (Original work published 1769).
Kramer, S.N. (1961). Mythologies of the ancient world. (1st ed.]). Doubleday.
Lee, D. (2007). Nature’s palette: the science of plant color. University of Chicago Press.
Native American cedar mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cedar.htm
Native American pine tree mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/pine-tree.htm
Native American strawberry mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-strawberry.htm
Native American sweetgrass mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-sweetgrass.htm
Native American tobacco mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-tobacco.htm
Saddhono, K., Widodo, S.T., Al0Makmun, M.T. & Tozu, Masakatsu. (2014). The study of philosophical meaning of batik and kimono motifs to foster collaborative creative industry. Asian Social Science, 10(9): 52-61.
Seaton, B. (1995). The language of flowers: a history. University Press of Virginia.
UNESCO. (2008). Indigenous festivity dedicated to the dead. Retrieved 21 March 2022 from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indigenous-festivity-dedicated-to-the-dead-00054
Ywahoo, D. & Du Bois, B. (1987). Voices of our ancestors: Cherokee teachings from the wisdom fire (1st ed.). Shambhala.
Wandersee, J.H. & Schussler, E. E. (1999). Preventing Plant Blindness. The American Biology Teacher, 61(2), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/4450624
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.615473
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Anna McCollum
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87629/overview",
"title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People, The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants",
"author": "Textbook"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93044/overview
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Micrograph Escherichia coli 5d endospore 1000X p000068
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells were grown in broth culture for 5 days at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained with malachite green (endospores) and safranin red (vegetative cells) prior to visualization. No endospores are seen, as E. coli does not form endospores.
Image credit: Emily Fox
Micrograph
Light background with many rod-shaped pink cells; no green oval endospores seen
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.635051
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Diagram/Illustration
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93044/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli 5d endospore 1000X p000068",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89796/overview
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Social Emotional Learning
Overview
Social Emotional Learning is considered the most important topic in Education.
Social Emotional Learning
In this folder, we can find some resources about Social Emotional Learning.
Social Emotional Learning is considered the most important topic in Education.
In this folder, we can find some resources about Social Emotional Learning.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.654652
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Educational Technology
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89796/overview",
"title": "Social Emotional Learning",
"author": "Education"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93322/overview
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Introduction To The Law & The Legal Profession Overview Introduction To The Law & The Legal Profession Part 1 dgfgdfgdfg
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.675122
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Nikki Jacobson
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93322/overview",
"title": "Introduction To The Law & The Legal Profession",
"author": "Case Study"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65865/overview
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Sample Permissions Request Letter
Overview
If there is a resource you would like to use in your OER project that is not openly licensed, in the public domain, or usable under fair use, permission from the copyright holder is required. Here is some sample wording for that permissions request. Please adapt as suits your situation.
Cover mage by Andrew Lloyd Gordon from Pixabay
Use letterhead or logo
Dear {Content Owner}:
We understand that you are the copyright holder of {insert resource name} available on {website name and link to resource}.
{Insert requesting organization/school district} would like to include the above-mentioned resource in educational materials under development by our organization. {Insert district/organization mission or purpose}.
The final materials we create will be openly licensed under a {insert Creative Commons license choice – CC BY recommended} and made available for distribution on {insert known distribution pathways}. Your resource would be marked as noted below (or with an attribution statement of your choice) and will not fall under the open license of the resource unless you would like it to do so.
Copyright {Content copyright holder}. Used with permission.
If you agree to provide us with permission, please sign this permission request letter and return a scanned version to us by email.
We appreciate your consideration of our request. Please contact me with any questions.
Sincerely,
{Insert requestor name and contact information}
By signing below, I warranty that I have the right to grant the permission requested herein, and that I hereby provide you with that permission.
Name (print): ____________________________________________________
Signature: _______________________________________________________
Date: ___________________________________________________________
Preferred attribution format:
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.700112
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05/01/2020
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65865/overview",
"title": "Sample Permissions Request Letter",
"author": "Barbara Soots"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77183/overview
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Sources: Primary & Secondary (and Tertiary, Too)
Overview
The attached handout provides a quick review of the basic source types. It includes a brief description of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources along with providing examples for each type.
Description
The attached handout provides a quick review of the basic source types. It includes a brief description of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sources along with providing examples for each type.
Sources: Primary & Secondary (and Tertiary, Too) by David O. Smith is licensed under CC By 4.0
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.716713
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02/12/2021
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77183/overview",
"title": "Sources: Primary & Secondary (and Tertiary, Too)",
"author": "David Smith"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96653/overview
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Micrograph Micrococcus luteus gram stain 1000X p000177
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Micrococcus luteus cells grown on agar at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
Micrograph
White background with small clusters of purple, round Micrococcus luteus cells.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.734252
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Diagram/Illustration
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96653/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Micrococcus luteus gram stain 1000X p000177",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92920/overview
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Thesis Writing- Sentence Frame Handout
Overview
This is a handout to guide studnets through writing thesis statements. This handout gives students a sentence frame to fillout rather than relying on abstract concepts about purpose to guide their first thesis statements.
Thesis Writing- Sentence Frame Handout
This handout breaks down thesis writing into a four part plug in frame. The Thesis is broken into topic, position, turn, HOW/WHY statement.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.750552
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05/22/2022
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92920/overview",
"title": "Thesis Writing- Sentence Frame Handout",
"author": "Alexander Woodmansee"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108138/overview
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Additional Readings for Colorado Plateau Overview
Additional Readings for Colorado Plateau Overview
Colorado Plateau Overview - Comprehensive Resource List
Overview
Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub.
Colorado Plateau Overview
Coconino Community College
Amelinda Webb and Matthew Hernando
The following is a list of resources suggested as additional readings to the weekly textbook chapters for the Colorado Plateau Overview (CPS 100) course.
Material Description
The document titled "Colorado Plateau Overview" serves as a comprehensive resource list for students taking the CPS 100 course, providing additional readings and references to enhance their understanding of the Colorado Plateau. This overview covers various aspects of the Colorado Plateau, including its physical environment, human history, art, and contemporary issues. Below is a breakdown of the sections and key resources included in the document:
Section 1 - The Physical Environment of the Colorado Plateau
1.1 Geography of the Colorado Plateau:
- "The Colorado Plateau Region" by Ray Wheeler (1989)
- "The Varied Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau" by Amelinda Webb (2023)
1.2 Geology of the Colorado Plateau: T
"Geology of the Colorado Plateau" by Annabelle Foos (1999).
1.3 Biological Communities of the Colorado Plateau:
"Colorado Plateaus Ecoregion" by Michael P. Stier (2012).
Section 2 - The Human Environment of the Colorado Plateau
2.1 Indigenous History on the Colorado Plateau:
Oral history stories from "Oral History Stories of the Long Walk" by Patty Chee, M. Yazzie, J. Benally, M. Etsitty, and B. Henderson (1990)
2.2 The Spanish Entrada into the Colorado Plateau:
"Primary Source Documents on the Pueblo Revolt (1680)" by Matthew Hernando (2023).
2.3 United States Exploration of the Colorado Plateau:
"John Wesley Powell’s Exploration of the Colorado River" by Mary C. Rabbitt (1978).
Section 3 - Art of the Colorado Plateau
3.1 Indigenous Art of the Colorado Plateau:
"History and How the Rug is Made" by G.S. Maxwell (1963).
3.2 19th Century Art of the Colorado Plateau:
"Point Sublime" by Clarence Dutton (1882).
3.3 20th Century Art of the Colorado Plateau:
An interview with Pueblo Pottery Artist Harrison Begay is suggested.
3.4 Literature of the Colorado Plateau:
Several literary works by authors like Edward Abbey, Leslie Marmon Silko, and Luci Tapahonso are listed.
Section 4 - Contemporary Issues on the Colorado Plateau
4.1 Grazing on the Colorado Plateau:
- "Sheep is Life" by Gary Paul Naban
- "Just Participate" by Rose Houk
4.2 Water on the Colorado Plateau:
- Documentary "Are We Running Dry?"
- "Colorado River Compact of 1922"
- "How the West was Watered: A Case Study of the Colorado River (Part 1)" by Erin C. Betley (2005).
4.3 Mining on the Colorado Plateau:
"Extraction and Resiliency on the Colorado Plateau" by Jessica Tran and Cameron Walkup (2020).
4.4 Tourism on the Colorado Plateau:
"Recreation Management on the Colorado Plateau" by Whit Richardson.
These resources cover a wide range of topics related to the Colorado Plateau, offering students a comprehensive and multidisciplinary understanding of this unique region.
Colorado Plateau Overview
Colorado Plateau Overview
Coconino Community College
Amelinda Webb and Matthew Hernando
The following is a list of resources suggested as additional readings to the weekly textbook chapters for the Colorado Plateau Overview (CPS 100) course.
Section 1 - The Physical Environment of the Colorado Plateau
1.1 Geography of the Colorado Plateau
The Colorado Plateau Region by Ray Wheeler (1989) in “Wilderness at the Edge: A Citizen Proposal to Protect Utah’s Canyons and Deserts”
APA Citation: Wheeler, R. (1990). The Colorado Plateau Region. In W. Stegner (Ed.), Wilderness at the edge: A citizen proposal to protect Utah’s canyons and deserts. Essay, Utah Wilderness Coalition. Retrieved from https://secure.suwa.org/site/SPageServer/?pagename=WATE_cpintro.
The Varied Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau by Amelinda Webb (2023) on OER Commons
APA Citation: Webb, A. (2023). The Varied Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau. OER Commons. Retrieved from ####. (CC BY 4.0).
1.2 Geology of the Colorado Plateau
Geology of the Colorado Plateau by Annabelle Foos (1999)
APA Citation: Foos, A. (1999). Geology of the Colorado Plateau. Geology Field Trip Guides by Anabelle Foos, University of Akron. Available online at: http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/education.
1.3 Biological Communities of the Colorado Plateau
Colorado Plateaus Ecoregion by Michael P. Stier (2012) in “States and Trends of Land Change in the Western United States - 1973 to 2000”
APA Citation: Stier, M. P. (2012). Colorado Plateaus Ecoregion: Chapter 21 in Status and trends of land change in the Western United States--1973 to 2000 (No. 1794-A-21, pp. 219-227). US Geological Survey. Available online at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1794/a/chapters/pp1794a_chapter21.pdf. (Public Domain)
Section 2 - The Human Environment of the Colorado Plateau
2.1 Indigenous History on the Colorado Plateau
Selected Oral History Stories of the Long Walk by Patty Chee, M. Yazzie, J. Benally, M. Etsitty, and B. Henderson (1990) in Oral History Stories of the Long Walk: Hwéeldi Baa Hané.
- The editors’ “Historical Background” section in Oral History Stories, pp. 7-9.
- The interviews given by Helen Begay and Jane Begay of Lake Valley, New Mexico, pp. 13-20.
- The interviews given by Esther Benally and Joe Redhorse Benally, pp. 31-33.
- The interviews by Frank Keesonnie, Norma Keesonnie, and Ruth Beyale Pablo, pp. 85-90.
- The two interviews given by Mary Sandoval, pp. 107-111.
- The interviews by Annie Succo and Matthew Succo of White Rock, New Mexico, pp. 113-16, 121.
- The interviews by Betty Tso and Bessie Yazzie of Lake Valley, NM, pp. 123-125.
APA Citation: Chee, P., United States. Dept. of Education, Lake Valley Navajo School (Crownpoint, N. Title VII Bilingual Staff., Navajo Tribe. Diné of the Eastern Rgion. (1991). Oral history stories of the long walk = Hwéeldi Baa Hané. Crownpoint, N.M.: Lake Valley Navajo School. (Public Domain).
2.2 The Spanish Entrada into the Colorado Plateau
Primary Source Documents on the Pueblo Revolt (1680) by Matthew Hernando (2023) on OER Commons
APA Citation: Hacket, C. W. (1942). Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Otermín’s Attempted Reconquest, 1680-82 (C. S. Charmion, Trans.) [Review of Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Otermín’s Attempted Reconquest, 1680-82]. University of New Mexico Press. (Public Domain).
2.3 United States Exploration of the Colorado Plateau
John Wesley Powell’s Exploration of the Colorado River by Mary C. Rabbitt (1978)
APA Citation: Rabbitt, M. C. (1978). John Wesley Powell’s Exploration of the Colorado River [Review of John Wesley Powell’s Exploration of the Colorado River]. U.S. Department of the Interior / Geological Survey. (Public Domain).
Section 3 - Art of the Colorado Plateau
3.1 Indigenous Art of the Colorado Plateau
History and How the Rug is Made by G.S. Maxwell (1963) in Navajo Rugs: Past, Present, and Future.
APA Citation: Maxwell, G. S. (1963). Navajo rugs: past, present & future. Palm Desert, Calif.: Best-West Pub. (Public Domain).
3.2 19th Century Art of the Colorado Plateau
Point Sublime by Clarence Dutton (1882) in Geology of the Grand Canyon: The Physical Geology of the Grand Cañon District.
APA Citation: Dutton, C. E. (Clarence Edward). (1882). The physical geology of the Grand Cañon district. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. (Public Domain).
3.3 20th Century Art of the Colorado Plateau
Interview with Pueblo Artist Harrison Begay on YouTube (is available under a Standard Youtube License)
APA Citation: AncientNations. (2011). Interview with Pueblo Pottery Artist - Harrison Begay. (2011). www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 22, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IC33bHEErSg
3.4 Literature of the Colorado Plateau
Cliffrose and Bayonets by Edward Abbey in Desert Solitaire
APA Citation: Abbey, E., & Abbey, E. (2011). Cliffrose and Bayonets. In Desert Solitaire. essay, RosettaBooks.
Interior and Exterior Landscapes by Leslie Marmon Silko in Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit: Essays on Native American Life Today
APA Citation: Silko, L. M., & Silko, L. M. (1997). Interior and Exterior Landscapes: the Pueblo Migration Stories. In Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit. essay, Simon & Schuster.
Hard to Take by Luci Tapahonso
APA Citation: Tapahonso, L. (n.d.). Hard to Take. Blue Ridge Journal. https://www.blueridgejournal.com/poems/lt-hard.htm
In 1864 by Luci Tapahonso
APA Citation: Tapahonso, L. (n.d.). In 1864. Blue Ridge Journal. https://www.blueridgejournal.com/poems/lt-hard.htm
Section 4 - Contemporary Issues on the Colorado Plateau
4.1 Grazing on the Colorado Plateau
Sheep is Life by Gary Paul Naban (2004)
APA Citation: Naban, G. (2004) Sheep is Life. In P. Friederici, R. Houk, T. Marinella (Eds.), A New Plateau: Sustaining the lands and Peoples of Canyon Country. Essay, Renewing the Countryside. Retrieved from https://stories.renewingthecountryside.org/2012/06/din%C3%A9-be-iina-and-the-black-mesa-weavers-for-life-and-land/.
Just Participate by Rose Houk (2004)
APA Citation: Houk, R. (2004) “Just Participate!” In P. Friederici, R. Houk, T. Marinella (Eds.), A New Plateau: Sustaining the lands and Peoples of Canyon Country. Essay, Renewing the Countryside. Retrieved from https://stories.renewingthecountryside.org/2012/06/the-babbitt-ranches/.
4.2 Water on the Colorado Plateau
Are We Running Dry? documentary on YouTube (is available under a Standard Youtube License)
APA Citation: The Chronicles Group. (2008) The American Southwest: Are We Running Dry? [Video] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ne4ZN3aHllw.
Colorado River Compact of 1922 United States Bureau of Reclamation
APA Citation: United States Bureau of Reclamation. (1922) Colorado River Compact of 1922. (Public Domain).
How the West was Watered: A Case Study of the Colorado River (Part 1) by Erin C. Betley (2005) in Lessons in Conservation Volume 5
APA Citation: Bentley, E. (2015) How the West was Watered: A Case Study of the Colorado River. In Lessons in Conservation (Water Issue). American Museum of Natural History Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Network of Conservation Educators & Practitioners. (5). Retrieved from https://www.amnh.org/content/download/141382/2285494/file/LinC5_ColoradoRiver.pdf.
4.3 Mining on the Colorado Plateau
Extraction and Resiliency on the Colorado Plateau by Jessica Tran and Cameron Walkup (2020) for Uplift Climate
APA Citation: Tran, J. and Walkup, C. (2020) Extraction and Resiliency on the Colorado Plateau. Article, Uplift Climate. Retrieved from https://medium.com/uplift-climate/extraction-and-resiliency-on-the-colorado-plateau-d0271a1e8f7c.
Atomic Legacy Discovery Guide: Colorado Plateau by the Office of Legacy Management
APA Citation: Office of Legacy Management. Atomic Legacy Discovery Guide: Colorado Plateau. Retrieved from https://www.energy.gov/lm/atomic-legacy-discovery-guide-colorado-plateau.
4.4 Tourism on the Colorado Plateau
Recreation Management on the Colorado Plateau by Whit Richardson
APA Citation: Richardson, W. Recreation Management on the Colorado Plateau. Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance. Retrieved from https://suwa.org/issues/recreation-management-on-the-colorado-plateau/.
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.809812
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Textbook
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84539/overview
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Exponential Growth & Decay: Calculus 1 Project by Ignacio Rendon
Overview
This Project has been completed as part of a standard 10 weeks Calculus 1 asynchronous online course with optional WebEx sessions during Summer 2021 Semester at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA.
Exponential Growth & Decay
INTRO
Exponential growth and decay are formulas that are very commonly used in the real world to predict trends and changes of something. In simple terms Exponential growth is the increases of something at contstant rate proportional to it's size, the same applies for decay except the value would be decreasing at a constant rate. There are two key words that really define exponential growth, those are proportional and constant. Let's take a look at Exponential growth first.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BODY
Exponential Growth:
When we look up Exponential Growth on the dictionary it defines it as "Growth of a system in which the amount being added to the system is proportional to the amount already present: the bigger the system is, the greater the increase."
Although there is no single person credited to the discovery or creation of Exponential growth and decay, we can still give credit to the English economist and scholar Thomas Malthus who came up with the formula while trying to prove that population growth was related to the economy in the late 1700's.
$$P(t)=P_0e^{rt}$$
\(P_0\) = initial Population
\(r\) = population growth rate
\(t\) = time
Even though this formula is still valid, we are more used to seeing this formula for calculating Exponential Growth:
$$f(x)=a(1+r)^t$$
There are also other formulas used to calculate exponential growth shown below:
Real World Uses of Exponential Growth:
One of the most common uses of Exponential Growth is to calculate population growth, but there are still many other important uses such as:
Compound Interest - Compound Interest at a constant rate provides exponential growth to capital
Biology - Studying the growth at which micro-organisms reproduce in a suitable evniorment. This can help with calculating when food will start going bad to give products expiration rates.
Wildfires - With the relation to the enviorment aroun it, we can calculate the exponential rate at which the fire will continue to spread
Diseases - Cancer, cancer cells spread exponentially if not treated. Another example would be major pandemics, like covid 19.
Invasive species - These can be any living thing that is not native to a location and causes harm to the enviormant. Some examples would be the Water Hyancith weed or the Japonese Honeysuckle
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Exponential Decay:
"In mathematics, exponential decay describes the process of reducing an amount by a consistent percentage rate over a period of time."
$$y=a(1-r)^x$$
\(y\)= final value
\(a\)= starting value
\(r\)= decay rate
\(x\)= time
Same as Exp. growth there are other formulas we can use to calculate Exponential Decay:
Real World Uses of Exponential Decay:
Compound formulas: Same as growth but this time it is measuring the loss of capital
Half-Life of Radiactive substances
Carbon Dating
Depreciation - measuring the loss of value of something over time (car, phone ect)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Half-Life and Radioactive Decay
In Chemistry, Half-Life is an important topic that gets brought up a lot, especially when dealing when dealing with radioactive substances. What is half-life? "Half-Life is the length of time it takes an exponentially decaying quantity to decrease to half its original amount. Every radioactive isotope has a half-life, and the process describing the exponential decay of an isotope is called radioactive decay."
Formulas commonly used to find half-life probelms:
$$N=N_0\Big( \dfrac{1}{2}\Big)^{\frac{t}{h}}$$
\(N_0\) = Initial amount
\(N\) = Final amount
\(t\)= Time
\(h\)= time for 1/2 of sample to decay
Ex. Half life of Carbon-14 is 5,730 years. How much of a 10.0mg sample will we have after 4,500 years have elapsed?
\(N=(10.0)\Big(\dfrac{1}{2} \Big)^{\frac{4500}{5730}}\\ N=(10.0)\Big(\dfrac{1}{2} \Big)^{0.7853}\\ N=(10.0)(0.5802)\\ N=5.802~mg \)
SOURCES:
Human Population Growth | Biology for Majors II
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.830359
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Homework/Assignment
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"title": "Exponential Growth & Decay: Calculus 1 Project by Ignacio Rendon",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99010/overview
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Cultural Diversity in Education
Overview
Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub.
"6th grade parent day: hallway poster" by woodleywonderworks is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
EDU 210: Cultural Diversity in Education
Course Content & Outcomes
This course prepares potential teachers to examine how race, ethnicity, and cultural differences influence students' experiences in school, and assists teachers in implementing a multicultural approach to teaching by identifying effective teaching styles and practices for a diverse student population.
Content:
- Critical thinking concepts.
- Diverse nature of society.
- Historical events that have impacted multicultural students.
- Current cultural issues that impacting teaching and learning.
- Appropriate teaching methods to meet the needs of diverse students.
Outcomes:
- Describe the elements of the critical thinking process. (1)
- Describe the culturally diverse nature of society. (2)
- Identify historical events that have impacted multicultural and minority students. (3)
- Construct pertinent questions based on current issues that impact culturally diverse students. (4)
- Create effective solutions to problems related to multicultural education. (4)
- Define the concept of multicultural education and its implementation in the public-school classroom. (5)
- Design lesson plans that utilize best practices, including critical thinking, to foster cultural diversity in the classroom. (5)
Material Description
EDU 210: Cultural Diversity in Education
Context for sharing:
I'm sharing this course to support other pre-service teach educators.
Additional information about the resource:
This course requires 10 observation hours.
Material Attachment
It is preferred if you include the material in multiple formats, such as a public link and an attachment.
Add a public link to the material by including the text here. Please be sure the setting are for public access so others can view and/or download the material. For example, if sharing through Canvas, be sure the material is shared through the Canvas Commons.
If you need help finding how to import from Canvas - here is a resource.
Attach the resource by clicking the "Attach Section" paperclick image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your material(s), and save.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.853472
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Textbook
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99010/overview",
"title": "Cultural Diversity in Education",
"author": "Syllabus"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70386/overview
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Assignment: Exploring Careers in Child Development
Overview
Students will use the Occupational Outlook Handbook to explore three occupations related to child development, education and professional work with families.
Students will compile information in their CANVAS Portfolium.
Introduction to Careers in Child Development
Lesson Topic:
Exploring Child Development and Care Occupations.
Lesson Description:
Students will use the Occupational Outlook Handbook to explore three occupations related to child development, education and professional work with families.
Students will compile information in their CANVAS Portfolium.
Learning Goals
Students will be able to describe three educational requirements, salary, work environment, and professional outlook for three professions in the field of child development.
Student Learning Outcome
Analyze career opportunities and explore educational opportunities in Child Development related to various careers.
Video how to browse the Occupational Outlook Handbook website.
This video will show you how to navigate the Occupational Outlook Handbook website. It is super easy and very educational!
Remix title"Child Development and Care Occupations" 2019 by userMiranda Bright under license"Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.867697
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07/25/2020
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70386/overview",
"title": "Assignment: Exploring Careers in Child Development",
"author": "Gloria San Jose Daims, M.S."
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107468/overview
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Interactive Learning: Graded Discussion,World History
Overview
Interactive learning is becoming increasingly important as the world and its demands continue to change. This approach to education provides many advantages for both students and educators. By promoting engagement, supporting collaboration, personalizing learning experiences, utilizing technology, and developing critical thinking skills, this educational method equips students with the necessary tools to succeed in the 21st-century workforce. Please email me at interactivelearning2288@gmail.com to receive a copy of my book that contains all 14 units. Please allow me several days to respond.
Below are step-by-step instructions for a graded discussion on the Holocaust, which includes stories and a scoring system: Unit 11.
Overview and Purpose
This graded discussion unit about the Holocaust can be a valuable model for teachers in other subject areas. Its structure is designed to familiarize students, making them more receptive to future scored discussions.
Students spend a considerable amount of time communicating with each other through oral discussions. They may converse face-to-face or via social media to exchange information and ideas. To help students improve their communication skills, Fred M. Newmann presents a scored discussion process in his book Clarifying Public Controversy: An Approach to Teaching Social Studies. This approach facilitates effective communication and enhances students' learning experience.
Graded discussions can be an effective way of assessing students' knowledge while also encouraging conversation without being argumentative or domineering. It is essential for students to actively listen and add information to both formal and informal discussions to exchange ideas and provide advice. Additionally, it is important to respect different learning styles, which requires providing various learning activities. Graded discussions help students develop their oral communication skills and provide opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge without fear of judgment. Furthermore, these discussions can help students learn how to use Google and AI properly. Oral presentations challenge students to reword information in a way that fits their comprehension and language skills, allowing them to convey it orally to their peers of the same age or ability.
Objectives
- Students will be able to perform in discussion groups.
- Students will be able to listen to fellow group members and create an understanding of the topic discussed.
- Students will be able to share time and don’t pontificate.
- Students will know how to put another person into a discussion.
- Students will know how to make relevant comments.
- Students will know how to state a clarifying question.
- Students will know how to share information and ideas while actively listening.
Students today rely heavily on devices and text-based communication, which allows them to edit and control their messages while remaining invisible. However, face-to-face interactions may decrease their ability to read and interpret nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, and eye contact. These nonverbal signals are crucial in effective communication, especially in the professional environment and personal relationships.
That said, different opinions are acceptable if the conversation remains calm and respectful. Typically, arguments arise in discussions when one person has no additional information to contribute and disputes what another person has said. An argument often begins when someone in a group uniform asks a question to which they already know the answer. If another person disagrees, an argument may ensue because the questioner believes they have the correct answer. Therefore, it's best not to ask a question you already know the answer to unless it's to listen and not argue. After someone answers a question, listening attentively and responding with an open mind is essential. It's okay to stay quiet, but you can respectfully disagree and discuss your viewpoints if necessary. Unfortunately, many people argue and fight during conversations, especially with friends they've known for a long time.
The discussion stories for this unit are about Holocaust camp guest-speaker experiences in the death camps during World War II. When making their presentations to high school students, most survivors were not able to stand for any length of time to make their presentations about their experiences because of their weakened physical condition. Moreover, in the late nineteen nineties, many were so old they had difficulty accurately recounting their camp experiences. When taken to lunch, Holocaust camp survivors ate only a special diet of soft foods because their digestive systems suffered massive damage from their daily two-hundred-calorie or less concentration camp food. On the presentation day, survivors made no more than one presentation due to the emotional hardships recounting their stories placed on them every time they told their stories. Their accounts of what they endured in the death camps inspired the author to write two fictional short stories.
Graded Discussions: The Holocaust
To create discussion groups, limit them to five or six groups. The number of students in each group will depend on your class size. If you prefer smaller groups, you must make six groups, but remember that it will take longer for the entire class to discuss their stories. Larger groups may result in less accurate scoring and less time for students to present their ideas. To create groups, rank students from high to low performers, and assign the top five as group leaders. Then, assign the next five as the second member of each group. After that, assign the next five as the third member of each group. Continue until all students are in a discussion group. Groups assigned by rank place students of excellent, good, and okay ability in each group.
Step 2: Students read one of the two short stories, “My Brother’s Hat” or “The Leather Trench Coat” by A. A. Stevens, about personal, real-life holocaust experiences told by European holocaust survivors who made presentations to high school world history classes in the late 1980s. When they read the story, they are to highlight or mark areas that stand out. Explain that if they don’t mark interesting statements, they may not find them again because their mind does not function like when they first read it.
Step 3 of the graded discussion requires students to actively participate and use their marked story to contribute to the discussion. There is no need to rely solely on memory, and students are encouraged to refer to their marked article throughout the discussion. A discussion usually begins with the last part of the book or movie they just saw or read. However, expect students to discuss the story in sequence from beginning to middle to end. During the discussion, students must listen to each other's comments and locate something to comment on in their marked article, which teaches them active listening skills—thinking and listening simultaneously. They should place their "finger" on a sentence and wait for an opportunity to insert their comment into the discussion. It's crucial not to divide the discussion into separate oral reports but instead to engage in a group discussion.
Inserting comments during a conversation is an essential skill. It's perfectly normal to pause during a discussion as it gives individuals time to gather their thoughts. However, students may need to fill those gaps with questions or laughter. Therefore, it is crucial to encourage students to contribute valuable information to the conversation to keep it flowing smoothly. Here are some comment starters that can help keep the conversation going:
Restate their comment. If I understand you, you feel that in the cattle cars, the adults were . . . Expand on a comment. I also got the idea that . . . I didn’t expect . . . I believe . . . Wow, that’s a great observation about (repeat it) I want to add . . . In my opinion . . . Amy, I see you are ready to add something (She has her finger on a comment.) | The place in the story that made an impression on me was . . . That is an excellent observation. I also noted . . . I noticed . . . Hmm, that’s an exciting way to understand that, but I feel . . . I felt deeply moved by the part where . . . I agree with what someone has said . . . I thought . . . One of the most potent parts was . . . I found the part where . . . made me very . . . That’s one way to see it, but I also thought . . . |
The room Setup and scoring sheet are below.
The more traditional room setup below works well. Student desks face each other; class faces group:
Circle: Student desks face each other, with the discussion group in the middle. The round-area discussion setup allows students to interact with each other very effectively. So, there would be an inner group of desks and an outer group where the class sits.
Student Scoring Graded Discussions—Points
Remind students to refrain from dividing the discussion into a series of oral reports.
Scoring criteria:
+1 Relevant Comments—An example of a relevant comment from a discussion on capital punishment might be, ‘You have to commit a pretty serious crime to be eligible for the death sentence.’
+2 Presenting Facts—Names, what, when, where, statistics, quotes, and definitions that pertain to the topic or agenda item discussed.
+2 Taking a Position—’ I believe...’ or ‘It Is my opinion...’ or ‘If It was up to me...’ clearly indicate that someone is taking a position on a topic but includes a relevant comment.
+1 Get Others Involved—A student draws another student into the discussion. When a student includes his information and then adds, ‘Amy, what can you add to this part of the discussion?’
+1 Clarifying/Moving on—A student asks a clarifying question. A student suggests that the group move on to the next topic item. Amy might say, ‘We’ve been discussing the actions of the Nazis for a while, and I think we should move on to the daily lives of the Jews. Does anyone have any last comments on the Nazis?’
+3 Making an Analogy—In using the analogy method, the student should show that the resemblances noted bear relevance to the point established, whereas the differences are irrelevant.
+2 Recognizing a Contradiction—A student recognizes a contradiction. Jim might say, ‘Amy, didn’t you just say the Jews had no rights, but now you are saying that they have some rights?’
Minus Points:
‑2 Interrupts Others—As long as the interrupting student politely retracts, no points are lost.
‑2 Not Paying Attention—A student is not paying attention or distracting others.
‑3 Monopolizing—A student dominates the discussions and does not allow others to participate.
‑3 Personal attack—A student attacks a student personally instead of giving his view or ideas concerning the topic.
‑1 Irrelevant Comments—Irrelevant comments include repeating information another student has already contributed or comments that do not pertain to the question or agenda item discussed.
My Brother’s Hat, A. A. Stevens
For nineteen months, I survived the Auschwitz death camp at sixteen. My camp home, a thin-sided wooden structure, sprawled along the Eastern side of the camp, providing no protection from the freezing winters and stifling summers. The drafty structure housed hundreds of women who suffered in it like sardines. New crematoriums spewed smoke into the air that rained down gray ash-like debris along the dirt streets. I heard Italian, Romanian, Polish, French, English, Russian, Greek, and Dutch spoken as I moved throughout the camp. Skeleton-like men huddled in clusters, dreaming of escape. Camp bullies prowled the muddy or frozen passageways to exploit the weak. I suffered dysentery, open sores on my skin, and a weight loss from one-hundred twenty-four pounds to seventy-one. There was no such thing as a lousy thief; I stole from others to survive. I had no choice. I became unfeeling. My story explains my trip to Auschwitz and my experiences there.
I was born Greta Stein in Germany just as Hitler, the little house painter from Austria, began his momentous rise to dominate German politics. I share my parents with a younger sister and brother. My mother is a housewife, and my father makes and sells jewelry. My story began when I was 12 years old; two days after my birthday, I began to fear for my family’s safety from the Nazis. My birthday falls on November 10th, an evil day for Jews. I learned what It meant to be a Jew in the new Germany in 1938. On the nights of November 9th and 10th, Jewish synagogues and Jewish businesses were destroyed, along with Jewish homes all over Germany and Austria, including my father’s jewelry store, where I worked after school.
As more details became available weeks later, we learned it was a massacre against Jews carried out by the Nazis and German-speaking people throughout Germany and Austria on November 9th and 10th. The Nazis dragged Jews from their homes and businesses and shot or beat them to death. We hid in our attic for three nights; they missed us. But our downstairs was ransacked. Over time, we began to refer to those two days as Kristallnacht or Night of the Broken Glass, which comes from the glass of the shop windows smashed by the German-speaking, vicious mobs.
From that day on, I had to wear the yellow Star‑of‑David badge whenever I went out. I was forbidden to use the public telephone system and public transportation, and I could not leave my apartment building after dark without a special identification card. Although I still went to school, Nazi Youths teased and tormented me, who were my non‑Nazi friends, because of the yellow star I wore.
For the next four years, a Gestapo officer would go around our apartment building here in Munich to notify the families scheduled for transportation to the Nazi work camps. Most Jewish high school friends had already departed from the work camp. Since Jews could not use the public mail system, it was challenging to write to them to find out how my Jewish friends and neighbors were doing in the work camps in Poland.
I naively believed my family was safe, never to be taken to a work camp since we had been good German citizens for over one hundred and ten years. But we were also Jewish. In July of 1943, the Nazis told my family and me we had fifteen minutes to be downstairs with only one suitcase. I looked around my room of sixteen years to decide what was to go with me and what was to wait for me until my return after the war. As I left my room, I took one final glance around. Little did I know I would never see the remainder of my possessions that did not fit into my suitcase. I grabbed my suitcase and went to help my nine‑year‑old brother close his smaller suitcase. My brother packed his favorite dress‑up hat and feathers in front with his name stitched on the rim like our father’s. Bringing his hat pleased me.
I waited with my mother, sister, and brother while my father purchased our train tickets from the Gestapo officer who oversaw our transportation. The Gestapo loaded me into a one‑ton canvass-covered truck with my family and thirty neighbors. As the truck flap began to close, Hans, my school friend since elementary school, leaped from our truck, yelling that the Nazis were pigs. With the flap tied down, I never saw what happened, but I heard a gunshot just as our truck moved away from my street to take us to the train station for transportation to Poland and its labor camp
Although the train station held thousands of families like mine, it was very organized and quiet. There were several Gestapo guards with their evil dogs, maybe twenty at the most. The Gestapo efficiently loaded my family and suitcases into the solid‑sided, windowless freight car. I remember my father saying to my little brother, who clutched his hat to his chest, ‘It’s okay. It’s only a short trip.’ Usually, it would have been only about a one-and-one-half-day trip, but that wasn’t to be. The large door slid shut and locked.
My freight car was extremely crowded, so much so that my fellow passengers and I could neither sit nor lie down. The Gestapo packed about two hundred of us into the cattle car. Most of us had to stand on our suitcases; we couldn’t sit. It was July, and by noon, It was stifling hot in our car, over one hundred degrees. There were no window openings, only a two‑inch by four‑inch slot to let air inside the car.
At about two o’clock, the Gestapo put our train on a sidetrack, where we had to wait. I heard an older gentleman say, “What’s to worry about? We’re just waiting for another train to pass by. It’ll be just a minute.” But this wasn’t to be. The train sat there for the rest of the afternoon and into the next day.
Since the train wasn’t moving, there was no air movement, so many older people fainted from the heat and a lack of water. I had to push closer together with others so they could lay flat. Finally, the sun went down. But that didn’t help because I felt cold and damp by two o’clock in the morning. The second day ushered in another beautiful day, as described by the ‘big’ man who would not let anyone else near the air slot. The Gestapo sidetracked my train like that on seven more miserable occasions.
About mid‑morning, the train began to move again. The odor in my freight car was nauseating. There was no place for anyone to complete their toilet, so we were forced to use one of the corners of my freight car. There was no privacy; I had to walk over and on top of others to get to it. On the third day, I chose to soil myself instead. Because the temperature began to rise again in the freight car, someone in our car announced our first death. It was an older woman. And, by late afternoon, the sixth to die was a two-year-old child right next to me.
On the afternoon of the fourth day, I had difficulty breathing. The stench of the bathroom bucket, soiled passengers, and the smell of the dead burned my lungs with every breath, which also burned my eyes. I was tired; I could not sleep from the constant crying of the children and whimpering of the adults. How can one sleep standing up? Finally, on the evening of the fifth day, the train stopped in the middle of an open field. The large door slid open just enough to push one large can of water into our freight car, but there was no food. The heavy door quickly slid shut. I didn’t get any water; It was gone before I got to my side.
On the seventh day, we arrived at the train station at the work camp of Auschwitz in Poland, where it said over the entrance, Arbeit Macht Frei, “Work Makes Free.” Nineteen children and twenty‑one adults died during my trip. My little sister was one of those who died in my father’s arms. Now, there were only four of us left. I tumbled out of the freight car with my battered suitcase and soiled clothes; I could hardly stand up.
I felt astonished. The Gestapo played a beautiful waltz on the public address system. I was lined up with the other survivors to stand in front of our freight car with my luggage. I was then moved with the others in an organized fashion toward the end of the loading platform, where several Gestapo officers were asking questions. We piled our luggage in front of the freight cars. My father told me to tell them that I was an artisan and could make and repair jewelry, which I was proficient at due to the hours I worked after school. It was our turn. The Gestapo officer put my father and me into a different line than my weeping mother and miserable, sad-looking brother. An official told me that I would see them after I was processed. The Gestapo guard was very polite. We, women, were processed: stripped naked, tattooed with an ID number, head shaved, and given a lice-covered, tattered uniform and a thin sheet. I found out later that the shaved head kept the lice under control.
They transported me to a women’s barracks but couldn’t find my suitcase. Before settling in, two Gestapo soldiers escorted me to a sizeable gym‑like building where other inmates sorted thousands of items into huge piles. They assigned me a sorting table to work on. Another worker would empty the contents of a suitcase onto my table, and I was required to sort the contents into various piles on the large floor: purses, dresses, scarves, dress shirts, belts, shoes, socks, and so on.
After several weeks at the work camp, I eavesdropped on the inmate’s chatter, who gossiped about her version of what was happening. It was just gossip, nothing more. After the “selection,” she said that able young men and women worked in the sorting facility. At the same time, the aged, the weak, children, and mothers perished in the crematorium that seemed to smoke twenty-four hours a day, we could see as we walked throughout the camp. She went on to say that workers were regularly “selected” weakened by overwork, disease, or hunger; they disappeared, never to be seen again. There were also stories about workers selected for strange medical experiments. Again, just rumors, stories. After being constantly hungry, I worked sorting fourteen-hour days, slept on a board with a thin sheet covered in lice, and listened to the strange sounds from the sleeping women in my barracks, so I shut out the gossip.
After several weeks of working in the sorting building, I went through the things on my table and grabbed a hat just like my father’s hat with its decoration and decorative rope on the front, but It had my brother’s name stitched on it. Then, as my hand clutched the scarf my mother had worn the last time I saw her, tears filled my eyes; everything blurred. I knew I would never see my mother, brother, or anyone else in the other line again. The rumors were true: a death camp.
After Thoughts, “My Brother’s Hat”
Group’s Personal Analysis, Ideas and Opinions
Groups discuss and answer the questions below. Specifically, Record all students’ feelings accurately; do not judge them. Students can say and write anything they feel without being judged on the value of their ideas or opinions. A recorder will write their thoughts and feelings to these thought-provoking questions below: PLEASE ENSURE ALL VIEWS ARE HEARD RESPECTFULLY.
Students should not attempt to change another person’s opinion; they should express their feelings and record them all. Later, each group can express their views to the class. Later, the teacher will listen to your ideas and then respectfully paraphrase them in a way that zeroes in on the significant issues so that your ideas are more focused. The teacher will do this without judging an idea as ‘good’ or condemning it as “without value.”
- What hypotheses can you offer/suggest that might explain the treatment of Jewish children during WWII?
- What reasons can you suggest that might explain the actions that SS Gestapo took?
- Many laws influenced the Stein family passed by the Nazis against the Jews only. Would It have been okay for the Stein family to disobey these laws? If so, why? Or, why not?
- Nazis applied laws in 1938 to a population of Germany that was a minority. When is it acceptable for a minority to disregard or not obey the laws made by a majority of a population?
- Should the Nazis be punished for “crimes against humanity?” However, “crimes against humanity” did not formally exist in international law until they were included in the London Charter after WWII ended. Would war crime trials be nothing more than the winners punishing the losers, using the law as a weapon of revenge rather than justice.
The Man in the Gray Leather Trench Coat, A.A. Stevens
My name is Hans Herber (hoo ber), and at nineteen years old, my story begins as Hitler prepares to march into Austria in 1941, just before the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. I live in Munich, Germany. I always wanted to become a psychiatrist, and with that in mind, I was studying in Munich when Hitler came to power and annexed Austria. During my studies at Munich University, I, along with other students, received political indoctrination, which started at a very early age for most of us and continued through the Hitler Youth with the goal of complete mind control. We were encouraged in school to denounce our friends, neighbors, and our parents for derogatory remarks about Hitler or Nazi beliefs, especially the inferior Jews, according to the Nazis.
On the other hand, in my studies at Munich University, I had worked with many Jews, and, I married a girl, Anna (on uh), who was one‑quarter Jewish. She would be required to wear the yellow Star‑of‑David badge whenever we went out if the Nazis ever discovered she was Jewish. She would be forbidden to use public facilities and public transportation, and she could not leave her apartment building after dark without a special Gestapo pass.
We had a baby about a year later despite Anna’s unidentified Jewish status. In Munich, I set up my family in Schwabing (show awb ing) because of its proximity to Munich University. Schwabing provided a natural home for open-minded thinkers, artists, and writers, all tolerant of all races and religious faiths. It also provided the center of a good deal of anti‑Nazi activities and, in fact, some more overt action by the White Rose.
I hated and feared the Nazis here in Munich, here in Schwabing. My hatred and fear stemmed from my wife’s Jewish connection, although she was only a tiny fraction Jewish. I didn’t think the Nazis knew she was Jewish, but I always feared that they might find out. I had heard stories about Dachau being a death camp just outside of the Munich center and a short distance from where Anna and I lived in a modest apartment. I wasn’t sure, but in my heart, yes, I was sure, and I became involved in an anti‑Nazi movement, the “White Rose.” And my life was never the same.
Initially, the White Rose grew up around a couple of students at the University of Munich and one of the university’s teachers, Professor Gerhard (Gair Hard). The group was small, not dangerous to the Nazis, but more of an embarrassment. The few people in our White Rose group felt a commitment to fight against the Nazis in any way they could, and all they had was the ability to turn out a certain amount of anti‑Nazi propaganda.
My wife, Anna, threw herself into the group’s efforts with the kind of enthusiasm that had drawn me to her in the first place. She wrote anti‑Nazi leaflets, spent early morning hours delivering them, and wrote anti‑Nazi slogans on walls in the dark of night. She began to feel more Jewish, more a part of the group than I did, a non‑Jew. But still, she drew me farther and farther into the White Rose group. I didn’t mind. I shared her anti-Nazi sentiments, but by nature, I was no activist. Most of the time, I stayed home with our baby, Heinrich (hien rick), while Anna was on one of her anti‑Nazi missions. Anna and I became close friends with the anti‑Nazi student leaders, having them over to dinner, and occasionally, they would babysit our son for us.
I will never know how the Nazis learned of my small involvement in the White Rose, but one night they came, no Nazi uniforms, no fuss. They knocked on my door. There were only two of them in their suits and their gray leather trench coats with only a Nazi pin attached to their lapels, standing in puddles of rain, asking me if they might have a few moments of my time. The Gestapo told me that they knew my wife was part Jewish, which, of course, made our son, Heinrich, Jewish, according to the Nazis. And, it made me, the father, guilty of harboring two known Jews. The two Nazis acknowledged to me that sometimes these things happen, that love can lead anyone into shadowy paths, making them do illegal things.
The taller and more distinguished‑looking of the two Nazis, who did all the talking, wore a stylish gray leather trench coat. He was calm, well-mannered, and smiled in a friendly way. He explained that the Gestapo knew of Anna and my involvement in the White Rose; he suggested that I cooperate with them in breaking up this “minor irritation, this pimple on the Fuhrer’s behind.” Otherwise, he said it would be necessary to vigorously interrogate Anna, and, of course, Heinrich, our son, would join her when the Gestapo detained her. He reminded me that when their arrests and confinement occurred, the Nuremberg Laws made it unlawful for a non-Jew to associate with a Jew. He conveyed this in a smooth, conversational tone yet a threat: My wife and child imprisoned would be swift and unpleasant. On the other hand, the tall Nazi in the leather trench coat suggested a way out. My choice of either helping the Gestapo by informing on those involved in the anti‑Nazi White Rose group or endangering the life of my wife and the life of my child.
Naturally, I said nothing to Anna, but I did increase my involvement with the anti‑Nazi group out of necessity so I could report its activities to my newly made friends of the Gestapo. So, I became more involved in Anna’s anti‑Nazi group. My increased White Rose activities directly resulted from the need to report information to my tall friend in the leather trench coat, an evil yet polite Gestapo agent; obviously, I had no choice. And for quite a while, there were no Nazi arrests bought about by my information about the White Rose that I was aware of; no one was hassled, arrested, or interrogated. So, what was the harm done? Anna’s anti‑Nazi group continued operating as usual. I kept meeting the man in the leather trench coat in Munich’s English Park near the university, passing odd bits of information to him about the White Rose, such as the numbers of anti-Nazi pamphlets printed, who wrote the pamphlets, what type of printing press made the pamphlets, where they met, who distributed the pamphlets.
Then, in November of 1943, the White Rose planned a night to protest the treatment of the Jews, a night of danger. I tried to keep Anna from going, but my man from the Gestapo assured me that there would be no trouble and that she would be safe from arrest. I believed him; I had no choice. So, Anna went with the group and painted DOWN WITH HITLER seventy times along Ludwigstrasse. Seventy times. To my relief, the Gestapo made no arrests and no trouble by the Gestapo, and my wife, Anna, returned safe and sound.
Two days later, the Gestapo arrested two university student leaders for passing out leaflets, which Anna had written. After their beheading, they joined the already thousands of Jews who lost their heads to the Nazi guillotine, which the Gestapo favored to bring about the gruesome sentences. Anna evaded arrest or interrogation as promised by the Gestapo. Did I set the student leaders and the professor up for the arrests? But more importantly, did I ever have a choice in the whole matter? As for my son, Heinrich, he grew up a healthy, intelligent child. Today he is an architect, lives in Rome, has his own family, and remembers nothing of his mother Anna, who eventually was killed in the bombing of Munich by the Americans during the wars end, an accident of the war, and my Nazi friend in the gray leather trench coat is now a successful businessman in Munich. He often visits me in my home here in Munich, minus his gray leather trench coat. Although the gray leather trench coat is gone, he has not changed; he is polite, kind, and caring. We have built up an unusual bond of friendship.
After Thoughts, “The Gray Leather Trench Coat,” the group’s personal analysis, ideas and opinions.
Each group is to discuss and answer the questions below. Specifically, Record students’ feelings accurately with no comments. Students can say and write anything they feel without being judged on the value of their ideas or opinions. A recorder will write their thoughts and feelings to these thought-provoking questions below: PLEASE ENSURE ALL VIEWS ARE HEARD RESPECTFULLY.
Students should not attempt to change another person’s opinion; they should express their feelings and record them all. Later, each group can express their views to the class. Later, the teacher will listen to your ideas and then respectfully paraphrase them in a way that zeroes in on the significant issues so that your ideas are more focused. The teacher will do this without judging an idea as ‘good’ or condemning it as “without value.”
- What suggestions can you offer/suggest that might explain the treatment of Jews during WWII?
- What reasons might explain the actions that the father, Hans Huber, took?
- Why were the Nazis so successful in controlling the individual and groups within the Third Reich? Advanced: Does any segment of our society use their control methods today in government, family, or groups?
- Is it okay for a citizen to disobey an unjust or unfair law? Under what circumstances is it okay? Suggest a criteria to determine who and when a law is terrible and ignored. Who will decide when a law is just or unjust?
- Is there any truth to the statement, “They, the Jews, deserve what they got because they didn’t put up a fight or resist?” If it’s true, why? If it’s not, why? Advanced: Today, what are some examples of when someone refuses to resist or put up a fight when they are wronged (government, family, groups) by an authority?
Group of people talking. UNE photo. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Group_of_people_talking.jpg. License https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons.
Jagtbreve (hat). Hansen, Hans Nikolaj. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jagtbreve_-_side_042.png. License https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain.
Newmann, Fred M. Clarifying Public Controversy: An Approach to Teaching Social Studies. Jan. 1, 1970, Little Brown and Company
Trench coat. Ring, David. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trench_coat.tif. Scanned by team of MoMu. License https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons.
Stevens, Anthony. Cover, Interactive Leartning. Canva.com, 1 Feb. 2024. Free app edition use.
Stevens, Anthony. Scoring table image. 7 Mar. 2024
Stevens, Anthony A. “The Gray Trench Coat.” 2020: Complied from Holocaust guest speakers.
Stevens, Anthony A. “My Brother’s Hat.” 2020: Complied from Holocaust guest speakers.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:56.936453
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08/04/2023
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107468/overview",
"title": "Interactive Learning: Graded Discussion,World History",
"author": "Anthony Stevens"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95243/overview
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POLSC 240 Political Theory Syllabus
POLSC 240--Political Theory: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward.
Center political philosophers from the underside of modernity i.e. non-Western colonial/decolonial thinkers. Develop final project for students to engage the canon with their critiques of white supremacy as the social, political and economic system.
Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be anti-racist here.
POLSC 240: Political Theory Syllabus
Albert Ponce Ph.D.
Political Science 240: Political Theory
This course will provide a survey of Western political philosophy from the ancient to the modern period. We will cover prominent theories and concepts in the historical tradition of political thought as well as considering the periodization of political problems. In addition, we will also analyze theories and their potential application to modern political issues. Lecture, therefore, is designed for you to clarify and refine your ideas through critical questions. The goal is for you to come prepared to critically analyze the ideas, themes and concepts derived from the readings and engage in class discussion. Our goal is to examine foundational questions, such as, ‘What is justice?,’ ‘What is freedom?’ and “What is political” and explore their historical and contemporary significance.
4CD Statement in support of Social Justice Reform:
Required Texts: PDF’s are uploaded on CANVAS NO COST!
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (Dover Thrift Editions)Paperback – June 4, 2004 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Author) ISBN-13: 978-0486434148
The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, (International Publishers, 2014)
We will read the daily news, for our collective purposes I have selected NEW YORK TIMES www.nytimes.com as a DVC student you can sign-up for free access. (see email instructions)
CANVAS: link via Insite Portal Students are responsible for accessing readings (files tab), discussions and announcements on course webpage. Materials including syllabus, study guides, news stories etc. will be posted at this site. If you have any problems call CANVAS 24/7 Helpline: 1-844-303-5586 |
Grading Scale
Total Points: 350points
315-350 A
314-280 B
279-245 C
244-210 D
209-below F
Expectations and Appropriate Classroom behavior:
I expect you all to take the topics that we discuss and learn about seriously and make an effort to learn them well. To do this, it is essential that you read all assigned readings. Reading the news daily will assist you in linking course concepts to contemporary issues and debates. We will also be discussing differing concepts, ideas and theories, so I hope that everyone will take the time to acknowledge that lecture must be a safe space for all individuals regardless of difference or background, to talk openly and without fear of harassment. This includes undocumented, LGTBQ+, racial groups or religions which represent all our students. Any sexist, racist, or dehumaninzing ideas, acts will not be tolerated.
This course will prepare you for the challenges in upper-division political science and social sciences courses. Taking (good) notes is a key to success!! Developing your reflexive note taking skills will provide necessary lifelong tools towards achieving your goals.
Lastly, academic integrity is well laid out by Diablo Valley College (see course catalog-and below), so please do your own work.
In supporting an enriching learning environment students must conduct themselves appropriately. Violations of DVC Student Code of Conduct will be reported to Dean of Student Life, and may require a meeting with the dean before being allowed to return to class.
Student Code of Conduct (pages 35-42 DVC Catalog):
Student Learning Outcomes:
A. Compare and contrast various political theories and theorists.
B. Recognize fundamental political concepts (i.e. freedom, equality, justice, the individual, nature, citizenship, democracy, exploitation, alienation, violence, revolution) as expressed by major political thinkers.
C. Discern the assumptions and values that underlie selected political ideologies.
D. Relate aspects of political thought of the past to current political ideologies/thought.
E. Apply various theoretical approaches to contemporary political problems and assess their strengths and weaknesses.
F. Recognize concepts and principles of political thought in the routine operations of political systems.
G. Analyze elements of political behavior and the implication of actions taken by leaders and constituents of secular and/or religious movements.
Disability Support Services Statement:
The staff of the DSS is committed to the establishment of a positive learning
environment focusing on academic integrity, sensitivity to our students, and achievement of student success. Students who require alternative formats for course materials or adaptive equipment due to specific disability may request them through the Disability Support Services office.
For information related to DVC Disabled Student Services
Undocumented Student Resources:
As a DVC faculty UndocuAlly feel free to see me about resources or refer to:
CCCCD ‘in Defense of Diversity and Inclusion’
Food Pantry: DVC has a food pantry for more information on dates/times for pick-up see link
Tutoring is essential for your success!
DVC offers free academic support for students. Please visit the DVC Tutoring Services webpage for information about tutoring across the college: DVC also offers free online tutoring through NetTutor, which you can access through the link to in Canvas. Because students who use student support services such as tutoring are more successful in their classes, please make time in your schedule to seek out tutoring support this semester.
https://www.dvc.edu/current/tutoring-services/academic-support-center.html
Academic Dihonesty and Plagiarism: PLAGIARISM IS THEFT. Do not cheat. Penalties include earning an F (zero points) for the assignment, or an F for the course, or even dismissal from the college. Examples of academic dishonesty include copying from another student, copying from a book or class notes, or smart phone/watch during a closed book exam, submitting materials authored by or revised by another person as the students own work, copying a passage or text directly from a published source without appropriately citing or recognizing that source, doing an assignment or other academic work for another student, securing or supplying in advance a copy of an examination or quiz without the knowledge or consent of the instructor, sharing or receiving the questions from an on-line quiz with another student, taking an on-line quiz with the help of another student, and colluding with another student or students to engage in academic dishonesty. Also, submitting a paper written by you for a course other than this section, purchasing a paper, or having someone else do your work on a paper are all forms of academic dishonesty.
Academic Dishonesty:
Academic dishonesty is defined as: an act of deception in which a student claims credit for the work or effort of another person or uses unauthorized materials or fabricated information in any academic work. Academic dishonesty is a violation of the DVC Student Code of Conduct and will not be tolerated. Academic dishonesty diminishes the quality of scholarship at Diablo Valley College and hurts the majority of students who conduct themselves honestly.
Diablo Valley College defines plagiarism (see pages 32-33 of DVC Catalog) as:
representing someone else’s words, ideas, artistry, or data as one’s own, including copying another person’s work (including published and unpublished material, and material from the Internet) without appropriate referencing, presenting someone else’s opinions and theories as one’s own, or working jointly on a project, then submitting it as one’s own
Assignments |
Discussion Board: 4 postings (MINIMUM 350 words) 40 points each = 160 points
You will be prompted to post on ‘Discussion Board’ 4 times during the semester. Our first post in due by FEB 4th (This is your INTRODUCTION to the class along with a reflection of questions posed MINIMUM 350 words). You are also expected/required to respond to your peer’s postings. Postings will all have due dates of Friday’s 11:59pm unless otherwise noted. NOTE: On right hand bottom include TOTAL WORD COUNT
e.g. WORD COUNT: 575 Words
Discussion Board Guidelines:
You will be required to submit FOUR (4) postings during the semester. The first is your introduction to the class (see ‘Discussion Post 1’). The subsequent Four (4) postings will be reflections prompted by professor questions specific to the readings. You can advance your understanding of the course readings by linking concepts, themes, events, laws etc to our contemporary period. Politics is everywhere and these reflections will have you develop the critical analytic skills needed to make sense of your role in society. Furthermore, you will build the capacity to ask critical questions of law, society and yourself. See below for steps to ensure you will earn maximum points by following these steps.
- Respond to posted questions by incorporating key concepts from readings (This is how you will earn maximum points.)
- Keep discussion grounded to textual and factual ANALYSIS-NOT OPINION (see ‘Key Concepts’ handout on what constitutes Analysis).
- Be respectful of diverse viewpoints-we are all here to learn and grow (see step 2).
- Make analytic connections across readings to achieve fullest points.
- Interaction with your peers is essential, when responding to AT LEAST ONE student in discussion be sure to follow guidelines detailed above and based on academic sources.
- Include TOTAL WORD COUNT listed right bottom of post.
Essay response (1) = 90 points
You will be given prompt 2 weeks in advance and develop your essay. 2 Questions (45pts each) will be from theorists in first part of our course.
Politics, anti-racist, abolition theory & solutions presentation: 100 points
You will prepare a presentation of your topic, central thesis/argument and supporting academic evidence-make this fun by selecting a political issue/topic linked social movement or injustice linked to theorists/thinkers from our syllabus in “Modern, decolonial, anti-racist & abolition theory section” you would like to know more about or advocate for. Helpful tips: Get creative-this will be fun, include visual aids, artwork, photos, short video clips will assist your presentation. This will be an OER Open Educational Resources & Open Pedagogy assignment (specific guidelines forthcoming).
___________Schedule-Political Theory (Schedule subject to change)__________
Week 1 Education as Liberation & Ancient Political Thought
Jan 24-30th
Introduction/Overview
Watch: Snoop Dogg
Reading: Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (preface, Ch. 1 pgs. 43-50, Ch. 2 pgs 71-75)
Watch: Frontline t’s American Carnage
Week 2. Jan 31-Feb 6th
Reading: Socrates’ Defense
Discussion Post 1 (350 words MINIMUM) due
Week 3: Feb 7th-Feb 13th
Reading: Plato, The Republic
Week 4 Feb 14-20th
Reading: Plato, The Republic
Discussion Post 2 (350 words MINIMUM) due
Week 5 Early Modern, Social Contract Theory & Colonization
Feb 21-27th Reading: Machiavelli on the Science of Government
Reading: Hobbes Theory of the Rational State
Week 6 Feb 28-Mar 6th Reading: John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (Begin on page 105 (pdf) Essay 2: Sections: 1-6, 8, 9, 12, 14-16,18-19)
Week 7 Mar 7-Mar 13th Reading: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (pgs 9-42)
Week 8. Mar 14-20th
Essay DUE
Week 9: Modern and decolonial, anti-racist & Abolition theory
Mar 21-25th Reading: Karl Marx & Freidrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (pgs.14-34)
Reading: Karl Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts –(pgs. 28-35 & 36-39)
SPRING BREAK March 26-April 3rd
Week 10: April 4-10th
Reading: Karl Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts –(pgs 28-35 & 36-39)
Reading: Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Introduction & Ch 1: Overview)
Watch: 13th documentary
Wacth: Jodi Dean: Communism or Feudalism
Week 11: April 11-17th
Reading: Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Introduction & Ch 1: Overview)
Discussion Post 3 (350 words MINIMUM) due
Week 12: April 18-24th
Reading: Frantz Fanon, Preface & Ch 1: ON VIOLENCE pg 7 (preface by Jean Paul Sartre) and through Fanon's chapter on Violence at least though pg 50.)
Week 13: April 25-May 1st
Reading: continue Frantz Fanon, On Violence
Suggested (not required) Nelson Maldonado-Torres, Notes on Decolonizing Philosophy: Against Epistemic Extractivism and Toward the Abolition of the Canon
Watch: Battle of Algiers
Week 14: May 2-May 8th
Reading: Anibal Quijano, Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism and Latin America (p. 533-543)
Reading: Maria Lugones, Coloniality of Gender (p. 1-6)
Watch: Abolition 101
Discussion Post 4 Anti-racist & decolonial presentation outline due
Week 15: May 9-15th
Reading: Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, From #Black Lives to Black Liberation (CH 7)
Watch: Angela Y. Davis, Prison Industrial Complex
Week 16: May 16-20th.
Anti-racist & decolonial theory & solutions Presentation
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.019135
|
Lesson Plan
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95243/overview",
"title": "POLSC 240--Political Theory: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Homework/Assignment"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98596/overview
|
The Periods of Ancient Egypt
Overview
This presentation provides a very brief overview of the periods of Ancient Egypt. It covers some of the achievements and changes made during each period.
Early Dynastic Period 3100 BC - 2700 BC
During this period, the foundations of Egyptian civilization were layed by the actions of King Menes, ruler of Upper Egypt. King Menes conquered and united lower Egypt becoming the first pharaoh and establishing a civilization that would last for over 2000 years.
King Menes
“Egypt,” Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.), v. 9, 1911, plate II
Map of Ancient Egypt
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg
The Old Kingdom 2700 BC - 2100 BC
This is the period where Pharaohs built a strong central government making Egypt the first centralized state in history. The greatest achievements of this era were the construction of the Pyramids. Originally beginning as Mastabas or underground tombs with a single layer covering, by the 2600s BC, the architect and vizier of the Pharaoh Djoser, Imhotep designed the first pyramid fo Saqqara. Imhotep will become known as the world's first architect.
Ancient Egyptian Mastaba
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba#/media/File:Mastaba-faraoun-3.jpg
The first Pyramid of Egypt at Saqqara
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saqqara,_step_pyramid_of_Djoser_(6201557496).jpg
Under the reign of the Pharaoh Sneferu, the Pyramids developed into a more complex triangular deisgn. This becomes the primary style of pyramid building in Ancient Egypt during the Old Kingdom.
The Bent Pyramid of Sneferu
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bent_Pyramid
The Red Pyramid of Sneferu
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Red_Pyramid
The son of Sneferu, Khufu is known for building the Great Pyramid of Giza which is Egypt's largest pyramid and one of the three famous pyramids of Giza. Khufu's son and grandson, Kafra and Menkuare would build the other two pyramids and possible the Great Sphinx.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg
The building of such pyramids was expensive, lenghty and labor intensive. The Great Pyramid for example took close to 25 years to built. These costly projects combined with crop failures led to the end of the New Kingdom and the end of pyramid building in Ancient Egypt.
The Middle Kingdom 2100 BC - 1700 BC
The Middle Kingdom can be described as a period of peace and internal growth within Egypt. Many canals were built, farmland was expanded and the population of Egypt grew. Pyramids were no longer and future pharaohs would be buried in stone tombs.
Map of the Middle Kingdom
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Egypt_old_and_middle_kingdom-es.svg
The New Kingdom 1700 BC - 1050 BC
The New Kingdom marks a new phase for Ancient Egypt. The pharaohs are now warrior kings who expand Egypt in every direction and turn it into an Empire ruling as far south as Nubia and as far north as Syria.
Map of the New Kingdom
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.037505
|
11/09/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98596/overview",
"title": "The Periods of Ancient Egypt",
"author": "Konstadinos Ritsatos"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102944/overview
|
Crafting Coherent Essays PDF
Crafting Coherent Essays: An Academic Writer's Handbook
Overview
This OER textbook has been developed to support English Composition courses at rural Arizona community colleges. It includes content to help students develop and assemble academic essays.
Title Page
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This book, which can be accessed by downloading the attached Microsoft Word document or PDF, has been developed to support English Composition courses at rural Arizona community colleges. It includes content to help students develop and assemble academic essays.
AUTHORS
This book has been assembled by Erik Wilbur, John Hansen, and Beau Rogers at Mohave Community College.
Most of the content in this book has been sourced from creative commons licensed materials. Attributions for this borrowed and/or adapted and remixed content can be found at the end of each chapter.
Any text, graphic, or video without an attribution should be attributed to Mohave Community College by using the license below.
LICENSE
Crafting Coherent Essays: An Academic Writer’s Handbook by Mohave Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License except where otherwise noted.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.058632
|
04/15/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102944/overview",
"title": "Crafting Coherent Essays: An Academic Writer's Handbook",
"author": "Erik Wilbur"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69292/overview
|
Cell Membrane Function
Overview
Worksheet that goes over the types of transport associated with a cell membrane.
Cell Membrane Function: Passive and Active Transport
This is a worksheet that focuses on the movement of materials into and out of the cell. There is a short introduction followed by exercises and a comprehension quiz.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.076204
|
Homework/Assignment
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69292/overview",
"title": "Cell Membrane Function",
"author": "Life Science"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66544/overview
|
Unit Cancellation Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam
Unit Cancellation Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam Key
Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Packet Key A
Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Packet Practice Exam
Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Packet Practice Exam Key
Unit Cancellation
Overview
- Unit Cancellation Lesson 1 Video
- Complete Unit Cancellation Packet Lesson 1
- Class study session for help or a workday - Complete Unit Cancellation Lesson 1 Packet Practice Exam
- Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Video
- Complete Unit Cancellation Packet Lesson 2
- Class study session for help or a workday - Complete Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Packet Practice Exam
- Pesticide Lesson 1 and 2 Exam (20 pts)
Unit Cancellation Lesson 1
Unit Cancellation Lesson 1 Packet Name: ___________________________
Directions: Answers all questions showing work if needed. Partial credit may be given for correct work. This is an open note quiz. NOT OPEN BOOK OR OPEN COMPUTER. Soon you will have a closed note quiz like this.
- Multiply or divide the following problem, cancel units if possible (reduce) 1 pt
- (5/6) * (2/3)
- (5/6) / (2/3)
- (4/x) * (z/y)
- (4/x) / (z/y)
- (33/43) * ((zxy)/3)
- (33/43) / ((zxy)/3)
- (x*y/z*t) * ((y*r)/z)
- ((x+3)/ u) * (3+4)/2u
- ((x+3)/ u) / (3+4)/2u
- Multiply the following problem, cancel units if possible (reduce)1
- (18 kilograms/2 meters)*(5 kilograms/2 meters)
- (56 bushels/acre) * (32 ounces/acre)
- (5280 ft/ 1hr) * (65 sec/ 3 miles)
- (18 pounds/ 2 in^2) * (5 mew/ second)
- Divide the following problem, cancel units if possible (reduce) 1
- (18 kilograms/2 meters)/(5 kilograms/2 meters)
- (56 bushels/acre) / (32 ounces/acre)
- (32 bushels/ 2 acres) / (34 gallons/ acre)
- (9 m/sec)/ (3m / sec)
- Make a common denominator for the following and combine 1
- (4/5) + (1/3)
- (2/3) + (1/4)
- (2/x) + (2/y)
- (z/c) + (2/(c*s)
- (z/c) - (2/(c*s)
- ((6+4)/r) – (1/ xyz)
- (r/vb) + (1/cb)
- ((5x)/z) – (45/xy)
- (3 meters/sec) + (4 kg/ 1 in^2)
- (5 watts/ 1 util) – (4 watts/ 1 watson)
- (25 watts/ 1 sec) – ( 1 gallon/ 1 in)
- Change the following into a percent:
- 6000
- .0045
- 543000
- 0.034
- 1.04
- Change the following into a number:
- 0.0785%
- 56000%
- 104%
- 1004%
- 0.034%
- 0.56%
- 1/16 is what percent rounded to the hundredths place 1
- One is equal to _______________ percent. 1
Unit Cancellation Lesson 2
Unit Cancellation Lesson 2 Packet Name: ___________________________
Directions: Answer the following. You must prove units and have an answer.
Conversions you may need for problems 1-12:
1 ton/ 2000 pounds 60 sec/ 1min 60 min/1 hr 1 section/ 640 acres
1 bu wheat/ 60 lbs 1 bu barley/ 48 lbs 1 m/ 3.28 ft 365 days/ 1 year
52 weeks/ 1 year 128 ounces/ 1 gal 16 cups/ 1 gal 8 pints/ 1 gal
4 quarts/ 1 gal 1 fluid ounce/ 29.5735 milliliters 1 kilogram (kg) / 2.2 lbs
- You are going to fertilize a pasture. You put down 200 lbs per acre. You have 4000 acres. How many tons of fertilizer do you need?
- Your fertilized 1000 acres. You used 50 tons of fertilizer. How many lbs/acre did you put down?
- Your fertilized 500 acres. You used 20 tons of fertilizer. How many lbs/acre did you put down?
- You have 15 tons of fertilizer. How many sections can this fertilize at 15 pounds per acre?
- You are converting from meters to feet because you are reading an Australian study. The study states that you mix 85 milliliters of chemical per gallon of water. How many ounces per gallon do you mix?
- You are converting from meters to feet because you are reading an Australian study. The study states that you inject 75 milliliters per 650 kg of animal. How many ounces do you inject per pound of animal
- Someone is spraying a field that is 2000 meters wide. How many passes do they have to make with their 100 ft wide sprayer?
- A combine harvest 300 pounds of barley per minute. How many bushels of barley does it harvest in 48 hours?
- A combine can harvest 350 pounds of wheat per minute. It harvests 7800 bushels. How long did it take the combine to harvest this many bushels in hours?
- A combine can harvest 550 pounds of wheat per minute. It harvests 8800 bushels. How long did it take the combine to harvest this many bushels in hours?
- The dude for the Big Lebowski can harvest 20 acres/hour. You paid him 60 dollars for 8 hours of work. How many dollars did he get per acre?
- Booker T can harvest 50 acres/hour. You paid him 500 dollars for 8 hours of work. How many dollars did he get per acre?
- Write 0.00034 as a percent. 1 pt
- Solve and reduce: (x/y) / (y/y) 1 pt
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.120868
|
05/08/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66544/overview",
"title": "Unit Cancellation",
"author": "Kenan Layden"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92796/overview
|
Interactive Content
Interactive Image
kahoot
Phrasal Verbs Travel
PHRASAL VERBS
Overview
This is our lesson plan for a class directed to Political Sciences students.
INTRODUCTION
In this class, we will learn about one of the most extensive and necessary topics for communication in English, Phrasal verbs. We will start the class with an "ice breaker" activity in "Kahoot", in order to cut the tense environment between us as teachers students, and our learners, followed by a presentation on phrasal verbs. Once the subject has been explained, different interactive activities will be developed to promote and evaluate the learning of our students.
This class will be held up for students from the first semester of political sciences.
Ice breaker activity
We are going to present the basic phrasal verbs that we use in our daily routine with a multiple-choice Kahoot activity.
Presentation
A brief presentation with many facts, examples, and definitions about phrasal verbs.
Interactive image
We are going to present an interactive dialogue that includes many phrasal verbs to give an open view and as an example of these.
Educaplay activity
In the next activity, we are going to present a funny game with many activities that include audio with multiple choices relacionated with phrasal verbs
Exelearning Activity
This section will present a true and false activity, using the Exelearning application.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.146367
|
Valentina Chávez
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92796/overview",
"title": "PHRASAL VERBS",
"author": "Lesson Plan"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95535/overview
|
Kidney glomerulus with juxtaglomerular apparatus_630x, p000134
Overview
Kidney glomerulus with juxtaglomerular apparatus_630x, p000134
Kidney glomerulus with juxtaglomerular apparatus_630x, p000134
Kidney glomerulus with juxtaglomerular apparatus_630x, p000134
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.158331
|
07/25/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95535/overview",
"title": "Kidney glomerulus with juxtaglomerular apparatus_630x, p000134",
"author": "Lauren Amundson"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67057/overview
|
Self-Assessment
Human Services Code of Ethics and Professional Ethical Issues (Standards 10 and 11): Key Term Overview and Self-Assessment
Overview
This resource provides human services students with a general review and self-assessment of key terms related to diversity. This overview sets the foundation for advanced work on how to critically implement Human Services Code of Ethics Standards 10 and 11 in their work with clients.
STANDARD 10 Human service professionals provide services without discrimination or preference in regards to age, ethnicity, culture, race, ability, gender, language preference, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, nationality, or other historically oppressed groups.
STANDARD 11 Human service professionals are knowledgeable about their cultures and communities within which they practice. They are aware of multiculturalism in society and its impact on the community as well as individuals within the community. They respect the cultures and beliefs of individuals and groups.
Respect for Diversity
This chapter on respecting diversity is written from a community psychology lens, but addresses key terms that are very relevant in the human services field (especially in reference to human services ethical standards 10 and 11-below). While much of this chapter will be a review for you, please read through the text and take the self-assessment to ensure that you are familiar with these terms and concepts as we begin more advanced work in this area throughout Fieldwork I and II.
STANDARD 10 Human service professionals provide services without discrimination or preference in regards to age, ethnicity, culture, race, ability, gender, language preference, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, nationality, or other historically oppressed groups.
STANDARD 11 Human service professionals are knowledgeable about their cultures and communities within which they practice. They are aware of multiculturalism in society and its impact on the community as well as individuals within the community. They respect the cultures and beliefs of individuals and groups.
Self-Assessment
Take this quiz based on the previous reading (Respect for Diversity) and see how you do. Do you need to go back and review some sections? Do you have a good understanding of the concepts and terms? Do you have questions or need further clarification? Let me know and we can review!
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.177417
|
Nicole Kras
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67057/overview",
"title": "Human Services Code of Ethics and Professional Ethical Issues (Standards 10 and 11): Key Term Overview and Self-Assessment",
"author": "Textbook"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123079/overview
|
Stress and the impact of massage
Overview
Resources
Dermalogica: Skin care product manufacturer.
International Dermal Institute: Educational institution for Esthetics students.
Stress and the impact of massage
Created by Nadjmeh Sharifi
Instructional Aid
Dec. 15, 2024
San Jose City College
Student Learning Outcomes
- Learn about stress and the impact of massage.
- Learn about physiological effects of massage.
- Manage skin and wellbeing benefits.
- Apply techniques and protocol.
Stress and the Impact of Massage
Dermalogica's Neck and Shoulder Touch Therapy embodies old-style European or Swedish style massage techniques by distributing a deep tissue treatment through stretching the muscles and deep relaxation. It is a medium-to-firm massage that soothes upper body muscle tension and aids with stress relief in the head, neck, and shoulder areas. The deep tissue massage and stretching relieve muscle tension and induce a deep relaxation.
This massage is not only just for the upper body. It also has an effect psychologically, providing a powerful solution to stress and tension as an esthetician, we are only allowed to work on the upper body, and we do not call it a massage. Instead, it is called, therapy. The benefit of therapy is reducing stress because we often tend to squeeze our shoulders, effecting our neck and head. With today’s lifestyle, stress negatively impacts the upper body and in general, effects our health. Learning facial treatment, combined with neck and shoulder therapy, we can provide a stress management technique.
Physical Stress
One of issues, we face these days is poor posture, overworked muscles, and an environment in which we spend time front of computer. This all increases the amount of stress in our body.
Psychological Stress
Emotional stress can be identified in many different ways. We can feel it terms of resentment, fear, frustration, or sadness. Other indicators are sadness, anger, grief and more. Psychological stress can lead us to feeling out of control and not feeling like ourselves. This can be limiting when it comes to our roles, attitudes, and general everyday view of the world.
Benefits of skin and wellbeing
- Improves skin condition.
- Improve systemic function.
- Improve sleep.
- Lowers cortisol.
Techniques and protocol
The technique requires medium-to-firm pressure that activates dopamine and endorphins. These are hormones and increase chemical reactions that play a big role when it comes to feeling good, focusing, and elevating the standard of living and wellbeing. Also, deep skin massages help with eczema, acne, chronic skin conditions.
The Protocol
- Clients complete an intake form.
- Avoid open wounds.
- Awareness to an unusual skin condition.
- Should not diagnose skin problems. We only can encourage client to see dermatologist.
Resources
Dermalogica
https://www.instagram.com/dermalogica/?hl=en
Homepage - International Dermal Institute
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.209890
|
12/15/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123079/overview",
"title": "Stress and the impact of massage",
"author": "Nadjmeh Sharifi"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70957/overview
|
Legend of good women
Overview
Chaucer describes the virtuous women
Summary of Legend of Good women by Geoffrey Chaucer
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.226351
|
Lecture Notes
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70957/overview",
"title": "Legend of good women",
"author": "Lecture"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105840/overview
|
Priority Management
Overview
A lesson on priority management with self-exploration and direction from a Ted Talks with Laura Vanderkam. Students will learn about priorities and how they spend their time. They will evaluate where they currently are with their priority management and make necessary changes to their daily lives.
Time/Priority Management
There are many tools to help someone with managing their time. One of the best places to start is to manage your priorities. What is a priority? Well for me, my job is a priority. So is my wife. I also like to eat. And hangout with my family and friends. Sleeping is important too!
Throughout life our priorities will change and that is okay. Right now, this class should be high on your priority list. So should your health. But we are all different and have different desires in life. What we are going to try to accomplish today is find what is most important to you and how to put that into your weekly schedule.
First, let's make a list. Write down on a Word or Google doc., in no particular order, what you spend time on during a given day and throughout a typical week. Once you have your list I want you to number this list with number 1 being what you send the most time on, then 2 being the second most time, and so on.
Second, I want you to make another list next to or below the one that you just made. This list is what you think are your priorities. There is a high probability that the same words show up on both lists. Now just like you did with your first list I want you to number your priority list. Number 1 is what you feel is of the highest priority down to your lowest priority. Do your priorities match up with what you spend most of your day doing?
Third, watch the video below by Laura Vanderkam on TED Talks, How to gain control of your free time. You'll want to take notes of main ideas or concepts that stuck with you. With the assignment you'll need to write a few sentences on what you learned.
Here is an article by Laura Vanderkam found on her website that is very useful as well.
Fourth, I want you to make a list of the things you value (love, wealth, family, nature, popularity, freedom, friends, power, etc). Same as your lists from earlier, number them from 1 being what you want to spend the most time on during the week down to the least, or what you want your highest priorities to be down to your lowest priority. Now compare the three lists. Are they the same? Do you spend your week doing the things you value the most? Are your priorities in line? Are you ready to make a change to your typical week?
Fifth, download this excel sheet, Time Management. You will need two copies of this excel sheet. For the first schedule, fill out what your typical week looks like right now (normal work/school week). It should include everything that you do (eat, meal prep, sleep, study, work, commute, play video games, spend time with family, etc.) in your current week. Exactly how you spend your time. Every minute of it. How does it look?
For the second schedule you are to make your schedule based on your values/what you want to make a priority. Hopefully this is very similar to our first schedule, but there is a chance it will be completely different. This should be based off of your priority list. The higher the priority, the more you should see it in your schedule. Now this should be realistic. Make it something that you can apply to your life right now.
We want to spend more time on what matters and less time on what doesn't. We need to understand our values, priorities, how much time we actually have, and how we want to spend it. Let's make a little change that can have a positive impact on our daily lives.
Based upon the above activity complete the following.
1. Write a short paragraph (minimum of five sentences) of what you learned from the video. And how you might use what you learned in the video to clarify your priorities.
2. Develop two schedules, one of what your week looks like now and one of what you want it to look like in the future. How are these two schedules different? What changes can you make to your life to have more time to spend on the things you value? (Turn in your time management file from step 5 of the activity)
3. After looking at how you spend your time, what have you learned about your values? What changes if any would you like to make to the way you currently spend your time ?
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.242351
|
Elaine Isbell
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105840/overview",
"title": "Priority Management",
"author": "Homework/Assignment"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105879/overview
|
Proposed Model for Online Learning
Overview
This write up is about my proposed Model for Online Learning in fulfillment of the course Technology for Teaching and Learning.
Open Learning
This is about the model for Online Learning.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.258821
|
06/27/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105879/overview",
"title": "Proposed Model for Online Learning",
"author": "Marister Camello"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93388/overview
|
Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 400x p000023
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 400X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Candida albicans cells grown in broth culture at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
micrograph
Light background with a few dark purple oblong cells.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.276004
|
Emily Fox
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93388/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 400x p000023",
"author": "Diagram/Illustration"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100420/overview
|
Automotive Worker Characteristics 1-5
Overview
In the Continuous Improvement advanced Experience, students will explore concepts, skills and tools that support improvement in themselves, their peers, and their workplaces. This unit is comprised of content derived from competencies associated with the Technical Skills Grounded in Academics Essential Elements of the SkillsUSA Framework
Automotive Worker Characteristics 1
Program: Automotive Technology
Class Number: AUT 0001
Class Name: Worker Characteristic
Length: 6 Hours
Class Description:
In the Continuous Improvement advanced Experience, students will explore concepts, skills and tools that support improvement in themselves, their peers, and their workplaces. This unit is comprised of content derived from competencies associated with the Technical Skills Grounded in Academics Essential Elements of the SkillsUSA Framework
Prerequisites:
Completion of TCAT Campus Orientation
Completion of Automotive Safety and Orientation
Entry Level Skill-Sets/Standards:
Students should have proficiency with basic personal computer skills including: Using a mouse/keyboard, use a web-browser to open and navigate web pages, Basic operating system functions to support saving and printing files.
Students will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
- Computer and Technology Literacy
- Job-Specific Skills
- Safety and Health
- Service Orientation
- Professional Development
Textbook (s), Supplementary and Related Instructional Materials:
Required Textbooks:
| 9781284171822 | Bundle: Fundamentals of Automotive Technology 2nd Ed TEXTBOOK / 2 year PREFERRED ACCESS FAT2E Online Access Pack |
Supplementary Materials:
Supplemental textbook materials will be provided when assigned.
Online references and training materials will be used extensively for this course.
Instructional Materials
Skills USA Career Essentials
Please follow the instructions in the Career Essentials Student Login Instructions PDF located in CDX using the provided key name. Complete Unit 1: Continuous Improvement. Let the instructor know when you are ready for the Pre-Test, they will provide the Proctor credentials.
- Class Outline: Review all instructional materials, including the chapter in Fundamentals of Automotive Technology: Principles and Practice, 2e, and all related presentation support materials.
| Unit | Topics | Assignment Reference | Resource |
| 1 | Unit 1 – Continuous Improvement | ||
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 1 Pretest | Pre-test and Overview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.A: Computer and Technology Literacy | Using Technology Responsibly | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.A: Computer and Technology Literacy | Validating Information Online | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.B: Job-Specific Skills | Action Planning to Stretch Your Skills | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.B: Job-Specific Skills | Planning a Process | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.B: Job-Specific Skills | Going Above and Beyond | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.C Safety and Health | Committing to Personal Well-being | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.C Safety and Health | Following Safety Policies | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.C Safety and Health | Responding in an Emergency | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.D: Service Orientation | Building Strong Relationships | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.D: Service Orientation | Personal and Professional Time | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.D: Service Orientation | Customer Service Role-play | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.E: Professional Development | Your Career Interview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.E: Professional Development | Your Career Path | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.E: Professional Development | Your Progress Interview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 Essential Element 1.E: Professional Development | Standout Portfolios | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 1 | Post-test: Continuous Improvement | Skills USA Career Essentials |
Class Goals:
This class will explore:
- Computer and Technology Literacy
- Job-Specific Skills
- Safety and Health
- Service Orientation
- Professional Development
- Expected Learning Outcomes:
Upon Successful completion of this class, and obtaining Mastery Level of assessment with the unit objectives and skills, the student is expected to be able to:
- Computer and Technology Literacy: These are the skills needed in an ongoing process to effectively manage data, find innovative ways to make workplace tasks and processes more efficient and determine the reliability of information found online.
- Job-Specific Skills: These skills focus on finding incremental ways to build confidence in your abilities, teach others, seek help when you need it and make decisions that improve performance. Cumulatively, job-specific skills really add up!
- Safety and Health: Building safety and health-related skills involves finding small, consistent ways to prevent disease, improve the way you eat and stay in shape. It also includes building a strong peer network, observing safety and health policies to strengthen productivity and help others thrive and following safety procedures.
- Service Orientation: This skill involves responding to internal and external customers, demonstrating focus and presence and attending to personal matters outside the workplace in an effort for ongoing improvement.
- Professional Development: This includes an ongoing commitment — and demonstration of openness — to learn, grow and change, as well as the ability to find and use appropriate resources, manage your personal career and work toward licensing and certification requirements.
- Academic Assessment and Evaluation:
A. Related Information 33.3% of Grade
Chapter tests and Final Exams Average
B. Skill Proficiency 33.3% of Grade
Shop assignments and documentation (task sheets)
C. Worker Characteristics 33.3% of Grade
Attendance, Appearance, and Attitude
D. Bonus Points/ Extra Credit equal to the number of points above a passing grade on the ASE Exams in each subject.
E. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the Automotive Technology program.
A. Unit Level Exam(s)
Students must provide a digital copy of the Unit 1 Certificate uploaded into CDX to receive credit. The grade will be the post-test score once the certificate has been submitted into CDX.
B. Penalties
No late assignment or post-test submissions will be accepted.
C. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the AT program.
- General Class/Shop Rules
Attendance
Students are expected to attend class regularly.
- Class starts promptly at 8:00 am. Students must be in the classroom at 8:00 or be counted tardy.
- Students must sign out to leave the Automotive Technology area during class hours.
- Absent hours will be counted for sleeping in class and not participating in clean-up.
- Please contact the instructor when absent. Students who are absent three consecutive days with no contact will be dropped from enrollment.
Appearance
Students are expected to maintain a professional appearance while in class.
- Safety glasses are always required in the shop work areas.
- Steel toe shoes or boots are required.
- Uniforms must fit properly, and jackets must be grey flame-resistant fabric, no hoodies.
- Hats and tinted safety glasses are not permitted.
- Students will be sent home to correct uniform issues, and absent hours will increase.
- Tobacco use is only permitted in designated areas.
- Students should not loiter in the parking lot.
Attitude
- Students are expected to employ positive, professional and productive attitudes in class.
- Students will always observe shop safety. Horseplay will not be tolerated. Shop work is only permitted when the instructor is present.
- Students are always to speak respectfully to everyone. Profane, offensive, or harassing language is not tolerated.
- Students are to be on task while in class. Unauthorized cell phone or internet use will cost points. Food is to be eaten before class and during lunch break only. Drinks must be kept off the computer tables.
- Students are to respect customers, TCAT Knoxville, and classmate’s property.
- Fender covers are required for every project.
- All parts and fluids are to be returned to the customer.
- Reckless driving will not be tolerated.
- Test drives must be authorized by the instructor.
- All traffic laws must be obeyed during test drives.
- TCAT Knoxville tools and equipment must be used properly and returned in the original condition. No one is allowed in the tool room without permission from the instructor. Students assigned to the tool room must stay in the tool room.
- Tool carts are to be kept neat and orderly. Nothing should be left on the tool carts between projects.
- TCAT Knoxville computers are to be left in their original configuration.
- Students will not use classmate’s items without permission.
- Policies:
Details specific to all Technology Center policies as well as each policy listed can be found in the current revision to the TCAT Knoxville Institutional Catalog and Student Handbook online at
https://tcatknoxville.edu/current-students/student-handbookcatalog
(You will need to reference your institutions online catalog and student handbook)
- Attendance:
The nature of the programs at the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology is such that it is necessary for every student to attend regularly. Excessive interruptions due to absences will have an adverse effect on student progress.
The attendance policy is intended to promote dependability and positive worker characteristics essential to success in the workforce. Students are expected to be punctual and attend class each day. The purpose of the attendance policy is to provide those students with mitigating circumstances or emergencies beyond their control an exception to perfect attendance. Discretionary hours or personal time away from school is not considered appropriate absences. Further, students are required to call in absences to their instructor.
All students must attend at least 90.3% of their scheduled hours in order to maintain satisfactory attendance.
Any student who terminates for any cause and is in probationary status will continue the same probationary status if that student re-enters within one year of the termination date. When a student is terminated a second time because of failing grades and/or violation of policies, the administration must give approval before re-application can be made. Any student terminated due to attendance violations must wait a full trimester before being permitted to re-enroll.
- Disciplinary Policies:
Additional Information can be found on the Tennessee Board of Regents website at http://www.tbr.edu/policies/default.aspx?id=8033
0240-3-21-.01 Institution Policy Statement
0240-3-21-.02 Disciplinary Offenses
0240-3-21-.03 Academic and Classroom Misconduct
0240-3-21-.04 Disciplinary Sanctions
0240-3-21-.05 Disciplinary Procedures
0240-3-21-.06 Traffic and Parking Regulations
- Student Progress:
The Progress Policy provides the minimum criteria for evaluating student achievement relating to identified occupational competencies and defines retention standards of the institution.
Evaluations are recorded for each student at the end of the 72 days of instruction that comprise a trimester.
The trimester grade report will reflect each student’s progress in the following areas:
• Skill Proficiency
• Related Information (Academic Scores)
• Worker Characteristics
A student must maintain a “C” or better average for the 72 day period of instruction. Failure to do so will result in termination at the end of the trimester.
NOTE: Additional retention standards for specific programs may be maintained by the school pursuant to accreditation or licensing requirements. Students receiving financial aid should refer to that section of the catalog for additional requirements for eligibility.
- Computer Operation, Internet/Network Access:
Each computer user must review the policy and guidelines of the institution before operating any computer system. Compliance with this policy is necessary to insure maximum utilization and performance of each computer system, as well as provide a sense of security and respectful cooperation among the school community. Strict adherence to this policy will prevent costly damage or repair, down-time, and/or loss of computer privileges.
(1) No computer system may be used without prior approval of the supervising instructor or other school official.
(2) Because software is protected under copyright laws, no software can be copied without written authorization.
(3) No outside software can be loaded on school computers without written approval.
(4) Changes to a system’s configuration or the inappropriate deleting or changing of computer settings is forbidden.
(5) Technical manuals must not be removed from the training area.
(6) Computers must not be moved or repositioned on tables.
(7) To prevent damage to any system, computer users should not eat, drink or smoke around computer equipment.
(8) Specific instructions for access to the Internet or network:
(a) The system may not be used for personal or private matters.
(b) Creating, distributing, or accessing hate mail, pornographic or obscene material, discriminatory or harassing materials or communications is strictly forbidden.
(c) Anti-social behaviors (including spamming) are forbidden.
(d) Accessing pornographic images or language is forbidden.
(e) Creating, distributing, or accessing confidential material, including, but not limited to, test files or student/personnel records is forbidden.
Any person who violates this policy will be subject to appropriate disciplinary sanctions, including dismissal and/or possible prosecution.
- Services for Students with Disabilities:
According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), a student with a disability is someone who has a physical or mental impairment; has a history of impairment; or is believed to have a disability that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities, such as learning, speaking, working, hearing, breathing, caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, or walking.
TCAT provides services and academic accommodations for students with disabilities who self-identify as having a disability and provide appropriate documentation of the disability to Student Services. Student Services coordinates the services and academic accommodations for all students with disabilities.
These services include, but are not limited to, assistance with registration; new student advising; volunteer note-takers; notification to faculty of accommodation requests; extended/alternative testing; readers, scribes, and interpreters; tutor referrals; designated liaisons to faculty, staff, and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; use of campus adaptive equipment; and assistance in identifying/locating adaptive equipment.
Services of a personal nature are not provided. Students who need support services or accommodations for testing are encouraged to contact this office prior to enrollment.
Persons who need assistance or information on services that are available to students with disabilities should contact the Student Services Department.
Syllabus Changes:
The instructor reserves the right to make changes as necessary to this syllabus. If changes are necessitated during the term of the course, the instructor will immediately notify students of such changes both by individual communication and posting both notification and nature of change(s) on the course Learning Management System.
Technical Support:
For additional support on specific course content, objectives and requirements, please contact your course Instructor.
Automotive Worker Characteristics 2
Program: Automotive Technology
Class Number: AUT 0002
Class Name: Worker Characteristic
Length: 6 Hours
Class Description:
In this unit, learners will take action to create a desired result with little supervision. With focus and dedication, anyone can build this skill. Those who consistently demonstrate initiative at work are highly valued by their employers, peers, and customers. The Initiative unit is comprised of content derived from competencies associated with the Personal Skills component of the SkillsUSA Framework.
Prerequisites:
Completion of TCAT Campus Orientation
Completion of Automotive Safety and Orientation
Entry Level Skill-Sets/Standards:
Students should have proficiency with basic personal computer skills including: Using a mouse/keyboard, use a web-browser to open and navigate web pages, Basic operating system functions to support saving and printing files.
Students will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
- Work Ethic
- Professionalism
- Responsibility
- Adaptability/Flexibility
- Self-Motivation
- Integrity
Textbook (s), Supplementary and Related Instructional Materials:
Required Textbooks:
| 9781284171822 | Bundle: Fundamentals of Automotive Technology 2nd Ed TEXTBOOK / 2 year PREFERRED ACCESS FAT2E Online Access Pack |
Supplementary Materials:
Supplemental textbook materials will be provided when assigned.
Online references and training materials will be used extensively for this course.
Instructional Materials
Skills USA Career Essentials
Please follow the instructions in the Career Essentials Student Login Instructions PDF located in CDX using the provided key name. Complete Unit 2: Initiative. Let the instructor know when you are ready for the Pre-Test, they will provide the Proctor credentials.
- Class Outline: Review all instructional materials, including the chapter in Fundamentals of Automotive Technology: Principles and Practice, 2e, and all related presentation support materials.
| Unit | Topics | Assignment Reference | Resource |
| 1 | Unit 2 - Initiative | ||
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 2 Pretest | Pre-test and Overview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.A: Integrity | Being Accountable | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.A: Integrity | Documenting Your Personal Values | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.B: Work Ethic | Being a Great Employee | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.B: Work Ethic | Finding Leadership Opportunities | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.C: Professionalism | Dress Code Interview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.C: Professionalism | Reimagining Professionalism | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.C: Professionalism | Modeling Professionalism | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.D: Responsibility | Producing Great Work | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.D: Responsibility | Initiating Tasks | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.D: Responsibility | Holding Yourself Accountable | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.E: Adaptability/Flexibility | Initiating Change | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.E: Adaptability/Flexibility | Resolving Workplace Challenges | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.F: Self-Motivation | Planning for Success | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.F: Self-Motivation | Presenting Professional Attributes | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 2 Essential Element 2.F: Self-Motivation | Researching Job Opportunities | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 2 | Post-test: Initiative | Skills USA Career Essentials |
Class Goals:
This class will explore:
- Work Ethic
- Professionalism
- Responsibility
- Adaptability/Flexability
- Self-Motivation
- Integrity
- Expected Learning Outcomes:
Upon Successful completion of this class, and obtaining Mastery Level of assessment with the unit objectives and skills, the student is expected to be able to:
- Work Ethic: Having a strong work ethic helps you stand out in the workplace and earn respect and trust. It also means demonstrating initiative through tenacity and dedication to excellence. You are committed to being punctual, meeting deadlines and following established policies and procedures.
- Professionalism: Exhibiting professionalism means demonstrating loyalty, self-confidence, maturity, and a positive image — and behaving in alignment with workplace standards.
- Responsibility: Being responsible means people can depend on you; you follow through on your commitments. You are reliable and consistent, and you demonstrate personal and financial well-being.
- Adaptability/Flexibility: This skill involves embracing change, fostering creativity and new ideas and demonstrating resilience.
- Self-Motivation: When you are self-motivated, you are willing to learn. You exhibit passion for life and your career, and you can work with little or no supervision. You are in the habit of taking initiative and maintaining a positive attitude.
- Integrity: Having integrity means you do what you say you are going to do, even when no one is watching. You demonstrate honesty and ethical, authentic behavior, and you accept responsibility for your actions.
- Academic Assessment and Evaluation:
A. Related Information 33.3% of Grade
Chapter tests and Final Exams Average
B. Skill Proficiency 33.3% of Grade
Shop assignments and documentation (task sheets)
C. Worker Characteristics 33.3% of Grade
Attendance, Appearance, and Attitude
D. Bonus Points/ Extra Credit equal to the number of points above a passing grade on the ASE Exams in each subject.
E. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the Automotive Technology program.
A. Unit Level Exam(s)
Students must provide a digital copy of the Unit 1 Certificate uploaded into CDX to receive credit. The grade will be the post-test score once the certificate has been submitted into CDX.
B. Penalties
No late assignment or post-test submissions will be accepted.
C. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the AT program.
- General Class/Shop Rules
Attendance
Students are expected to attend class regularly.
- Class starts promptly at 8:00 am. Students must be in the classroom at 8:00 or be counted tardy.
- Students must sign out to leave the Automotive Technology area during class hours.
- Absent hours will be counted for sleeping in class and not participating in clean-up.
- Please contact the instructor when absent. Students who are absent three consecutive days with no contact will be dropped from enrollment.
Appearance
Students are expected to maintain a professional appearance while in class.
- Safety glasses are always required in the shop work areas.
- Steel toe shoes or boots are required.
- Uniforms must fit properly, and jackets must be grey flame-resistant fabric, no hoodies.
- Hats and tinted safety glasses are not permitted.
- Students will be sent home to correct uniform issues, and absent hours will increase.
- Tobacco use is only permitted in designated areas.
- Students should not loiter in the parking lot.
Attitude
- Students are expected to employ positive, professional and productive attitudes in class.
- Students will always observe shop safety. Horseplay will not be tolerated. Shop work is only permitted when the instructor is present.
- Students are always to speak respectfully to everyone. Profane, offensive, or harassing language is not tolerated.
- Students are to be on task while in class. Unauthorized cell phone or internet use will cost points. Food is to be eaten before class and during lunch break only. Drinks must be kept off the computer tables.
- Students are to respect customers, TCAT Knoxville, and classmate’s property.
- Fender covers are required for every project.
- All parts and fluids are to be returned to the customer.
- Reckless driving will not be tolerated.
- Test drives must be authorized by the instructor.
- All traffic laws must be obeyed during test drives.
- TCAT Knoxville tools and equipment must be used properly and returned in the original condition. No one is allowed in the tool room without permission from the instructor. Students assigned to the tool room must stay in the tool room.
- Tool carts are to be kept neat and orderly. Nothing should be left on the tool carts between projects.
- TCAT Knoxville computers are to be left in their original configuration.
- Students will not use classmate’s items without permission.
- Policies:
Details specific to all Technology Center policies as well as each policy listed can be found in the current revision to the TCAT Knoxville Institutional Catalog and Student Handbook online at
https://tcatknoxville.edu/current-students/student-handbookcatalog
(You will need to reference your institutions online catalog and student handbook)
- Attendance:
The nature of the programs at the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology is such that it is necessary for every student to attend regularly. Excessive interruptions due to absences will have an adverse effect on student progress.
The attendance policy is intended to promote dependability and positive worker characteristics essential to success in the workforce. Students are expected to be punctual and attend class each day. The purpose of the attendance policy is to provide those students with mitigating circumstances or emergencies beyond their control an exception to perfect attendance. Discretionary hours or personal time away from school is not considered appropriate absences. Further, students are required to call in absences to their instructor.
All students must attend at least 90.3% of their scheduled hours in order to maintain satisfactory attendance.
Any student who terminates for any cause and is in probationary status will continue the same probationary status if that student re-enters within one year of the termination date. When a student is terminated a second time because of failing grades and/or violation of policies, the administration must give approval before re-application can be made. Any student terminated due to attendance violations must wait a full trimester before being permitted to re-enroll.
- Disciplinary Policies:
Additional Information can be found on the Tennessee Board of Regents website at http://www.tbr.edu/policies/default.aspx?id=8033
0240-3-21-.01 Institution Policy Statement
0240-3-21-.02 Disciplinary Offenses
0240-3-21-.03 Academic and Classroom Misconduct
0240-3-21-.04 Disciplinary Sanctions
0240-3-21-.05 Disciplinary Procedures
0240-3-21-.06 Traffic and Parking Regulations
- Student Progress:
The Progress Policy provides the minimum criteria for evaluating student achievement relating to identified occupational competencies and defines retention standards of the institution.
Evaluations are recorded for each student at the end of the 72 days of instruction that comprise a trimester.
The trimester grade report will reflect each student’s progress in the following areas:
• Skill Proficiency
• Related Information (Academic Scores)
• Worker Characteristics
A student must maintain a “C” or better average for the 72 day period of instruction. Failure to do so will result in termination at the end of the trimester.
NOTE: Additional retention standards for specific programs may be maintained by the school pursuant to accreditation or licensing requirements. Students receiving financial aid should refer to that section of the catalog for additional requirements for eligibility.
- Computer Operation, Internet/Network Access:
Each computer user must review the policy and guidelines of the institution before operating any computer system. Compliance with this policy is necessary to insure maximum utilization and performance of each computer system, as well as provide a sense of security and respectful cooperation among the school community. Strict adherence to this policy will prevent costly damage or repair, down-time, and/or loss of computer privileges.
(1) No computer system may be used without prior approval of the supervising instructor or other school official.
(2) Because software is protected under copyright laws, no software can be copied without written authorization.
(3) No outside software can be loaded on school computers without written approval.
(4) Changes to a system’s configuration or the inappropriate deleting or changing of computer settings is forbidden.
(5) Technical manuals must not be removed from the training area.
(6) Computers must not be moved or repositioned on tables.
(7) To prevent damage to any system, computer users should not eat, drink or smoke around computer equipment.
(8) Specific instructions for access to the Internet or network:
(a) The system may not be used for personal or private matters.
(b) Creating, distributing, or accessing hate mail, pornographic or obscene material, discriminatory or harassing materials or communications is strictly forbidden.
(c) Anti-social behaviors (including spamming) are forbidden.
(d) Accessing pornographic images or language is forbidden.
(e) Creating, distributing, or accessing confidential material, including, but not limited to, test files or student/personnel records is forbidden.
Any person who violates this policy will be subject to appropriate disciplinary sanctions, including dismissal and/or possible prosecution.
- Services for Students with Disabilities:
According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), a student with a disability is someone who has a physical or mental impairment; has a history of impairment; or is believed to have a disability that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities, such as learning, speaking, working, hearing, breathing, caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, or walking.
TCAT provides services and academic accommodations for students with disabilities who self-identify as having a disability and provide appropriate documentation of the disability to Student Services. Student Services coordinates the services and academic accommodations for all students with disabilities.
These services include, but are not limited to, assistance with registration; new student advising; volunteer note-takers; notification to faculty of accommodation requests; extended/alternative testing; readers, scribes, and interpreters; tutor referrals; designated liaisons to faculty, staff, and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; use of campus adaptive equipment; and assistance in identifying/locating adaptive equipment.
Services of a personal nature are not provided. Students who need support services or accommodations for testing are encouraged to contact this office prior to enrollment.
Persons who need assistance or information on services that are available to students with disabilities should contact the Student Services Department.
Syllabus Changes:
The instructor reserves the right to make changes as necessary to this syllabus. If changes are necessitated during the term of the course, the instructor will immediately notify students of such changes both by individual communication and posting both notification and nature of change(s) on the course Learning Management System.
Technical Support:
For additional support on specific course content, objectives and requirements, please contact your course Instructor.
Automotive Worker Characteristics 3
Program: Automotive Technology
Class Number: AUT 0003
Class Name: Worker Characteristic
Length: 6 Hours
Class Description:
In this unit, learners will explore practices, tools and skills that enable them to work together with others for a common purpose. Collaboration is highly valued in the workplace for its ability to generate creative solutions to problems, apply information and expertise where they are most productive and increase employee satisfaction. The Collaboration unit is comprised of content derived from competencies associated with the Workplace Skills component of the SkillsUSA Framework.
Prerequisites:
Completion of TCAT Campus Orientation
Completion of Automotive Safety and Orientation
Entry Level Skill-Sets/Standards:
Students should have proficiency with basic personal computer skills including: Using a mouse/keyboard, use a web-browser to open and navigate web pages, Basic operating system functions to support saving and printing files.
Students will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
- Communication
- Decision Making
- Teamwork
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Planning, Organizing, and Management
- Leadership
Textbook (s), Supplementary and Related Instructional Materials:
Required Textbooks:
| 9781284171822 | Bundle: Fundamentals of Automotive Technology 2nd Ed TEXTBOOK / 2 year PREFERRED ACCESS FAT2E Online Access Pack |
Supplementary Materials:
Supplemental textbook materials will be provided when assigned.
Online references and training materials will be used extensively for this course.
Instructional Materials
Skills USA Career Essentials
Please follow the instructions in the Career Essentials Student Login Instructions PDF located in CDX using the provided key name. Complete : Collaboration. Let the instructor know when you are ready for the Pre-Test, they will provide the Proctor credentials.
- Class Outline: Review all instructional materials, including the chapter in Fundamentals of Automotive Technology: Principles and Practice, 2e, and all related presentation support materials.
| Unit | Topics | Assignment Reference | Resource |
| 1 | - Collaboration | ||
| Skills USA Career Essentials Pretest | Pre-test and Overview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.A: Communication | Communicating with Confidence | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.A: Communication | Summarizing Instructions | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.A: Communication | Communicating with Customers | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.A: Communication | Demonstrating a Process of Product | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.B: Decision Making | Mapping Decisions | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.B: Decision Making | Building Consensus for Decisions | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.C: Teamwork | Managing Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.C: Teamwork | Rebuilding Team Trust | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.C: Teamwork | Social Issues and the Workplace | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.C: Teamwork | Assessing Your Teamwork Skills | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.D: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Collaborating with Others | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.D: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Building Cultural Awareness | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.D: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Confronting Hidden Bias | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.D: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Bullying, Bystander to Ally | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.E: Planning, Organizing and Management | Modeling Leaders | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.E: Planning, Organizing and Management | Setting Goals | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Pillars of Leadership | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Responding to Unethical Behavior | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Seeking Leadership Opportunities | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Identifying Leadership Skills to Grow | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Cultivating Leadership Habits | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 3 Essential Element 3.F: Leadership | Giving and Receiving Feedback | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 3 | Post-test: Collaboration | Skills USA Career Essentials |
Class Goals:
This class will explore:
- Communication
- Decision Making
- Teamwork
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Planning, Organizing, and Management
- Leadership
- Expected Learning Outcomes:
Upon Successful completion of this class, and obtaining Mastery Level of assessment with the unit objectives and skills, the student is expected to be able to:
- Communication: Communication skills help you work professionally with colleagues and customers; get your ideas across verbally and in writing; and understand and apply workplace materials, such as procedures and policies.
- Decision Making: Decision making is about solving problems. Using data, reasoning, resourcefulness, and creativity to solve a problem helps you choose the most effective strategy.
- Teamwork: Team players work cooperatively with others, build trusting relationships, and honor and apply the contributions and individual strengths of team members. These teamwork skills are important, regardless of whether you are a leader or a member of a team.
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Being personable toward different people and cultures; fostering appropriate and respectful workplace relationships and interaction; and building your knowledge of different cultures, races, religions, genders, or sexual orientations will help you work well with all your colleagues and/or classmates.
- Planning, Organizing and Management: This includes designing and implementing detailed plans, prioritizing, and managing multiple and changing priorities and persevering to complete projects and tasks within desired time frames and in adherence to established standards of quality.
- Leadership: Good leaders craft and articulate a vision and goals — and motivate and coach others to achieve them — by building positive relationships with others and giving them the resources, they need to be successful.
- Academic Assessment and Evaluation:
A. Related Information 33.3% of Grade
Chapter tests and Final Exams Average
B. Skill Proficiency 33.3% of Grade
Shop assignments and documentation (task sheets)
C. Worker Characteristics 33.3% of Grade
Attendance, Appearance, and Attitude
D. Bonus Points/ Extra Credit equal to the number of points above a passing grade on the ASE Exams in each subject.
E. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the Automotive Technology program.
A. Unit Level Exam(s)
Students must provide a digital copy of the Unit 1 Certificate uploaded into CDX to receive credit. The grade will be the post-test score once the certificate has been submitted into CDX.
B. Penalties
No late assignment or post-test submissions will be accepted.
C. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the AT program.
- General Class/Shop Rules
Attendance
Students are expected to attend class regularly.
- Class starts promptly at 8:00 am. Students must be in the classroom at 8:00 or be counted tardy.
- Students must sign out to leave the Automotive Technology area during class hours.
- Absent hours will be counted for sleeping in class and not participating in clean-up.
- Please contact the instructor when absent. Students who are absent three consecutive days with no contact will be dropped from enrollment.
Appearance
Students are expected to maintain a professional appearance while in class.
- Safety glasses are always required in the shop work areas.
- Steel toe shoes or boots are required.
- Uniforms must fit properly, and jackets must be grey flame-resistant fabric, no hoodies.
- Hats and tinted safety glasses are not permitted.
- Students will be sent home to correct uniform issues, and absent hours will increase.
- Tobacco use is only permitted in designated areas.
- Students should not loiter in the parking lot.
Attitude
- Students are expected to employ positive, professional and productive attitudes in class.
- Students will always observe shop safety. Horseplay will not be tolerated. Shop work is only permitted when the instructor is present.
- Students are always to speak respectfully to everyone. Profane, offensive, or harassing language is not tolerated.
- Students are to be on task while in class. Unauthorized cell phone or internet use will cost points. Food is to be eaten before class and during lunch break only. Drinks must be kept off the computer tables.
- Students are to respect customers, TCAT Knoxville, and classmate’s property.
- Fender covers are required for every project.
- All parts and fluids are to be returned to the customer.
- Reckless driving will not be tolerated.
- Test drives must be authorized by the instructor.
- All traffic laws must be obeyed during test drives.
- TCAT Knoxville tools and equipment must be used properly and returned in the original condition. No one is allowed in the tool room without permission from the instructor. Students assigned to the tool room must stay in the tool room.
- Tool carts are to be kept neat and orderly. Nothing should be left on the tool carts between projects.
- TCAT Knoxville computers are to be left in their original configuration.
- Students will not use classmate’s items without permission.
- Policies:
Details specific to all Technology Center policies as well as each policy listed can be found in the current revision to the TCAT Knoxville Institutional Catalog and Student Handbook online at
https://tcatknoxville.edu/current-students/student-handbookcatalog
(You will need to reference your institutions online catalog and student handbook)
- Attendance:
The nature of the programs at the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology is such that it is necessary for every student to attend regularly. Excessive interruptions due to absences will have an adverse effect on student progress.
The attendance policy is intended to promote dependability and positive worker characteristics essential to success in the workforce. Students are expected to be punctual and attend class each day. The purpose of the attendance policy is to provide those students with mitigating circumstances or emergencies beyond their control an exception to perfect attendance. Discretionary hours or personal time away from school is not considered appropriate absences. Further, students are required to call in absences to their instructor.
All students must attend at least 90.3% of their scheduled hours in order to maintain satisfactory attendance.
Any student who terminates for any cause and is in probationary status will continue the same probationary status if that student re-enters within one year of the termination date. When a student is terminated a second time because of failing grades and/or violation of policies, the administration must give approval before re-application can be made. Any student terminated due to attendance violations must wait a full trimester before being permitted to re-enroll.
- Disciplinary Policies:
Additional Information can be found on the Tennessee Board of Regents website at http://www.tbr.edu/policies/default.aspx?id=8033
0240-3-21-.01 Institution Policy Statement
0240-3-21-.02 Disciplinary Offenses
0240-3-21-.03 Academic and Classroom Misconduct
0240-3-21-.04 Disciplinary Sanctions
0240-3-21-.05 Disciplinary Procedures
0240-3-21-.06 Traffic and Parking Regulations
- Student Progress:
The Progress Policy provides the minimum criteria for evaluating student achievement relating to identified occupational competencies and defines retention standards of the institution.
Evaluations are recorded for each student at the end of the 72 days of instruction that comprise a trimester.
The trimester grade report will reflect each student’s progress in the following areas:
• Skill Proficiency
• Related Information (Academic Scores)
• Worker Characteristics
A student must maintain a “C” or better average for the 72 day period of instruction. Failure to do so will result in termination at the end of the trimester.
NOTE: Additional retention standards for specific programs may be maintained by the school pursuant to accreditation or licensing requirements. Students receiving financial aid should refer to that section of the catalog for additional requirements for eligibility.
- Computer Operation, Internet/Network Access:
Each computer user must review the policy and guidelines of the institution before operating any computer system. Compliance with this policy is necessary to insure maximum utilization and performance of each computer system, as well as provide a sense of security and respectful cooperation among the school community. Strict adherence to this policy will prevent costly damage or repair, down-time, and/or loss of computer privileges.
(1) No computer system may be used without prior approval of the supervising instructor or other school official.
(2) Because software is protected under copyright laws, no software can be copied without written authorization.
(3) No outside software can be loaded on school computers without written approval.
(4) Changes to a system’s configuration or the inappropriate deleting or changing of computer settings is forbidden.
(5) Technical manuals must not be removed from the training area.
(6) Computers must not be moved or repositioned on tables.
(7) To prevent damage to any system, computer users should not eat, drink or smoke around computer equipment.
(8) Specific instructions for access to the Internet or network:
(a) The system may not be used for personal or private matters.
(b) Creating, distributing, or accessing hate mail, pornographic or obscene material, discriminatory or harassing materials or communications is strictly forbidden.
(c) Anti-social behaviors (including spamming) are forbidden.
(d) Accessing pornographic images or language is forbidden.
(e) Creating, distributing, or accessing confidential material, including, but not limited to, test files or student/personnel records is forbidden.
Any person who violates this policy will be subject to appropriate disciplinary sanctions, including dismissal and/or possible prosecution.
- Services for Students with Disabilities:
According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), a student with a disability is someone who has a physical or mental impairment; has a history of impairment; or is believed to have a disability that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities, such as learning, speaking, working, hearing, breathing, caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, or walking.
TCAT provides services and academic accommodations for students with disabilities who self-identify as having a disability and provide appropriate documentation of the disability to Student Services. Student Services coordinates the services and academic accommodations for all students with disabilities.
These services include, but are not limited to, assistance with registration; new student advising; volunteer note-takers; notification to faculty of accommodation requests; extended/alternative testing; readers, scribes, and interpreters; tutor referrals; designated liaisons to faculty, staff, and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; use of campus adaptive equipment; and assistance in identifying/locating adaptive equipment.
Services of a personal nature are not provided. Students who need support services or accommodations for testing are encouraged to contact this office prior to enrollment.
Persons who need assistance or information on services that are available to students with disabilities should contact the Student Services Department.
Syllabus Changes:
The instructor reserves the right to make changes as necessary to this syllabus. If changes are necessitated during the term of the course, the instructor will immediately notify students of such changes both by individual communication and posting both notification and nature of change(s) on the course Learning Management System.
Technical Support:
For additional support on specific course content, objectives and requirements, please contact your course Instructor.
Automotive Worker Characteristics 4
Program: Automotive Technology
Class Number: AUT 0004
Class Name: Worker Characteristic
Length: 6 Hours
Class Description:
In the Customer Service Advanced Experience, students will explore practices, tools and skills that enable them to work together with others for a common purpose. Customer Service is a skill needed in the workplace to provide the support and assistance to people who buy, subscribe to, use or otherwise benefit from an organization’s products or services.
Prerequisites:
Completion of TCAT Campus Orientation
Completion of Automotive Safety and Orientation
Entry Level Skill-Sets/Standards:
Students should have proficiency with basic personal computer skills including: Using a mouse/keyboard, use a web-browser to open and navigate web pages, Basic operating system functions to support saving and printing files.
Students will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
- Integrity
- Work Ethic
- Service Orientation
- Communication
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Professionalism
Textbook (s), Supplementary and Related Instructional Materials:
Required Textbooks:
| 9781284171822 | Bundle: Fundamentals of Automotive Technology 2nd Ed TEXTBOOK / 2 year PREFERRED ACCESS FAT2E Online Access Pack |
Supplementary Materials:
Supplemental textbook materials will be provided when assigned.
Online references and training materials will be used extensively for this course.
Instructional Materials
Skills USA Career Essentials
Please follow the instructions in the Career Essentials Student Login Instructions PDF located in CDX using the provided key name. Complete Unit 4: Customer Service. Let the instructor know when you are ready for the Pre-Test, they will provide the Proctor credentials.
- Class Outline: Review all instructional materials, including the chapter in Fundamentals of Automotive Technology: Principles and Practice, 2e, and all related presentation support materials.
| Unit | Topics | Assignment Reference | Resource |
| 1 | Unit 4 Customer Service | ||
| Skills USA Career Essentials Pretest | Pre-test and Overview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Accountability in Customer Service | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Recovering from Mistakes | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Resolving Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Demonstrating Work Ethic | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Respecting Workplace Regulations | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Finding Service Opportunities | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Tracking Your Day | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Managing Customer Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Meeting Customers’ Needs | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Building Customer Relationships | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Creating a Positive Environment | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Communicating with Customers | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Following Instructions | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Understanding Points of View | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Persuading Customers | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Creating a Work Plan | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Approaching Controversial Issues | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Cultural Beliefs and Communication | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Respecting Physical and Sensory Challenges | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Culture and Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Respecting Dress Codes | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Modeling Professionalism | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 4 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Professionalism Online | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 4 | Post-test: Collaboration | Skills USA Career Essentials |
Class Goals:
This class will explore:
- Integrity
- Work Ethic
- Service Orientation
- Communication
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Professionalism
- Expected Learning Outcomes:
Upon Successful completion of this class, and obtaining Mastery Level of assessment with the unit objectives and skills, the student is expected to be able to:
- Integrity: Having integrity means you do what you say you’re going to do, even when no one is keeping tabs. You demonstrate honesty and ethical, authentic behavior when dealing with customers and you accept personal responsibility for your actions.
- Work Ethic: When you’re known for having a strong work ethic, you’ll stand out in the workplace and among your customers and earn respect and trust. Having a solid work ethic means demonstrating initiative through tenacity and dedication to excellence. You’re committed to being punctual, meeting deadlines and following established policies and procedures.
- Communication: Communication skills help you work professionally with colleagues and customers, get your ideas across verbally and in writing and understand and apply workplace materials such as procedures and policies.
- Service Orientation: Responding to internal and external customers, showing that you’re present and focused and knowing how to separate personal from professional matters are all skills that help you provide great service!
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Being personable towards different people and cultures, fostering appropriate and respectful workplace relationships and interaction and building one’s knowledge of different cultures, races, religions and sexualities will help you work well together.
- Professionalism: Having professionalism means demonstrating loyalty, self-confidence, maturity, and a positive image — and behaving in alignment with the standards of your workplace.
- Academic Assessment and Evaluation:
A. Related Information 33.3% of Grade
Chapter tests and Final Exams Average
B. Skill Proficiency 33.3% of Grade
Shop assignments and documentation (task sheets)
C. Worker Characteristics 33.3% of Grade
Attendance, Appearance, and Attitude
D. Bonus Points/ Extra Credit equal to the number of points above a passing grade on the ASE Exams in each subject.
E. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the Automotive Technology program.
A. Unit Level Exam(s)
Students must provide a digital copy of the Unit 1 Certificate uploaded into CDX to receive credit. The grade will be the post-test score once the certificate has been submitted into CDX.
B. Penalties
No late assignment or post-test submissions will be accepted.
C. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the AT program.
- General Class/Shop Rules
Attendance
Students are expected to attend class regularly.
- Class starts promptly at 8:00 am. Students must be in the classroom at 8:00 or be counted tardy.
- Students must sign out to leave the Automotive Technology area during class hours.
- Absent hours will be counted for sleeping in class and not participating in clean-up.
- Please contact the instructor when absent. Students who are absent three consecutive days with no contact will be dropped from enrollment.
Appearance
Students are expected to maintain a professional appearance while in class.
- Safety glasses are always required in the shop work areas.
- Steel toe shoes or boots are required.
- Uniforms must fit properly, and jackets must be grey flame-resistant fabric, no hoodies.
- Hats and tinted safety glasses are not permitted.
- Students will be sent home to correct uniform issues, and absent hours will increase.
- Tobacco use is only permitted in designated areas.
- Students should not loiter in the parking lot.
Attitude
- Students are expected to employ positive, professional and productive attitudes in class.
- Students will always observe shop safety. Horseplay will not be tolerated. Shop work is only permitted when the instructor is present.
- Students are always to speak respectfully to everyone. Profane, offensive, or harassing language is not tolerated.
- Students are to be on task while in class. Unauthorized cell phone or internet use will cost points. Food is to be eaten before class and during lunch break only. Drinks must be kept off the computer tables.
- Students are to respect customers, TCAT Knoxville, and classmate’s property.
- Fender covers are required for every project.
- All parts and fluids are to be returned to the customer.
- Reckless driving will not be tolerated.
- Test drives must be authorized by the instructor.
- All traffic laws must be obeyed during test drives.
- TCAT Knoxville tools and equipment must be used properly and returned in the original condition. No one is allowed in the tool room without permission from the instructor. Students assigned to the tool room must stay in the tool room.
- Tool carts are to be kept neat and orderly. Nothing should be left on the tool carts between projects.
- TCAT Knoxville computers are to be left in their original configuration.
- Students will not use classmate’s items without permission.
- Policies:
Details specific to all Technology Center policies as well as each policy listed can be found in the current revision to the TCAT Knoxville Institutional Catalog and Student Handbook online at
https://tcatknoxville.edu/current-students/student-handbookcatalog
(You will need to reference your institutions online catalog and student handbook)
- Attendance:
The nature of the programs at the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology is such that it is necessary for every student to attend regularly. Excessive interruptions due to absences will have an adverse effect on student progress.
The attendance policy is intended to promote dependability and positive worker characteristics essential to success in the workforce. Students are expected to be punctual and attend class each day. The purpose of the attendance policy is to provide those students with mitigating circumstances or emergencies beyond their control an exception to perfect attendance. Discretionary hours or personal time away from school is not considered appropriate absences. Further, students are required to call in absences to their instructor.
All students must attend at least 90.3% of their scheduled hours in order to maintain satisfactory attendance.
Any student who terminates for any cause and is in probationary status will continue the same probationary status if that student re-enters within one year of the termination date. When a student is terminated a second time because of failing grades and/or violation of policies, the administration must give approval before re-application can be made. Any student terminated due to attendance violations must wait a full trimester before being permitted to re-enroll.
- Disciplinary Policies:
Additional Information can be found on the Tennessee Board of Regents website at http://www.tbr.edu/policies/default.aspx?id=8033
0240-3-21-.01 Institution Policy Statement
0240-3-21-.02 Disciplinary Offenses
0240-3-21-.03 Academic and Classroom Misconduct
0240-3-21-.04 Disciplinary Sanctions
0240-3-21-.05 Disciplinary Procedures
0240-3-21-.06 Traffic and Parking Regulations
- Student Progress:
The Progress Policy provides the minimum criteria for evaluating student achievement relating to identified occupational competencies and defines retention standards of the institution.
Evaluations are recorded for each student at the end of the 72 days of instruction that comprise a trimester.
The trimester grade report will reflect each student’s progress in the following areas:
• Skill Proficiency
• Related Information (Academic Scores)
• Worker Characteristics
A student must maintain a “C” or better average for the 72 day period of instruction. Failure to do so will result in termination at the end of the trimester.
NOTE: Additional retention standards for specific programs may be maintained by the school pursuant to accreditation or licensing requirements. Students receiving financial aid should refer to that section of the catalog for additional requirements for eligibility.
- Computer Operation, Internet/Network Access:
Each computer user must review the policy and guidelines of the institution before operating any computer system. Compliance with this policy is necessary to insure maximum utilization and performance of each computer system, as well as provide a sense of security and respectful cooperation among the school community. Strict adherence to this policy will prevent costly damage or repair, down-time, and/or loss of computer privileges.
(1) No computer system may be used without prior approval of the supervising instructor or other school official.
(2) Because software is protected under copyright laws, no software can be copied without written authorization.
(3) No outside software can be loaded on school computers without written approval.
(4) Changes to a system’s configuration or the inappropriate deleting or changing of computer settings is forbidden.
(5) Technical manuals must not be removed from the training area.
(6) Computers must not be moved or repositioned on tables.
(7) To prevent damage to any system, computer users should not eat, drink or smoke around computer equipment.
(8) Specific instructions for access to the Internet or network:
(a) The system may not be used for personal or private matters.
(b) Creating, distributing, or accessing hate mail, pornographic or obscene material, discriminatory or harassing materials or communications is strictly forbidden.
(c) Anti-social behaviors (including spamming) are forbidden.
(d) Accessing pornographic images or language is forbidden.
(e) Creating, distributing, or accessing confidential material, including, but not limited to, test files or student/personnel records is forbidden.
Any person who violates this policy will be subject to appropriate disciplinary sanctions, including dismissal and/or possible prosecution.
- Services for Students with Disabilities:
According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), a student with a disability is someone who has a physical or mental impairment; has a history of impairment; or is believed to have a disability that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities, such as learning, speaking, working, hearing, breathing, caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, or walking.
TCAT provides services and academic accommodations for students with disabilities who self-identify as having a disability and provide appropriate documentation of the disability to Student Services. Student Services coordinates the services and academic accommodations for all students with disabilities.
These services include, but are not limited to, assistance with registration; new student advising; volunteer note-takers; notification to faculty of accommodation requests; extended/alternative testing; readers, scribes, and interpreters; tutor referrals; designated liaisons to faculty, staff, and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; use of campus adaptive equipment; and assistance in identifying/locating adaptive equipment.
Services of a personal nature are not provided. Students who need support services or accommodations for testing are encouraged to contact this office prior to enrollment.
Persons who need assistance or information on services that are available to students with disabilities should contact the Student Services Department.
Syllabus Changes:
The instructor reserves the right to make changes as necessary to this syllabus. If changes are necessitated during the term of the course, the instructor will immediately notify students of such changes both by individual communication and posting both notification and nature of change(s) on the course Learning Management System.
Technical Support:
For additional support on specific course content, objectives and requirements, please contact your course Instructor.
Automotive Worker Characteristics 5
Program: Automotive Technology
Class Number: AUT 0005
Class Name: Worker Characteristic
Length: 6 Hours
Class Description:
In the Customer Service Advanced Experience, students will explore practices, tools and skills that enable them to work together with others for a common purpose. Customer Service is a skill needed in the workplace to provide the support and assistance to people who buy, subscribe to, use or otherwise benefit from an organization’s products or services.
Prerequisites:
Completion of TCAT Campus Orientation
Completion of Automotive Safety and Orientation
Entry Level Skill-Sets/Standards:
Students should have proficiency with basic personal computer skills including: Using a mouse/keyboard, use a web-browser to open and navigate web pages, Basic operating system functions to support saving and printing files.
Students will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
- Integrity
- Work Ethic
- Service Orientation
- Communication
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Professionalism
Textbook (s), Supplementary and Related Instructional Materials:
Required Textbooks:
| 9781284171822 | Bundle: Fundamentals of Automotive Technology 2nd Ed TEXTBOOK / 2 year PREFERRED ACCESS FAT2E Online Access Pack |
Supplementary Materials:
Supplemental textbook materials will be provided when assigned.
Online references and training materials will be used extensively for this course.
Instructional Materials
Skills USA Career Essentials
Please follow the instructions in the Career Essentials Student Login Instructions PDF located in CDX using the provided key name. Complete Unit 5: Customer Service. Let the instructor know when you are ready for the Pre-Test, they will provide the Proctor credentials.
- Class Outline: Review all instructional materials, including the chapter in Fundamentals of Automotive Technology: Principles and Practice, 2e, and all related presentation support materials.
| Unit | Topics | Assignment Reference | Resource |
| 1 | Unit 5 Customer Service | ||
| Skills USA Career Essentials Pretest | Pre-test and Overview | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Accountability in Customer Service | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Recovering from Mistakes | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.A: Integrity | Resolving Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Demonstrating Work Ethic | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Respecting Workplace Regulations | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Finding Service Opportunities | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.B: Work Ethic | Tracking Your Day | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Managing Customer Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Meeting Customers’ Needs | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Building Customer Relationships | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.C: Service Orientation | Creating a Positive Environment | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Communicating with Customers | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Following Instructions | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Understanding Points of View | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Persuading Customers | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Creating a Work Plan | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.D: Communication | Approaching Controversial Issues | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Cultural Beliefs and Communication | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Respecting Physical and Sensory Challenges | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.E: Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness | Culture and Conflict | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Respecting Dress Codes | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Modeling Professionalism | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Career Essentials Unit 5 Essential Element 4.F: Professionalism | Professionalism Online | Skills USA Career Essentials | |
| Skills USA Career Essentials Unit 5 | Post-test: Collaboration | Skills USA Career Essentials |
Class Goals:
This class will explore:
- Integrity
- Work Ethic
- Service Orientation
- Communication
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness
- Professionalism
- Expected Learning Outcomes:
Upon Successful completion of this class, and obtaining Mastery Level of assessment with the unit objectives and skills, the student is expected to be able to:
- Integrity: Having integrity means you do what you say you’re going to do, even when no one is keeping tabs. You demonstrate honesty and ethical, authentic behavior when dealing with customers and you accept personal responsibility for your actions.
- Work Ethic: When you’re known for having a strong work ethic, you’ll stand out in the workplace and among your customers and earn respect and trust. Having a solid work ethic means demonstrating initiative through tenacity and dedication to excellence. You’re committed to being punctual, meeting deadlines and following established policies and procedures.
- Communication: Communication skills help you work professionally with colleagues and customers, get your ideas across verbally and in writing and understand and apply workplace materials such as procedures and policies.
- Service Orientation: Responding to internal and external customers, showing that you’re present and focused and knowing how to separate personal from professional matters are all skills that help you provide great service!
- Multicultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Being personable towards different people and cultures, fostering appropriate and respectful workplace relationships and interaction and building one’s knowledge of different cultures, races, religions and sexualities will help you work well together.
- Professionalism: Having professionalism means demonstrating loyalty, self-confidence, maturity, and a positive image — and behaving in alignment with the standards of your workplace.
- Academic Assessment and Evaluation:
A. Related Information 33.3% of Grade
Chapter tests and Final Exams Average
B. Skill Proficiency 33.3% of Grade
Shop assignments and documentation (task sheets)
C. Worker Characteristics 33.3% of Grade
Attendance, Appearance, and Attitude
D. Bonus Points/ Extra Credit equal to the number of points above a passing grade on the ASE Exams in each subject.
E. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the Automotive Technology program.
A. Unit Level Exam(s)
Students must provide a digital copy of the Unit 1 Certificate uploaded into CDX to receive credit. The grade will be the post-test score once the certificate has been submitted into CDX.
B. Penalties
No late assignment or post-test submissions will be accepted.
C. Academic Grading Scale
90 – 100(+) A Mastery of Learning Objectives and Skills
80 – 89% B Competent Knowledge and Skills
70 – 79% C Passable Knowledge with Minimal Skills
60 – 69% D Unsatisfactory Knowledge and Skill Abilities
0 – 59% F Failure to Reach Acceptable Knowledge or Skill Abilities
A student must maintain a "D" or better average per course code and an overall combined average of a "C" or better for the 72-day period of instruction, which comprises a term. Failure to maintain the required grade average will result in suspension at the end of the term.
Students are required to archive their completed unit assignments and the various unit exercises and projects for the duration of their enrollment in the AT program.
- General Class/Shop Rules
Attendance
Students are expected to attend class regularly.
- Class starts promptly at 8:00 am. Students must be in the classroom at 8:00 or be counted tardy.
- Students must sign out to leave the Automotive Technology area during class hours.
- Absent hours will be counted for sleeping in class and not participating in clean-up.
- Please contact the instructor when absent. Students who are absent three consecutive days with no contact will be dropped from enrollment.
Appearance
Students are expected to maintain a professional appearance while in class.
- Safety glasses are always required in the shop work areas.
- Steel toe shoes or boots are required.
- Uniforms must fit properly, and jackets must be grey flame-resistant fabric, no hoodies.
- Hats and tinted safety glasses are not permitted.
- Students will be sent home to correct uniform issues, and absent hours will increase.
- Tobacco use is only permitted in designated areas.
- Students should not loiter in the parking lot.
Attitude
- Students are expected to employ positive, professional and productive attitudes in class.
- Students will always observe shop safety. Horseplay will not be tolerated. Shop work is only permitted when the instructor is present.
- Students are always to speak respectfully to everyone. Profane, offensive, or harassing language is not tolerated.
- Students are to be on task while in class. Unauthorized cell phone or internet use will cost points. Food is to be eaten before class and during lunch break only. Drinks must be kept off the computer tables.
- Students are to respect customers, TCAT Knoxville, and classmate’s property.
- Fender covers are required for every project.
- All parts and fluids are to be returned to the customer.
- Reckless driving will not be tolerated.
- Test drives must be authorized by the instructor.
- All traffic laws must be obeyed during test drives.
- TCAT Knoxville tools and equipment must be used properly and returned in the original condition. No one is allowed in the tool room without permission from the instructor. Students assigned to the tool room must stay in the tool room.
- Tool carts are to be kept neat and orderly. Nothing should be left on the tool carts between projects.
- TCAT Knoxville computers are to be left in their original configuration.
- Students will not use classmate’s items without permission.
- Policies:
Details specific to all Technology Center policies as well as each policy listed can be found in the current revision to the TCAT Knoxville Institutional Catalog and Student Handbook online at
https://tcatknoxville.edu/current-students/student-handbookcatalog
(You will need to reference your institutions online catalog and student handbook)
- Attendance:
The nature of the programs at the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology is such that it is necessary for every student to attend regularly. Excessive interruptions due to absences will have an adverse effect on student progress.
The attendance policy is intended to promote dependability and positive worker characteristics essential to success in the workforce. Students are expected to be punctual and attend class each day. The purpose of the attendance policy is to provide those students with mitigating circumstances or emergencies beyond their control an exception to perfect attendance. Discretionary hours or personal time away from school is not considered appropriate absences. Further, students are required to call in absences to their instructor.
All students must attend at least 90.3% of their scheduled hours in order to maintain satisfactory attendance.
Any student who terminates for any cause and is in probationary status will continue the same probationary status if that student re-enters within one year of the termination date. When a student is terminated a second time because of failing grades and/or violation of policies, the administration must give approval before re-application can be made. Any student terminated due to attendance violations must wait a full trimester before being permitted to re-enroll.
- Disciplinary Policies:
Additional Information can be found on the Tennessee Board of Regents website at http://www.tbr.edu/policies/default.aspx?id=8033
0240-3-21-.01 Institution Policy Statement
0240-3-21-.02 Disciplinary Offenses
0240-3-21-.03 Academic and Classroom Misconduct
0240-3-21-.04 Disciplinary Sanctions
0240-3-21-.05 Disciplinary Procedures
0240-3-21-.06 Traffic and Parking Regulations
- Student Progress:
The Progress Policy provides the minimum criteria for evaluating student achievement relating to identified occupational competencies and defines retention standards of the institution.
Evaluations are recorded for each student at the end of the 72 days of instruction that comprise a trimester.
The trimester grade report will reflect each student’s progress in the following areas:
• Skill Proficiency
• Related Information (Academic Scores)
• Worker Characteristics
A student must maintain a “C” or better average for the 72 day period of instruction. Failure to do so will result in termination at the end of the trimester.
NOTE: Additional retention standards for specific programs may be maintained by the school pursuant to accreditation or licensing requirements. Students receiving financial aid should refer to that section of the catalog for additional requirements for eligibility.
- Computer Operation, Internet/Network Access:
Each computer user must review the policy and guidelines of the institution before operating any computer system. Compliance with this policy is necessary to insure maximum utilization and performance of each computer system, as well as provide a sense of security and respectful cooperation among the school community. Strict adherence to this policy will prevent costly damage or repair, down-time, and/or loss of computer privileges.
(1) No computer system may be used without prior approval of the supervising instructor or other school official.
(2) Because software is protected under copyright laws, no software can be copied without written authorization.
(3) No outside software can be loaded on school computers without written approval.
(4) Changes to a system’s configuration or the inappropriate deleting or changing of computer settings is forbidden.
(5) Technical manuals must not be removed from the training area.
(6) Computers must not be moved or repositioned on tables.
(7) To prevent damage to any system, computer users should not eat, drink or smoke around computer equipment.
(8) Specific instructions for access to the Internet or network:
(a) The system may not be used for personal or private matters.
(b) Creating, distributing, or accessing hate mail, pornographic or obscene material, discriminatory or harassing materials or communications is strictly forbidden.
(c) Anti-social behaviors (including spamming) are forbidden.
(d) Accessing pornographic images or language is forbidden.
(e) Creating, distributing, or accessing confidential material, including, but not limited to, test files or student/personnel records is forbidden.
Any person who violates this policy will be subject to appropriate disciplinary sanctions, including dismissal and/or possible prosecution.
- Services for Students with Disabilities:
According to Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act and the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), a student with a disability is someone who has a physical or mental impairment; has a history of impairment; or is believed to have a disability that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities, such as learning, speaking, working, hearing, breathing, caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, or walking.
TCAT provides services and academic accommodations for students with disabilities who self-identify as having a disability and provide appropriate documentation of the disability to Student Services. Student Services coordinates the services and academic accommodations for all students with disabilities.
These services include, but are not limited to, assistance with registration; new student advising; volunteer note-takers; notification to faculty of accommodation requests; extended/alternative testing; readers, scribes, and interpreters; tutor referrals; designated liaisons to faculty, staff, and the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation; use of campus adaptive equipment; and assistance in identifying/locating adaptive equipment.
Services of a personal nature are not provided. Students who need support services or accommodations for testing are encouraged to contact this office prior to enrollment.
Persons who need assistance or information on services that are available to students with disabilities should contact the Student Services Department.
Syllabus Changes:
The instructor reserves the right to make changes as necessary to this syllabus. If changes are necessitated during the term of the course, the instructor will immediately notify students of such changes both by individual communication and posting both notification and nature of change(s) on the course Learning Management System.
Technical Support:
For additional support on specific course content, objectives and requirements, please contact your course Instructor.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.420894
|
Public Relations
|
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100420/overview",
"title": "Automotive Worker Characteristics 1-5",
"author": "Communication"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113071/overview
|
OERizona Network OER Standards_Final
OER Standards Criteria for Evaluation
OER Standards Criteria for Evaluation_pdf
OERizona Network - OER Standards
Overview
The purpose of these standards is to guide faculty who are designing OER for the OERizona Network, and they can be used for both a formal and/or informal review. The document includes 7 sections:
OERizona Network Requirements
Quality
Appropriateness & Alignment
Technical
OER Review
Supplemental or Ancillary Materials
Criteria for Evaluation (for any standard using a 1-5 rating scale)
Overview
The purpose of these standards is to guide faculty who are designing OER for the OERizona Network, and they can be used for both a formal and/or informal review. The document includes 7 sections:
OERizona Network Requirements
Quality
Appropriateness & Alignment
Technical
OER Review
Supplemental or Ancillary Materials
Criteria for Evaluation (for any standard using a 1-5 rating scale)
This checklist of OER textbook standards is a remix of:
- B.C. Open Textbooks Review Rubric [Word file] (CC BY 4.0 International License.) Accessed https://open.bccampus.ca/use-open-textbooks/review-an-open-textbook/
- Checklist for Evaluating Open Educational Resources (OER) by Texas State University Libraries is licensed under CC BY 4.0. accessed https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/12236
- The Affordable Learning Georgia (ALG) Quality Standards for Open Educational Resources (OER) by University System of Georgian (USG) under an attribution of 4.0 International License CC BY. Accessed https://www.affordablelearninggeorgia.org/find_textbooks/selecting_textbooks
OERizona Network Requirements
Licensing
OER content is openly licensed including CC BY, CC BY-NC, CC BY-SA, CC BY-NC-SA, or in the public domain. | Y N |
|---|
Accessibility
Content meets general accessibility standards Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0, Level AA. | Y N |
Shareability
The content can meaningfully and efficiently be combined or assembled with other materials. | Y N |
|---|---|
The learning object does not require specialized skills or software to read/remix. | Y N |
Quality
Currency & Logevity
The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
The OER content reflects significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
Clarity & Accuracy
The OER content is well-written and contains no grammatical, spelling, or typographical errors. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
The OER content information is factual and verifiable via other external sources. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
The OER content is understandable and does not need to be augmented with additional explanation or material. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
Comprehensiveness
The OER content scope covers all areas necessary for a particular college course or set of courses or specific course learning outcomes or module/unit learning objectives. | Y N |
Readability
The OER content is understandable for the target higher education students. | Y N |
The OER provides adequate context for any jargon/technical terminology. | Y N |
The OER content contains clear instructions explaining how students and instructors are expected to use the content. | Y N |
Source Transparency & Attributions & Copyrighted Materials
OER content cites references and sources appropriately. | Y N |
OER content contains appropriate attributions for openly licensed content that you share or adapt. | Y N |
OER content links out to all copyrighted content. | Y N |
Refer to the Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for OpenCourseWare for all other copyright content that falls under Educational Fair Use. | Y N |
Pedagogical Methods
The OER content includes multiple modalities (e.g., graphics, tables, and information other than text) to support student learning. | Y N |
The OER content promotes active learning, class participation, and/or collaboration. | Y N |
Organization & Format
The OER content provides an effective index or glossary, table of contents, or content outline when appropriate. | Y N |
OER content reflects a sound organizational structure and approach. | Y N |
Appropriatness & Alignment
Alignment
The OER content is appropriate for the course level. | Y N |
The OER content clearly states student learning outcomes or unit/module learning objectives and demonstrates alignment. | Y N |
Any relationships between the use of the OER course, textbook, and/or ancillary OER is clearly explained. | Y N |
The OER content can be applied in some way that aids a learner’s understanding. | Y N |
The OER content facilitates the use of a mix of instructional approaches, if it is a larger object, like a unit. | Y N |
OER assessments clearly describe how the assessment is scored using either a grading rubric or other scoring system. | Y N |
Cultural Relevance & Sensitivity
The OER content is free of insensitivity or cultural stereotypes within the context of the subject matter. | Y N |
The OER reflects diversity and inclusion regarding culture, gender, ethnicity, national origin, age, disability sexual orientation, education, and religion whenever possible, considering the context of the subject. | Y N N/A |
Technical
Modularity & Adaptability
The text is easily and readily divisible into meaningful, smaller sections that can be reorganized. | Y N |
The text is free of significant self-reference or interface issues, including navigation, that may disrupt if content sequence is modified. | Y N |
Technical Quality
The image resolution and sound quality are up to current standards for target viewing devices (e.g., mobile devices). | Y N |
The interface and design are easy to navigate. | Y N |
OER Review
OER content has been reviewed by Instructional Designers, Librarians, and/or Subject Matter experts through an OER review process. | Y N |
Supplemental or Ancillary Materials
OER content that includes supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities also meet these OER standards. | 1 2 3 4 5 |
Criteria for Evaluation
Note: The consortium recognizes that these are all guidelines, and there will be exceptions to each item depending on the content.
The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly.
The OER content is up to date but does not present information that will become obsolete quickly.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content >10 years old OER information is out-of-date for the topic | OER content is about 7-10 years old OER information is somewhat up-to-date for the topic | OER content is between 5-7 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic | OER content between 2-5 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic If appropriate, the OER content has been revised | OER content <2 years old OER information is up-to-date for the topic If appropriate, the OER content has also been recently revised |
The OER content reflects significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content is not significant, topical, or representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. | Most OER content does not reflect significant, topical, or recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. | OER content more or less reflects significant, topical, and representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. | OER content is likely to reflect significant, topical, and representative of recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. | OER content reflects highly significant, topical, and recent scholarship in terms of the subject matter. |
The OER content is well-written and contains no grammatical, spelling, or typographical errors.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content is riddled with >10 grammar, spelling, and typographical errors that distract the audience. | OER content has 5-10 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are distracting to the audience. | OER content has 3-5 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are somewhat distracting to the audience. | OER content has between 1-3 grammar, spelling, or typographical errors that are not distracting to the audience. | OER content has no grammar, spelling, or typographical errors. |
The OER content information is factual and verifiable via other external sources.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content is neither factual nor verifiable via other external reputable sources. | OER content is not likely to be factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. | OER content is more or less factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. | OER content is mostly factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. | OER content is highly factual and verifiable via other external reputable sources. It has also been peer reviewed or refereed. |
The OER content is presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content is unclear and requires significant additional explanation. | OER content is not presented with clarity and requires additional explanation or material. | OER content is somewhat presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. | OER content is mostly presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. | OER content is presented with clarity and requires little to no additional explanation. |
OER content that includes supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities also meet these OER standards.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
OER content does not include supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities. | OER content includes <2 supporting resources such as guides, labs, simulations, self-practice, or assessment activities, but not all of them meet these OER standards. | OER content includes 2-3 supporting resources such as guides, labs, simulations, self-practice, or assessment activities, and a majority of them meet these OER standards. | OER content includes several 4-5 supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities that also meet these OER standards. | OER content includes numerous >5 supporting resources such as study guides, labs, simulations, self-practice or assessment activities that also meet these OER standards. |
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.504786
|
02/19/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113071/overview",
"title": "OERizona Network - OER Standards",
"author": "Megan Crossfield"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69698/overview
|
Module 6: Education and Diversity
Overview
This module examine the link between education and diversity
Lesson 6.1 Education around the world
Education is a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. Every nation in the world is equipped with some form of education system, though those systems vary greatly. The major factors that affect education systems are the resources and money that are utilized to support those systems in different nations. As you might expect, a country’s wealth has much to do with the amount of money spent on education. Countries that do not have such basic amenities as running water are unable to support robust education systems or, in many cases, any formal schooling at all. The result of this worldwide educational inequality is a social concern for many countries, including the United States.
International differences in education systems are not solely a financial issue. The value placed on education, the amount of time devoted to it, and the distribution of education within a country also play a role in those differences. For example, students in South Korea spend 220 days a year in school, compared to the 180 days a year of their United States counterparts (Pellissier 2010). As of 2006, the United States ranked fifth among twenty-seven countries for college participation, but ranked sixteenth in the number of students who receive college degrees (National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education 2006). These statistics may be related to how much time is spent on education in the United States.
Then there is the issue of educational distribution within a nation. In December 2010, the results of a test called the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which is administered to fifteen-year-old students worldwide, were released. Those results showed that students in the United States had fallen from fifteenth to twenty-fifth in the rankings for science and math (National Public Radio 2010). Students at the top of the rankings hailed from Shanghai, Finland, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
Analysts determined that the nations and city-states at the top of the rankings had several things in common. For one, they had well-established standards for education with clear goals for all students. They also recruited teachers from the top 5 to 10 percent of university graduates each year, which is not the case for most countries (National Public Radio 2010).
Finally, there is the issue of social factors. One analyst from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the organization that created the test, attributed 20 percent of performance differences and the United States’ low rankings to differences in social background. Researchers noted that educational resources, including money and quality teachers, are not distributed equitably in the United States. In the top-ranking countries, limited access to resources did not necessarily predict low performance. Analysts also noted what they described as “resilient students,” or those students who achieve at a higher level than one might expect given their social background. In Shanghai and Singapore, the proportion of resilient students is about 70 percent. In the United States, it is below 30 percent. These insights suggest that the United States’ educational system may be on a descending path that could detrimentally affect the country’s economy and its social landscape (National Public Radio 2010).
Big Picture
Education in Finland
With public education in the United States under such intense criticism, why is it that Singapore, South Korea, and especially Finland (which is culturally most similar to us), have such excellent public education? Over the course of thirty years, the country has pulled itself from among the lowest rankings by the Organization of Economic Cooperation (OEDC) to first in 2012, and remains, as of 2014, in the top five. Contrary to the rigid curriculum and long hours demanded of students in South Korea and Singapore, Finnish education often seems paradoxical to outside observers because it appears to break a lot of the rules we take for granted. It is common for children to enter school at seven years old, and children will have more recess and less hours in school than U.S. children—approximately 300 less hours. Their homework load is light when compared to all other industrialized nations (nearly 300 fewer hours per year in elementary school). There are no gifted programs, almost no private schools, and no high-stakes national standardized tests (Laukkanen 2008; LynNell Hancock 2011).
Prioritization is different than in the United States. There is an emphasis on allocating resources for those who need them most, high standards, support for special needs students, qualified teachers taken from the top 10 percent of the nation's graduates and who must earn a Master's degree, evaluation of education, balancing decentralization and centralization.
"We used to have a system which was really unequal," stated the Finnish Education Chief in an interview. "My parents never had a real possibility to study and have a higher education. We decided in the 1960s that we would provide a free quality education to all. Even universities are free of charge. Equal means that we support everyone and we’re not going to waste anyone’s skills." As for teachers, "We don’t test our teachers or ask them to prove their knowledge. But it’s true that we do invest in a lot of additional teacher training even after they become teachers" (Gross-Loh 2014).
Yet over the past decade Finland has consistently performed among the top nations on the PISA. Finland’s school children didn’t always excel. Finland built its excellent, efficient, and equitable educational system in a few decades from scratch, and the concept guiding almost every educational reform has been equity. The Finnish paradox is that by focusing on the bigger picture for all, Finland has succeeded at fostering the individual potential of most every child.
"We created a school system based on equality to make sure we can develop everyone’s potential. Now we can see how well it’s been working. Last year the OECD tested adults from twenty-four countries measuring the skill levels of adults aged sixteen to sixty-five on a survey called the PIAAC (Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies), which tests skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. Finland scored at or near the top on all measures."
Formal and Informal Education
As already mentioned, education is not solely concerned with the basic academic concepts that a student learns in the classroom. Societies also educate their children, outside of the school system, in matters of everyday practical living. These two types of learning are referred to as formal education and informal education.
Formal education describes the learning of academic facts and concepts through a formal curriculum. Arising from the tutelage of ancient Greek thinkers, centuries of scholars have examined topics through formalized methods of learning. Education in earlier times was only available to the higher classes; they had the means for access to scholarly materials, plus the luxury of leisure time that could be used for learning. The Industrial Revolution and its accompanying social changes made education more accessible to the general population. Many families in the emerging middle class found new opportunities for schooling.
The modern U.S. educational system is the result of this progression. Today, basic education is considered a right and responsibility for all citizens. Expectations of this system focus on formal education, with curricula and testing designed to ensure that students learn the facts and concepts that society believes are basic knowledge.
In contrast, informal education describes learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by participating in a society. This type of learning occurs both through the formal education system and at home. Our earliest learning experiences generally happen via parents, relatives, and others in our community. Through informal education, we learn how to dress for different occasions, how to perform regular life routines like shopping for and preparing food, and how to keep our bodies clean.
Cultural transmission refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural transmission. For example, a student will learn about cultural aspects of modern history in a U.S. History classroom. In that same classroom, the student might learn the cultural norm for asking a classmate out on a date through passing notes and whispered conversations.
Access to Education
Another global concern in education is universal access. This term refers to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation’s history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome). The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education. Of course, the way this plays out in terms of school budgets and taxes makes this an often-contested topic on the national, state, and community levels.
Cultural transmission refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural transmission. For example, a student will learn about cultural aspects of modern history in a U.S. History classroom. In that same classroom, the student might learn the cultural norm for asking a classmate out on a date through passing notes and whispered conversations.
Access to Education
Another global concern in education is universal access. This term refers to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation’s history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome). The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education. Of course, the way this plays out in terms of school budgets and taxes makes this an often-contested topic on the national, state, and community levels.
A precedent for universal access to education in the United States was set with the 1972 U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia’s decision in Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia. This case was brought on the behalf of seven school-age children with special needs who argued that the school board was denying their access to free public education. The school board maintained that the children’s “exceptional” needs, which included intellectual disabilities, precluded their right to be educated for free in a public school setting. The board argued that the cost of educating these children would be too expensive and that the children would therefore have to remain at home without access to education.
This case was resolved in a hearing without any trial. The judge, Joseph Cornelius Waddy, upheld the students’ right to education, finding that they were to be given either public education services or private education paid for by the Washington, D.C., board of education. He noted that
Constitutional rights must be afforded citizens despite the greater expense involved … the District of Columbia’s interest in educating the excluded children clearly must outweigh its interest in preserving its financial resources. … The inadequacies of the District of Columbia Public School System whether occasioned by insufficient funding or administrative inefficiency, certainly cannot be permitted to bear more heavily on the “exceptional” or handicapped child than on the normal child (Mills v. Board of Education 1972).
Today, the optimal way to include people with disabilities students in standard classrooms is still being researched and debated. “Inclusion” is a method that involves complete immersion in a standard classroom, whereas “mainstreaming” balances time in a special-needs classroom with standard classroom participation. There continues to be social debate surrounding how to implement the ideal of universal access to education.
Lesson 6.2 Theoretical perspectives
While it is clear that education plays an integral role in individuals’ lives as well as society as a whole, sociologists view that role from many diverse points of view. Functionalists believe that education equips people to perform different functional roles in society. Conflict theorists view education as a means of widening the gap in social inequality. Feminist theorists point to evidence that sexism in education continues to prevent women from achieving a full measure of social equality. Symbolic interactionists study the dynamics of the classroom, the interactions between students and teachers, and how those affect everyday life. In this section, you will learn about each of these perspectives.
Functionalism
Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions.
Manifest Functions
There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.
This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture.
School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day.
Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.
Latent Functions
Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting.
The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting.
The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country.
| Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals | Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences |
|---|---|
| Socialization | Courtship |
| Transmission of culture | Social networks |
| Social control | Group work |
| Social placement | Creation of generation gap |
| Cultural innovation | Political and social integration |
Lesson 6.3 Issues in Education
As schools strive to fill a variety of roles in their students’ lives, many issues and challenges arise. Students walk a minefield of bullying, violence in schools, the results of declining funding, plus other problems that affect their education. When Americans are asked about their opinion of public education on the Gallup poll each year, reviews are mixed at best (Saad 2008). Schools are no longer merely a place for learning and socializing. With the landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling in 1954, schools became a repository of much political and legal action that is at the heart of several issues in education.
Equal Education
Until the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, schools had operated under the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, which allowed racial segregation in schools and private businesses (the case dealt specifically with railroads) and introduced the much maligned phrase “separate but equal” into the U.S. lexicon. The 1954 Brown v. Board decision overruled this, declaring that state laws that had established separate schools for black and white students were, in fact, unequal and unconstitutional.
While the ruling paved the way toward civil rights, it was also met with contention in many communities. In Arkansas in 1957, the governor mobilized the state National Guard to prevent black students from entering Little Rock Central High School. President Eisenhower, in response, sent members of the 101st Airborne Division from Kentucky to uphold the students’ right to enter the school. In 1963, almost ten years after the ruling, Governor George Wallace of Alabama used his own body to block two black students from entering the auditorium at the University of Alabama to enroll in the school. Wallace’s desperate attempt to uphold his policy of “segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever,” stated during his 1963 inauguration (PBS 2000) became known as the “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door.” He refused to grant entry to the students until a general from the Alabama National Guard arrived on President Kennedy’s order.
Presently, students of all races and ethnicities are permitted into schools, but there remains a troubling gap in the equality of education they receive. The long-term socially embedded effects of racism—and other discrimination and disadvantage—have left a residual mark of inequality in the nation’s education system. Students from wealthy families and those of lower socioeconomic status do not receive the same opportunities.
Today’s public schools, at least in theory, are positioned to help remedy those gaps. Predicated on the notion of universal access, this system is mandated to accept and retain all students regardless of race, religion, social class, and the like. Moreover, public schools are held accountable to equitable per-student spending (Resnick 2004). Private schools, usually only accessible to students from high-income families, and schools in more affluent areas generally enjoy access to greater resources and better opportunities. In fact, some of the key predictors for student performance include socioeconomic status and family background. Children from families of lower socioeconomic status often enter school with learning deficits they struggle to overcome throughout their educational tenure. These patterns, uncovered in the landmark Coleman Report of 1966, are still highly relevant today, as sociologists still generally agree that there is a great divide in the performance of white students from affluent backgrounds and their nonwhite, less affluent, counterparts (Coleman 1966).
Head Start
The findings in the Coleman Report were so powerful that they brought about two major changes to education in the United States. The federal Head Start program, which is still active and successful today, was developed to give low-income students an opportunity to make up the preschool deficit discussed in Coleman’s findings. The program provides academic-centered preschool to students of low socioeconomic status.
Busing
The second major change brought about after the release of the Coleman Report was less successful than the Head Start program and has been the subject of a great deal of controversy. With the goal of further desegregating education, courts across the United States ordered some school districts to begin a program that became known as “busing.” This program involved bringing students to schools outside their neighborhoods (and therefore schools they would not normally have the opportunity to attend) to bring racial diversity into balance. This practice was met with a great deal of public resistance from people on both sides dissatisfied with white students traveling to inner city schools and minority students bring transported to schools in the suburbs.
No Child Left Behind
In 2001, the Bush administration passed the No Child Left Behind Act, which requires states to test students in designated grades. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. Schools that do not meet the standards set by the Act run the risk of having their funding cut. Sociologists and teachers alike have contended that the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act is far more negative than positive, arguing that a “one size fits all” concept cannot apply to education.
Teaching to the Test
The funding tie-in of the No Child Left Behind Act has led to the social phenomenon commonly called “teaching to the test,” which describes when a curriculum focuses on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests, to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning. At issue are two approaches to classroom education: the notion that teachers impart knowledge that students are obligated to absorb, versus the concept of student-centered learning that seeks to teach children not facts, but problem solving abilities and learning skills. Both types of learning have been valued in the U.S. school system. The former, to critics of “teaching to the test,” only equips students to regurgitate facts, while the latter, to proponents of the other camp, fosters lifelong learning and transferable work skills.
Bilingual Education
New issues of inequality have entered the national conversation in recent years with the issue of bilingual education, which attempts to give equal opportunity to minority students through offering instruction in languages other than English. Though it is actually an old issue (bilingual education was federally mandated in 1968), it remains one of hot debate. Supporters of bilingual education argue that all students deserve equal opportunities in education—opportunities some students cannot access without instruction in their first language. On the other side, those who oppose bilingual education often point to the need for English fluency in everyday life and in the professional world.
Common Core
"The Common Core is a set of high-quality academic standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy (ELA). These learning goals outline what a student should know and be able to do at the end of each grade." Included in the list of standards is that they be evidence-based, clear, understandable, consistent, aligned with college and career expectations, include the application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills, and are informed by other top-performing countries (The Common Core State Standards Initiative 2014).
The primary controversy over the Common Core State Standards, or simply the Common Core, from the standpoint of teachers, parents and students, and even administrators, is not so much the standards themselves, but the assessment process and the high stakes involved. Both the national teacher's unions in the United States initially agreed to them, at least in principle. But both have since become strong voices of criticism. Given a public education system that is primarily funded by local property taxes, rather than by state and federal funds distributed to all schools equally, we see a wide disparity of funding per student throughout the country, with the result that students in schools funded by well-to-do communities are clearly better off than those who are not, sometimes only a few miles away.
What gets measured?
Much has been said about the quality, usefulness, and even accuracy of many of the standardized tests. Math questions have been found to be misleading and poorly phrased; for instance, “Tyler made 36 total snowfalls with is a multiple of how triangular snowflakes he made. How many triangular snowflakes could he have made?”
Some of the essays had questions that made little sense to the students. One notable test question in 2014 that dominated the Internet for a time was about "The Hare and the Pineapple." This was a parody on the well-known Aesop fable of the race between the hare and the tortoise that appeared on a standardized test for New York's eighth-grade exam, with the tortoise changed into a talking pineapple. With the pineapple clearly unable to participate in a race and the hare winning, "the animals ate the pineapple." "Moral: Pineapples don’t have sleeves."
At the end of the story, questions for the student included, "Which animal spoke the wisest words?" and "Why did the animals eat the talking fruit?"
Charter Schools
Charter schools are self-governing public schools that have signed agreements with state governments to improve students when poor performance is revealed on tests required by the No Child Left Behind Act. While such schools receive public money, they are not subject to the same rules that apply to regular public schools. In return, they make agreements to achieve specific results. Charter schools, as part of the public education system, are free to attend, and are accessible via lottery when there are more students seeking enrollment than there are spots available at the school. Some charter schools specialize in certain fields, such as the arts or science, while others are more generalized.
Sociology in the Real World
Money as Motivation in Charter Schools
Public school teachers typically find stability, comprehensive benefits packages, and long-term job security. In 2011, one charter school in New York City set out to learn if teachers would give up those protections if it meant an opportunity to make much more money than the typical teacher’s salary. The Equity Project is a privately run charter school that offered teachers positions paying $125,000 per year (more than twice the average salary for teachers). The school’s founder and principal, Zeke Vanderhoek, explained that this allows him to attract the best and brightest teachers to his school—to decide whom he hires and how much they are paid—and build a school where “every teacher is a great teacher” (CBS News 2011). He sees attracting top teachers as a direct road to student achievement. A nationwide talent search resulted in the submission of thousands of applications. The final round of interviews consisted of a day-long trial run. The school looks for teachers who can show evidence of student growth and achievement. They also must be highly engaging.
The majority of students at the school are African American and Hispanic, from poor families, and reading below grade level. The school faces the challenge faced by schools all over the United States: getting poor, disadvantaged students to perform at the same level as their more affluent counterparts. Vanderhoek believes his team of dream teachers can help students close their learning gaps by several grade levels within one year.
This is not an affluent school. It is publicly funded and classes are held in trailers. Most of the school’s budget goes into the teachers’ salaries. There are no reading or math aides; those roles are filled by the regular classroom teachers.
The experiment may be working. Students who were asked how they feel about their education at The Equity Project said that their teachers care if they succeed and give them the attention they need to achieve at high levels. They cite the feeling that their teachers believe in them as a major reason for liking school for the first time.
Of course, with the high salary comes high risk. Most public schools offer contracts to teachers. Those contracts guarantee job security. But The Equity Project is an at-will employer. Those who don’t meet the standards set by the school will lose their jobs. Vanderhoek does not believe in teacher tenure, which he feels gives teachers “a job for life no matter how they perform” (CBS News 2011). With a teaching staff of roughly fifteen, he terminated two teachers after the first year. In comparison, in New York City as a whole, only seven teachers out of 55,000 with tenure have been terminated for poor performance.
One of those two teachers who was let go said she was relieved, citing eighty- to ninety-hour work weeks and a decline in the quality of her family life. Meanwhile, there is some question as to whether the model is working. On one hand, there are individual success stories, such as a student whose reading skills increased two grade levels in a single year. On the other, there is the fact that on the state math and reading exams taken by all fifth graders, the Equity Project students remained out-scored by other district schools (CBS News 2011). Do charter schools actually work? A Stanford CREDO study in 2009 found "there is a wide variance in the quality of the nation’s several thousand charter schools with, in the aggregate, students in charter schools not faring as well as students in traditional public schools" (CREDO 2009).
Teacher Training
Schools face an issue of teacher effectiveness, in that most high school teachers perceive students as being prepared for college, while most college professors do not see those same students as prepared for the rigors of collegiate study. Some feel that this is due to teachers being unprepared to teach. Many teachers in the United States teach subject matter that is outside their own field of study. This is not the case in many European and Asian countries. Only eight percent of United States fourth-grade math teachers majored or minored in math, compared with 48 percent in Singapore. Further, students in disadvantaged American schools are 77 percent more likely to be educated by a teacher who didn’t specialize in the subject matter than students who attend schools in affluent neighborhoods (Holt, McGrath, and Seastrom 2006).
Social Promotion
Social promotion is another issue identified by sociologists. This is the concept of passing students to the next grade regardless of their meeting standards for that grade. Critics of this practice argue that students should never move to the next grade if they have not mastered the skills required to “graduate” from the previous grade. Proponents of the practice question what a school is to do with a student who is three to four years older than other students in his or her grade, saying this creates more issues than the practice of social promotion.
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action has been a subject of debate, primarily as it relates to the admittance of college students. Opponents suggest that, under affirmative action, minority students are given greater weighted priorities for admittance. Supporters of affirmative action point to the way in which it grants opportunities to students who are traditionally done a disservice in the college admission process.
Rising Student Loan Debt
In a growing concern, the amount of college loan debt that students are taking on is creating a new social challenge. As of 2010, the debts of students with student loans averaged $25,250 upon graduation, leaving students hard-pressed to repay their education while earning entry-level wages, even at the professional level (Lewin 2011). With the increase in unemployment since the 2008 recession, jobs are scarce and make this burden more pronounced. As recent grads find themselves unable to meet their financial obligations, all of society is affected.
Home Schooling
Homeschooling refers to children being educated in their own homes, typically by a parent, instead of in a traditional public or private school system. Proponents of this type of education argue that it provides an outstanding opportunity for student-centered learning while circumventing problems that plague today’s education system. Opponents counter that homeschooled children miss out on the opportunity for social development that occurs in standard classroom environments and school settings.
Proponents say that parents know their own children better than anyone else and are thus best equipped to teach them. Those on the other side of the debate assert that childhood education is a complex task and requires the degree teachers spend four years earning. After all, they argue, a parent may know her child’s body better than anyone, yet she seeks out a doctor for her child’s medical treatment. Just as a doctor is a trained medical expert, teachers are trained education experts.
The National Center for Education Statistics shows that the quality of the national education system isn’t the only major concern of homeschoolers. While nearly half cite their reason for homeschooling as the belief that they can give their child a better education than the school system can, just under 40 percent choose homeschooling for “religious reasons” (NCES 2008).
To date, researchers have not found consensus in studies evaluating the success, or lack thereof, of homeschooling.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:57.543737
|
07/15/2020
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69698/overview",
"title": "Module 6: Education and Diversity",
"author": "Audra Kallimanis"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89823/overview
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Micrograph Escherichia coli safranin red 400x p000005
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 400X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained for 1 minute with safranin red stain prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
Micrograph
White background with about 1000 small, red, rod-shaped Escherichia coli cells scattered across.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.564148
|
Diagram/Illustration
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89823/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli safranin red 400x p000005",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107958/overview
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Open Stax Textbook Algebra & Trigonometry 2e
Overview
Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub.
Open Textbooks for Rural Arizona participants are invited to remix this template to share their courses, textbooks, and other OER material on our Hub.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.581229
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Trigonometry
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107958/overview",
"title": "Open Stax Textbook Algebra & Trigonometry 2e",
"author": "Mathematics"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109529/overview
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Google Classroom
Exploring Yoga for Beginners
Overview
My OER resource for yoga is designed to provide a holistic learning experience, catering to both beginners and experienced practitioners. It encompasses instructional goals, quizzes, and a convenient link to Google Classroom for seamless integration into your learning environment.
Instructional Goals
- Students understand and can describe the six different branches of yoga: Raja, Jnana, Tantra, Hatha, Bhakti, and Karma
- Students are able to describe a brief history of yoga, as well as a history and purpose of the four poses that we will focus on: Downward Facing Dog (Adho Mukha Svanasana), Cat-Cow (Marjayasana and Bitilasana), Mountain (Tadasana), and Child’s Pose (Balasana)
- Students recognize the various benefits and value of yoga through their understanding of the history and purpose of each pose and implements a recurring practice of their preferred style at least once each week
- Students can perform the four yoga poses: Downward Facing Dog (Adho Mukha Svanasana), Cat-Cow (Marjayasana and Bitilasana), Mountain (Tadasana), and Child’s Pose (Balasana), as well as understand which positions allow them to reach their desired intention.
Resources
This is a link to google classroom which has resources and module information!
Assessments
Here are other assessments.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.602976
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Homework/Assignment
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109529/overview",
"title": "Exploring Yoga for Beginners",
"author": "Assessment"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92918/overview
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Greetings Around the World
Overview
Summary
How different cultures greet people
Visiting an interesting place
Week 1
Greetings Around the World
This week we will learn about greetings around the world.
Watch the following video and be prepared to tell your classmate about how you greet people in your country.
Week 2
My Visit to an Interesting Place
Talk about a place you have visited. Make sure to answer the following questions in your presentation:
- Where did you go?
- Who did you travel with?
- What did you see there?
- What kind of food did you try?
- Did you like the place? Why?
Use the following vocabulary words from the unit or your own ideas.
- sightseeing
- tried
- climbed
- took a picture of
- went to the top of
- took a tour
- thrilling/thrilled
- fascinating/fascinated
- frightening/frightened
- disgusting/disgusted
You can make slides with pictures of the place you have visited or bring pictures, maps, and artifacts to show us in the class.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.624841
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05/21/2022
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92918/overview",
"title": "Greetings Around the World",
"author": "Gilda Ekhtiar"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96650/overview
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Micrograph Pseudomonas putida gram stain 1000X p000174
Overview
This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Pseudomonas putida cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization.
Image credit: Emily Fox
Micrograph
White background with several pink, rod-shaped Pseudomonas putida cells.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:57.641866
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Diagram/Illustration
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96650/overview",
"title": "Micrograph Pseudomonas putida gram stain 1000X p000174",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90102/overview
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cinema scenes version two
Overview
cinema scenes version two 2021
cinema scenes version two
version two of cinema scenes. changing of some chapters. some material curtailed. some added
Cinema scenes By
Judith Broadbent Patsy Daniels Graham Harkness Laura Sherill Stuart Lenig
Table of contents
1
Cinema One
Early Film and the Business Beginnings
The movie is a new art, neither a novel nor a stage play. It is analogous to the novel only in the fact that it presents a narrative story, and early on the movie was treated as if it were a photographic record of a stage play. But the movie was discovered to be neither a novel nor a stage play.
The movie camera had the best seat in the house, but it did not move; instead, it presented one viewpoint only, like neither the novel nor the play. The three basic principles of the stage, unity of time, unity of place, and unity of action, would not work for a movie. In film there is no unity of time or unity of place; these basic principles of the stage do not apply. But the unity of action, another stage term, does apply: the images appear in succession and produce meaning and continuity. The movie then is like a novel in presenting a narrative story and like a stage play in its continuity of action.
When sound recording was invented about thirty years after the motion picture, its analogy to the stage was also found to be false. Sound could be synchronized with images, but need not come from the images, or from the actor’s mouth.
Other than the stage and novels, movies had no roots. It was a new idea founded on recent discoveries, dependent on technology for its very existence. Innovators, inventors, and scientists influenced each other immediately in their attempts at making moving pictures, each looking over the shoulder of the other, each showing off his latest gadget. This new idea of the motion picture would not exist without the technology that was invented, step by step.
But the technology came in fits and spurts, so dates become important; the date of release of a movie is especially important. For example, it is difficult to compare a movie made in the 21st century with one made in 1939; technology has advanced tremendously since 1939, so movies are not made the same way that they were in the early days of cinema. It is also important to get the names right: the title of the movie (always italicized when writing about it) and the names of the professionals who have created it.
Even though there are numerous professionals who have worked on a film, from the screenwriter to the editor and everyone in between, the film is considered to be the work of the director. The director is the person who keeps it all together during the production of the film and works closely with writers, cinematographers, editors, set designers, and many other professionals. The director is considered the auteur, (French for “author”), the creator of the film, the person to whom the film is credited.
Next Steps
As tinkerers and inventors attempted to make pictures move, scientists had been studying the human eye and the human brain and how they work together. What they
2
called “persistence of vision” had to be understood in order to make people see moving pictures, or pictures moving. Persistence of vision is the tendency of the eye to hold an image for a moment after the image is no longer visible. This tendency became very important in the quest for moving pictures.
In addition, still photography had to be invented, and there was a long route to figuring out how to make a picture with light. The idea of making a picture with light is usually attributed to Leonardo daVinci, the Italian Renaissance inventor and artist. He is generally acknowledged as the originator of the camera obscura during the fifteenth century. The principle of the camera obscura, or “dark room,” is that light comes into the dark room through a pinhole and projects the image of something outside of the camera obscura. The image always appears upside down, just the way the human eye captures an image, but people were able to use it for tracing an image on paper.
In the early eighteen hundreds, innovators discovered that they could make an image seem to move in various ways. In 1825, Dr. John Ayerton Paris invented the Thaumatrope, a device that made images seem to move when they were spun in a circle. It was a delight in the parlor. Then, seven years later, Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau invented what he called a phenakistiscope, which was later refined into a Zoötrope by William George Horner. This device showed a series of pictures, stages of a movement perhaps, that made the images seem to move, kind of like an early form of animation. It was fun to play with, and forty years later, the device was marketed as a toy.
These toys led to similar experiments with moving images, but inventors had to create the technology to make it happen. In 1816, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce first captured an image on a metal plate. But it was twenty-three years later, in 1839, that Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre was able to capture an image on silvered copperplate. This development led to the manufacture and sale of daguerreotypes, an image of a person on copperplate, a portrait. These portraits became very popular.
Now that the image had been stabilized, inventors needed to make it move. William Henry Fox Talbot invented paper printing in the 1830s, and as more sensitive photographic stocks became available and the shutter was invented, by the 1860s exposure time was reduced from thirty minutes to a fraction of a second.
Because of these developments, Englishman Eadweard Muybridge, a photographer and inventor, was able to perfect serial photography. Muybridge was hired by Leland Stanford, the governor of California, to set up a series of cameras to help Stanford win a bet: he had bet a friend that, as a horse runs, at some point all four hooves are in the air at the same time. Muybridge set up 24 cameras with trip wires so that when the horse would run by, the camera would take a picture. He and Governor Stanford showed that, indeed, at some point a horse can float through the air. The series of photographs, when bound into a booklet, became the flip book, a series of photos that, when the pages are turned rapidly, seem to move. Thanks to persistence of vision.
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During the next fifteen years, many inventions came into being, and the inventors sometimes shared their work with other tinkerers, but sometimes they competed with each other. Thomas Edison came up with the phonograph in 1877 and the incandescent light in 1879. In 1882 Étienne-Jules Marey invented the Photochronograph, a camera shaped like a long gun, which could be pointed exactly and held fairly steady. This camera captured images on a glass plate instead of a metal plate, and could take as many as twelve shots on one revolving plate.
In 1887, celluloid film was created by Reverend Hannibal Goodwin, but in 1888,
celluloid film was invented by George Eastman. How could this have been? Not until 1913, or twenty-five years later, did the courts rule that Eastman had infringed on Goodwin’s patents on celluloid film (Mast and Kawin 22).
Again in 1888, Étienne-Jules Marey created a camera that used coated paper film, which was much more inexpensive to use than metal plates. In the same year, Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince invented the paper-film movie camera, which used the same paper film; in that year, too, Le Prince integrated the camera and the projector.
A movie camera which used the disputed celluloid film was invented in 1890 by Étienne-Jules Marey, who showed his work to Thomas Edison. Two years later, Marey invented a camera and projector which used celluloid film.
As time passed, the technical challenges found in photography were overcome: long exposure times were shortened by inventing a faster film stock; photographers were able to transmit an image to a medium when still photography came into being; paper stock and celluloid film allowed a more flexible medium, and eventually a heat resistant stock was created. One invention led to another; one idea generated more ideas.
Keep in mind that, though we speak of pictures moving, they do not. Every motion picture is made of many still pictures shown in rapid succession. Because the human eye retains an image on the retina for a moment before letting it go and focusing on another image, humans do not see the blank space between the still photographs. This phenomenon is called persistence of vision. Just like in Muybridge’s flip book, thanks to persistence of vision, humans see apparent movement of the images. Keep in mind that movies present apparent movement. Filmmakers create the illusion of real movement on the screen, but real movement is movement that has not been created from still images.
Early Filmmakers
The tinkerers and inventors developed the technology for moving pictures one step at a time. It was a while before some became actual filmmakers. Early innovators were the Étienne-Jules Marey, Lumière brothers, Auguste and Louis Lumière, Émile Cohl, E. S. Porter, Georges Méliès, and Thomas Edison.
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Étienne-Jules Marey had also been experimenting with serial photography, and in 1881 he and Muybridge met in Paris and exchanged ideas. Marey’s Photochronograph could use coated paper film, and it became easier to manipulate when Émile Raynaud invented the perforations that would allow moving the roll of film at a steady pace.
What They Had to Invent WHAT: TOYS
Thaumatrope
Phenakistiscope
Stroboscope
Zoötrope (refined Phenakistiscope) William George Horner
Praxinoscope Projection Praxinoscope Théatre Optique
Émile Raynaud Émile Raynaud
Émile Raynaud
What They Had to Invent WHAT: MACHINES
Camera obscura
Metal plate to capture image Silvered copperplate
Paper printing
Shutter, faster plates
WHO Leonardo da Vinci
J
WHEN
15th century
1816
1860s
Zoöpraxiscope, serial photography
Eadweard Muybridge
1877 Phonograph
Incandescent light Photochronograph (gun) Celluloid film
Celluloid film
1892
Thomas Edison
Thomas Edison Étienne-Jules Marey Reverend Hannibal Goodwin George Eastman Étienne-Jules Marey
Coated paper film
Paper-film movie camera
Integrated camera, projector
Movie camera for celluloid
Camera and projector for celluloid Étienne-Jules Marey
WHO WHEN
Dr. John Ayerton Paris 1825 Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau 1832
Simon Ritter von Stampfer
1832
1834
1877 1880
1888
Reynaud should be considered the maker of the first animated movies (Mast and Kawin 18).
By the end of the nineteenth century, there were hundreds of these toys and variations, all of which exploited the persistence of vision (18).
oseph Nicéphore Niépce
Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre William Henry Fox Talbot
(Mast and Kawin 19)
1839 1830s
1877 1879
1882
1887 1888
1888 1888
1888 1890
Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince
Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince
Étienne-Jules Marey
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Marey shows his work to Edison. Edison may have seen Reynaud’s work as well (21). 1889
Courts rule that Eastman has infringed on Goodwin’s patents on celluloid film (22). 1913
Cinema one tech Technology
The technology to create film was complex. There were many associated scientific issues associated with creating a workable film platform. Photography, optics, the science of sight, the way the human eye interpreted images, the speed of recognition of an image via the optic nerve, and the science of rhe brain and how the brainoperated were involved. Film was not an overnight achievement and in fact, one hundred and thirty years since the birth of film rhere are still technological innovations and improvements being made to film technology.
Daguerre and photography
The dream of photography had been around for millennia. Early people made copies of people via sculpture and portraits but aside from good drawing skills no one had found a secret way to keep the actual appearance of a person intact in some visual media. Paintings and sculptures captured a resemblance, but scientists and artists wanted a batter way to maintain a picture from the light and image of a person. Artists wanted some form of the real person.
In the renaissance and afterwards scienctists had developed lens that could focus light and through pinhole cameras in a room like could be focused (mostly uspdie down) so that artists could raw what they saw from thew outside. Still, despite the capture of light on a surface there was still no way to permanently capture light and record the appearance of a scene or a person. Artists set up rooms with lenses so they could better see and capture a subject. The most fampus of these early artists experiemtning
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with photography was Johannes Vermeer, the Dutch artist who possessed a technological device that was expensive but widely available to people in the art community called a camera obscura. The camera obscura used lens and reflected light from a window or outside to make an image that could be projected on a wall, paper or canvas and thus Vermeer could draw a close copy of the image projected. In essence this amounted to tracing an image and making it one’s own. In the film, the Girl with the Pearl Earring about the life of Vermeer, Vermeer shows a servant girl in his house his camera obscura, and she is so amazed, she blurts out, ‘does it tell you how to paint?’ and the bemused painter replies that, “it helps.” It was fashionable for wealthy people in 17th, 18th and 19th century to have lens and rooms dedicated to camera obscura light studies of subjects and people tracing images was a simple way for people to learn about art and drawing. But the dream for the photographic community was not only to capture light and project it on a wall, but also to capture the image on a medium. This race to capture light and images o =n some portable medium continued into the 19th century.
On January 7, 1839, members of the French Académie des Sciences were shown products of a new invention that wouldforever change the way people visually represted the world. This new art was called photography and it was the work of many scientists artists and technicians who worked tirelessly through the years creating a new way of making images that could be sustained and kept through technology. The astonishingly precise pictures they saw were the work of Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (1787– 1851), who had forged a career as a romantic painter, and printmaker and he became somewhat famous as the proprietor of the Diorama, a popular Parisian spectacle featuring theatrical painting and lighting effects. Each daguerreotype (as Daguerre dubbed his invention) was a one-of-a-kind image on a highly polished, silver-plated sheet of copper. Deguerre developed a process of developing images using chemicals that treated a piece of metal that had been exposed to an image or light source for a limited time of exposure. Daguerre’s invention in 1839 came after years of hard work by various artists, inventors and scientists. In fact, Daguerre had been searching since the mid-1820s for a means to capture the fleeting images he saw in his camera obscura, a draftsman’s aid consisting of a wood box with a lens at one end that threw an image onto a frosted glass sheet at the other. In 1829, he had formed a partnership with Nicéphore Niépce, who had been working on the same problem—how to make a permanent image using light and chemistry—and who had achieved primitive but real results as early as 1826. By the time Niépce died in 1833, the partners had yet to come up with a practical, reliable process.Not until 1838 had Daguerre’s continued experiments progressed to the point where he felt comfortable showing examples of the new medium to selected artists and scientists in the hope of lining up investors. François Arago, a noted astronomer and member of the French legislature, was among the new art’s most enthusiastic admirers. He became Daguerre’s champion in both the Académie des Sciences and the Chambre des Députés, securing the inventor a lifetime pension in exchange for the rights to his process. Only on August 19, 1839, was the revolutionary process explained, step by step, before a joint session of the Académie des Sciences and the Académie des Beaux-Arts, with an eager crowd of spectators spilling over into the courtyard outside. Deguerre was fortunate to have advocates that gave him a pension because thousands of photographic enthusiasts were waiting for a
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sensible and capable way to take photographic pictures and to keep them in some stable fashion. Deguerre’s deguerrotypes were the big breakthrough everyone was waiting for.
The process revealed on that day seemed magical. Each daguerreotype was a remarkably detailed, one-of-a-kind photographic image on a highly polished, silver- plated sheet of copper, sensitized with iodine vapors, exposed in a large box camera, developed in mercury fumes, and stabilized (or fixed) with salt water or “hypo” (sodium thiosulfate). Although Daguerre was required to reveal, demonstrate, and publish detailed instructions for the process, he wisely retained the patent on the equipment necessary to practice the new art.From the moment of its birth, photography had a dual character—as a medium of artistic expression and as a powerful scientific tool—and Daguerre promoted his invention on both fronts. Several of his earliest plates were still- life compositions of plaster casts after antique sculpture—an ideal subject since the white casts reflected light well, were immobile during long exposures, and lent, by association, the aura of “art” to pictures made by mechanical means. But he also photographed an arrangement of shells and fossils with the same deliberation, and used the medium for other scientific purposes as well. The journalist Hippolyte Gaucheraud, in a scoop that appeared the day before daguerreotypes were first shown to the Académie des Sciences, wrote of having been shown the image of a dead spider photographed through a solar microscope: “You could study its anatomy with or without a magnifying glass, as in nature; [there is] not a filament, not a duct, as tenuous as might be, that you cannot follow and examine.” Even Arago, director of the Observatoire de Paris, was reportedly surprised by a daguerreian image of the moon.Neither Daguerre’s microscopic nor his telescopic daguerreotypes survive, for on March 8, 1839, the Diorama—and with it Daguerre’s laboratory—burned to the ground, destroying the inventor’s written records and the bulk of his early experimental works. In fact, fewer than twenty-five securely attributed photographs by Daguerre survive—a mere handful of still lifes, Parisian views, and portraits from the dawn of photography. From Metal to paper
Once people could resolve and stabilize an image on a meta; [plate the race was on to encourage and preserve an image on a paper medium. Scientists studied the chemicals, an iodine mixture, silver nitrate vaper and other chemicals that might resolve an image on metal to see how these procedures could be adapted to create an image on paper surface. This would make photography more portable and easier to cart around than big heavy metal plates.
The early 1840s and 1850 began to see European and American photographer printing their images onto glass negatives. These prints were wet and soon scientists developed a photosensitive paper that could print directly onto paper and thus create paper prints. By the late 1850s, deguerrotypes had been replaced by glass negative paper prints and during the civil war, Matthew Brady became a dominant figure in this new process. The exposure time shrank as well. Photogaphic exposures shrunk from 15 minutes or more to make a visual exposure on metal to under one minute to expose a negative on glass. Brady’s crystal clear prints of Lincoln and other notable figures and his war photos in the newspapers assured the success of the photographic process.
Of course people wanted to make pictures move and it was in the 1870s that Muybridge performed the multiple camera experiment for Leland Stanford that
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guaranteed the arrival of moving pictures. When Muybridge set up 25 cameras on a race track the idea of a multiple camera image of multiple successive serial images laid the groundwork for cinematography.
The eye the brain and cinema.
There were technical issues in running a stream of images past the human eye and getting people to think they were seeing moving images. First the eye and the brain had to recognize what they had seen. Then the rate of image had to be tailored to what the brain could interpret as a clear and discernable image aseries of seconds or mi/cro portions of a second. Many fillmakers have had fun playing with the eyes visual perceptions of things. In Hitchcock’s Psycho shower scene, Hitchcock has the murderer, norman bates stabing down at the woman’s body but there is rarely a real penetration of skin by the knife. The eye interprets the stabbing from the lounge of the knife.
Several aspects of eye and brain structure create the effect of movement and vision. One aspect of how we see is known as persistence of vision. That is when a vision is projected onto the retina and absorbed by the optic nerve that image is retained on the eye for a few miliseconds after being seen, thus the image persists on the eye after it is shown to the eye.
Another trick in our vision is the phi phenomenon. If you see a series of electric lights light up in succession, your brain may think the lights are actually moving and are not actually lighting up individually but re moving in a sequence across a field. The phi phenomena gives the impression of movement where there is none.
The way the eye sees images is rather more complicated then we imagine. When light hits the retina which is sentive to light and reacts to it. special cells called photoreceptors turn the light into electrical signals. These electrical signals travel from the retina through the optic nerve to the brain. Then the brain turns the signals into the images you see.
Actually apparently when the eye sees things it is actually sees things upside down and the brain has to reinterpret the image and turn the image right side up so we can see things in the normal way we see things in space.
Projectors.
The technical achievement of watching film that was projected was even more complex. Film projectors had to pick a frame of film out of a roll of film, push it infront of a very bright light and hold the film for a millisecond so the eye can register the image and then allow the image to move before the film became too hot and burned up the frame. Then the next image would be dragged in to be vied for a millisecond. The projector needed a motor that allowed the film to move at one continuous speed. This required a moving engine or motor with variable speed and gears and rotors that would allow the motor to crank the film at one continuously speed, no less or no more. Faster film would not register with the eye and would be meaningless, a simple blur of images going by like items flying by you as a plane takes off or flashing by in a speeding car. A slow motor would make it seem like images were hanging in space and not moving.
Projectors had a special device called the latham loop, developed by a group of famr engineers and laborers in New York. The lathams developed a loop that would keep film suspended in space for a second before being pulled by sprockets into the light to be exposed to the public.
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Another problem with projectors was the noise the big loud 35 millimeter projectors made. When they were roaring and at full speed theyir motors made loud noise so often the projection room had to be separated from audiences as in today’s theatres. Today’s projections are digital but still the computers that run digital projectors generated many lumens of light electrical power and become very hot. The fans needed to cool such projectors can also be loud and forcing air into our out of the room. Thus projecting can still be noisy.
Further in the early 20th century motors could run hot and cause another technological danger: fire. Fires famously broke out in early theatres sometimes killing whole audiences. Remember people are in a dark room. They often do not know where exits are. They are disoriented. When smoke fills the room it can incapacitate people and render them unable to respond. Fire was a constant danger and earlier theatres sometimes had a fire marshall by the door to assure people that the theatre was safe.
Sound was always a part of film even during the silent period. In silent films people might narrate the film or a pianist or organist might provide accompanying music. Often even in early films people would try to provide an improvised soundtrack and or a record playih the dialogue. It asn’t that sound wasn’t availabl,e but it was often that sound did not work very well. There were two problems. For one thing sound was not well amplified in the arly twentieth century. People did not have amplifiers because there were no volume increasing tubes that would increase the volume of photograph record signal. All you could hear waa scratchy record through a minimally amplified old horn speaker. Sound quality was very poor. The man who solved that problem as an electrical engineer named lee de forest. De forest created the earliest vacuum rtubes and with amplification tubes the sound of the movie or record player could be pumped through large paper cone speakers that would give off more sound. But such devices were widely available in radio sets until the early 1920s. DeForest solved the amplification problem and people could hear better through amplified speakers. The second problem was synchronization. Sound could play during a film but if you played a record with a film and it skipped the entire sound of the soundtrack might be thrown off and a person might be speaking when he is silent and music might play at the wrong time. To synchronize sound you had to have a tape that played at the same time as the film or atape embedded wit hthe film or a synchronized record player that began at the same instant as the film. Today even wit hdigital film and digital audio you can have breaks in the sound and soundsignals that run digitally ahead of the sound track and people might still wind up talking out of sync with the film. Sound synchronization wit hediting of sound and image is still a problem for editors. Often the soundtrack of music is the last thing added to the film and that’s why some soundtracks are so powerful, they are creating as a unit as a part of the film distinct from the filming and speaking of the film itself.
Terms
Pure cinema: The notion of pure cinema is the combination of image, music and idea that Hitchcock carefully wove together in films to gain the focus of a scene. The shower scene of psycho or the opening scene from strangers on a train or the climactic scene in Rear Window where Stewart watches Grace Kelly in the house in his view all qualify as moments of pure cinema.
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McGuffin: A device Hitchcock used. A device in films that kept the audience interest. Usually the object the criminal or the hero is after in a film (a formula, a person, a valuable object, money, a hostage)
Films:
Hitchcock, Alfred: Strangers on a Train (1951) Hitchcock, Alfred: Dial M For Murder (1954) Hitchcock, Alfred: Psycho(1960)
Readings:
Ursell, Joe. “The Phenomenal influence of Alfred Hitchcock.”
https://www.intofilm.org/news-and-views/articles/hitchcock-feature
Wilson, Bee. “Alfred Hitchcock,from silent film director to inventor of modern horror.”
https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jun/15/alfred-hitchcock-inventor-modern-horror
Cinema one
The birth of cinema Early man and cinema
Obviously, cinema did not occur until the nineteenth century in anything approaching the form we know today, but it is possible that early people were active thespians and perhaps enacted events from everyday life to be entertaining. So imagine a tribe or collective people who lived and dwelled together for protection from the elements and predators established a camp where the weather was desirable, the natural food was plentiful, there was game for hunting and potable water and the basic elements of life were desirable.
This particular tribe of people harnessed the wheel, general mathematic calculations to make things and achieved a degree of engineering, and had clothing made from cotton and wool and designated labor tasks to various members of their collective.
Then there was the need for entertainment and storytelling. After dinner or the evening meal, people gathered around the campfire or fire pit and achieved relative comfort in soft furnishings and conversed in an ancient language unknown to us. They had language, they were sentient, and they had memory and experiences. They begin to act out events of their day and explored issues and current events of common interest. They entertained their clan via a practice of storytelling.
Storytelling
Presumably early people gathered all people in a communal forum and one by one the members of community begin to explore their stories. Some were better storytellers, used language in a more captivating way, had expressive gestures and
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bodies and plotted their fables in a manner that brought enjoyment to the crowd. Some even remembered the tales and repeated them and perhaps transcribed them.
Another method of telling stories might have been a primitive form of animation. Early people were fairly sophisticated artists, and they likely could draw or paint on a variety of media. Some might have found flexible leaves or leaf material that could be dried and turned into a primitive form of paper. It would then be a small step from making individual pictures to linking them together as a primitive form of animation. One could flip a series of images in relation to the other pictures and make a primitive flip book of animated pictures. Recent discoveries hint that early people were more creative and technological than we knew. The idea of cinema probably was around long before there was advanced technology. The hunt to create real moving pictures probably took centuries of civilization to develop. The concept of a series of continuous images linked together as something to see and something acted out was probably in the minds of ancient people for many centuries before our common notion of civilization. Cartooning
Cartooning was a prelude to moving images and the Egyptians, the Greeks, and especially the Romans were very adept at various forms of cartoons. The Romans were quite skillful at early forms of pornography. Just like the internet today, Roman cities had gobs of pornographic graffiti. This sort of illustration was not very educational or edifying but it did show that public interest in graphic arts was a popular pastime. Beginnings
Animation probably arrived in steps. If one could draw a figure using successive movements that represented movement, walking or running using one image page at a time, the illusion of a person running could be achieved by flipping through pages from the beginning of a movement to the end of a movement.
The earliest recording of movement was using a device that you spun in your hand or thumbs that was called a thaumatrope. You had two images on the opposite side of a plate-like drawing surface. You might have a person taking a step on one side and completing that step on side two. By flipping the device like a coin back and forth using a string to pop the image back and forth between the two images the partial step and the completed step would merge into a complete animated moment of a person stepping forward and taking a full step. People played with this toy and the producers would create simple animations of a person stepping or dancing, a horse galloping or a bird spreading its wings and flying.
Another spinning cartoon device was called the Phenakistiscope. The device was a novelty that worked like a flipbook, but in a spiral motion. The technology was discovered by Joseph Plateau who was a mathematician and physicist in Belgium. Panorama
Panorama’s were early forms of moving pictures that people visited in darkened rooms. Painters made scrolled paintings of country scenes. They would place a roll bar at the end of the big scroll painting and technicians would unroll the scroll at one end and collect the large wide painting at the other end. The effect of the scroll painting panorama was like riding by a beautiful scene on an afternoon drive in the horse drawn carriage. The painting might be populated with people in the landscape and though nothing moved but the painting, the audience sometimes thought they could catch movement in the cartoon characters painted into the scrolled scene.
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Edward Muybridge
The first actual film was an attempt made by photographer Eadweard Muybridge in 1878, to put photographs of an animal running in successive order. What Muybridge did was a form of serial photography where a series of cameras were lined up to track every moment of movement of an animal. Muybridge was a 19th century British photographer best known for his photos of a horse. There is a famous story of Leland Stanford, a California racehorse breeder, who was an entrepreneur and later became governor and eventually endowed Stanford University. Stanford had money bred horses and liked betting on horse races. One of his friends argued with him that horses were bound to the ground. Stanford said that horses at full gallop were able to leave the ground and momentarily could become air born creatures. Stanford’s friend did not believe him and bet him $25,000, a fortune in nineteenth century money that a horse was never air born and the appearance of a horse leaving the ground was an optical illusion. Stanford took the bet and promised he could prove his point. He felt that a better understanding of how horses run would serve trainers, and the animals. Stanford commissioned Muybridge to take rapid, successive photos of his racer a horse named, Sally. Muybridge warned Stanford that creating cameras that could track every millisecond of a horse’s trajectory would be costly. Stanford agreed to any price to win the bet. Muybridge set about finding engineers that would make him cameras with precision shutters that could click open and close and expose film for the briefest of times. Thus Muybridge could track every small movement of the horse. A second challenge was finding a chemical mixture that would expose the film quickly with a small amount of light at high speed. At that time, some people sat still for 30 seconds or longer to produce a film exposure. The chemical process involved a chemical mixture of silver nitrate which was painted on a special photo-sensitive paper to obtain an exposure of light to the paper to produce a photographic record of an event. Muybridge’s second challenge was finding a chemist that could create a new chemical emulsion that could make the film develop a picture with only a millisecond of light exposure. That required a very specific chemical mixture that would allow the paper to resolve an image in a short period of time. Eventually, Muybridge the intrepid experimenter built 25 cameras with a sensitive quick shutter and used a new type of film that developed with small light exposure. When horses ran before the cameras and pulled very light trip wires, the cameras, all twenty five fired off in quick succession creating a series of photos this showed every movement the horses made including horses leaving the ground. Muybrdge did conclusively prove that horse’s hooves indeed fly when they were running and that at full gallop horses did in fact fly. Stanford was right. Horses do fly. Although Stanford won the $25,000 dollar bet, the cost of Muybridge’s research set Stanford back an incredible $50,000. Muybridge did prove that the horse's hooves were completely off the ground in mid-gallop. The experiment used photos that proved horses do in fact leave the ground at high speeds. Staring at all of these photographs, Muybridge soon realized that he could put them together to display the horse and the rider in motion. Muybridge transformed his scientific skill to become an early creator of medical images of patients in motion.
Muybridge had an interesting and exciting life. He was born in England in 1830 and died in the US in 1904. He had started as a nature photographer in the west, and became fascinated with recording the movement of animals. He was involved in a near
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fatal stagecoach accident that caused brain injuries and made Muybridge sullen and less communicative. People thought the injuries drove him mad. They did not, but recovery was long and arduous. He lived in the west was married and was gone photographing the wilds of Western America. Once when he returned, he found his wife in bed with another man. He promptly shot and killed the man and was found not guilty in a court. The court decided he had just cause.
Muybridge was involved in a deadly stagecoach accident and almost lost his life. He had serious traumatic injuries. He recovered from that unfortunate incident and busied himself with learning about the motion of people and animals. He photographed the minute movement of animals in every stage of movement. He photographed people in motion. He received commissions from osteopathic surgeons who wanted minute studies of how people moved so they could reconstruct people’s bone’s and movement after a traumatic accident. Muybridge, himself, a beneficiary of good trauma surgeons appreciated their value. People saw Muybridge’s nude portraits of people walking as pornographic, but they were not used for that purpose, only to instruct doctors in the way normal bones and limbs moved in natural motion. He photographed the movement of men, women, monkeys, horses, dogs, cats, and many other animals and created the first record of medical movement charts used by osteopathic surgeons in the US. He also toured extensively showing his images of movement and images of the body in motion to thousands across the country. He worked with scientists and technicians to increase the speed of shutters in camera so they could take faster pictures of events at the moment the event happened. He also increased the experimentation into chemicals that would resolve images on paper faster. Thus, he was able to transform the time portrayed in photography from lengthy shots to short and speedy snaps. Modern gif images popular on the web today often reveal the dramatic achievements of Muybridge’s work 100 years after the fact. A common student can construct a clever gif image of Muybridge’s images into a complex study of animal motion. Muybridge between 1870 and 1900 perhaps did more to advance the work of photography both as an art and a science than any other artist and photographer of the age. Muybridge was the father of modern cinematography and was responsible for reanimating still images, but his work was largely forgotten during his lifetime, and he achieved little credit after his death. Only in the last fifty years has Muybridge’s work been revisited. Sadly near the end of his life, Muybridge thought his work might be forgotten but today he is revered as one of the pioneers of pre-cinema technology. Without Muybridge, there might have been no film production.
A specialty of Muybridge’s work was his fascination with animals. He was fascinated by the motion of animals. This fascination came from his previous photographing at Yellowstone. Muybridge pioneered chrono photography, the filming of events over time. Muybridge's work in the famous Yosemite valley had an afterlife of its own in the new medium of cinema. He photographed horses, donkeys, raccoons, dogs, and even cats. He created the first cat film in 1887, and the first film of a dog in 1881. All the YouTubers and other video artists creating cute viral cat and dog videos
have Eadweard Muybridge to thank. Besides animals he also captured the movement of athletes.
Alice Guy Blanche
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Alice Guy was one of the first women filmmakers and her career extended from 1896 to 1920. She lived into the 1960s and had a chance to give interviews near the end of her life that re-established her long forgotten work in film. Alice Guy was a French woman and her family who were poor struggled to obtain a job for her in secretarial work. She luckily found a job in an early film company in Paris working for Louis Gaumont, the chair of a division of the company that was actively producing films. In these early days of film there was little belief that film would last or be a craze or sensation for society. Films were short, thirty seconds to one minute and there were few theatres available for showing films. In fact, the first films had only debuted in public theatres in November of 1895 when the Lumiere brothers showed a film to 30 plus people in a public room in Paris. The Lumiere’s had built a camera that was not only a camera but could be used to develop film by pouring developing fluid in the camera box and could be used to project film by placing a light behind the lens and showing the projected image on the wall. It was a remarkably versatile device and it was expensive.
Gaumont bought one of the Lumiere camera boxes and set to work on improving on the Lumiere technique. He hired production crews to go out and make films. Some were fiction films and some were documentary films. People came to see these Gaumont productions and soon Gaumont needed more directors and producers. He deputized Alice Guy, his secretary to supervise filming. Guy was a keen film fan, and she started producing and directing her own productions possibly creating the first narrative film in her fantastic, The Cabbage Patch Fairy in 1896. This film featured an attractive older woman plucking beautiful bouncing babies from a field of cabbages. The babies cooed and giggled and the happy woman placed them in little pod cradles and extracted more babies from the scene creating a rousing little fairy tale about the birth of babies.
Alice Guy Married Max Blanche and moved to the US in 1900 first to work for Gaumont’s overseas division and then she opened her own film company that made films for ten years. She was the first independent female filmmaker in the US and the only woman in the field that ran her own company, Solax. After her marriage to Blanche failed she continued her operations eventually closing in the 1920s. Eventually she returned to France, but found no work in the industry. She returned in the US in the fifties and lived in obscurity until critics began to realize the quiet old lady down the block in New Jersey had been one of the country’s first female filmmakers. She was questioned and interviewed in the 1960s, and she told the story of her early adventures making films. In the end, Alice Guy Blanche was recognized as one of the first narrative filmmakers in the world and one of the only women filmmakers in the early field of filmmaking.
Thomas Edison and his Kinetoscope
Thomas Edison was a great inventor of the nineteenth century and he did not work alone. He hired a studio of engineers and technicians to help him invent and patent devices and new products. As a child Edison had partial hearing loss from an explosion that damaged his ear drum, and he was often considered lax and not intelligent in school. Edison remembered these early slights and when he became rich and famous he grimly defended his inventions including the movie camera and sued competing filmmakers out of business. He would not appear stupid in business and many people and businesses grew to fear Edison. On the plus side, Edison hired a
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group of talented engineers and creators, and they designed not only electric lights, record players, recorders and movie cameras and projectors but also a host of other attached items that people. Edison created the incandescent electric light in 1879 which immediately revolutionized lighting. The only powered lighting that had been available for centuries was fire which was dangerous and easily went of control. Lime light was an earlier form of light created by heating a mound of lime. It was hot, dangerous, and impractical. Edison created a phonograph recorder and an early form of microphone recordings. He made better telegraphs and improved the reception and transmission of Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone. One of Edison’s best talents was improving on inventions made by others.
Edison noticed that Europeans like the Lumieres were working on making films, and Edison saw the novelty of film as profitable. Edison witnessed early films in the labs of scientist Étienne-Jules Marey. Marey was racing to creating a device that could record visual movement. After seeing Marey’s experiments he began to work on experiments in his own lab. William K. Dickson was a photographer, who worked for Edison, and pioneered some of the first films that this laboratory produced. Two of
the most notable films produced in the lab, were Dickson's greeting in 1891, and Dickson's Experimental Sound Recording in 1894. Dickson's Greeting was merely him moving his hat in his hand. Dickson’s Experimental Sound Recording was a violinist playing into one of Edison's recording devices while simultaneously being filmed with two people dancing. Edison, himself, designed and did work on the camera. He created a mechanism that would momentarily pause the film in an attempt to keep the photos from blurring. This device was derived from Latham loop that was originally developed by the Latham family in New York, halted a film long enough to be seen and then the loop would pull the film through the camera.
Some of Edison’s films in the 1890s included Fred Ott’s sneeze. Fred Ott was a man who worked for Edison who could sneeze on cue. Edison recorded him sneezing. Edison also recorded the first controversial film, the Rice-Irwin kiss. Rice and Irwin were two middle aged actors in a New York stage play. In it, they kissed on stage. Edison saw the play and invited them to come to his studio to kiss on film. Although the scene they performed is like watching two grand parents kiss, two older people in a warm and tender embrace smooching, it caused public outrage and the event was considered by some as pornographic. Edison pursued all sorts of recordings at his custom-built Menlo Park, New Jersey lab. There he built a custom building with black walls and a moveable roof that could be opened to allow light in to provide more or less exposure as Edison demanded to expose his film. In his lab, he recorded strong men flexing, women dancing in colored robes (these were colored by hand a single frame at a time) and boxers were recorded boxing. Edison found a wide and endless appetite amongst viewers for all style of films about every day life.
Thomas Edison introduced the Edison Home Kinetoscope, using 22mm safety film provided by Eastman Kodak. Edison devised a plan to set up kinetoscope parlors across the country for people to view new short films. The Kinetoscope parlors were an instant hit with the public, especially because they were inexpensive to use. The films were a cheap amusement that Edison targeted to the working classes. The concept of cheap short movies became popular, but projecting film on a screen took powerful
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lights, generated a lot of heat, and threatened to burn the film. Edison’s individual style of viewers watching one film at a time gave rise to the concept of the nickelodeon. The Lumiere Brothers, Cinématographe, and the first projected movies
Louis and Auguste Lumière were brothers and owners of a company that made photographic film, but they also realized that feature filmmaking might be new form of entertainment and revenue. It was something for people to watch. It was a new amusement for people’s leisure time and in the early twentieth century people had more leisure. They were good engineers and the brothers built an early movie camera that could shoot pictures in sequence, develop film by pouring in developer to the camera box and could be used as a projector to show the pictures after they had been developed. All you had to do was attach a light to one end of the camera box and crank the film past the projected light. The Lumiere Brothers saw the popularity of Edison's Kinetoscope Parlor, and they wanted their own form of cinema. Edison's machines were only good for one person at a time, and the Lumieres dreamed of many people being able to see the pictures at the same moment. Auguste and Louis used their same camera as a projector that had the capacity to project a motion picture on a wall. The men had made a device and viewing place they called the Cinematographe. The Lumiere’s showed the first projected cinema shows in a small darkened room in November of 1895, the first example of projected films. Louis Lumiere had developed a dry film emulsion process for developing photographs and the same chemicals were used for processing cinematic film. They created the process to develop the film and to show the pictures. Louis Lumiere had the foresight to make a versatile recording and projecting device. The Lumieres regarded cinema as one invention among many and in his later In later life he observed that he and his brother had shown the seeds of the film industry for others to harvest. Forbes magazine announced in 2019 that the movie industry could gross 11.5 billion dollars in 2019. Film culture and business sadly has had a short memory, and sadly, no one has ever thanked the Lumiere for their contribution.
Georges Melies, and the invention of film editing
Georges Melies was a well-known stage magician, who owned his stage and theater where he performed magic shows. George was a master at elaborate stage illusions, and used projectors as part of his stage act. Many of the magic sketches Melies produced used stage illusion to produce startling, and violent, comedic effects. Melies loved the work of the Lumiere Brothers and their Cinématographe Machine. He wanted to use this tech in the magic shows. Melies designed a different film camera and projecting system, and he realized the projector could stop and start during the recording. He developd the jump cut, an image jumping from one screen position to another and realized this could be used for magic effects. Melies created another technique used in magic, the double exposure. He could expose the film twice and put two separate images in one frame. He considered film to be one of the most spectacular mediums of magic. He wished to astound audiences, and his films seemed magical with their special effects. His 1902 film A Trip to the Moon was widely bootlegged in the US and Melies fought hard to obtain payment for pirated copies of his films. This ‘Trip to the moon’ was even bootlegged by Thomas Edison to be shown in his own new theaters, Melies wasn't done impressing people with his visual sorcery, he also employed a lot of people to color tint each individual frame to make the earliest colorized films.
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New Entertainment and Hollywood
Edison was a major reason that Hollywood arrived. Edison saw the popularity of projected films, so he switched from the Kinetiscope to the new medium to keep relevant. After he patented the new film projector, he actively sued his competitors, many of whom did not have patents and so were unprotected. He also sued W K. Dickson, his former employee, for trying to start his own company. Eventually, he tired of suing competitors and formed a trust with Dickson and some of his other competitors. This eventually started squeezing out smaller film producers, who ended up leaving the East Coast and moving their own production houses to Hollywood. The West Coast location had access to all types of topography and terrains which was necessary to make realistic, different types of sets. Hollywood began to get a great variety of moving picture companies. Hollywood, itself, pushed out much of the smaller competition with the variety and abundance of films being produced. Major production companies started engaging in integration of the film industry through film production, distribution, and theaters. Universal developed a form of vertical integration by producing its own films, distributing them to domestic and international markets, and then exhibiting those films in Universal-owned theaters. The Hollywood monopoly became so great that it edged Edison out and dominated the world movie market. The film industry was motived by money and ending outside competition.This allowed Hollywood dominance over world cinema for generations. Today Disney alone produces over 70% of all American films. In recent years calls have been made to regulate Hollywood and make it more fair and equitable for other companies to compete against the Hollywood system. We hopefully want more films than the simply the princesses and Marvel movies of Disney.
Terms
storytelling: early form of drama
Animation: a form of moving pictures using drawings strung together to give the appearance of real life movement.
Thaumatrope: Early simple animation device flipping pictures back and forth with a small disc or plate.
Panorama: a painted scene that could be moved on a scrollbar revealing more scenery and showing a primitive form of animation or movement through space.
Storytelling: the art of telling stories preceded the production of all cinema. Phenakistiscope: Another early animation device only unlike a thaumatrope the Phenakistiscope moved objects in a circle to create the sense of motion.
Electric light: the essential invention for filmmaking, created by Thomas Edison’s lab in 1879. It changed the world.
Films:
E. S. Poster: The Great Train Robbery (1903)
James Williamson: The Big Swallow (1900)
T. A. Edison: The Rice Irwin Kiss (1896)
Lumiere: Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory (1895)
Readings:
Gunning, Tom. “Cinema of Attractions.” http://www.columbia.edu/itc/film/gaines/historiography/Gunning.pdf
Kubincanek, Emily. “How Hollywood Made People Believe it Was the Dream Factory.”
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https://filmschoolrejects.com/old-hollywood-made-america-believe-american-dream- factory/
Cinema two
Early Cameras
The earliest American invention of a cinematic device was edison's kinetoscope created by one of his technicians WKL Dickson around 1890 Edison built a studio in New Jersey called the black Mariah it looked like a great big black building. Some of the earliest films that Edison produced were Fred ott's knees that arrived in 1894 and the Serpentine dances of 1894. Edison scored one of the first controversial films in 1894 with the rice Erwin kiss that actually showed two people kissing on film and upset people who believed the film contained pornographic content. What Edison had done was photographed 2 actors who were portraying lovers on stage in a New York production. Edison asked the actors to perform a scene from the play on film for him and the actors for a fee obligingly appeared and performed the scene and Edison filmed it . However Edison became aware of how controversial film could be immediately when he realized that the content of the film could make people upset. The black Mariah studio was an interesting invention in and of itself the walls of the building were black so that all the backgrounds of the images that Edison photographed with his assistance WKL Dickson and others would be foreground images against a black background light came from skylights in the building so that Edison could control the lights in the room by raising or lowering curtains over the skylights and he could control the light on the objects in the room so that the objects that would be central would be in a lighter color and the background behind objects would be black. in essence edison created the very 1st cinematic studio or studio space for For filming a film. Edison referred to his camera as the kinetoscope or a box that would contain film and could be cranked by hand to record images moving in front of it using celluloid. Celluloid film did not come out exposed and ready for viewing. Like the photographic process the film once exposed
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had to be treated with chemicals to resolve or bring out an image this could take hours to make an image clearer so that the film could be seen and the image could be interpreted.
Edison made a series of comedic films and films of boxers and films of people dancing . However Edison did not solve the problem of how to project films by 1896 many competitors with Edison in the United states were trying to achieve their own films and we're trying to project films in a live environment the projecting of films had many difficulties and challenges for film makers while individual viewers of film could watch a film in a small viewer actually projecting a film on a wall with enough light and clear lenses so that the film could be seen by others and would project at the right rate of speed so that it could be discernible as moving images proved to be very challenging for film makers.
Lumiere
The race to be the first people to produce a movie projector and a place to entertain audiences would be the Lumiere brothers auguste and Pierre lewmar 2 French inventors who created the cinematograph. The cinematograph was a superior invention 2 edison's kinetoscope the cinematograph developed by the Lumiere brothers was a camera a developing device and projector all in a single box in November of 1895 the Lumiere brothers created the first cinema show allowing audiences to sit in seats while the Lumiere brothers projected their images on a wall this entertainment was very popular for european audiences and it took a while for american inventors to up up with something similar where projection The Lumiere films were bright and intelligent featuring elements of life that had not been seen before including images of the loomers themselves feeding their baby and featuring elements like a train arriving at a train station . Some of the images The Lumineers chose to shoot were so astounding they frightened audiences. For example when the loomers shot the very first train arriving at the train station people in the audience thought the train was coming directly at them and they literally ducked out of their chairs for fear of being struck by the train . The image was so riveting people really thought it was a real train coming at them. The I fold the brain into a fear reaction to the early cinema. In fact many times when we have a jump reaction in a horror movie it's still our body responding to a stimulus that the body feels is real even though in our minds we know that what is on the screen is in no way near us and cannot really affect us or actually harm us in reality . Thus jumpscares are a way in which our body still responds to cinema as if we're in the room with the cinema event and we can be affected by things in the cinema. The truth is what is happening is the body is reacting to a physical stimulus it still perceives as a threat that is a jump scare where the brain eventually realizes that everything is on film and is not really a danger to the physical body.
The Lumiere films piloted several innovations in the creation of films first loomers probably created the very first narrative comedy called the Gardner. In the Gardner there is a gardener who is watering plants and a boy walks along and steps on the garden hose stopping the water the gardener looks at the hose to see if something is obstructing the water the boy takes his foot off the hose and the gardener is splashed in the face with water popping out the comedic aspect of the film immediately was enjoyed by audiences who along with the boy understood the joke of the water trick. The loomers also captured real life when they actually showed their first film workers leaving
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the mayor factory. August and Pierre lewmar had a film factory where they actually made photographic film and one of the first films they recorded was workers leaving their factory at the end of a work day and it's simply an image of workers walking out the doors of the factory at the end of the work day and lasts about 30 seconds thirdly and finally most powerfully the workers showed a train pulling into a station and arriving. People thought this was an astounding event because the train appeared to be coming directly at the audience and people in the audience actually ducked fearing that the train would actually strike them.
Two theories discuss the way early cinema was seen by audiences the first theory is the actualities or cinema as realism in the early days of film film was seen as real or what actually occurred the term for this was that cinema is seen as an actuality or a reality of life and audiences took it that way there are many apocryphal stories about the first cinema showing of the train arriving at the station in France in in the first showing of of that shot in 1896 the story is that audiences actually ducked because they're afraid they would be struck by the train but they did realize they were watching a film that was projected and they realized that the film that was projected was not real life but they took the events they saw on screen as real that is they did not assume that somebody had staged the event or that actors were performing in action and not really living it so it took a while for the idea of performance in film just like performance on stage to be accepted as being fiction. The second theoretical concept about early film is the idea that cinema was treated like a form of amusement like an amusement park or carnival or circus. That film was seen as a cinema of attractions that people went to the cinema like they would go to a fair or a ride at Disney World the idea for many people attending cinema was they were going to experience an experience they had never experienced before. This cinema of attractions theory suggests that people went to film for the sensation of seeing something they had never seen before they did not go to the cinema because they wanted to see a story that experience came a little bit later.
As the length of films became longer audiences moved from wanting to see actualities and a cinema of attractions to actually wanting to see films that told a story. This created more competition to make movies and it created the birth of more studios . As films became longer people wanted to see more diverse stories that told the stories of different people and people had an appetite for fantasy and reality. Narrative became the format for film over simply an actual event or a cinema of attractions where people could see something new the whole idea of a narrative film changed the basis for filmmaking in the 1890s into the 20th century
Actualities: Early non-fiction short films that were often composed as static one-shots. The first films in cinema history were actualities.
Cinema of attractions: Concept developed by theorist Tom Gunning to describe how early moviegoers were attracted to cinema primarily as a shocking and exciting new technology.
Georges Méliès: Cinema and the magic tradition
George molaise is considered one of the earliest great film makers of the early cinema era he was a magician he was an early on tour he built his own studio and he pioneered a wide range of cinematic effects . He is considered the father of fantasy and science fiction cinema. He controlled all aspects of filmmaking including production screen
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writing directing acting producing and distribution so therefore he is now considered by many people to be one of the earliest auteurs of cinema.
George Melies created his cinema using a camera he purchased in England from an English inventor. His films became famous for the use of special effects or magic tricks that popular popularized using multiple exposures dissolves stop motion and split screen photography effects amongst other techniques malaise was one of the first people to utilize many effects in his films and therefore is by many people is considered to be the father of science fiction special effects and fantasy cinema. One of his popular early films on whom date it or the four troublesome heads from 1898 actually has Malays in the frame and he actually removes his head and places it on a table in the end he places four different versions of his head on the table and each one of them is a different version of malaise head . How he creates the this effect is by using multiple exposures of the same film. Malaise in many of his films uses the technique of the dissolve or stop motion photography to create many of his special effects.
Another technique molaise uses is direct address to the audience where he actually is speaking directly to the audience as as they are watching the film . Perhaps the most famous of malaise early films is a trip to the moon from 1902 and the impossible voyage from 1904 in both films molaise is telling a story of people taking a trip and he uses the technique of linear editing to actually portray the story in a specific sequence . He is one of the first film makers to utilize linear editing successfully to show the progression of the story moving forward in a narrative format. Malaise work is also important for his building of his own studio and his creation of a set design where he can control the elements of the design and the background and the special effects in his own studio he also utilized objects that would jump from one scene to another or literally jump cuts . Other film makers of the era including James Williamson began to utilize special effects in their films in 1900 James Williamson created the big swallow a film in which he is describing a man who is angry about the fact that he is being photographed so he walks up to a camera and decides to swallow the camera and the filmmaker all we see is a guy approaching the camera and opening in his mouth but the assumption is that he is actually swallowing and devouring the camera because he's tired of being photographed.
The birth of classical Hollywood storytelling. James Williamson was an important filmmaker from England and in 1901 he created a 5 minute film entitled fire in which he put scenes together in a narrative format so that audiences would see one event coming after another describing the outbreak of a fire and attempts by fireman's is to end the fire and save the building.
The big breakthrough in Hollywood classical editing and film story structure arrived in 1903 Edwin S Porter had been a worker for Edison and had been a projectionist and had access to a lot of films. He had seen Jane woods williamson's five minute 1901 film fire he had been witness to George molaise a trip to the moon in 1902 . Because he had been a projectionist he had a chance to see each of these films several times he created two of the most important films to the idea of film narrative and those films were the life of an American fireman in 1903 and the Great Train Robbery in 1903 both are important breakthrough films. The life of an American fireman is literally taken from James Williamson fire in 1901 it tells the story of firemen and fighting fires in nine scenes that are strung together in a narrative format that tells the story of the
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firemen being called out to stop a fire. In nine scenes Evan S Porter actually creates the idea of cinema that is edited together in nine separate specific scenes. In 1903 he embarks on the Great Train Robbery about the robbery of the train which is even more complex and has more scenes and uses rear projection in the film there is a train station being seen with rear projection scenes of trains going by through the window a group of robbers come into the train station to hold it up they knock the train station attendant unconscious and they tie him up and they go out to the train tracks to wait for the train when it stops to refuel for water and coal when the train stops the robbers climb on board the train and subdue the crew and break into the train car containing money that is moved from one location to another the valiant train official tries to protect the money but is shot and thrown off the train by the robbers they take the money they separate the engine car from the rest of the train they robbed the passengers on the train and then they mount the engine car and drive away in the meantime we see a scene of the sheriff and his men at a dance and people are dancing in a room at a hoedown uh a dance party . The robbers separate from the engine car abandon it and go into the woods and pick up horses to make their getaway. The sheriff in the middle of the dance is told that the train has been robbed and he must mount a posse to stop the robbers . The sheriff and his men depart the dance . The next scene shows the robbers on horseback being chased by the sheriff and his men and shooting ensues the robbers get some distance away and decide to stop get off their horses and split the loot. They are surrounded by the sheriff and his men and one by one they are shot dead . The last scene of the film shows a sheriff pointing a gun in the audience and firing. The film is 8 to 10 minutes long and really does show the complex process of the robbery and the aftermath of the robbery. The value of Edwin S Porter's technique is that he places the scenes together in sequence so that we have the sense of an action being continued mentally by the audience as they watch one event followed by another event. The satisfaction for the audience is that they get to see the beginnings of the robbery the effects on the station agent who is knocked unconscious they also watch a girl who come pops into the station and rescues the agents and alerts her and the sheriff to the fact there's been a robbery and they showed the resolution of the robbery the chase by the sheriff and the capture and eventual execution of the robbers by the sheriff and his men. Both the life of an American fireman in 1903 and the Great Train Robbery in 1903 have in massive impact on American film for one thing they illustrate that American film is based on the idea of action of big complicated dramatic and oftentimes violent actions become the central thing in American film they also show that the audience is like chases the audiences like westerns the audience is like violence the audience is like killing the audience is like drama the audience is like suspense the audience is like to know what happens the audience is like to know sequence and the audience is like to know outcomes so for many many reasons the Great Train Robbery deeply impacts the way later American films are made. After the Great Train Robbery many films feature action many films feature drama many films feature violent action many films feature chases many films resolve themselves in violent conclusions of that action. One of the interesting scenes in the Great Train Robbery is where the robbers are slowly taking all of the possessions of the passengers on board the train and while they are robbing the passengers 1 passenger attempts to make a break for for it and run from the robbers and his shot in the back that sequence creates real interest for the audience because
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they are concerned about what happens to this man and as the robbers depart the scene all of the characters who have been robbed run to the man who has been shot to see if one he's still alive and two if they can render made so there is a social and curiosity dimension to these early American films but they do set in motion the style of of filming that will be sent become significant for the next 100 years in American filmmaking
The Great Train Robbery prevails as one of the Great American films from 1903 for another 10 years audiences returned to watching it again and again at 10 minutes in length audiences can watch the film six times an hour and do people literally memorize it line for line and action for action period from 1905 to 1911 there was a massive boom in what's known as the Nickelodeon a private viewing parlor where people could watch a short film for five cents these examples of short nickel films really created an audience for films.
American film progresses forward in 1915 with DW griffith's breakthrough film birth of a nation birth of a nation uses many techniques that become standard in American film and provides a variety of technical innovations the three hour and 15 minute film is a major epic and an extremely sensational film and it is also deeply racist in its tone. Birth of a nation possibly singlehandedly helped to revive the klu Klux Klan in American culture DW Griffith knew exactly what he was doing when he chose the novel the klansman to make into a film . First Griffith knew the the book and the subject matter would be deeply controversial second Griffith linked these sensational topic of racism and the birth of the glucose clan to his cinema innovations third Griffith had enormous vision to envision the era of the pre civil war the civil war the death of Lincoln the Reconstruction Era and the birth of the Klan all in a single film . He utilizes a variety of techniques in the film to create empathy with characters . He uses a variety of shots cross cutting from close up to medium shot to longshot to dramatize events and take the audience with him he uses naturalistic acting from some of the best actors he could find in that era who really epitomized the characters and make the audience sympathetic to even some of the most horrific ideas such as lynching throughout the film the klu Klux Klan is seen as the epitome of order in the South the attempts to restore order to a lawless southern territory of the United states. While the film had enormous racist content the film prompted controversy and prompted public outcry about racism about lynching and about the origins and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan if nothing else despite Griffith sensationalistic motivations the birth of a nation caused the the nation to have the very first debate about issues of racism and the idea of democracy of a variety of people in the 20th century and that debate continues today. The film shows that a film can have a sociological impact on a culture in a country and how people see the world and how people even see their neighbors.
While the story of women film makers was not widely told there were many women who became involved in the filmmaking business as producers and directors . In 1896 in Paris the secretary to Luis GAIL mall of the gammill studios was Alice guy blanche. Alice guy blanche was hired by gammill to create films and she ran her own film unit in the early 20th century Alice guy blanche left the gomoll organization to create her own film making business and pioneered filmmaking in the United states making films into the 1920s. In the United states one of the first female film makers to make a full length feature film was Lois Weber who in 1914 made a version of Shakespeare's merchant of
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Venice. Lois Webber was one of the first women to achieve fame and acclaim as a director and she used her platform to talk about issues of child care abortion and women's rights . All of these ideas would remain fairly taboo until recent years many women innovated in the format of film.
World War One had a massive impact in the creation of film around the world and of course influenced where and how films could be made. With Europe plunged into war The United states took the lead in film production. The United states entered World War One very late and had very few casualties from the war period therefore their film industry was intact at the end of the war and by 1919 American film had taken the lead. However art movements had enormous influence over film particularly in France where art had enormous influence over everyday life. The movement that began with ridicule but became popular by the turn of the century was the notion of French impressionism. French impressionism literally used the science of how the ises to create pointillistic images that were reconstructed by the retina into a meaningful image. In Francis impressionistic music sketches and pieces of a melody would be reconstructed in the mind of the audience into whole melodies where audiences would do some of the work of reconstructing the music into a whole and beautiful experience. Similarly expressionism in film allowed audiences to interact with the film . In impressionistic film a series of images or ideas would be presented partially and the audience would be invited to become involved in the film process by trying to connect the dots literally of the story of the character of the movement of the scenes to reconstruct a whole from the idea of the French impressionist view of the world where various discrete parts would be laid before the audience in isolation and the audiences would have to reconstruct the parts into a hole to make sense of the impressionistic elements.
One of the major innovators in the French impressionistic film movement was a man named Abel gantz who literally utilized a variety of storytelling lighting and technology techniques within a frame and using frame mobility to recreate the experience in the eyes and the experience of the characters . Oftentimes gantz would use montage to put together a series of ideas or scenes to connect an audience to an image and make sense of the image. Very famously in his film Napoleon one of the last classic silent films constructed in 1927 gan's used the technique of impressionism to put together a series of images telling the story of the life of Napoleon. One of the concepts of cinema impressionism is the concept of the photo genie that is the way of making an object more profound and deeper by enhancing it with a close up that gets you inside the mind of the character. There are several scenes enable gansus Napoleon in which he uses the technique of the photo Jenny in which we see Napoleon in close-up and then we see cuts or cutaways to different things inside napoleon's mind that allows us to project from the image of Napoleon the thought process of Napoleon as he's looking at things in the world the concept of the photo Jenny is very important to the impressionist concept of building a character.
A new style of cinema emerges in France under the concept of Dada filmmaking and surrealistic filmmaking. Dada film making portrays oftentimes the nonsense of life and can collide through editing images that can produce a smile or silliness or terror pure. Surrealism is a movement more wedded to psychoanalysis and surrealists believed that there were unconscious images floating in the back of our mind that if those images could be brought to life might give us deeper understanding of our
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unconsciousness. Surrealistic filmmaking toyed with Freud's ideas of dream analysis. Probably one of the most important in the surrealist films of the 1920s was Salvador Dali and Luis banal 2 French Spanish surrealist painters made a film titled and delusion dog andalusian dog was a film that was a series of dreamlike sequences tide together with a broken narration that appeared to be like fragments of a dream. A man stares at the moon at night sharpens his razor blade and then cuts open a woman I all of these are weird strange nightmarish dream images at the beginning of the film then there is a sequence of a man wearing what looks like a nun's habit riding a bicycle down a street in Paris he goes unconscious the bicycle falls over a woman in upper upper floor of an apartment complex looks out her window and sees him lying on the ground goes running downstairs to his aid and then she is back in the apartment mysteriously and she assembles pieces of his clothing on the bed and looks at the bed and wheels the man on the on the street who has fallen over to appear in her bed the man is reconstructed in the bed and then while she's looking at the bed she notices the man has teleported to the room and he's staring at his hand in the room and she goes over to him and sees it coming out of his hand as a series of ants so the film does not make traditional sense it just gives a catalog of a series of different disconnected dream images that might appear in somebody's fitful nightmare but surrealistic film definitely had an influence on the faint way film was constructed because even though some surrealistic feelings or images might seem unreal some aspects of life might seem like a dream or deeply unreal and not realistic all of these are important ideas about films and filmmaking and all of them shaped the way modern European film arrived. When we look at French and European film we see that Dada and surrealism and impressionism probably didn't have a lot of impact in early 20th century film although all of those ideas might have had impact later in this country but we clearly see that Dada surrealism and impressionism all have a strong impact in the way French film is created again around ideas that are very different than the ideas that created American film.
Finally we arrive at another style that's very important to the creation of European film and that's the style of German expressionism German expressionism was an art style that grew out of the horrors of World War One . The Germans had become involved in war in World War One thinking that they would be great militarists and leaders and winners at the war . What they didn't understand was other cultures could also martial forces against them and stop them the Germans were stunned to find themselves the losers at the end of World War One. They felt that they should be the winners of the war and when the Treaty of Versailles was signed the Germans ended up paying massive reparations to the allies in the war. The concept of German expressionism was a concept that was already available and existing in art. German expressionism depended on bright unmixed colors German expressionism also conveyed abstract images that did not look like real life locations. German expressionism also portrayed extreme violent emotions hysteria fear anxiety horror death all of those things are experienced in German expressionist expressionistic work. When Germans began to employ expressionistic techniques after World War One it came from a period of anxiety. The German psyche did not expect to lose the war period the Germans did not expect their country to be bankrupt by war reparations. The Germans did not expect to have massive inflation and instability in their culture. Therefore the films made from German expressionism are darkly psychologically
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complicated and disturbing. The Germans become highly interested in horror fantasy science fiction and aberrational states of mind. One of the earliest films of the German expressionist. Is a film by Robert wiene entitled the cabinet of doctor caligari and in summarizes many of the anxieties in the German mind at the time . The character at the center of the film is being treated by a psychiatrist whom the character realizes has a hidden side to him he isn't just a psychiatrist but at night he is experimenting with creating dark life and he has created a homunculus a proto human creature that goes out at night and terrorizes people kills people and steals women our protagonist is terrified of the doctor because he has this hidden side to him and what he discovers overtime is that this character is dangerous and destructive. So he fears the character and believes that he's in the clutches of a madman. Finally at the very end of the film after the monstrous Dr caligari has killed people and stolen women the protagonist of the film wakes up . He realizes he's been in a dream and the dream has been a paranoid psychotic fantasy. When he awakens he realized that doctor caligari is not an evil scientist has now created a proto human has not been killing people has not been stealing women but has been treating him for psychosis and paranoia. When he awakens from his dream he realizes that everything he is seen throughout the film has been a horrible delusion and that the doctor is really a good person who has cured him from his hysteria paranoia and paranoid state. So many of the films that arrive from German expressionism have these dream states in their mind. Another film from the era is FW murnau's Nosferatu which deals with the idea of a vampire that is literally sucking people dry and is very clearly taking over the evening hours and destroying the lives of people and particularly praying on young women. German expressionism expresses the terror the Germans have about their society following the aftermath of World War One and the sense of hopelessness and bleakness that characterizes their society in such times.
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Cinema two: Hollywood women
Women of Hollywood
Alice Guy Blanche, Ida Lupino, Dorothy Arzner, Sofia Coppola, Alma Reville
Alice Guy Blanche
Alice Guy Blanche with a secretary to Louis Gaumont in the early days cinema. In the late 19 century in 1896 Gaumont wanted to increase the productions of his film company, and he assigned a unit to his secretary who became an able filmmaker. In 1900, she made one of the earliest short films entitled The Cabbage Patch Fairy. In the short film a middle-aged woman grabs babies from a cabbage patch and present them to the audience with adoring giggles and goo-goos all the way. Alice Guy was a talented woman and she was assigned a role to open production facilities for Gaumont in in the US. When she arrived in the country, she saw opportunities for starting her own business and began her own filmmaking business, Solex that lasted until 1920. Finding little work in the film industry for women in the US, she returned to Paris and worked there for a number of years. In the late 1950s she returned United States to be with her children. Word circulated that Guy Blanche had been a filmmaker in the early days of film and in the 1950s and 60s film critics began to interview her to learn about her role in the history of film. Finally, by the end of her life she was claimed as one of the original female pioneers in the film business.
Ida lupino
Ida Lupino was an attractive young woman from England who had a talent for acting. In the 1930s she arrived in Hollywood and began to take roles in featured Hollywood films including parts in Gone with the Wind and roles that cast her as a beautiful engenue. But by the end of world war two she was getting steady work in mysteries and bad girls and femme fatales. By the 40s she had become in an influential and beautiful actress popular in the movies. While starring in a film noir, Not Wanted in the 1940s the Director of the production Elmer Clinton became violently ill with a heart attack. The production was threatened with closure. Lupino stepped forward and said I can direct the film and the producers not wishing to end the production accepted her offer of help. Within several weeks she completed the film and made friends of the cast and crew. Lupino went on to become a popular actress and Director of a series of film noir’s in the late 40s and early 50s. As women’s roles were further circumscribed in Hollywood in the 1950s despite her success as a director Lupino found fewer and fewer opportunities to work. She moved her talents to television where she found continued work as an actress and as a Director. Lupino never flinched at the fact that her gender held her back from receiving accolades as a Director but the cast and crew and production teams that worked with her awarded her great accolades as a devoted, attractive actress and a consummate professional. Friends called her Lupi but her name on the set was ‘mother’ and they even placed mother on the back of her director’s chair. Lupino’s long career in Hollywood illustrated the difficulties women directors had but also showed that a plucky woman with talent, skill, and diplomacy could work her way into the production side of Hollywood and could work both as an actor and as a Director. Dorothy Arzner
Dorothy Arzner was a Hollywood original. She was an open lesbian who lived with a woman her entire life. She directed a variety of films that featured strong female
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characters and discussed the problematics of heterosexual society. In Craig’s wife, based on a Pulitzer Prize play she tells the story of a woman (Rosalind Russell) who is ridiculed because she is seen as strong and her husband is regarded as weak. Such role reversals threatened their marriage. Men that were weak and women that were strong were taboo topics. She produced films about marriages plagued by unfaithfulness. She crafted 16 films as a director including many about taboo subjects. She worked with female stars like Katherine Hepburn and Rosalynn Russell and gave them intelligent complex rules.
In many of her most provocative films she attacked the concept of the male gaze Maureen O’Hara had a creepy line in the 1940 film Dance Girl Dance where she responds to leering men by saying, “I know you want me to tear my clothes off so you can have your look and $.50 worth, $.50 for the privilege of staring at a girl the way your wife won’t let you. “ Azner was a powerful director and who made 16 films between 1927 and 1943. Before she quit directing, she was the first woman to join the directors guild of America in 1936 . She lived with her partner Mary Morgan for four decades many of her films revolve around the theme of courage and bravery to make difficult choices and sacrifices for a moral code of strength to be one’s own person. she was uncompromising in public and in private and lived her code of honesty and self-reliance. Jane Campion
Jane Campion is an important contemporary female Director who has been directing films for over 30 years. She began directing in her native Australia and moved to other countries to produce a series of films that deal with women’s struggle and people’s struggle to be individuals and to live a life unshackled by controls and allowing people to experience the freedom that society rarely allows people. As a female directors she is deeply involved in women’s issues and her major breakthrough was 1993’s The Piano in which Holly Hunter is a woman trapped in a loveless marriage to Sam Neill. She meets a land owner nearby who shares much of her passion and love for books, art, and learning played by Harvey Keitel. They fall in love, and they learn that they can can be free.
She directed a powerful TV series in 2013 and a sequel to it in 2017 entitled top of the lake starring the magnetic Elizabeth Moss as a police detective trying to solve a crime involving young women who were taken to a dangerous location are enslaved and murdered. The film deals with issues of dark men with a code of violence that undermines their lives.
In her 2021 film The Power of the Dog she deals with alternative lifestyles. The character of a brother, George, played by Jesse Plemons and his wife Rose played by Kristen Dunst come into conflict with his brother Phil who is a hard and masculine advocate who doesn’t support his brother’s wife and her inclination towards learning. The wife Rose has a son from a previous marriage who is thin and wiry and feminine and attending college and training to become a doctor. Cumberbatch plays the hardened masculine Phil with a hatred for anything feminine. He makes fun of Rose he ridicules her and drives her further into alcoholism. He makes fun of her son, Peter for his size and his lack of physical strength. However, over time he builds a bond with this feminized scholarly boy. But the boy sees him as rooted in toxic masculinity and mean to his mother in a danger to his family so eventually the boy uses his medical skills to acquire some anthrax and uses it to poison the pernicious Phil ending him. Campions
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film leaves behind the theme of female empowerment and instead takes on the subject of toxic masculinity that can turn against men when actually a man’s feminine side might be his salvation. the Power of the Dog is a powerful repudiation of such toxic masculinity.
Alma Reville
Alma Reville was Alfred Hitchcock’s wife for 50 years and often the cowriter of many of his films. Because her husband was enormously famous and popular Reville’s contribution to the success of Hitchcock’s career was often overshadowed by her husband’s larger than life persona and his stage presence as a Director. However in times of stress it was Hitchcock who always looked at Reville to rewrite and save productions of films that had script trouble. Reville was instrumental in rewriting many of Hitchcock’s most potent films including working on the script for Psycho and helping to rewrite that structure of the story. Her contributions to the films are often obscured by the fact that Hitchcock and Reville worked in private and contributed to the work together seamlessly as a team. However, since there were no records of actually what Reville had written and what the original writer of the script had written much of her contribution to Hictchcock’s work is obscured. . It is undoubtedly Reville’s work that led to the consistency of Hitchcock’s work for the 50 years of his career, and it is undoubtedly without Reville’s help Hitchcock’s career could not have taken place.
Sofia Coppola.
True that Sofia Coppola had the advantage of having a famous father and Director for a guiding light and an entrée into the movie business but Sofia Coppola’s work all by itself is distinctive and original. She has her own voice and she has developed a variety of films that are insightful inquisitions into the mind and thinking of women.
Coppola’s career was off to a shaky start when she appeared in her father’s godfather three as the granddaughter of Michael Colionne. However after that experience, she read the novel the Virgin suicides about young women that are deeply unhappy with their lives and some of them as virgin’s commit suicide because they are unhappy in their lives, and they can’t find any way to achieve happiness. She burst onto the scene directing this important film and a generation of young women immediately gravitated to her vision of hopeless young girls not finding a way forward in their lives. After 1999’s Virgin Suicides Coppola became involved with the 2003 film lost in translation which deals with a movie actor Bob Harris who is in between films and spending time in Japan.As a celebrity, he has a compromised sense of privacy, but he is in a foreign country and he is disoriented and lonely. Coppola catches the idea of and his estranged life. In the film lost in translation is a rye comedy about being out of place, being out of time, and not having a sense of your own direction home.
Her next film was 2010’s somewhere and it deals with celebrity culture in the young star is basically thrust into situations with people where he has no interest in the things he’s doing with his life and he becomes involved in a series of vices that don’t provide any pleasure. Sometimes he spends time with his young daughter but that provides him with no pleasure as well too. It is another study of toxic celebrity and how toxic celebrity renders most of life dull and meaning meaningless. In her 2017, film the Beguiled she does a remake of a 1970s Clint Eastwood movie in which a soldier is left damaged and at the mercy of a group of girls in the girls’ school. While the girls try to
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help him, his natural inclination toward seducing the women makes the women envious of each other and eventually they determined that the soldier’s masculinity is a toxic force in their lives, and they might just as well be rid of him and his damaging ways. Terms
Toxic masculinity: a term that describes how masculine features can be destructive to men.
The gaze: A term articulated by feminists that suggest that men use looking at women as a way to possess them.
empowerment: In Hollywood and many places in the western cultures women have been routinely deprived of empowerment through a lack of jobs, education and creative outlets.
Films:
Dorothy Arzner: Craig’s Wife (1936)
Dorothy Arzner. “Dance Girl Dance.” (1940)
Ida Lupino. “Never Fear.” (1949)
Alfred Hitchcock. “Psycho” (1960) script support by Alma Reville
Sofia Coppola. “The Virgin Suicides.” (1999)
Alice Guy Blanche. “The Cabbage Patch Fairy.” (1900)
Readings:
Liu, Rebecca. “Jane Campion’s the Power of the Dog.”
https://www.anothergaze.com/
Geller, Theresa. “Dorothy Arzner.” Senses of Cinema. https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2003/great-directors/arzner/
Cinema 3 Griffith
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David Warwick Griffith is one of the most important filmmakers of the early twentieth century. His films were epic Biblical novels and dealt with classical literature. He pioneered many techniques that we now take for granted in cinema. He used natural acting, he rehearsed scenes, he was early in mixing a variety of camera shots, close up, medium shot and distance shot. he used to close up the point of view shot. He type cast specific roles by physical type. He created drama by moments of extreme emotion. He edited for continuity and emphasis and quicken the pace for editing in action scenes. While he may not have created all of these techniques he practiced all of them and improved them so that what Griffith did became the grammar of vocabulary of American film for the next hundred years. He made shots, he edited, he rehearsed actors, he used naturalistic acting, he created strong storylines, he was interested in epic formats, he could shoot long films with complex editing, he was interested in history, and he was interested in the development of narrative. No early filmmaker made a more comprehensive and diverse body of work and no early filmmaker was as universally interested in every aspect of the craft of filmmaking than Griffith. He was the most adventurous pioneer and explorer of the craft of filmmaking of the silent period, and without him, there would be no modern film technique.
Early in his career, the format for feature films was being created. From 1900 to 1908, the length and complexity of films had grown from a few minutes to almost 60 minutes in length. Also there was a development of motion picture projection to a brand new style of motion pictures that could be shown indoors on. Big screens making the film format more impressive. These new movie palaces created very beautiful structures where people could watch films in comfort even though their homes might be small and squalid. Seeing that these early films were very successful, Griffith with an eye to an acting career determined to enter the field of film acting. He decided that he would be an actor Griffith. He was from a family of aristocratic Kentuckians, and his great grandfather had actually served in the Civil War for the South, and many people believed that DW Griffith had loyalties to the south. But throughout his film career DW Griffith is showed an evenhanded view of world history, and created a variety of films that provided different perspectives on the society that nurtured him. Griffith had a different understanding of the world and saw differing groups with a mature eye for world cultures.
Due to the massive influence of The birth of a Nation, people have tried to type DW Griffith as principally a racist filmmaker. While there is certainly racist content in the novel The Klansman from which The Birth of a Nation was taken, and while there is certainly very many disturbing scenes that are very insensitive, it would be hard to describe most of Griffith’s filmmaking as racist in intent or prejudiced. Griffith’s films were governed by the subject matter of the script, and Griffith filmed the material as he supposed the author intended their work to be seen and understood. If the content was racist, the film would reflect that, but if the film was about diverse people and views Griffith also reflected progressive content just as strongly. While Birth of a Nation’s content is seen as racist today, at the time the film was made the United States was a more racist country and probably many of the racist views in the film were shared by the majority of viewers watching it. DW Griffith had a great influence on film and was an important filmmaker of the early decades of the twentieth century.
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Griffith began his career at the Edison studios in 1908, and he worked with the American Mutoscope and Biograph companies from 1908 to 1913. During this time, in the five years that he worked for these studios he made possibly as many as 450 films. Some of them were one reel, 10-12 minutes long, some of them were two reels of film or 15 to 20 minutes long and some were three reels, approximately 30 to 35 minutes and some four reels approaching an hour in length. Griffith started off his career as an actor, and then when the studios needed an extra director around 1908, he was chosen to be a new director. He didn’t trust directing film, and he was afraid that his career as an actor would be ruined, so he asked for the ability to return to acting if his career as a director didn’t work out well. Of course, he had nothing to worry about, and Griffith was a monumental Director with many great ideas. His films were enormously popular for a decade.
As to his techniques and innovations in filmmaking, he spoke of his breakthrough ideas. In later life he said, he invented the close-up. He used the set of a film as a miniaturized stage to create a variety of scenes. He claimed to have borrowed the cut back or the flashback scene from having read Dickens who had inserted flashback scenes in his novels. A narrative trick that Griffith pioneered was a character seeing or visualizing a moment within the mind. Griffith found ways to help the audience imagine what was in the mind of a character by cutting back and forth from the actor to the concept in a character’s mind. From the French filmmakers, he was known for framing what was seen using tracking shots, and he was known for the origination of modern editing. he used what he referred to as an inner frame narrative in which the master shots of the scene would provide the structure for the rest of the scene. He might preview a scene with a distant master shot to explain what was going on in the overall scene, and then introduce shorter smaller scenes interpolated into the master scene to provide details of the action within a scene.
Griffith’s philosophy of a scene was complex. Within a scene, he believed in the idea of parallel action where he could use cross cutting, a cut from one thing to another scene, so you could see two stories moving forward at the same time. All of these were massive event/filming innovations that had not been done before by any director anywhere. In many ways he was the titanic new theorist in film increasing new ideas in the creation of an interframe narrative. Griffith was able to break scenes down into several shots. First, there would be a master shot to establish the scene, and then he would have inserts or close-ups of individual actors within the scene. He would match the cuts from the perspective of the audience. He would show the same line of direction. he would have an online scene match another scene. Thus, he would see characters at the same level, and he would use faces to track continuity. He would use point of view or reaction shots in scenes where actors might talk to each other. He would match scenes line-by-line or at the height of the human eye, so that the two characters would match up in terms of their own lines in their vision of where they stood in the frame. He would have Point of view reaction shots where one actor would be standing on one side of the stage and talking, and then he might insert a close up. Then he would move the action to the other side of the stage, and he would have the actor talking in close up at the side of the stage, so you would have a reaction from one active shot to another. He accelerated the art of montage using a cut to move the action from one scene to another. He focused on actors that look like the characters they played. If
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a scene required a beautiful young girl, he cast a beautiful young girl to play her. If it was an old man required for a scene, he cast an old man to play an old man. He tried to type cast people to look like the characters they were supposed to play in the film.
Perhaps his first great early film was birth of a nation from 1915. It was a film that was universally loved by many Americans despite the fact that it had racist content. Many of the characters were people of color but were played by white actors in black face due to the strongly racist content. The film deals with two families going through the pre-Civil War period, the Civil War, the death of Lincoln, and the reconstruction. It’s a titanic film lasting three hours and fifteen minutes. The film birth of a nation was based on a very racist-oriented novel entitled The Klansman that was popular in Griffith’s time. Many have criticized Griffith’s choice, because they felt the content of the novel and film was racist, but Griffith believed that picking a novel that was extremely controversial would attract audiences to the film, and indeed that was the case. Many people have considered whether Griffith himself was a racist person. It is a difficult idea to answer because there is certainly elements of Birth of a Nation that appear on the outside to be very racist but again they reflect elements of the novel which itself had racist content. Do you make a novel with racist ideas to support them or expose them to the light of day? There have been many American movies they deal with Nazism, and many have complained that the way Nazis are portrayed they make Nazism look attractive. The question of Griffith’s racism is complex because many of the films that he made later deny many elements of Birth of a Nation. In a way poor Griffith’s early experience making a controversial film makes him an early victim of cancel culture. People cannot see the man’s art because they today find that subject matter disturbing. Sadly, sometimes in many American films we have to learn to see the subject matter separately from the filmmaking art.
A modern case of racism might be Steven Spielberg’s Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. The antagonists in the film are all Asian. There are gruesome scenes of Asian cult members removing a man’s heart , holding a bleeding beating human heart in their hands, and having the man watch as he dies. This film has many racist elements, but because it is Spielberg, Indiana Jones and a popular film watched by millions of kids, it does not obtain the same negative reaction as Birth of a Nation because it is fantasy. George Lucas’s Phantom Menace from 1998 also has racist content including the silly Jar Jar Binks character, that talks in a funny accent, and the film is filled with evil characters who speak with Asian accents. So many American films have difficult subject matter, elements that could be construed as racist, but because they are made by top grossing filmmakers and the subject is fantastic they do not receive the censure that Griffith received. What we discover is some views of racism are relative to the times, the audience, and the critics.
In later films like Intolerance, Griffith savagely denounces the actions of racists. In later films like Way Down East or Broken Blossoms he strongly denounces racism and violence of any kind. One might say that Griffith learns about racist ideas from making films that test changing American attitudes about racism. If anything, Griffith’s films began a discussion about racism in American society. Remember desegregation of schools in the United States did not occur until 40 years after Birth of a Nation, so maybe the film helped the debate about the United State’s racist past.
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In BOAN we see a variety of events including the pre-Civil War families, and movement towards war, the Civil War itself, and the events following the war in the reconstruction. Two families are presented in the film, the Stoneman family and the Camerons. Ben Cameron is a principal character who is a handsome southern confederate officer who leads his men into a desperate charge against union forces but it ends tragically with the union forces wiping out most confederate troops. Cameron stops the charge to give water to a fallen union soldier and is cheered for his bravery by both union and confederate troops. In a last pyrrhic charge Cameron shoves a confederate flag down a union canon before collapsing. The union soldiers are so smitten by his bravery that instead of shooting him, they pick him up and nurture him. Later Lincoln commutes Cameron’s death sentence as a traitor. The film sends complicated messages about the post war era. One of the African American union soldiers named Gus (played by a white Actor wearing black face makeup) decides that he can now live freely in the south. he settles in Ben Cameron’s town and builds an affection for Cameron’s sister. The young woman is a simple minded nature lover. Gus proposes to her and in terror and horror she considers the offer a dangerous prelude to rape and she runs to a mountain top. Gus follows realizing that if he causes harm to white woman his life will be forfeit. Cameron searches for his sister and follows her trail into the woods. Gus attempts to talk the terrified hysterical woman off a cliff but she jumps off the cliff, mortally wounded by the fall. Cameron arrives in tme t osee her die but she proclaims she kept her honor with her last breathe. Cameron’s face changes to an image of hate and anger and afterwards he becomes determined to start a vigilante group to protect the south from radical whites, blacks and a society that wishes to punish the south. The scene of death is built on colossal misunderstandings by all, and a failure of kindness and reason for all parties. Cameron creates the Klan. The Klan executes Gus by lynching and the roots of modern extremism are laid. More worrisome is the film’s insistence that slaves were better off in the old South under slavery and the notion that someone enslavement of anyone could be justified. Griffith was tone deaf to the film’s bizarre rhetoric..
Griffith was deeply stung by the negative criticism of birth of a nation even though the film made him millions. In 1916 he made a four hour epic about prejudice and racism, in a film entitled Intolerance. That film featured four stories in a color-coded film. Griffith spent all the money he had made in BOAN and more to make Intolerance, and he thought the film would show his intention to discuss the dangers of prejudice and intolerance. In intolerance there is a story of a mother trying to support her child, a tale of Jesus and his persecution, a fight between French Catholics and French protestants ( the Huguenots), and a battle between factions in ancient Babylon. Baffled audiences didn’t understand the color coding system; they didn’t understand the four different stories throughout history, and they didn’t really understand Intolerance or Griffith’s intentions. Griffith lost virtually all the money he made in BOAN. While never having great financing again, Griffith made great movies into the 1920s. He worked with very important actors such as Lillian Gish.
In Way Down East a woman is fooled into thinking she has been married to a man who leaves her with a baby. The town turns against her and there isa harrowing escape through a snow storm over a water way as the ice on the water is breaking up. Finally the town’s people realize she has been victimized by an evil man and she is
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eventually saved by a kind man who wishes to marry her. It’s a wonderful film and many people have suggested that way down east (1919) is one of Griffiths greater later films. Broken blossoms (1921) is a love story between a white woman and a
Chinese immigrant. Lilian Gish, plays the child of the alcoholic boxerfather who when drunk beats his daughter, Lucy, nearly to death. In one of his drinking frenzies, the girl is badly beaten and traumatized. She hides in the doorway of a small shop owned by a Chinese merchant, Cheung. Cheung enters his shop and sees the wounded girl on the ground, takes her to his bed, dresses her wounds and nurses her back to health. A love relationship arises built on kindness and mutual trust and admiration. However Lucy returns to her father who in another drunken frenzy beats her to death. Cheung confronts the father, shoots him, carries Lucy’s body back to his shop and commits suicide. Broken Blossoms is a marvelous film defying racism and dark ideas with notions of a perfect love and a kinder world. It’s a deeply emotional film that illustrates that in many ways Griffith did not agree with anything racist and had himself spoken strongly against racism. Ironically one of the last films Griffith made in 1930 was a sound film about the life of Abraham Lincoln. Griffith battle alcoholism and by 1940 the last work he had was in a science-fiction film, 1 million BC in which actors were playing cavemen and Griffith was brought in to direct silent scenes. Griffith was a great innovator in American film and created longshots, tracking shots, moving shots, articulate camera movements, head angle shots and a great variety of different kinds of techniques that could be intermingled in a scene. Griffith was very attracted to making films about the American experience and made some great films like the Adventures of Dolly in 1908 that dealt once again with themes of immigrants and fear of foreigners.
In his early Adventures of Dolly from 1908 he actually has a mother walking her child in a baby stroller. When the mother stops to talk , and evil gypsy sneaks in and steals her baby. Eventually the baby is put in a barrel and sent down the river, but along the river a young boy fishing sees the barrel and pulls it from the water saving the baby and reuniting the family.
Director Griffith was one of the first directors to work and rehearse actors before a film is produced. Griffith was one of the first directors to use naturalistic acting with less hand gestures and more simple movements that look more like real life. Griffith was one of the first directors to use a variety of different shots in a scene. Griffith was one of the first directors to use complex narrative tracking shots where we are literally inside the mind of the character, and Griffith was one of the most psychological of the early cinema film directors. He so completely understand the psychology of the characters in a scene we believed the actors were these people. Griffith remains one of the great undisputed masters of cinema provoking challenging ideas about American history, racism and the United States as a complex world culture.
Terms
Grammar of film: Griffith’s inventiveness created the vocabulary and grammar of film techniques we use today.
Naturalism in acting: Griffith’s actors used a new style of acting that was less like stage actors and more natural and simple.
Rehearsal:Griffith had actor’s rehearse prior to shooting a scene.
Choreography: Griffith choreographed and mapped out large complex group scenes and battle scenes.
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Type casting: Griffith cast actors according to their physical type. A pretty young girl was played y a pretty young girl.
Films:
Griffith: Adventures of Dollie (1908)
Griffith: Birth of a Nation (The Clansman) (1915) Griffith: Intolerance (1916)
Griffith: Way Down East (1919)
Griffith: Broken Blossoms (1921)
Readings:
Corliss, Richard. “D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation 100 Years Later: Still Great, Still Shameful.” https://time.com/3729807/d-w-griffiths-the-birth-of-a-nation-10/
Lussier, Tim. “What Was The Great Man Like?” http://www.silentsaregolden.com/articles/griffitharticle.html
Cinema four: Charlie Chaplin
Chaplin was one of the most remarkable talents in the history of cinema. Charlie Chaplin who is born in 1889 in South London to Hannah and Charles Chaplin Senior. Both were musical entertainers. His faher left, but his mother remained, but she was mentally unstable for the majority of his life, and he joined a group of dancers at the age of ten. He clog danced and clowned for a living as a child. Due to his father’s connections he landed a gig in a theatrical company and toured around England at the age of 15. He worked on various productions including a production of Sherlock Holmes and by 1910 when he was barely 20 years of age he began performing with a touring comedy group in England that later had the opportunity to tour in the United States.
His brother Sydney Chaplin who was already connected to the theatrical community in England landed Charlie a job with the Fred Carno agency in England and from 1910 to 1913 toured the United States. Chaplin was making a good wage for a stage performer ($75 a week) with the Carno company and getting good billing, but he eventually arrived in New York and the agents thee liked him so much they offered him a job in film. Chaplin wasn’t really sure that film was going to last so he reluctantly signed on to make films for double his salary at $150 per week. He joins Keystone pictures managed and directed by the brilliant Max Sennett, a talented Canadian director who makes fitful comedies with lots of action. Sennett sees the talent in Chaplin and stars him in several short comedies. Audiences love the little funny man. One day Sennett sends Chaplin Into a costume booth to dress for a scene. He tells him to pick what he likes. Chaplin finds a small bowler hat, a fake moustache, a white shirt and tight
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tailed jacket, baggy pants, and floppy over-sized shoes. To top off the outfit he finds an old walking cane. This tramp costume would be Chaplin’s standard outfit for the next 40 years. Chaplin was immediately successful in films for the Keystone company and he stars as the tramp character in over 35 films during his year with Max Sennett.
After a year with Sennett and the Keystone company Chaplin is given an offer to work for the S and A company (Esseny films) which is a larger company, and they offer him $1000 signing bonus and $1000 a week. He is one of the most popular actors in comedy in the United States by 1915. Chaplin’s career skyrockets and by 1916 he is offered more money by the Mutual Film Company. he is given a signing bonus and a starting salary of $670,000 making him the highest paid actor in America, and his Trump character is given far more dimension and goes further than it had been before. Finally, in 1917 he signed with the First National Company for one million dollars and is able to purchase his own studio and his own land track in California with the money. Some critics argue that his finest films were made in this era.
Chaplin was still under thirty and has become a millionaire in five years. He married his first wife in 1918, Mildred Harris who was 16-years-old. In 1919, with DW Griffith Douglas Fairbanks, and Mary Pickford Chaplin established the distribution company United Artists. It was a company that was fully owned by artists in the United States film industry. From this point, Chaplin was solely responsible for his own output from this point. In 1924, he married his second wife Rita Gray who was also 16 years of age, but the marriage only lasted two years, and Chaplin now had two sons.
Chaplin was incredibly gifted at doing improvisational comedy, and made mini gags at the time he was on the set, including the clever potato roll dance he played with a couple of forks and a few potatoes while he’s making the film The Gold Rush in 1925 Chaplin was probably the most recognized person in the world in the 1920s. Chaplin even competed in Chaplin-look-a-like contest in the twenties and only placed third. In 1925 he made The Gold Rush, one of his funniest films about a couple of guys that prospected for gold in the Alaskan wilderness. He suffered the indignities of the bad environment, cold-weather, starvation, deprivation, and the film was a massive success. In 1927 he had another massive success for The Circus. In 1929 during the first Academy Awards he was giving a special award for his work on The Circus. Hollywood loved Chaplin and he was one of the people that created the celebrity-based star system of movie making.
In 1931, in a period we’re almost all the films were already sound films, Chaplin released the completely silent film City Lights which became a massive hit. The film had sound effects and a score written by Chaplin and Chaplin provided brilliant moments of comedy, empathetic romantic comedy, silly pratfalls, and a variety of physical comedy. Chaplin remained the master of silent comedy deeply into the sound era. In 1936 Chaplin made Modern Times commenting on modern industrial society, again playing his tramp character, again composing the music, and making a fun commentary on the machine age and industrialization. Finally,in 1936 he married a third time to Paulette Goddard, a popular actress at the time.
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Chaplin was so popular in the United States that women around the world wished they were Chaplin’s girlfriend, and in fact, when women were unwed mothers across the globe during the twenties, more often than not when they were asked the paternity of their child, they claimed Charlie Chaplin as the father. It was a joke of course, but Chaplin’s popularity particularly with women extended across the globe.
In 1940 Chaplin released one of his most powerful films The Great Dictator, a massive film parody of the life and deadly ambitions of Adolph Hitler. Actually, even Hitler adored Chaplin and was angry when during the war with the allies he found he could no longer see Chaplin films. The Great Dictator sends up Hitler’s madness. Chaplin does an entire ballet in the dictator’s throne room bouncing a balloon version of the wordld on his feet, his butt and his head. He makes Hitler’s idea of world conquest look silly. Further the film ridicules Hitler’s anti-semitism as the plot revolves around a Jewish butler disguised at the dictator. The film ends with a powerful speech denouncing meanness and cruelty and espousing the virtues of civility and kindness, something that Chaplin wished could be accomplished by humor.
Chaplin was overtly socialist in his ideas. He was a very wealthy man, but he believed in the little guy and he always played the character of the tramp. The great dictator was nominated for best picture and Chaplin for best actor. In 1943, Chaplin married his fourth wife, an 18-year-old protégé Oona O’Neill the daughter of playwright Eugene O’Neill and he remained married to her for the rest of his life.
But Chaplin’s liberal politics ambush him. While traveling to London in 1952 to debut a new film about a retiring comic called, Limelight, he is warned by the US State department not to return to the United States. The House Unamerican Activities Committee wanted to question him for communist ties. Chaplin was angry and felt slighted. He deciced to relocate his enterprizes to Switzerland and spent the rest of his life as a Swiss resident, a national treasure, and an international hero. He never forgave the US after 40 years of entertainment to turn him out. Finally in 1972, after 20 years of exile from United States Chaplin was given a lifetime achievement award at the Oscars and when he arrived on stage he was given a 12-minute standing ovation. He died quietly in 1977 at his home in Switzerland.
Chaplin’s influence is legendary. He was the greatest comedian of the silent era, Chaplain and perhaps the greatest comedian in American history. His career from 1913 when he first began until 1967 when he directed his last film A Contessa From Hong Kong. Th film was a romance starring Sophia Loren and Marlon Brando, two of the mot popular actors of the era. Sadly the film was not successful and Chaplin did not work in the last years of his life. Chaplin’s work as often brilliant as in films like one AM where he plays a drunk out after a night of drinking. Chaplin literally created a one-man performance of a drunk at 1 AM getting out of his cab, going into his house, fighting with the door, losing his key, breaking a window, finding the key inside and popping back out through a
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window to reopen the previously locked door. He fights with the staircase, he fights with the table, he fights with a with a couple of animal rugs, he struggles to navigate stairs, he tries to open his Murphy bed (a fold up bed), he struggles to have a drink, he tries to smoke, he wrestles with every object, and devises comedy pratfalls throughout the film. While he creates complete pandemonium working through the space one realizes that Chaplin has had a 20 minute romp through the property and the audience is left laughing along with the tramp all the way through the chaos. Perhaps that was the wonder of Chaplin’s art, the sheer joy and humor found in acts of chaos.
Terms
The Tramp: Chaplin’s indelible character wearing a bowler hat, small moustache, tight coat, cane, baggy pants, and floppy shoes. It was a costume he wore for 40 years. Score: Chaplin was a talented musician and songwriter and could compose scores and pop tunes that were successful.
In camera: Chaplin’s skill involved camera shots focused on mostly Chaplin and his antics.
Films:
Sennett: Tillies Punctured Romance. (1913)
Chaplin: One A. M. (1916)
Chaplin: the Gold Rush (1925)
Chaplin: The Circus (1927)
Chaplin: City Lights (1931)
Chaplin: Modern Times (1936)
Readings:
Birdwell, Richard. “Chaplin’s Modern Times and the minstrel tradition.” https://modernismmodernity.org/articles/birdwell-chaplin-modern-times-and-minstrel- tradition
Brody, Richard. “ Chaplin’s Scandalous Life and Boundless Artistry.” https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/charlie-chaplins-scandalous-life-and- boundless-artistry
Cinema five
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George Melies
One of the early auteurs of cinema was George Melies, a Frenchman who was born into a wealthy family and became a magician. Over the years Melies created a variety of magic acts, and then in the 1890s when the cinematograph became popular Melies decided to invest in a camera and began making movies focusing on his magic act.
Melies was interested in fantasy films and in 1902 created his a trip to the moon which featured many special effects and humorous passages in which a group of scientists decide they will journey to the moon. In the film there is a clever shot of the rocket hitting the moon and kind of fracturing the moon and stabbing the moon in the eye. Melies work has been lauded in recent years as the father of science fiction and special effect movies. Melies work is seen as a juncture between the spirit of films that focuses on photographic effects nad stunts and films that wanted to tell a story. Melies wanted to do both. He wanted to tell a story and he wanted to tell stories and he liked using powerful cinematic effects in the service of his stories.
He was responsible for some of the earliest special effects films created in the medium of film. He originally wanted to buy a Lumiere camera and they refused ot sell him one. They wanted to protect the copyright of the camera and they wanted to dissuade other people from making films. Eventually he bought a camera from R Paul, a British inventor. One of his most popular effects was the stop motion effect in which a subject was photographed in a specific area, and then the camera would be stopped and the subject would be removed and the filming would be continued. This gave the effect that the subject had disappeared or in the reverse, could suggest that something had magically appeared. Of course for a magician it was a great because it seemed like there was real magic afoot.
Philosophically, Melies was important because he illustrated that magic and fantasy films were very popular with audiences, and that if done properly, audiences would go to see films because of the special effects and the clever technology used to create the effect. He proved that such films were popular and that audiences liked to be thrilled by photographic effects as well stories.
He was born in 1861 and died in 1938. He was an inventor, actor, producer, film maker, writer and was educated in Paris. Within 9 months of buying a camera he mastered most elements of cinematography and began making a series of inventive films. Between 1898 and 1904 he made over 400 films. Only a fraction of them still exist. The Trip to the Moon in 1902 was popular worldwide and was widely copied illegally in the U.S. and Melies received little overseas revenue from the work.
He used his ideas. Of magic to make films that focused on trick photography. One of his popular tricks was the use of stop motion photography where an object could be inserted or removed from a scene giving the idea that something magic occurred. A second trick he employed was super imposition of images. Melies double triple and multiple-exposed films. In one called the four troublesome heads, he inserted himself into the scene four times recording himself over and over and making his head into four separate characters.
Melies went further with double exposures and concocts a scenario where his head is blown up and exploded by being overinflated. In another film he refilms himself
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several times as various members of a band and then conducts himself and his peers altogether.
Melies tried to popularize fantasy work and wanted mass audience appeal. However, after 1905 or 1906 people were less interested in those films, and wanted more narrative and Melies films had waning public demand. Sadly he ended his career bankrupt and many of his early originals were sold for industrial celluloid used in making soldiers boots. He vanished from the world scene only to be discovered by a kiosk selling candles for a living in the 1930s by French film makers. He fortunately was rediscovered and that resulted in a retirement home support for him and rehabilitation of his memory in his adventurous and important early works. Today his works are revered by cinema lovers across the globe. He was lionized in Martin Scorsese’s charming homage film Hugo from 2011. His early films a trip to the moon in 1902, the melomaniac in 1903, the damnation of files from 1904, the enchanted well in 1905, jupiter's thunderbolts in 1905, and a variety of special effects films playing with time and space made Melies one of the most adventurous and effect oriented filmmakers of his time. Sadly, most audiences never obtained the full effect of his genius.
Terms
Stop motion: a technique of filmmaking where motion is stopped and characters are moved about.
Animation: Melies animated inanimate objects using stop motion and multiple exposure techniques.
Films:
Melies, George: A Trip to the Moon (1902)
Melies, George: The Impossible Voyage. (1904)
Readings:
Ganguly, Subarna. “Early Cinema: the Magical World of Georges Melies.” https://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/paris/articles/early-cinema-the-magical-world- of-georges-melies/
Cinema 6
world cinema in the early 20th century
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Cinema was a world affair. Early cameras were developed in England (Paul), France (Le Prince and the Lumieres), America (Dickson), several filmmakers developed editing (Eisenstein, Pudovkin, Vertov, Porter), and several countries created narrative cinema (Lumieres in France, Porter in the United States, Melies in France, Alice Guy in France). Many nations contributed to the growth of cinema form. Each nation created a national form that reflected the ideas and consciousness of their people.
Cinema history is complex. In the first 20 years of film production, producers hammered out basic formats. Large companies capitalized on cinema and created large conglomerates that controlled the industry and still do. Filmmaking was and is a capital intensive business, and large corporations were helpful to creating early cinema. Storytelling had been evolving for centuries prior to cinema. Cinema added a long awaited technology to the art of storytelling. Cinema was a way of creating storytelling that could be retained and marketed and sold in a visual format . This engendered many technical problems in the creation of the medium.
One of the first problems in creating cinema was creating a medium by which stories could be told and retained. For example storytelling through the novel was created by putting words on paper. To put visual stories in a format where people could see them and recreate them required a medium that was flexible and could be shown to mass audiences. Many substances were used to create film initially . Paper and other formats proved unworkable. Celluloid had certain advantages over other materials for making film. Celluloid was a substance that was flexible that allowed for the printing of a picture on a surface and could be spooled onto reels so that it could be projected to people in a room. Further, celluloid was heat resistant making it resistant to the powerful light used for projection.
Phi Phenomenon and Persistence of vision
Early film makers did not totally understand the concept of how the human eye worked when we see images we think that we see continuous images that are moving through space but in film the concept of moving images is actually incorrect what is happening in a film is that we are seeing a fast succession of still images that our mind puts together as moving images two phenomenon make this possible the first is a aspect of our visual cortex known as persistence of vision. To make our mind make sense of images that are speeding by us our brain interprets each individual image as retained in the visual cortex on the retina of the eye for a millisecond after we have seen that image this phenomenon or mistake in our visual cortex we refer to as persistence of vision images stay rooted in our I and our translated to our visual cortex through the retina too visual ganglia in the brain for a millisecond after the image has been seen . So when a succession of 24 frames per second fly by the eye the eye retains each one of those small discreet individual still images for a millisecond in the eye. The brain then interprets those images altogether as not single still images but as moving images . The way the brain does this is through a second phenomenon known as the Phi phenomenon in which the brain attempts to suture or tie together each successive image image in a way that makes sense to the brain so that if a person raises their hand to their mouth to say eat something or smoke a cigarette we interpret all the different phases of the movement of the hand as being parts of the same movement. Without persistence of vision or the fi phenomenon we would not have cinema as we know it today.
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Pre-cinematic technologies (6th c – 1980) The Magic Lantern and Camera Obscura
Europe had a technological awakening during the renaissance when scholars began to rediscover the technologies of the Romans and the Greeks. But even during the middle ages technologists were involved in developing story telling technologies. Several proto-cinematic phenomenon we're precursors to the idea of film. For example in the 6th century, we know there may have been examples of early camera obscura. The camera obscura was a light box that allowed light to enter a box on one side and had a primitive lens on the other side. This allowed the light to be contained, and permitted projection on the inside of a box or an opposing wall. Camera obscuras allowed artists to trace objects projected with a pencil or a crayon or other drawing device.
Magic lantern
Europe developed many devices to capitalize on the invention of optical glass lens. The magic Lantern was an early form of slide projector in which a concave mirror with a light behind it projected an image on a wall with a lens. The slide medium might be a glass slide or a paper slide containing a drawn or painted image. Between magic lanterns and camera obscuras there was already a basis for primitive projected entertainment. What was lacking was true motion. Further there was no apparatus for maintaining images. The magic Lantern was a permanent projection of an actual slide but only drawings or paintings, not the real world. Both aided artists in drawing objects. Phantasmagoria
Perhaps the first theatrical innovation utilizing magic lanterns and a camera obscura was the 18th century device known as the phantasmagoria. This device added limited movement to entertainment, The phantasmagoria mixed slides and projections using transparent curtains and horrific demon images to frighten audience. Phantasmagoria projectors could be moved around in portable boxes so that people presumed that demons were actually moving around the room. The mechanism was an operator with a lens projecting a slide and moving the light box around the room. These horror shows were popular with audiences and had the potential to induce fear. The phantasmagoria were the first examples of entertaining projections and were early precursors to cinema. Marionettes and Puppets
The puppet show had existed since the classical era, but marionette shows became major attractions in the medieval era. Talented craftsmen could craft realistic wooden puppets that could be manipulated with joints and complex facial features; Traveling players journeyed across the continent retelling bible stories, folk tales, moral fables and pantomimes for children. With a trestle stage, effective costuming, jointed puppets and skilled actors and narrators puppet shows could compete with live actors and offer cinematic special effects.
Photography
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Another innovation from Europe was the concept of photography. Photography arrived in the 1820s. People were experimenting with ways to resolve an image maintaining that image on a medium. Once accomplished different devices worked at creating a moving picture show. One such was the zoetrope in 1834. This device basically stacked a variety of still images on a circular slide device playing them in succession and creating the concept of moving images. In the 1870s Edward Moybridge, a celebrated nature photographer began to concoct serial images of people and animals that he assembled in slideshows. A second innovator was Frenchman French physiologist Etionne Jules Marey. Both were born in 1830 and both died in 1904. Muybridge’s work involved setting up multiple cameras to record serial images of movement of objects . When linked together all of the moving objects created a sequence that resembled the frames in later motion pictures. Muybridge created a device in 1879 known as the zoopraxtescope. It showed images in rapid succession similar to s film for the first time. Muybridge is credited with making early moving images.
His rival in creating new technology was Marey who created a new format called chrono photography. Marey used a camera gun or photographic gun that allowed the user to take individual shots that combined these multiple exposures in a single image. This allowed photographers to record sequential movements in a single image. Muybridge with his multiple cameras, and Marey with his chrono photography pushed the art of photography towards actual filmmaking.
The Mystery of Le Prince
A sidelight to the invention of cinematography was the story of Louis le Prince Louis le Prince was an inventor who supposedly was making early films in 1888 to 1890. At the time that his first public demonstration was to be made in 1890 he mysteriously disappeared with all of the applications for his early cinema device the the disappearance of les Prince and his demonstrations of cinema in those early pivotal years has always been a mystery that has never been solved.
Terms
Persistence of vision: The effect of an afterimage on the retina persisting after an image has been shown. This allows for sequential images, as in optical toys or in film, to blend together to appear to be in motion.
Photography: The creation of permanent images with light on a light-sensitive material, often an emulsion on paper or celluloid.
Chronophotography: Photography that captures a quick succession of movements in several images. Originally used for scientific study of body movement. Zooepraxescope:Muybridge’s device for showing sequential slides.
Celluloid: A malleable thermoplastic. Used in cinema as photographic film stock. Persistence of vision: The effect of an afterimage on the retina persisting after an image has been shown. This allows for sequential images, as in optical toys or in film, to blend together to appear to be in motion.
Photography: The creation of permanent images with light on a light-sensitive material, often an emulsion on paper or celluloid.
Chronophotography: Photography that captures a quick succession of movements in several images. Originally used for scientific study of body movement.
Celluloid: A malleable thermoplastic. Used in cinema as photographic film stock.
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Films:
Hitchcock, Alfred: Strangers on a Train (1951) Hitchcock, Alfred: Dial M For Murder (1954) Hitchcock, Alfred: Psycho(1960)
Readings:
Ursell, Joe. “The Phenomenal influence of Alfred Hitchcock.”
https://www.intofilm.org/news-and-views/articles/hitchcock-feature
Wilson, Bee. “Alfred Hitchcock,from silent film director to inventor of modern horror.”
https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jun/15/alfred-hitchcock-inventor-modern-horror
7 cinema
French film 1920-1940
French cinema between World War I and World War II was one of the most productive styles of cinema. Cinema in this era was influenced of art. Two forms of art influenced films in the 1920s. First, was the theory of impressionism and secondly the theory of surrealism. Both were prominent art movements in France. Impressionism became popular in the art world in the 1870s and arrived with a relationship to photography. French impressionist painters were interested in the way the eye saw the world and light. Photography took light and registered it on a medium (paper) to make photographs. French artists of the 1870s were fascinated by the idea of light striking the eye and creating photography. They created a form of art doing the same thing that was jokingly referred to in the press as impressionism. Impressionism was an insult to the artists. It’s suggested that the artist were unable to make a good impression or a good likeness of a scene or a person. The impression assumed that the artists were incompetent to draw or paint better so their work was labeled impressionism to suggest that they were giving a fleeting impression of a scene rather than an accurate description of a scene. What the critics got wrong was that impressionism did not care about making an accurate portrayal of a scene. It wanted to photograph the scene the way a camera would look at a scene with light striking the lens. The influence of the impressionist image was that it reflected how the lens picked up light. It did not try to be photo realistic. Impressionist film of the 1920s was deeply influenced by the impressionist idea of creating a film that shows the way light strikes the human eye. This gave the scenes a wispy quality where extensive dialogue and complicated realistic shooting was replaced with scenes in which a few words and a few fleeting
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glimpses of characters would fill in details. The audience would have to make summations and ideas about the scene. The filmmaker was not required to paint everything in photo realistic format. The filmmaker tried to make scenes that would allow for the audience to involve themselves in the scene.
For example one of the popular French films in the 1920s was Theodore Dreyers the passion of Joan of arc. This 1928 film described the trial and a few days in the life of the famous French Saint who had led French troops against the British and was betrayed and brought up for trial by a court of both countries. In Joan of arc we see intense close-ups of Joan’s face during the trial, and we see her anguish at being asked questions about her religion and her View of God. Joan is unable to answer these deeper questions because she simply considers herself a poor girl who is a vehicle for God’s will. The British and French clergy seem relieved to get rid of Joan because her religious nature and her devotion make her a danger to reasonable politics including the war between the two nations. Joan is something of a zealot but her suffering is conveyed in intense close-ups by Dreyer so that we have a deeper understanding of the character of Joan. However dialogue and specifics about Joan are not that important to the film. The impressionist style simply gives us impressions of Joan and what she feels by long intense close-ups that linger on Joan and her face. This film is not a standard biography but a passion play portrayed in tragic human faces.
Another classic example of the impressionist style in French film is the 1927 epic by Abell Gance entitled Napoleon. 1927’s Napoleon is an epic three-hour journey through the mind and thinking of the great French leader. Gance is like Theodore dreyer in the passion of Joan of arc. He does not dewell in intense close-ups on his subject of Napoleon although there are great close shots in the film. Instead Abel Gance combines a group of images quickly in a fast furry of montage scenes in which we see napoleon’s life acted out through images from his mind and in his imagination. We are looking inside the mind of Napoleon in light of the film. We are given these fleeting insights into the mind of a great genius and a great leader. In one scene there is one brilliant montage the Gance creates in which Napoleom and fellow youthful children are fighting a snowball fight and Gance becomes enormously intoxicated by shooting back- and-forth from one child to another as each of the kids is throwing volleys of snowballs at each other. In time, the scene becomes a chaotic blur of white snowballs flying through the air and nobody can quite figure out the action of where the balls are going, who is being hit, and who is throwing at each other. Film montage creates the sense of chaos. Napoleon dreams of ending the French revolution to bring order and justice to society. Napoleon decides the only way to end the carnage is for Napoleon himself to take over the country and to remove the people from self-slaughter towards a war against the rest of the Europe to unify Europe under French rule. Napoleon’s dream is portrayed in a series of montage scenes showing the destruction of the French revolution and Napoleon’s image of how the society would look in the future under his leadership. The film uses montage to build these impressionistic views of napoleon’s life his career his battles and his view of the world. By the end of three hours we seem to have a great understanding of the leader and a great understanding of how Gance as a filmmaker has compiled a series of images to bring us to a deeper understanding of how the leader’s mind works. Gance’s Napoleon is an epic film with spectacular production ideas in which three scenes are often showing simultaneously on the same
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screen to keep the audience completely engaged and to constantly be surveying the screen for new information. Gance even photographed a segment of the film in 3-D back in 1927 to show that 3-D might be a way of showing the story of Napoleon more powerfully. Ironically Gance never used the 3-D ending sequence of Napoleon because he felt it was unnecessary. Gance was famous for using longshots medium shots close- ups, massive and incredibly complex montages, interesting introspective shots of each character involved in Napoleon’s rise, and a pivotal performance of Napoleon at center. The master general is portrayed as a complex thoughtful and idealistic figure who only wants to unite Europe to end the chaos of self-slaughter and the French revolution.
The other format that gained adherence in 1920s France was the format of surrealistic film. Again the French were probably more influenced by art movement than Americans who had a more prosaic naturalistic realistic tone in their films. However, in French films the influence of art was apparent and changed the way French films were made, making the French style film deeply different than American films. In 1929’s Andalusian dog or Un Chien Andalou the concept was constructed by Luis Bunuel and Salvador Dali two artists from Spain living in Paris at the time. The concept of surrealism was based on ideas and notions of Freudian psychology, dream states, the unconscious, and the way people believed the mind works. Surrealism unlike impressionism. Impressionism was a movement concerned with science and how the eye sees light. Surrealism was also scientific but a different style of science engaged with psychology. Surrealists were deeply involved in psychology and what we think and what is inside our minds. Andre Breton, one of the fathers of the surrealistic movement believed that much of surrealism had to do with concepts within the mind. Freud had written in 1900 his famous book The interpretation of dreams and a lot of the ideas of surrealism dealt with the idea of dream states. Surrealists believed that dream states were ideas repressed or controlled by waking consciousness. When a person went to sleep many of the unconscious thoughts that were assumed to be a part of our consciousness during the day would be released, and people will begin to act out those unconscious thoughts in a dream state. The dream state allowed people to do all sorts of fantastic things that they couldn’t imagine in the daytime. Other varities of dreamworlds, dream actions, carnal thoughts, violent thoughts, all sorts of images that wouldn’t be acceptable in waking life flourished and could be entertained in the dream state. Our dream state was a way of liberating the mind. The surrealists believed that in the dream state we could harness those energies by projects like automatic writing. Individual dream states could show surrealistic consciousness in surreal artworks such as Salvador Dali’s the persistence of memory in which we see a scene of a weird infinite horizon, merged with melting clocks and in strange dormant creatures in the foreground. But Dali and Bunuel in writing an Andalusian Dog went further and decided that they could put dream states on on film. An Andalusian dog has little overt meaning and doesn’t make sense in a conventional plot way. It is a series of surreal events that takes place one after another. First we start by seeing a barber looking out at the moon as clouds roll by. It is a full moon he pulls out a razor blade and slices open a woman’s eye. it’s a very disturbing horrible violent scary scene. The next scene is a woman sitting in her room in an apartment alone she is staring strongly at a wall and looking like she is concentrating on something. In the street below a man dressed in a nun or a nurse’s uniform is riding a bicycle down the street towards her
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building. At some point he simply collapses and falls off the bike. She recognizes something is wrong and goes to the window looks down to the street below and sees the man on the bike. She decides to go down to the man and offer him aid. People are standing around. He is lying on the ground next to his bike. On the back of his bike was a box and something has fallen out of the box. People are staring at the object and moving it around with a cane. It turns out that object that’s in the box in the back of the bike is a human hand that has been severed. The scene changes to the woman’s apartment. she takes the nurse’s outfit the man was wearing and adorns the bed with the parts of his nurse’s female outfit, and then she sits in a chair next to the bed and stares at the bed. Slowly his body begins to materialize in the clothing she placed on the bed. While she is looking at the bed, she notices that the man has materialized on the other side of the room. He is looking distractedly at his hand when the woman comes over to visit with him. She can’t get his attention because he is obsessed with the image in his hand. Inside his palm there are a group of ants that are emerging from a hole in his hand, and he and the woman are both fascinated and horrified by the sight. What these few fragmentary scenes tell us about Andalusian dog is that it is a fantasy art film, like a day dream state. Nothing seems to make sense and that appears to be Dali and Bunuel’s idea. Things do not make sense in a dream state, and we need to accept dream states as a part of our waking consciousness. This was a theory and idea of the surrealists that real events or non-realistic events could happen to us at any time and we need to become aware of them and accept them and incorporate them into our artistic life. Surrealists believed that dream states were the key to a deeper understanding of reality. Others thought they were merely extravagant fantasies.
French film of the 1920s is obsessed with artistry and not with wealth and power. French films are made to be watched to edify the public not so much to make money although the best of the films are some of the best films ever made in the world. Before he made Napoleon in 1927 Abel Gance made another epic in 1923 La roue or the wheel. This is a film that deals with an entire life of a family. Sisif is a railroad engineer and after a horrible accident he rescues a little girl from the wreckage and raises her as his daughter along with his son Elie. Overtime safe Sifif falls in love with his adopted daughter, named Norma. His son thinks that Norma is his sister from natural childbirth. Since his wife had perished not long after Elie’s birth. Sifif admits to Hersan that he has fallen in love with his own daughter. Hersan threatens Sifif and tells him if he cannot marry the daughter, he will reveal to her that sifif has romantic feelings for her. Sifif allows the marriage to take place, although he knows it will not make Norma happy. After some months Norma writes to Sifif to tell him she is unhappy. Elie discovers that Norma is not his natural sister and that he himself might have married her but now she is in the hands of Hersan. He fights a jealous dual with Hersan, shooting Hersan but falling from a high precipice and dying. In the end Sifif who is suffering from blindness is cared for by Norma who returns home. Together they build a fatherly/daughter relationship again. One day there is a festival and Norma is sent out by Sifif to dance. In the end of the festival Norma is happy and sifif quietly dies at home alone. The film describes cycles of life.
In the 1930s French films become even more passionate. In 1937 John Renoir produces one of his greatest films the grand illusion. It tells the story of two officers during the first world war.One is French and one is German in a failed campaign a
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French officer is captured by the German officer and they build a close camaraderie. Though the German officer sees the two as we officially enemies, in real life the two are very much alike, members of the upper class, possessing aristocratic and heroic and noble tendencies and a strong sense of duty. Both men are similar. He tells his French counterpart, we are both men of the aristocracy and after the war, our time will pass. Towards the end of the film the French officer tries to escape and the German officer tells him to stop or he will shoot. He warns him, that though I like you and I don’t want to shoot, I must because it is my duty. The French officer continues his escape and is shot and killed. Finally, at the end of the film two lower class Frenchmen escape from the prison camp and are aided by a country woman and cross the alps into French territory. Many people have seen Le grand illusion as perhaps the greatest film about war ever made.
Rules of the game is a study of French cultural behavior. There are a series of romantic liaisons in a household in the country amongst the upper class wealthy people who are disregarding the impending war and the fear that envelops the whole country. Instead they spend their time in the romantic dalliances, but towards the end of the film the character of Octave sends his friend Andre out to meet his girlfriend Christine at the greenhouse. Th greenhouse is one of the many locations on the property where people send their time making love. But unknown to Andre or Octave, Andre is mistaken for another man and shot by one of the angered lovers in the residence. All he was attempting to do was to have a love affair, and ironically it brought his death. The film is filled with ironies. In a French life the thoughts of the fragility of life, the fragility of love, and how French society values some issues highly and disregards other important issues. Films like rules of the Game comment of puzzling aspects of French culture. French films are extremely social and deal with relationships between people who are living in small towns and villages.
The films of the French film makers from 1920 to 1940 progress from impressionistic films that deal with wispy images of life filled with sounds and music to surrealistic images that are far more concrete, but very dream like to an emerging style of social realist films that analyze odd French social codes. French film which emerges in the 1930s is involved with social issues and relationships amongst different people of different classes in French and world society. People are often puzzled by how French society see’s the world, but watching the French films of the early twentieth century might dispel some puzzlement over an evolving French society.
Terms
Montage: the connecting of scenes in different ways by editing.
Impressionism: A style of art popular particularly in rance from 1870-1900. French art influenced the process of filmmaking and many French films were influenced by this concept of art that was based on the science of how the eye and the retina picked up light and images.
Films:
Renoir, Jean. Rules of the Game. (1939) Renoir, Jean. The Grand Illusion (1937)
Melies, George: The Impossible Voyage. (1904) Dreyer, Theodore. The Passion of Joan Du Arc
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Gance, Abel: La Roue (The Wheel) (1923)
Gance, Abel. Napoleon (1927)
Dali, Salvadore and Bunuel, Luis. Andalusian Dog (1929)
Readings:
Frenchfilms.org. “The Essential Guide to French Cinema.” http://www.frenchfilms.org/ A Woman’s Paris. “Portraying France Through Cinema.” https://awomansparis.wordpress.com/2013/03/19/portraying-france-through-cinema- myth-vs-reality/
Cinema 8
Early german cinema
What country gave us early vampires, science fiction worlds and dark psychological drama? Germany! Early German cinema was prompted by a variety of traumas that affected the German people in the early 20th century. First there was the rise of militarism in Germany under Bismarck and the belief that the German people could be a great military power. Bismarck promised the people that they would be military leaders of Europe, and he led them into battle in World War I. Germany was soundly defeated and the price for militarism and aggression were high reparation costs. The German people were punished with high repayment costs after the war. They were blamed for causing the war. The people were horrified that they lost the war, were more horrified of the huge cost of war they would have to pay back. The costs bankrupted the society and ruined the German economy. Their economy was in chaos for most of the next 10 years. There was massive fighting between fascists and communists. The military industrial complex collapsed. The new government, the Weimar Republic government was riddled with corruption. Germany couldn’t accomplish very much. People lived in abject poverty for 10 years between the end of World War I and the 1930s, and then they had to cope with a worldwide depression in the 1930s. However, fascism and the rise of Hitler brough new perils. The German people became involved in the second world war due to the influence of the dangerous dictator Adolf Hitler. Life for the first half of the twentieth century was chaotic and uncertain for most Germans.
This instability created an odd artistic climate for making films. First there was little money for film production. A style that emerged and flourished in the 1920s was a style known as Expressionism. Expressionism was a a style of film that erupted out of the art movement of expressionism and was noted for heightened color, extreme exaggeration, distortion of figures, abstracting of space, so that nothing appeared realistic. The worlds created by expressionism were manufactured worlds in which
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abstract, extreme, unusual vistas became the norm. Unusual angles and exotic landscapes peppered this extreme style. Many of the images of of expressionism in cinema appear abstract, ghostly, and haunting.
Prior to World War I German cinema was on the road to great success. There were over 1500 theaters by 1914, but the European cinema went into a slump because of the massive production of American cinema that out produced Europe and catered to popular tastes. The American film business was more concerned with volume and profits then art and style. Further American cinema developed star system actors and this attracted more people to movies. German cinemas an art and business suffered greatly due to the war and the costs of World War one. There were huge economic shortages. Still people in Germany thoroughly enjoyed the field of cinema and attended the movie theatres regularly. Weimar cinema existed in a completely different place than cinema in the rest of Europe. Expressionism as an art movement influenced film as well as art. Abject poverty, political chaos, and instability created a tentative art.
Unable to afford huge sets, big costumes, extensive sets, big props, and the massive production facilities of the US, German filmmakers had to find new ways to provide a mood, create a feeling, and grab emotions in a film. They explored much darker themes then Hollywood films. They showed more sexuality, crime, immorality, social decadence, government destruction, financial decline, a mistrust of concepts of progress, and a fear of technology. Therefore films in Germany became darker, claimed a darker subject matter and maintained an obsession with gothic, dark, and mysterious. Germany embraced the Gothic horror film, the graphic crime film noir style, and deeply pessimistic views of the human condition. After Hitler came to power, most of the major filmmakers immigrated to the United States to avoid the horrors of Hitler. They brought with them extensive skills. Many German artists created horror films for universal studios and nurtured the dark form of crime movies, film noir, that peppered American theaters in the 1940s and 50s. German filmmakers were not only important in Germany, but they were also important in world cinema particularly in the United States producing the American films of the thirties, forties and fifties and transforming American scenography with their expressionist visual sense.
Many of the German films in the 1920s had a massive effect on American films that came later. Amongst them were 1920 Robert Weine production of The cabinet of Dr. Caligari.In Caligari a man who is being treated for a massive paranoia and psychosis believes that his doctor, Dr. Caligari actually has a secret life as a mad scientist sending out a monster at night that is killing women and holding people hostage. He believes that the doctor is evil and means to do harm to him. He sneaks out of his room at night and watches the doctor release his robotic man, a half human monster that menaces and murders women. At Caligari’s command the monster plagues the city by kidnapping women and killing people. By the film’s end, he realizes he is the doctor’s next intended victim. The twist ending hs him awaken from a fever dream to understand that the good doctor has been treating him all along, and that the entire film has been his own paranoid psychotic dream. The doctor is not a horrible monster, but a very nice person who has been treating him through his psychotic episode. In the end he discovers there is no evil doctor, no conspiracy, no kidnapped women, no murders. it has all been his paranoid delusion. It’s a film about literally the appearances versus reality of everyday situations.
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The American studios were watching this new brand of film emerging from Germany. The next big feature was F. W. Murnau 1922 epic, Nosferatu, a symphony of horror. It was one of the earliest horror films based on Bram Stoker’s Dracula from the 1890s. Nosferatu literally means vampire and Murnau referred to it as a symphony to tie it to its romantic novel origins. It is a symphonic and operatic work where characters glide in and out of the scene. Though Murnau has a miniscule budget, he uses light and shadow, time and movement to build suspense and show the vampire. Using these marginal means to portray the horror rather than complex sets or special effects, he captivates and chills the viewer. Here the vampire is Count Orlack because Murnau could not obtain permission to use Bram Stoker’s novel as the basis for his film. Stoker’s widow refused to sell rights to the novel to a German company. Many of the best scenes are simply shadowy sequences where Orlack lurks and menaces the cast. His silhouette descending a staircase became one of the film’s iconic moments and one of the most iconic moments in cinema history. The film comes to a crescendo when Nosferatu smitten for lust for a young woman over stays his feast on her blood. As the sun rises he realizes he is in jeopardy and thought he tries to escape, he is caught and incinerated by sunlight.
Another important film from 1922 is Murnau’s lesser known film Phantom in which a man is haunted by the image of a woman that he has seen and then he spends money trying to track this woman down. Underneath is a metaphor for financial obsessions. He obsesses over spending and not over living a good life.
Another important film from the same era in 1924 is Murnau’s The Last Laugh, another financial parable about a country facing debt, spiraling inflation and decreased buying power of the German currency, the marc. Laugh is the story of a doorman who works for a fancy hotel. When times turn financially unstable, the hotel closes and he loses his job. The man is obsessed with his role as a doorman and without his beautiful frock coat and his uniform and his ability to make money he withers. The film is provocative showing the hero is reduced to working as a bathroom cleaning attendant. He is derided by his family. They make fun of him and chide him for losing his job. At the end he wins a fortune at a lottery, and his fortunes reverse through money. He has status and power again. The film shows that the only thing people respect is his station in life and his money not his actual qualities as a human being. The last laugh is ironic since he only gets the last laugh because of money.
In 1927 Fritz Lang. produces one of the greatest German films of the era, Metropolis. It came at the very end of the German silent film era, and it’s a science- fiction film about a future world in which the people are controlled by a desperate government very reminiscent of what was to happen to Germany five years later when Nazi rule became reality. In the film, workers work long and brutal hours, and they often sufer hardship, pain and death on the job. They live and die tending the great machines that run the society. There is a scientist seeking new ways to control the people. The forces of oppression capture a freedom fighter, a girl named Maria who is organizing and motivating the workers to rebel. The autocrats in the city realize that to control the people they must control Maria so they build a robot to replace her. They transfer Maria’s life energy and consciousness into the robot and make the robot a weird parody of the girl. The robot is revealed, Maria is restored and the society is eventually freed. The film uses extensive special effects, animation affects, robots, flying cars, weird
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dreams, weird machines, and all the elements of german expressionist distortion. In on frightening sequence, when the engineer goes to sleep at night he sees a giant skeleton coming out of the city clock and using a scythe to kill him. The film is nightmarish and frightening.
Metropolis is also a historical film that has been recently rediscovered. It is also an important film for film restoration fans. The film was thought to be only two hours in length, but in recent years a two and one half hour version was uncovered in Germany and restored. Today we have a new version with 30 minutes of restored footage. The unknown version of Metropolis had been missing for 70 years.
Metropolis brings up the issue of film restoration. Without film restorers many classic films of the past could be lost and particularly films in foreign countries where film restoration was not been widely adopted and film institutes had little money to conduct restoration projects.
In 1931, one of the last films completed by Fritz (Metroplis) Lang before he departed Germany and Hitler assumed power was a film entitled M which told a creepy story of a child molester and murderer. It describes a pedophile and murderer who is wanted by the underworld as well. It featured the great character actor, Peter Lorrie who was also a German citizen who fled Germany for the freedom of Hollywood. Lorrie started acting as a player for Bertolt Brecht in the twenties, immigrated to the states in the 1930s and became very popular for exotic characters in films. He played Japanese detectives (Mr. Moto), monsters and freaks (Cormen’s Poe films), and seasoned criminals in Warner Brothers features (The Maltese Falcon, Casablanca One of his major starring roles was in The Mask of Demetrious in which he plays a writer and detective seeking a criminal who escaped from the law. Lorre was compelling in The Best with Five Fingers, a retelling classic hands of Orlac in which a pianist loses his hands but has the hands of a murderer grafted onto his arms turning the quiet pianist into a murderer. His work with Lang is frenetic and Lorre holds the screen with a glitchy nervous manner unmatched by most of his peers.
German cinema had a lasting influence especially on expressionistic aspects of cinema. In 1923 Hollywood’s universal studios embraced the German aesthetic in a series of horror films produced by German directors and craftsmen working in the US. This genre began with 1923’s version of Victor Hugo’s gothic classic, The hunchback of Notre Dame and in 1925 Universal created the original Phantom of the Opera and also an early vampire film, London after Midnight and Dracula in 193. All featured German technicians and aesthetics derived from ideas in expressionism or surrealism. These workers were hired from Germany to utilize their technical abilities and expressionistic style. Some German directors crossed the Atlantic and make their mark in America such as Paul Leni who directed The cat and the canary in 1927. The most notable ex-patriots including singer/actress Marlene Dietrich (John Wayne’s girlfriend during the second world war), playwright and screenwriter, Bertolt Brecht and director/actor Erich Von Stroheim.
Hitler’s Director: Leni Riefenstahl
One director stayed in Germany. Her name was Leni Riefenstahl. She had been a talented and beautiful actress in the 1920s. Hitler admired her work and asked her to Berlin to work on propaganda films for the German government, She agreed and made a series of powerful films to propagandize the Nazi regime. She was an important
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filmmaker for Adolf Hitler because she liked Hitler. She was ready to make the films that Hitler wanted. She had a long life (lived to be 103) and was productive for most of her career. After World War II, people tried to prosecute her for being a Nazi but her argument was that she was a good film director, not a Nazi, and the fact that she had been a good filmmaker for Hitler wasn’t a crime. It was just that she was an excellent filmmaker and she happened to relate to hitler and they were friends. She denied she was a Nazi and claimed she was a filmmaker first and last. She said she was an artist in service to a dictator. She simply made the films he wanted her to make. There was little evidence of any crimes Reifenstahl had committed except for publicizing the Nazi regime.
However Reifenstahl did produce successful films for the Nazi regime that supported the notion of Hitler as a national hero. The first was her staged documentary of the Nazi Nuremburg rally of 1934 entitled Triumph of the Will(1936). Hitler is treated like a God. The film starts with hitler flying into the rally on a plane and he literally descends from heaven to the crowd of adoring fans. World audiences seeing Triumph of the Will were in awe of the people’s love and veneration for Hitler. They were impressed and fearful of this new unifying German force, the Nazi movement. Hitler is shown flying in like a god descending from the heavens. He strides amongst the troops who greet him with cheers. They salute. He modestly enters a car and thousands cheer and throng him as he strides down the streets as a conquering hero. He gives a magnetic speech and everyone is in rapt attention to the charming and dynamic leader. the truth is none of that really happened. There was a rally, but everything was staged. Actors were chosen and placed in the crowd. People were brought in to cheer Hitler. The magnificent parades and set pieces were choreographed and people were drilled on how to react and what to do. Nothing was spontaneous. True hitler did have followers and many devout followers, but the massive crowds, the mesmerized wonder about hitler and the public love of t he man was entirely the work of Leni Reifenstahl and her complex directorial hand. Her greatest achievement was making this wholly unnatural event look natural and unplanned. For this, she was a genius. She could make the staged film look like a real event. Today people see Triumph of the Will and think this was the reality of the era and that Hitler was loved and adored. This was not the case. Hitler’s regime was brutal and manipulative and protest or rejection of hitler was not tolerated and opponent were jailed, beaten or killed. Sadly the only way that Hitler could have a film made about him that flattered him was to have it manufactured and staged. Riefenstahl effectively used camera angles and tracking shots to make Hitler look like a powerful magnetic leader. Many times the shots were from a low angle to make things look bigger more powerful and more colorful than they really were at the time.
Riefenstahl made a second film for Hitler in1938 entitled Olympiad which covered the German Summer Olympics in 1936. The filming was very innovative with camer shots from balloons, underwater and ariel images. The film was in two parts, both about 2 hours long and was controversial because at the Olympics Hitler refused to shake hands with American track star Jessie Owens, an African American runner sho soundly defeated the German team. Hitler was a racist and didn’t want to acknowledge that an Afrian American could beat a team of German Aryan athletes. In truth, Owens was the real star of the Olympics but Olympiad obscures his achievement because hitler refused
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to be seen as wrong. For the most past, the film she portrays the greatness of German athletes against other athletes in a world stage, but it doesn’t show that Adolf Hitler was a racist and when American track runner Jesse Owens had won many awards at the competition, Hitler refused to shake hands with him. Owens achievement was monumental. He was one of the greatest athletes in American history and did a fantastic job under tremendous pressure in Nazi Germany. There have been several films about his achievement. Nonetheless, Riefenstahl made a movie about the Olympics that Hitler approved, but that lied about events at the Olympics, maintaining the image of Hitler as a hero. The Olympics film was made to look like a justification of the policies of prejudice and the idea of an Aryan nation, putting a blonde haired blue eyed people above everyone else.
After the war and hitler’s suicide, Riefenstahl was put on trial for war crimes. Though she supported hitler and made pro hitler films, little evidence could be found to convict her. She lived another 60 years after the war and made films in Africa fearturing the lives and accomplishments of African tribesmen. It was a bizarre turn of events for a filmmaker that was associated with Nazism and Hitler. Some thought it was Riefenstahal’s repudiation of her past and some thought it was her service and penance for espousing Nazi ideas during the war, but Riefenstahl’s conversion to being a naturalist and a supporter of indigenous people and recording their lives seemed a real and genuine conversion from one of the most hated filmmakers of the world war two era to one of the rel masters of documentary filmmaking in later life. In the later half of the twentieth century, she left Germany after the war and spent the rest of her life making ethnographic films amongst the African people in the years after the war. Some people think that perhaps she did this to make up for her horrible purpose her early films for hitler were put to, and were intended to make up for her horrible experiences of helping the Nazis during World War II, but Riefenstahl never admitted to having done anything wrong in the war. She spent the rest of her life in Africa making films with the African people.
The history of German cinema is very important to the west especially the films that were made in the 1920s in in the German expressionist movement. Social disruptions and economic shortages of the Weimar Republic gave rise to new techniques, and new styles of German filmmaking that became associated with the expressionistic art movement, extreme color, extreme emotion, extreme angles, extreme distortion, extreme abstraction of human values, extreme transformation of themes, extreme distortion of reality, so that many of the non-human or non-realistic films reflected the ideas of fantasy, horror, crime, or science fiction. The outgrowth of German films in the Weimar Republic in the 1920s was that the society was unable to sustain the sorts of large cast spectacles popular in other lands. Directors in Germany had to find different ways of creating production techniques to create their own style and character, atmosphere, and emotion to make a form for German film in the 1920s. Also expressionistic filmmakers like Murnau and Laing were also concerned with darker storylines where science-fiction and psychologically-disturbed characters espoused expressionist emotions as directors developed innovative techniques to support their work. The German methods appealed to American audiences in the 1930s and 40s they used light and contrast to rescue film effects, camera angles, and movement to create a new original darker abstracted form of film then had been seen before in Western
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Europe. The German style supported the efforts to create horror movies and film noir projects in the United States. These directors and their innovations didn’t just stay in Germany, but had a huge impact on American film and world film. Many German directors and technicians were trying to remain relevant in the aftermath of Hitler and a wave of hatred of all things German that lasted throughout the the rest of the twentieth century. Further Germany was divided and weakened throughout the majority of the last half o of the twentieth century and had to fight to rebirth its economy and arts. German film had to stay alive and infuentail during a disastrous century, but German filmmakers prevailed against the politics and disasters of world wars.
Terms
Expressionism: Expressionism was a format of art that utilized heightened emotions, distortion, bright colors and abstraction to illustrate a distorted world view. Expressionism transferred extreme emotional angst onto film or canvas.
Nazism: The National socialist movement or the Nazi movement was a fascist form of government popular in Germany and parts of Europe and Asia in the early twentieth century. It derived from central control of the economy and businesses by a strong central government,
Films:
Murnau, F. W.: Nosferatu (1919)
Murnau, F. W. The Last Laugh (1924)
Lang, Fritz. Metropolis (1925)
Lang, Fritz. M (1931)
Riefenstahl, Leni. Triumph of the Will (1936)
Riefenstahl, Leni. Olympiad. (1938)
Readings:
Delaney, Darby. “A Beginner’s guide to German Cinema.” https://filmschoolrejects.com/beginners-guide-to-new-german-cinema/
AC Staff. “German Cinema Comes to Hollywood, 1930” https://ascmag.com/articles/german-cinema-comes-to-hollywood
11 cinema Soviet/Russian cinema
Russian cinema in the early days of the revolution was an important format of new cinema in Europe that had a great impact on The United States and the West. Russians utilized an expressive way of editing and new forms of film cutting to increase the impact of film’s impact on audiences. The Russians had been allies with the West against the Germans in the First World War period, however during the war discontent with the Russian government broke out and the tsar was attacked and overthrown by
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the Bolshevik communist forces. Russians rejected the old style of the world they knew and dropped out of the war and isolated themselves from the West. The French the British and the Americans blamed the Russians for leaving their coalition and disregarded the fact that they were having an internal revolution . The United states the British and the French were angry at the Russians and cut them off from trade.
For the Russian people there were very few film factories making film, so making movies became more difficult. The film schools in Russia had to determine a way to educate students about film without supplies of new film. They arrived at a strategy that focused on editing over the actual creation of films. Thus, instructors in Russian film schools used pre-existing films from many cultures to teach students about film production and editing. The process worked by instructors giving students existing films and having them recut the scenes into a different structure. This allowed them to reedit the film to create a different meaning. This technique was consistent with Marxist philosophy. Marxist thinkers belived the west and capitalism robbed the people and had them addicted to a false consciousness. Thus they believed socialism freed people from ideologies of greed and philosophies where rich autocrats at the pinnicle of society while others stayed trapped in poverty. To Marxists the keys to success in capitalism always alluded the common people and favored the wealthy. Communism or socialism freed populations from false beliefs of capitalist greed and delusions that the poor could pull out of poverty. So Marxist film theory argued that films sold the public a delusion of wealth and happiness and Marxist filmmaking told audiences more truthful stories of collectivism and hard work to make all people more responsible and productive. Russian Bolshevik communists believed that the West and its messages of propaganda and its messages of capitalism were destructive to the common people. The Russians wanted to revise and redraw the messages the West had been sending to people about greed and commerce and growth in the capitalistic system. Therefore they were interested in making films that could contain new messages and it made perfect sense to the Russians to re-write films to re-edit films to give them a different message.
The Russians were very theoretical about the creation of films, and they came up with a lot of theories and ideas about films. One of the first Russian film makers and professors to create new theories was Lev Kuleshov. Kuleshov performed an experiment that later became known as the kuleshov experiment . Kuleshov would show two scenes juxtaposed together side-by-side and then he would show another scene to try to determine what people would think of the first two scenes. This technique was related to the Hegelian dialectic, a German idea from the 19th century that stated that human thinking progressed by steps. According to Hegel we initially have an idea this becomes the thesis or the main idea. This idea is often supplanted by a new idea which we call the antithesis or the new idea. Then often times we realize that the first idea and the second idea weren't successful on their own, so we devise a third idea we call the synthetic/new idea Thus a thesis and anti thesis creates a synthesis, a combination of the first two ideas. By dialectical processes, we create new ideas and society moves forward. Russians adopted this thinking. They assumed the west was a feudal system oppressing common workers. Capitalism was only modified feudalism still benefiting wealth and power. The third system, communism, shared amongst everyone benefited the poor more and equalized the means of monetary distribution.
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Through film editing Lev kuleshov tried to make this idea a reality. He would show an image of something a man a man face and then he would juxtapose that image with a portrait of a mother and a baby, The third image returned to the man in the first image. He seemed now to be smiling at the mother an child. Kuleshov argued the audience identified the first image with the second and third image. Audiences would immediately associate the first two images with the third image. The experiment showed the thesis/anti thesis combined by audiences to arrive at a synthetic third idea. In reality, Kuleshov manipulated audiences psychologically with the images. The third image merely repeated the original image. After the juxtaposition of images one has conditioned the audience to respond to the original Image according to conditions the editor has concocted.
Hitchcock explained the Russian idea to a reporter in an interview. He showed an image of himself and then juxtaposed the Hitchcock image with a picture of a baby. The effect is that Hitchcock is a kindly old man looking at a baby. Hitchcock repeats the experiment this time substituting a beautiful girl in a bikini for a baby. The effect is that now Hitchcock is seen as a dirty old man leering at young girls. In reality, people are responding to the same image with intermediary image interposed between the first and third image. The Kuleshov experiment was successful in showing audiences could have their consciousness changed by film.
One of the big film makers of the early Soviet period was Sergei Eisenstein. He agreed that film could alter thought. Ideological film altered the way films were built and constructed. Eisenstein created a film called Battleship Potemkin (1925) to exploit the potential of this ideological film process. The film portrays an attack on the Russian people by the czar’s men during the tsarist era.. In the film the people are attacked by the Russian tsarist soldiers and the people run to the battleship potemkin which is Harbored in the Odessa harbor. The people appeal to the Russian sailors on board the ship to help them against the soldiers on the ground. The sailors mutiny, overthrow their Tzarist commanders and help the people by firing on the Tzarist soldiers. Eisenstein employed the Hegalian idea with shots of the soldiers separate and then he made shots of the people running separate so there was a thesis/antithesis idea established. The third shot returned to the soldiers suggesting the soldiers oppressing the people. In essence the soldiers never hurt anyone, but the notion of harm is created by juxtaposition. Eisenstein shaped the minds of the audience..
Many of the films that utilize the Eisenstein idea of film editing have little to do with politics and more to do with psychologically manipulating audience emotions. For example one of the famous examples of the Kuleshov effect occurs in The Sixth Sense. The kid can see ghosts, but through juxtapositions we don’t know that the people in the film that appear alive may be ghosts too. The use of montage or the Kuleshov effect creates the sensation of hiding and revealing things to the audience.
The Kuleshov effect of manipulating audience attention or misleading the audience is common. An assumption of reality is often used and under cut by cutting in new information. What may be seen may mislead. The Butterfly Effect uses this idea to undermine our beliefs through the notion of chaos theory. In 2021, Joe Wright;s production for Netflix, The woman in the window with Amy Adams has a similar effect of seeing two things juxtaposed. The audience assumes because both are presented in
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sequence both bits of information are true. Wright feeds the audience some information that seems trustworthy which allows the audience to be manipulated.
There were other people that had different theories of editing in Russia. One of the most important film makers was Pudovkan who believed in a different form of editing. His editing style was more consistent with the ideas of the film. His form of editing was known as constructive editing. Eisenstein's form of editing was considered collision editing or a more violent form where two ideas compete for centrality. Two ideas are brought together creating a third complicated idea. Pudovkin’s idea simply constructs two coherent ideas together like building blocks in architecture. You build on those ideas and you build on the story by putting ideas that are consonant together. One of Pudovkin’s most important films was called Mother. In the film a mother has a son who is not a member of the Communist Party and doesn't adhere to the Communist Party principles. She tries to find a way to save him. She determines the only way to save him is to turn him in to the Communist Party so they can save him from a life of false
A third film maker did not trust the dangers of constructive editing and collision editing. He was afraid that his films might be misinterpreted. His name was Vertov and he made a film called man with a movie camera. Vertov’s film was a documentary film. Vertov did not trust editing to tell the story for fear the editing might be in re interpreted or misinterpreted in a film. Therefore, he claimed his films only showed real life and while he could put scenes together in a film in a wild strangely edited collision fashion, he claimed that everything in the film was real life and that he only recorded real life despite how speedy and clever the editing of scenes was. He used editing to increase or slow down the pace, to create interest in the film. He argued that editing was not used for the political purpose, and that the political purpose was simply the subject matter. Man with a movie camera simply shows day-to-day life for the working class communist people living in Moscow during the early days of the Russian Revolution.
Soviet cinema had a brief flowering from 1920 to 1930 when many experiments occurred and were allowed. By 1930 Joseph Stalin consolidated power. Stalin was insane, paranoid and feared any sort of experiment he didn’t understand. He killed thousands of artists and condemned millions to death in Siberia. He supported a form of film and art he liked and understood, Soviet Realism. If Stalin didn’t get the form, it was banned and often the perpetrator was killed. This form was simple, direct, and told the story of the Russian people working towards the ends of the Soviet regime. From the thirties to the fifties during Stalin’s reign Russian film was static. After Stalin died, Soviet film slowly revived.
The twenties allowed a brief window for experiment. Eisenstein practiced collision editing, Pudovkin offered constructivist editing, and Vertov used a style of editing that offered wild speedy shot but he disavowed editing as a tool to invoker film meaning. Today the ideas of collision editing are used to disorient the audience. Japanese horror films have used this technique to great effect in generating fear.
Editing influenced by Russian theorists was strongly influential in American television of the later twentieth century. MTV pioneered exotic editing to market pop music and pop groups and defined codes of behavior and dress for young audiences during the eighties. MTV showed that Eisenstein and Kuloshov were correct in assuming behavior could be altered via film editing.
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Terms
Constructivism: An art movement that arrived from the freedom found in the Russian Revolution. Constructivist forms were tied to cubism and abstracted images by reducing them down to similar forms.
Montage: Montage had a special place in Russian film in that Russian filmmakers believed that montage was a way to create meaning by constructing hegalian dialectical arguments in film. Russian filmmakers constructed scenes of opposing images, a thesis and anti-thesis that was reconstructed as a new argument by the viewer. Western European and American films were constructed in a more straightforward argumentative pattern.
Films:
Eisenstein, Sergei. Battleship Potemkin (1925)
Pudovkin, Vladimir. Mother (1927)
Vertov. “Man With a Movie Camera.” (1929)
Tarkovsky, Vessily. Solaris (1972)
Readings:
Delaney, Darby. “A Beginner’s guide to German Cinema.” https://filmschoolrejects.com/beginners-guide-to-new-german-cinema/
AC Staff. “German Cinema Comes to Hollywood, 1930” https://ascmag.com/articles/german-cinema-comes-to-hollywood
Cinema 11 sound in film
There is a mistaken belief that many early films were silent but the truth is that from the beginning of film production almost all films had a form of sound. While early films did not have a sound track and dialogue accompanying them, sound was always a part of film culture from the beginning. Many early films had piano or organ
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accompaniment simply to emphasize emotional and sensational scenes in the film Sometimes narrators would narrate a film or amateur actors would include dialogue in a film in a live fashion. Early synchronization of film and sound was attempted using phonograph records. Phonograph records were created before films so the technology existed. A problem with phonograph records as an accompaniment to a film soundtrack meant that the sound had to be recorded ahead of time and synchronized properly with the film. if there was a mechanical skip in the record, it was possible for the sound to go way off.
The two principal problems for creating sound film were synchronization of the sound with the actual frames of the film and amplification of the sound. The motor that drove film projectors was very loud so being able to hear sound from a scratchy phonograph record with very poor amplification was very difficult and many people were unable to hear sound in film because of this. Therefore, amplification was difficult and was a problem to overcome the second problem was synchronization actually having the film and the sound play at the same time.
The answer to amplification in film came in the early twentieth century when Lee De Forest create the first amplification tubes in 1906. RCA and other companies were producing radios and the tube amplifiers allowed the sound from rados to be heard clearly and loudly. Companies like RCA developed paper cone speakers that gave better sound quality, but a bigger problem was amplifying the sound of the radio waves so that it could be heard in in the home. The need for a new technology to be able to amplify sound was a difficult problem. De Forest developed a vacuum tube that would take the signal from a record and literally turn up the volume or amplify that sound so the amplification tube literally pulled more electrical power out of the sound and amp using amplitude signals to create more sound so that the sound would be louder. Initially with the sound came a good degree of distortion but over time the engineers developed cleaner sound systems. They found ways to reduce the distortion so there would be a clearer sound coming from the amplification tube and quickly amplification tubes took off. By the 1920s, radio receivers had amplification tubes that glowed a bright orange or yellow light and had cone speakers that gave beautiful synchronized sound. The very first radio station that signed on in 1920 was KDKA in Pittsburgh, PA. By the time they had created amplification tubes and cone speakers it wasn't long until people would apply that to film.
The second issue was synchronization. Synchronization was difficult because it was hard to place the sound at the same time as the film. Different methods were used for starting a film at exactly the same moment as a phonograph record, and finally The Western Electric company developed a system of linking a phonograph to a film that worked reasonably well. They called this system the vitaphone system, and they tried in vain to sell the system to several film companies that rejected it because of the costs and the fears that outfitting a lot of theaters with this new system would be very costly. Eventually in 1926, the Warner Brothers film company bought the vitaphone system and began to use it in a series of shorts.Finally in 1927, for a big premiere of a popular film by a popular artist Al Jolson, vitaphone and Warner Brothers decided to make an entire film featuring vitaphone sound. This film from 1927 was entitled The Jazz Singer. The Jazz Singer became a big hit for a number of reasons even though there were still title cards in the film, and much of the film was silent. There were segments of
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the film in which people spoke using microphones and sung on stage specific songs. The Jazz Singer was a mixture of title cards and silent film and sound film put together. It was the first talkie because it was the first film where people actually spoke and sung in a film along with music in the film. The jazz singer was popular because it featured live singing and speaking as well. But the jazz singer was popular for other reasons as well. It was a very controversial film of its time. It told the story of a Jewish family who had a son that they hoped would be a Cantor in the synagogue in the Jewish church. Their son was enamored of Broadway musicals and wished to sing on Broadway for gentiles or non-Jews. While he was in rehearsal for a play on Broadway, he fell in love with a non-Jewish girl and this upset his family as well. Finally by the film's end his father who is a cantor in the synogogue is very sick and wishes his son to return home to sing in the church, but he refuses to follow his father's wishes until he realizes his father is very sick. So while his father is on his deathbed, the young son returns to his family's church and sings as a Cantor in the church. His father dies happy that his son has returned to the church. But the son is still enamored of a non-Jewish girl which upsets the family because they do not want him marrying outside the faith. But he is young and headstrong and wishes to pursue a relationship with a girl who is not of the Jewish faith. His saving grace is a doting mother that indulges everything he wants. His mother believes that he should be the man he wants to be even if it means being a different person than his father and faith desire him to be. She encourages him. He eventually sings on Broadway to his mother (song Mammie) and becomes a famous star. He marries the girl he wishes to marry, and all ends happily with his adoring mother by his side. But the film is extremely controversial . The film dealt with Jews and immigrant peoples. The film dealt with a young man who defied both of his parents to have the career of his dreams. The film dealt with a Jewish man marrying outside his own faith. The film dealt with mixture of different peoples from different parts of the world. The film dealt with immigrants coming into American Society and wanting to integrate into American Society. All of these elements labeled the film is highly controversial. These elements created a very,very popular film that was attractive to a wide range of diverse audiences. The fact that it was sound as well also made the film extremely popular and people went to the film simply to see the extravaganza of people singing live on stage in a film. The jazz singer was a breakthrough in many ways aside from the fact that it was one of the first synchronized sound films of its era. Not long after the jazz singer debuted the great controversy arose in the film community as to whether all the film community would move to sound film or whether sound film would simply be a gimmick to get people into the theaters. The answer was very quick. Within two years or 18 months after the jazz singer despite the high costs of adding speakers and an amplification sound system and new projectors that ran on a different film speed, the new systems at enormous costs were installed in nearly every theatre in the country by popular demand. The public demanded sound and refused to go to films without sound. By 1928 the public would not patronize silent films and by 1929 virtually all films being made were sound. By 1930, silent films were dead. The only silent filmsthat made profit in the thirties were films by Chaplin. Chaplin continued to do films that had sound that had soundtracks and music made by Chaplin. They had live sound in them, but Chaplin generally felt that he could make bitter films by simply using silent movie methods and Chaplin made City Lights in 1931, modern times in 1936 and the great
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dictator in 1940 that were mostly silent films with small elements of sound effects soundtracks and some dialogue when necessary. For the most part Chaplin was the only artist during the sound era that could actually make a silent film that people might still go to see. Sound prevailed very quickly in the field of film technology .
One of the great problems of sound films was that the actors had to stand near a microphone to be heard. Thus sound created films with less movement that were more static. People did not have to worry about sound in silent films. People could move anywhere they wanted to on the stage however when actors had to stand near microphone to be heard, movement in films virtually came to a standstill, and the talkies literally became the standstill talkies or the stockies as people jokingly called them.
There were several major film directors in Hollywood that set about solving that problem, and they used different devices to solve the problems that were created by sound films. One of the first directors to solve the problem with sound films and make movement come back to theaters was Rueben Mammelian. Mammelian was the director of the Oscar winning 1932 Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde starring Frederic March based on the short story by Robert Louis Stevenson. Mammelian was formerly a Broadway stage director. The film literally dealt with the issue of how to get sound and movement in the same film by using a solution that mammelian had seen done in Broadway. On Broadway film producers decided that people wanted good sound and to do so, they provided a sound system with microphones on the stage, but instead of simply putting a single microphone for everyone to group around as they had in film producers in Broadway. They had placed different microphones on different sides of the stage in the center of the stage and above the stage. They used an audio mixer which was a device that allowed them to bring up the sound on one microphone and bring it down in another microphone so it wasn't picking up extraneous foot traffic during a scene. Mammelian said why don't we incorporate the idea of using microphones on various parts of the stage in our sound films which is exactly what he did. So in Doctor Jekyll and Mr Hyde there were microphones placed around the stage so that wherever March moved on the stage there would be sound that could easily be heard. Also they began to do post production mixing of sound into the film so that sound that wasn't recorded at the time the film was made, could be recorded later. Mammelian’s efforts were rewarded in 1932 with the superb attendance at the version of Jekyll and Hyde that he created with March. sound was very clear, very audible, and the actor March when the Oscar for best performance, because as Hyde, he could move across the stage and make sounds and use dialogue from anywhere. The other director that worked very hard to make sound successful was Victor Fleming. Fleming was famous for a number of films that he directed, including 1939 Oscar nominees Wizard of Oz that he directed and Gone with the Wind of which he was one of a team of four directors for the film. Fleming actually won the Oscar for best director in 1939 for GWTW and then in 1940, he made another great film, a second version of Doctor Jekyll and Mr Hyde starring Spencer Tracy and Ingrid Bergman. Victor Fleming had made a lot of movies with western stars and liked making westerns. He also wanted to make western films with live sound in the West. A lot of people thought it was impossible to have a truck with a Dolly (a raised platform device) and a boom microphone ( a boom was a pole on which microphones were hung above actors as they rode on horses to make sound that could be heard and could be audible and could
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be done properly. Fleming figured that he could get a quietly running low speed truck to be alongside the actors on horses with a boom operator operating a boom held above the horses. He believed you could hold a microphone over the actors as they rode on horses so the two actors could be riding on horses and having a conversation, and they could be clearly heard. People thought the sound of the noise from the horses and their hooves and riding on the ground and the sound of a truck and the sound of a boom operator noise coming from the truck would be too loud, and that you could not isolate the sound of the voices of the actors and you could not record westerns in this manner with live sound. Fleming proved them wrong. He put special baffling in the truck to make to make the sound of the truck's engine quieter. He put special baffling around the boom microphone so that it only picked up the sound of the voices of the actors and not the competing sound of the truck or the competing sound of the horses and the actors spoke clearly and loudly. Their voices came through loud and clear, so Fleming was one of the few directors that solved the problem of sound in the outdoors.
One of the other innovators in sound in 1940 was Orson Welles who had already worked in radio and worked on stage and was making his first movie Citizen Kane. Welles always laughed at the fact that most sound films from the first ten years of sound film did not have ceilings in the scenes because they had to use boom microphones and the boom microphones would not allow them to put a ceiling scene in a set. Welles made his technicians on Citizen Kane develop scenes with sets that actually had ceilings and people laughed at Welles and thought he was a fool. Welles laughed and said I can place a microphone anywhere and I know how I can make it work. Welles planted microphones in desks or in the sleeve of an actor or in a coat or in a newspaper or any place on this stage where it might not be seen, and he placed enough microphones in every scene where every aspect of every scene could be brilliantly recorded. In one of the most famous scenes at the end of Citizen Kane the 70 year old Kane begs his wife Susan Alexander not to leave him, and she defies him and decides to leave him, and he is left alone in her room. In a rage he begins to destroy everything in the room making a lot of noise in the process, tearing apart wooden cabinets smashing bottles, throwing things against the wall, tripping over things tearing up wires, throwing books, and throwing her clothing. The scene is a real mess but one of the really wonderful things about the scene is the way Welles records the sound so that you hear the man puffing all the way through as he destroys the room and you hear the actual torment of tearing a cabinets out of walls and throwing furniture and destroying property all the way through the scene. It's fun to watch because of its marvelous sound design in which you simply watch a man go berserk in a room. Here sound defines character.
Sound also played a role in the enjoyment of animation, and one of the reasons why the Disney Studios became the principal studio for animation in the 1920s and later became the most important animation studio in in the world. Today Walt Disney Enterprises is responsible for about 70% of the films made in the United states because they own Marvel, Fox Miramax and many other production companies. Disney became successful despite the problems of animation (it took more time and manpower to make animated films). Disney would take three years to make a film like Snow White while MGM could make a movie a week because they had four soundstages constantly at work. However one of the drawbacks for the other studios was recording sound and
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recording it well. For once Disney had a distinct advantage. The animation could be done by the animators and the sound could be done slowly and parts could be integrated in postproduction. You didn't have to have good sound at the time you were making the pictures; you could add good sound after the pictures were made, which gave Disney a rare advantage. So in the process of a film like Snow White you have three years to find songs, vocalists and clever dialogue. Disney had access to the best singers, the best composers, and facilities to record and rerecord the sound slowly to make it mix in well with the film. In 1927 Disney Studios were the first studio to deliver a sound cartoon in their debut cartoon with Steamboat Willie which featured Mickey Mouse in a comedy on a steamboat with animals, an angry boat captian, and lots of goofy examples of sound, The film was extremely successful and from 1927 until 1937 when they produced Snow White, Disney was on a mission to bring a fully animated sound film to the market. This would literally entail 90 minutes of sound and that was a real struggle for Disney or for any studio during that time simply because of the complexities of making a sound film. Consider besides problems with sound, Disney animators had to draw 129,600 drawings per film. All of these had to be planned scripted, arranged, with foreground and background images, and vocal parts and songs written in and timed. But when Disney delivered Snow White in 1937 it was a massive hit because the voices and the music were beautiful, the animals had wonderful character voices, and the sound blended perfectly with the animated images. Disney didn't have to worry about the actors having good voices which is a problem for regular sound films because he could pick whatever actor he wanted, he found wonderful voice actors and talented singers.
The struggle to create great sound in film was very complicated and it didn't end there. Technology moved sound film forward. In the 1940s the federal government in World War Two realized that records (containing secrets and sensitive information) being transmitted across the Atlantic into France and England were very fragile and could break. They needed a new technology for moving secret messages to the allies in Europe fighting the Germans. They developed a new technology called audio recording tape so instead of recording on a plastic shellac record, they made audio tapes that were more flexible.One could plunge an audio tape into water and dry it out. You could twist an audio tape or distort it and still have it play unlike records. it was far more flexible and again it could run alongside celluloid film. Tape made things easier, so in the 1940s the film companies began to realize that if they could run an audio tape through a projector with a pick up at the same time they were running celluloid film they could do away with vitaphone records altogether, and they wouldn't have to play a record with a film anymore. They could integrate the two systems together. So recording with a tape recorder during filming simplified the process of tracking sound with the making of the visual film. By running the film at 24 frames per second they could get achieve higher quality sound. Early silent film ran in the silent film era at 18 frames per second. The slower film left very poor sound quality, but when you boosted the speed of the film to 24 frames per second FPS or frames per second you received a better quality sound signal. If anything World war two advanced sound technology.
Terms
amplification: the ability of the amplitude waves of sound to be increased. This was accomplished when Lee de Forest invented the vacuum tube.
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Synchronizaton: In early days of film production there was a great physical challenge making the picture and sound synchronize so that picture and sound were well coordinated. This problem was solved by Warner Brothers Vitaphone system which linked a record to the showing of a film frame. The system was later replaced by Western Electric’s system of attaching electronic magnetic recording medium alongside film frames so that the sound could be picked up simultaneously with the film’s viewing. Fps: Frames per second. The standard for sound film was established at 24 frames per second and silent films ran at 18 frames per second. The reason why silent films have jerky motion when translated to television is that early television projector transfer systems only ran sound film and only could translate film at that speed, thus early transfers of silent film to television tapes were recorded at THE WRONG SPEED thus making all silent films look like they are going to fast. This was a mechanical error because tv stations in the 1940s and 1950s did not possess the right projectors for dubbing silent films on to television recordings and monitors.
Films:
Mamaleon, Rueben. “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.” (1932) Crosland, Alan. “The Jazz Singer.” (1927)
Welles, Orson. “Citizen Kane.” (1941)
Readings:
Kushins, Jordan. “A Brief History of Sound in Cinema.”
https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/movies/a19566/a-brief-history-of-sound-in- cinema/
Filmsfatale. “Sound History in Film: Early Recording.” https://www.filmsfatale.com/blog/2020/5/26/sound-history-in-film-early-recording
Cinema 12
Hollywood studio system
The Hollywood studio system developed as a business model in the 1930s and 40s to control the production of films and to control markets in the U S Between 1930 and 1952. Most of the major studios were combined and the larger studios devoured the smaller companies to create complete control and dominance of the industry. By 1930 most of the principle players in Hollywood were assembled and smaller studios had been gobbled up.
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The Big Five and the Minors
By 1930 the major studios were 20th Century Fox (A combination of the older 20th century pictures and Fox studios) MGM (A combination of Metro pictures the Golden theatre chain and the film company of Louis B. Meyer), RKO (A combination of a few radio companies and film companies), Warner Bros, a studio owned by the three Warner brothers. Two of the brothers retired and left the running of the studio to Jack Warner. Paramount was the most European of the big five. Adolph Zukor ran Paramount and brought in foreign directors, actors and technicians to give Paramount films an arty and glossy look.
There were a few minor studios that specialized in one form of entertainment. Republic made cheap westerns and Saturday morning serials for children. Disney made mostly cartoons but later switched to a blend of cartoons and live action films because the live action films helped to underwrite the cartoon productions which took longer and cost more. Universal run by Carl Lamelle made mostly low budget horror films. By 1930 all of these studios competed in a very tight low margin market during the depression. Companies had to have constant hits or face bankruptcy. One film’s profits paid for the next film. Two or three disastrous releases could cause layoffs and sell offs of property, stars, equipment or real estate. Maintaining the rising costs of production was a day and night business.
Studio Methods
The studio system was often referred to as a star factory, because Hollywood realized after Chaplin that people liked to view films featuring familiar and dependable stars. Studios virtually owned stars. They paid for their plastic surgery, theor cosmetic enhancements, their hair, their clothes, their agents, their publicity, sometimes their residence and they even programmed star’s personal time and choice of lifestyle right down to charities and personal appearances. A star’s life was controlled in much the same way Korean boy bands are selected and governed today in Korea. They are a human industry bordering on bondage.
Further in the time of the studio system there was no human rights. If you were gay, you could not exist as a gay person. If you were a child there were no child labor laws or the studios disregarded them. If you were a woman, except for a few big stars, you had no control over your properties or the films that the studio chose for you. Your life, your career your residence, your appearance were all managed, and most people had to appear grateful to work 18 hour days, sometimes 6am to midnight to appear in movies. Wages were doled out by contracts that often abrogated basic worker rights. Studios were famous for reprisals against non-complying actors. Humphrey Bogart once angered Warner Brothers studio head Jack Warner and was sentenced to play a lead in a horror movie, one of the lowest jobs in the business. Horror movies were not the venerable terror films of the modern period with lavish special effects, animation, cgi ,and clever jump scares. Mostly horror was a discount industry where the cheapest talent and the poorest production values prevailed. Rarities like Dracula and Frankenstein were unusual high budget versions of stage shows (Dracula) or classic novels (Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein novel).
Factory Production
Many of the studios in Hollywood produced in a style of factory production like the factory methods of Henry Ford. The studio system decided they could create
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products like cars or airplanes or furniture or household products. They had a tightly controlled conventional way of making movies by factory methods. Films like Little Caesar in 1930 or Public Enemy and Scarface in 1932 started a sequence of gangster films. Other genres generated many sequences of films in that genre. The sixties had sequences comedies, gangsters, horror features, musicals, dance spectacles, screwball comedies, farces and historical epics.
Vertical Integration: Owning it All
Studio system films weren’t always wildly creative. Studios simply created a series of films that utilized contracted players, contracted directors, and followed very precise formats of filmmaking. The business model was known as vertical integration. Studios sought to control all aspects of production and eliminate, competition from companies outside the Hollywood area. Vertical Integration meant controlling production, distribution and exhibition. This meant that all films were built, directed and printed In Hollywood. The five studios ran all aspects of the films they filmed on their own studio lots. There were hierarchical orders in the studios. The lowest of the low at Warner brothers were the animators that made the looney tunes cartoons They were banished to the outskirts of the studio on the area near. The studio fence, a series of frame huts where animators had to draw in unaircionditioned bungalows. This space was known as cockroach terrace. The studios made a lot of money from looney tunes but did not respect or appreciate animators like Tex Avery, Chuck Jones and Fritz Freling. The animators at Warner’s responded by constantly producing cartoons that ridiculed or parodies warner brothers own films and stars. The animatords knew they were wild and often times annoying so they were happy to be away from the main offices. Closer to the main buildings were the secondary studios where grade b minor films were filmed with minor actors. At the center of the Warner’s lot were the big A studios where major stars like Humphrey Bogart and Bette Davis created their classic films. These stars had a choice of some co-cast members and some say in the direction, but the studio heads made all final decisions. In the main buildings there were corporate offices for studio heads. Usually these offices were opulent and lush to show the power of the giants of the industry.
A major part of the studio complex was accounting. Hollywood accountants were described as magic accountants because outward appearances would illustrate that given films were hits, but the Hollywood accountants could describe the costs of production as producing a loss. The accounting process took into account the use of facilities, technicians, artists fees, acting talent, directors, studio production costs, writers, extras, and misc costs which could often turn a successful film into a loss, at least for tax purposes.
Apart from the studio facilities, the majors owned all the major distribution of ll films throughout the country. Big reels of physical films had to be transported by big trucks across the country to every small town that had a movie theatre. Even small towns of 10,000 people or less would have a theatre. Remember, apart from radio and live theatre, film was the only form of evening entertainment for most Americans. Most major studios released new films every week and audiences would go see the week’s big hit and return to the theatre weekly to see new hits as they arrived. In large cities, the Warners, Fox, Parmount trucks would roll into town weekly with new films. Later reels could be mailed to cities for pick up by downtown theatres. As films circulated
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across the country, prints would be traded from theatre to theatre. For super popular films, the studios would have to make extra prints of those feature films. The cost of prints in technicolor was expensive (the number of prints weighed against a film’s profits). A ragged print with burn marks, or scratches, or sound drop outs could annoy audiences and diminish admissions and depress revenue so keeping theatres stocked with quality prints was part of the business of the distribution chain. However in the end, each studio had mail rooms, trucking lines, print facilities, distribution points, and employees and full divisions devoted to distribution tasks.
The final aspect of vertical integration was the theatres for exhibition. The studios built beautiful theatres often referred to as movie palaces. They were large beautiful buildings with plush velour seats, red carpets, colorful and attractive concession stands and full cuisines. In the height of the depression when disposable cash was at a premium, studios equipped movie theatres with facilities to serve full meals for lunch, dinner and evening snacks. Stages were equipped with strong sound systems to host touring celebrities appearing in major markets to support their new film release. For example a popular thirties and forties act like Bob Hope and Bing Crosby would host radio shows that would promote their films. They would tour behind major releases touring through towns in the east coast. Films might open in the East in New York, travel to Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Ohio, Indianapolis, Chicago, Detroit, Madison, Wisconsin and wind up in Minneapolis. Movie stars were treated like today’s rock stars, staying the best hotels, doing continual interviews and publicizing the film and promoting its qualities.
The theatres were a place to commune on the weekends. People could go and stay all day and many did just that. The economics of the depression were precarious. Many people lost their homes and had to live with families, in trailers, or camps. If people could find a job (at one point 25% of the workforce was unemployed) people saved their slim wages for a date or a solo venture to the movie theatre. Food was cheap and these theatres were wide ranging entertainment centers. Big bathrooms for big families, arcades where people could play pinball and other novelties. Music was playing through speakers everywhere in the theatre. Sound was resonant and warm. The theatres were built to contain crowds for 18 hours on a weekend. Kids occupied Saturday morning with cartoons, short subjects, travelogues, weekly newsreels photographing and filming national events. These shows might extend from 8am until noon. Custodians would clean up cokes and popcorn and there would be a transition to afternoons which might be teens or pre-teens, families and older patrons. Sometimes theatres would host cheap bingo, scrabble, Pictionary style games with projectors and good sound systems. Audience members might be called on stage to help call bingo numbers. Winners might win depression glassware, pots and pans, silverware, and plate sets. People too poor for household items might win them at bingo for a nickel investment in a set of bingo cards. Big swing bands appeared on stage in some venues and audiences would dance the foxtrot in the aisles. Everyone saw almost everyone from the community at the theatre. It was a place for social gathering and social binding. More newsreels, news programming, serials, horror movies, crime thrillers and otherB features would be programmed in the afternoons.
Evening features came after a dinner menu of stacks and more substantial foods, including hotdogs, chips, peanuts, cotton candy, popcorn, and sometimes pizza and
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soup and other more exotic items. Again bands and games might fill in the intermission hours. People might come to the theatre early to win a set of glasses or there might be a free raffle of items, a collection for the needy, or possibly a USO collection for troops fighting during World War two. Many people pitched in to help at theatres as during the depression and war years, many men either were overseas or at world camps and details could not be home. They were living and dormitories and sending money home to their families. Women pitched in serving food, running projectors, tearing tickets and managing theatres. At around seven pm an evening double feature would begin with hit movies introduced by touring stars. Bob Hope and Bing Crosby appeared, performed a stage show, sang songs with a big band, sometimes broadcast a live radio show and entertained fellow actors and other touring stars. There was a lot of cross over between radio and film and plugs and ads for products that supported the film actors and radio shows would be inserted. Samples of popular products would be distributed to people. At special holidays like Christmas and Halloween masks or tinsel or other free items might be distributed. After the first feature there might be another stage show and then the main feature would premiere at 8 or 9pm. Afterwards most people finally went home exhausted but young people might listen to a small swing combo or a jazz band, eat more food and devour more soft drinks. Dancing and games might end the evening and often the theatres cleaned and closed after midnight. Theatres generated a culture that satisfied American needs for entertainment for nearly two decades. They were uncontested capitals of film pleasure.
The studios owned every facet of production including the development and creation of the film itself, the writers, and the cameras so that they could actually control what had been shot and produced that day. All was contained in house. They had built in development facilities so that film could be seen at night the same day it was shot. Productions moved forward daily and studio chiefs watched with actors technicians and directors. If the studio didn’t like a film they could end it in an evening. Mostly they pushed ahead with all productions. A production started and not finished lost money for the studio. Money was a big concern but so was prestige and good publicity.
Studios like MGM became extremely proficient, constantly developing scripts hiring writers, hiring actors, hiring directors, and producing films on a regular basis. MGM bragged that it could produce literally a film a week or 52 films a year, and it called itself the film production factory. People often jokingly called it the dream factory. Hollywood films could be distributed to every city in the nation to every movie theater in the nation. This strong distribution network throttled product and studios only distributed films that they either created or had created with an independent producer.
This vertical integration model existed from 1930 until 1946. In,1946 following the end of the depression and the end of World War Two, the Supreme Court and the federal government took action against the studios to break them up. Government determined that studios such as Paramount and Warner Brothers had too much control, and strangled emerging new independent cinema and foreign films from being shown. This was the beginning of the end of the studio system. By the early 1950s almost all the major studios had been divested of their of their theaters and their distribution networks. They had to fight with foreign producers to be able to create a space where their films could be shown.
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Today Hollywood production mirrors the past but is also very different. Rather than five studios, today there are about twelve domestic studios producing American films. We have studios that make films for distribution to theaters but we also have studios that make distribution directly to television such as Netflix and Amazon. Instead of the studios controlling actors and directors and production facilities themselves, today studios strike deals with major directors, actors, and writers, and they create a package that creates a production that is eventually funded. When a film is funded, it means that that film is greenlit or greenlighted and that means that the film has a potential to go forward because the funding is there, the actors have been paid, the studio has the money to finance the facilities, and they have the production ability to complete the film, perform post production tasks so the film can be released and shown to audiences. It is notable that over seventy percent of American film production is controlled by the Walt disneyt company who have mergered and bought other film companies (Miramax, Fox, and Marvel) so they have a strong control over what Americans see.
While there are many independent films made in the world today, still in the studio system and Hollywood. Much production is governed by demands dictated by money and business. The studios are hungry for blockbuster films that will make a lot of money. For example in the early part of the Millennium superhero movies were popular, but revenue declined by 2020, and it took a new spiderman film in 2021 to revive the genre. Money underlies the production of films. While A list directors generally can make the films they wish to produce, Steven Spielberg’s West Side Story, a remake of the 1961 classic sputtered in 2021 because few people patronized the film. A film genre dies if audiences do not watch it. Today, many studios insure audience response by dual releasing to theatres and streaming services. The 2021 release of Matrix revolution was promoted in theatres and on the streaming HBO max service. Studios fear losibng films to streaming services and pirating. The new distribution of films is a complex business. Many films partner with streaming services such as Netflix to maximize audience and revenue. Nexflix spends well over 10 billion a year to produce its own massive slate of productions to compete against older and more established studios. In Recent years, Amazon and Netflix have muscled into the complex business of maki ng films and their efforts have opened up the production market somewhat.
Hits that no one predicted as successful films are called sleeper hits. Often times sleeper hits surprise audiences and Hollywood and develop new genres. When Robert Downey jr. joined the Iron Man series he spurred the big super hero craze of the millennium era.
Terms
Vertical Integration: Controlling all aspects of film production. Producin g, distributing and exhibiting films.
Sleeper hit: Films not deemed hits by the studio but surprised analysts and became popular with audiences.
The Big Five: a group of large studios that dominated Hollywood production in the thirties and forties. Paramount, MGM, RKO, Warners, 20th Century Fox
Films:
Ford, John. “Stagecoach.” (1939)
Van Dyke, S. S. “A Night at the Opera.” (1935)
Werks, U. B. “Snow White.” (1937)
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McCarey, Leo. “Love Affair.” (1939) Curtez, Michael. “Casablanca.” (1942) Welles, Orson. “Citizen Kane.” (1941) Readings:
Kushins, Jordan. “A Brief History of Sound in Cinema.”
https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/movies/a19566/a-brief-history-of-sound-in- cinema/
Filmsfatale. “Sound History in Film: Early Recording.” https://www.filmsfatale.com/blog/2020/5/26/sound-history-in-film-early-recording
Cinema 13 film noir
Film noir was a style of film that erupted after the chaos of World War Two.
Noir was characterized as (1) a group of films about criminal, mystery, police, crime and larceny oriented entertainments. (2) Qualities of these films were dark and mysterious settings, dark lighting, shadow, shades and blinds, night time scenes, the use of weather and atmosphere to characterize events. (3) These films are characterized by a cynical view of human nature. (4) Women are particularly problematic with many women not considerd trustworthy or dangerous. The term femme fatale was conied to describe women in this genre. (5) Noirs often portray fate as capricious or working against the protagonists of the film. (6) The worldview of film noir is not only cynical but dark. People will lie, betray and disappoint us. Women are untrustworthy. Friends are not friendly. It is a world in which community or friendship does not matter and fate or other forces can intervene and bring the characters to ruin. (7) Noir is often fatalistic and the end result is death, crime, murder, betrayal, unhappiness, and disappointment.
Noir as a term arrived from French critics who saw American films after World War Two. France had been captured by the Germans in the early days of World War Two and was occupied from 1940 until 1945. When they were freed from German rule and captivity by the allies and the Germans were driven out of Paris and out of Northern France, French film critics that had watched American films through 1939 and had seen the studio system in 1939 at its zenith in films like Gone with the wind of mice and men Stagecoach Wizard of Oz son of Frankenstein hound the Baskervilles dark victory, Ninotchka, Mr. Smith goes to Washington love affair and a host of other brilliant and wonderfully realized films from the American studio system. But once Germany occupied the country in 1940, the Germans cut off the French critics from all American films for five years as part of their propaganda efforts to promote German society and criticize the allies and the other Western powers. When the allies returned and freed France in 1945 French critics saw American films for the first time in five years.
What they witnessed was a complete change in the style of American film from 1939 to 1945. American films had changed had become darker grittier and more cynical because of the horrors of war, the horrors of the depression, the deprivation of the American people, and the poverty that had swept the United States and the world. The
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darkness of the depression years followed by the sacrifices of a world war transformed film makers in Hollywood. They moved towards a darker cynical more grim style of film that reflected the feelings of the American people. Americans had seen corruption in their own country, had learned to sometimes fear authority figures such as the clergy and the police, and were very concerned about the shape of the world following the war. and the incursion of communism into Eastern Europe.
These films were dark gritty films therefore the French critics referred to these new films as film noir or black film because they were very dark in tone and they were very cynical and disturbing in their content. Most of the films of the noir era were crime films or mystery films or suspense films in which criminal elements or criminals were the focus of the film the police were no longer in charge, the clergy were no longer trustworthy, specifically women were no longer to be trusted, and the world was a darker and more corrupt place. Film makers that had made bright and happy films prior to the war started making much darker films. Alfred Hitchcock who had moved to the United States in 1939 when the bombing of London and worked for David O Selznick. When Hitchcock arrived Selznick was embroiled in gone with the wind.
Hitch specialized in this new style of suspense film or noir films during the film noir era. Hitchcock had great influence over world filmmaking including the French new wave, but became a major auteur who was smart and able to make clever and dark films within the shelter of the studio system. Hitchcock was able to wrest such control from the studios because he was clever, literate, budget conscious and made mostly popular films that pleased audiences. He also knew how to harness the media. He started several mystery magazines that spread the Hitchcock names and brand, and he quickly grasped the power of television and produced his own television program for ten years, making him the most well known film director in the United States.
Hitchcock started his United States tenure with a strong hit film. Rebecca was a popular novel by mystery writer Daphne DuMaurier, starring two young attractive actors, Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine that won the Academy Award for best picture in 1940. Shadow of Doubt in 1942, co-written by Thorton Wilder who had written the stage hit, Our Town. In 1946, Hitchcock paired with Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman for a spy thriller, Notorious. Hitchcock was a dominant force in the fifties creating a string of crime thrillers starting with stage fright in 1950 strangers in a train in 51 rear window in 1952, dial M for murder, the man who knew too much in 1955 the trouble with Harry 1956 Vertigo 1957 the wrong man 1958 North by northwest in 1959, In that ten year era, Hitchcock became America's most subversive filmmaker making films about dark corners of American Society. He toyed with films where corruption might dwell without anyone actually knowing it existed. The high point of Hitchcock's cynical view of America was Psycho, a dark fairy tale of sex, perversion, cross dressing, serial murder, and psychosis. The film takes a simple plot of a thief who is killed by a maniac running a motel and transforms that into a telescoped view of American culture. people for the rest of the film.
What exactly is film noir? It's a French term that means simply dark film or black film. It is marked by a very pessimistic view of the human race. It is a series of mystery and criminal films that were extremely popular in the era when Hollywood was in decline and television was in its ascendancy.
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The first film noir was 1945’s detour by Delmer Davies. The film is fatalistic, pessimistic has a femme fatale, sems almost like a surreal waking nightmare and is cheaply shot in black and white. It has many of the qualities of noir. The hero of the film, Al, is a vet from World War Two playing piano in a seedy bar with his girlfriend who wants to move west. When she decides to go to Los Angeles to become successful he follows her to Los Angeles. He hitchhikes and is a picked up by a guy named Haskell. But Al is waylaid by a series of events that destroy his happiness. He takes over driving for Haskell who falls asleep. At a stop, Al finds out Haskell has died. He meets a woman that needs a ride at a truck stop. Her name is Vera. She recognizes the car and tells Al , she knows he stole the car because she caught a ride with Haskell in that same car the day before. She coaxes Al to take her to LA and to help her with criminal acts. Al, trapped takes her to Los Angeles. She immediately gets drunk and threatens to call the police on Al. He tries to grab the phone cord from her. Sher runs to another room. Al tries to pull the phone cord from her. In her drunken state she wraps the cord around her neck. Unknown to Al, his pulling on the cord strangles Vera. At a truck stop Al is picked up by the police, assuming fate wants him dead. Fate, bad women and bad luck conspire to make this a classic noirish story.
Some qulaities of noir? There is the antihero protagonist who has either done something wrong or is a victim of fate. He can’t win no matter what. This kind of hero would be Humphrey Bogart in High Sierra where he is a criminal in a cabin up in the woods surrounded by the police with no way to escape. He wants to bring money to his girl so that she can have money to live.
In many film noirs there is an evil lying woman. In 1964’s remake of Earnest Hemingway’s The Killers there is Angie Dickenson who pretends to be in love with John Cassavettes to trick him into helping her and her boyfriend (Ronald Reagan) steal money. In the end, the killer (Lee Marvin) tracks the money to the girl. She proclaims, “I had nothing to do with it, it was all his (the boyfriend’s) idea. Marvin, who has been shot by Reagan and is dying and doesn’t believe her says, “lady I don’t have the time,” and shoots her. This is a common fate for a film noir heroine. These are usually women of low morality who are only interested in using men to get what they want and eventually these women destroy men.
Another aspect of film noir is schematic plotting that provides a template to the crimes and themes. Because many noirs were shot on the cheap a hallmark became dark simple and atmospheric lighting where low key dark scenes are infused with high contrast darks and lights. Shadows, fog, mist and rain made up for extensive sets. film makers didn't have enough money for complex sets so elements might be shrouded in black and white to keep people from seeing poor sets. Noir featured the war and war characters and often a theme was post war disillusionment. Many of the characters in film noir had fought in the war and believed they would come home to glory and good jobs, and what they found after the war was 4Fs (disqualified for fighting because of a disability) had found the best jobs and vets were left with minimal employment. Noirs also are peppered with characters with psychological angst and fear, much of it promoted by years in the military. In their world things were not fair and their psyches were damaged by the abuses of war and seeing the excessive violence. There is little sense that anyone will be successful in such films.
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For example in dial M for Murder, the husband is in deep financial trouble and wants to murder his wealthy wife. He hires a man to it. The killer attempts to kill her, but bungles the job and dies in the process. Hitchcock can’t avoid a joke When the husband calls and to his surprise has his wife answer. She cries, “someone tried to kill me.” The husband’s response is, “did he get away?” The darkly comical aspects of noir make the films amusing even if the subject matter is dark.
Film noirs were sociological dealing issues of social justice. In the Third Man, Harry Lime is a black marketeer giving people what they want. His dilemma is that criminality is what society needs to get products they want. Is he really a criminal? In Detour Al is just trying to get to his girlfriend and fate seems out to derail him. In th Asphalt Jungle the robbers don’t mean to hurt anyone and planned well but a security guard gets in their way, and his inconvenient death ruins their plans. In Crossfire, a group of servicemen are implicated in killing a Jewish man. Is it rage or anti-semitcism driving the men to murder?
Probably one of the earliest examples of noir was John Houston’s The Maltese Falcon in 1941. This film based on a Dashiell Hammett novel tells the story of detective Sam Spade who meets a woman and a series of criminals all trying to get Spade to help them locate a fabled valuable Maltese Falcon. The Falcon is supposedly a black bird covering a priceless gold statue. They killed Spade’s partner Archer to get the bird. The complicated plot indicates that virtually everyone is lying to Spade, and even Spade indulges in a little play acting with the criminals. By the end of the film Spade wants the object gone, so that the murder and larceny surrounding the object stops. In the end we discover that the Falcon is just a cheap statue covered in black paint. When all are arrested and all is revealed, the police famously ask Spade, ‘what is it?’ Bogart famously responds, ‘it's the stuff that dreams are made of.’ Though pre-noir in time period, Falcon has the Noir viewpoint of fatalism, deception and a pessimisitic view of human nature.
Another noir from 1944 was Laura where a detective investigates the murder of a beautiful but evil femme fatale named Laura. There’s a series of men who think she loved them, but we learn she was willful calculating and used everyone. This film focuses on the massive mistrust of women, probably a response to world war two and the growing power of women in the marketplace. Many men returned from the war to find women taking their jobs. This fueled resentment of women. The film in a way is about misogyny, but the lying and deception suggest a culture of criminal intent and suspicion.
In The blue dahlia from 1946 starring Alan Ladd and Veronica lake, and a sailor comes back from the war and discovers that his wife has been unfaithful and that his child has died due to his wife's alcoholism. Again the film critiques relationships, faith and American institutions like marriage. Again many men returned from the war to find their wives remarried.
Orson Welles enjoyed the genre as an actor and director and appeared in Carol Reed’s disturbing tale of black markets and smugglers in post war Germany, The Third Man. The character of Harry Lime was a bad black marketeer in the era of shortages and starvation in post war Germany. Someone has killed him and a reporter played by Joseph Cotton and the forces of interpol are investigating the death and black markets in late forties Berlin. Suddenly out of nowhere Lime appears, alive but haunted and
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hunted by various forces from the western authorities, the organized post war European mob and the communist authorities. It seems Lime has crossed everyone and now he is wanted and on the run. The film suggests the world is infested with criminal conspiracies, shady characters, and corrupt officials. There is no way to hide or to prevail in this seedy and dangerous time period.
Film noirs continued and in 1958 one of the last of the film noirs was Orson Welles famous film touch of evil in which a corrupt policeman Hank Quinlan is utilizing his corrupt police force to make money from people at the border of Mexico and the United States. The film depends on the idea that this interstitial world between two clear places with clear laws is the most dangerous borderland on earth. There is also the idea that borders are liminal places where new systems can be viewed and new ways of the seeing world can be visited. Unfortunately Quinlin’s little dictatorship of his piece of the world is a dangerous place.
But film noir's don't really end in 1960. The last noir may have been Touch of Evil or Hitchcock’s Psycho but many film noirs existed into the later decades of the twentieth century. Revamped noir of the late century was dubbed neo-noir incorporating younger players, more tech, and corruption of bad government and bad corporations added to the mix of noir topics. Perhaps starting with films like body heat (1980) with William Hurt and Kathleen Turner about a woman that hires a man to kill her husband. Lust and money make a bad mix. David Lynch’s Blue velvet in 1987 starring Kyle McLaughlin, Isabella Rossellini and Laura Dern dealt with criminal conspiracies in small town America. Quentin Tarantino’s films including Pulp Fiction reservoir dogs, true romance, and kill bill all feature rotten underbellies of society and a strong and thriving criminal element. Noir is still thriving in feature films, television melodramas and popular police dramas.
Terms
Film Noir: noir was a style of film produced from 1945-60 that focused on criminal activity, fatalism, femme fatales, and interacted with mystery and suspense films. Femme Fatale: A French term describing women of low moral character who bring noir heroes to ruin.
Films:
Houston, John. “The Maltese Falcon.” (1941)
Hitchcock, Alfred. “Psycho.” (1960)
Welles, Orson. “Touch of Evil (1958)
Readings:
Kushins, Jordan. “A Brief History of Sound in Cinema.” https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/movies/a19566/a-brief-history-of-sound-in- cinema/
Filmsfatale. “Sound History in Film: Early Recording.” https://www.filmsfatale.com/blog/2020/5/26/sound-history-in-film-early-recording
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Cinema 14
Italian neo realism
Italian neorealism was a style connected to the working classes of Italy. It was characterized by realistic storylines in sharp contrast to contrived American melodrama. The lighting was harsh and the filming was mostly in black and white. Italy was a poor country after the war and these films reflected the country’s lack of resources. The acting style was vibrant and denoted reactions taken in a single take. These were films that clearly described post war life in style of film characterized by stories set amongst the poor and working class. These films were made largely outdoors Many described conditions in Italy immediately after the war.
Italy was in very difficult position following the war. The country spent half the war as an ally of the axis powers until dictator Mussolini. When things went bad in the war, a mob dragged Mussolini out and killed him, and the new government embraced the allies and the war against Hitler. The allies didn’t know what to do with Italy following the war, and the country had trouble establishing a stable government, law and order and a civil code of behavior.
Neorealism has certain tendencies. (1) Harsh lighting and intense black and white filming. (2) Naturalistic stories relayed the plight of real people, mostly working class types. (3) The films dealt with the tragedy and aftermath of the world war. (4) Strong women dominated these films. (5) The films embraced a harsh and naturalistic realism with Italy’s national pain and character featured prominently. (6) The film were usually filmed on location, frequently using nonprofessional actors. (7) Italians in this period were emotionally scarred by the war and psychologically the films show desperate and depressed people.
Prior to neorealism, there was a period of glossy conventional melodramas that were not very political or related to real life conditions of Italians. This was Mussolini’s answer to the world situation. Turn it off and treat reality as if it does not exist. Mussolini did not want films that questioned reality or social or political ideas. The war and economic hardship in Italy set the stage for social realism in films following the war. Italian Epics: Rome Open City, The Bicycle Thiefs, LaStrada
Roberto Rossellini’s Rome Open City is a harsh tragedy of Rome’s occupation by German troops at the end of the war when the Germans were being driven out of Western European strongholds. The film depicts a freedom fighter working with the underground to undermine the German occupation. Pina, a widow raising a son and
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seeking a new relationship with Francisco, a young idealist committed to the freedom fighters and the underground. The priest who supports the underground freedom fighters but must pretend neutrality to keep the church from being crushed and to be a guide to the young boys who need moral guidance.
Rossellini tests each character in the crucible of German rule. The Germans are near the end of their reign in Europe and are desperate and merciless in trying to put down the people and their rebellion. They buy off weak coutesians with whiskey and nylons. Most scenes are shot on the actual streets of Rome and many parts of the city were still occupied by German troops when the film was shot. Rossellini was greeted as a patriot and hero for his filming.
Rossellini films most scenes in intense and disturbing closeups bringing the audience into the action. When pina (Anna Magnana) learns her boyfriend Francseco has been picked up by the German police she tries to rescue him and is shot dead by the Germans. When the Germans find the freedom fighter they torture him for hours. Rossellini lingers over the details and shows the torture scenes in detail and focuses on. A blow torch and the face of the dying man. Finally when the priest sees his dead body he cracks and berates the germans. They take him to a field to shoot him but the Italian troops are afraid to kill a priest and shoot at the ground.
The film brutally describes German repression and its intense graphic black and white cinematography evokes the reality of the desperate Italian people, The film was judged a landmark example of a new Italian cinema
Ladri di biciclette (1948)
Victorio De Sica’s 1948 realist work The Bicycle Thieves portrays a young boy and his indigent father who are reduced to stealing bicycles for a living. De Sica uses on the street realism shooting in the dank and burned out ruins of war torn Italy. The actors are mostly real people and non professional actors.
The story is a mythic quest where a father and son hunt for a bicycle. It is a rough parody of the grail quest because for the duo the bicycle means everything. The father needs the bicycle to go to work everyday to hang posters on the walls. Without it he cannot work, he cannot earn money and he cannot provide for his son. The son is faithful and wants his father to succeed. The father hunt fruitlessly through the decimated streets of rome in vain for his stolen bicycle. Not only do they want the bicycle back they want to stop the thieves who are ruining people’s lives. The fruitless search adds to the desperation of the search and the ravaged city landscape makes the film look like some sort of post-apocalyptic fantasy only this time the apocalypse is real.
De Sica obtains beautiful blended performances from the non-professional actors playing boy and father. To add to the metaphor of a journey or a quest the bike company is called Fides (faith in English). The boy and man are in some way on a sacred quest. While there is a theme of social isolation and loneliness amongst the suffering Romans, the film is larger than a simple social tract. These characters are waging war against divine forces. By the film’s end the father is reduced to stealing a bicycle, but again his transgression is almost like a Greek fable and his fall has the sense of a tragic descent through loss of faith. The Bicycle Thieves is a tragic ride through the depths of post war depression and portrays a descent of common people into a mythic underworld.
La Strada (1954)
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Fellini practiced a form of realism that was offset by his interest in surrealism and fantasy. Fellini was a screenwriter for Roberto Rossellini and began directing in the early fifties often from his own scripts. In 1954 he developed a script about the circus and characters existing in that world. He cast his wife, Giuletta Masina and cast her as a young orphaned silent comedian. She meets a new recruit, a circus strong man, Zampano, played by Anthony Quinn. The pair strike up a partnership and the exotic world of the circus and its freaks and eccentric personalities counter the hard life of the performers living on the road.
Unlike De Sica and Rossellini’s neo realism, Fellini’s scenario is tinged with a tenderness of youth and remembrance. Fellin worked hard and long on the film arriving at a nervous breakdown. Many attacked the film but it has arrived as one of the greatest films of the century, and Masina’s performance as the winsome Gelsimona. Her adventures with ampano become more depressing as Zampano proves to be a soulness and cruel partner. Eventually, Zampano kills a man and abandons Gelsimona. He later learns the sad clown girl died.
The film reflects Italian society on the run and disoriented searching for a direction. The film also has an atmospheric character that is a mixture of realistic characters in a raw and joyless life, but it is also a mythic film about two characters that are like Narcissus and Echo. Zampano only is out for himself and wants to be the star. He is a Narcissus character. Gelsimona is his echo and reflection. Her departure and death becomes the destruction of Zampano.
Terms
Neo-realism: Neo realism erupted after World War two as an Italian style that wanted to proclaim the truth about the world. The cinematography was glaring black and white and the actors practiced a serious form of direct confrontational acting and strong realistic storylines with actors often improving dialogue.
Surrealism; A form of film derived from surrealist theories that posts the strange and unusual particularly as various dream or psychological states.
Films:
Rossellini, Roberto. “Rome, Open City.” (1945)
De Sica. “The Bicycle Thieves.” (1948)
Felini, Federico. “La Strada.” (1954)
Readings:
Kushins, Jordan. “A Brief History of Sound in Cinema.” https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/movies/a19566/a-brief-history-of-sound-in- cinema/
Filmsfatale. “Sound History in Film: Early Recording.” https://www.filmsfatale.com/blog/2020/5/26/sound-history-in-film-early-recording
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15 cinema
Bergman and Swedish film
Ingmar Bergman was one of the great directors of the twentieth century. He could be dark and morbid but was often simply stark and revealing. Bergman did not suffer from the Italian need for grim neorealism and often peppered his films with lonings for the infinite and the cosmic. His films were known for slow editing, long takes and slow moving narratives. Much of the understanding of Bergman may be wrong because Bergman liked comedy, humor irony and had a mixed view of people. He did not think that people always behaved well, but he also did not succumb to a pessimism, that the species of mankind was doomed due to our many flaws. Mostly, bergman appears as a philosopher looking out at the universe and seeking evidence of god and dinvine inspiration but finding little evidence of that. His films were widely seen in his own country, in Europe and had a strong following in the United States. Many American and world directors were strongly influenced by his technique and style and though his slow evolving narratives might run counter to Americans’ need for pace and action, there is something of his contemplative spirit lurking the best moments of Woody Allen, Francis Ford Coppola, Terrance Malick, Martin Scorsese and David Lynch’s work. More importantly, Bwrgman was a diverse and complicated director with vast and major periods of film work and intelligent progressions in his work and view of the world. Bergman, Scandal and Summer with Monika (1952)
Bergman was considered an ultra serious and ultra cerebral filmmaker but his career started with skin flicks and attacks on his immoral filmmaking. At the end of World War two the big studios started a long decline and American having tasted war and violence and poverty during the thirties and the forties wanted more graphic entertainment. New theatres opene,d the studios were divested of their theatres and art theatres began to proliferate across the country. Many showed foreign films and this broke the American studios strangle hold on film production. German, French, Japanese, Italian and the films of foreign nations began to flood the market. Low brow exhibitors and distributors were looking for the next big wave in entertainment and they would buy and distribute films they through might appeal to diverse audiences with diverse tastes. Distributors bought films for driveins for the youth market. Motorcycle films, horror films and science fiction were popular with that crowd. The art houses liked more cerebral brainy thoughtful European and Asian films. But there was also a big demand for skin flicks, early films from the mid century that had more nude scenes and more fleshy sex scenes, long prohibited in American cinema by The Hollywood
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Production code. Enter struggling young Swedish director, Ingmar Bergman. He had finished a romance film entitled Summer with monika starring two handsome young Swedish actors, Harriet Andersson and Lars Ekborg.The story was.a simple tale of a young couple, Harry and Monika who meet and fall in love. They take a relative’s boat up to Stockholm and spend a romantic summer on the water romancing, dancing, making love and idling away the time. The film showed fleeting scenes of nudity and depicted a socialized society where hard work and labor intensive life was uncommon. The socialist images and the notion of free loving youth upset conservative groups and the nude scenes were horrifying to church and the conservative community. By the end of the film the couple’ relationship fractures, headstrong Monika is having affairs, her husband, Harry, slaps her and she departs for greener pastures. Harry takes the child to have it christen and soldiers on as a single father still remembering the vivacious Monika. The story was simple and the characters mostly naïve and tender. However, when American distributors realized the film had sex and nudity they immediately booked the film into art houses in the US in 1955 and Bergman became an overnight sensation. Monika was an examination of youth, morality, failed marriages and more of critique of Swedish life than a validation of free love, but Monika generated a strong buzz about Bergman and his work.
Bergman’s technique was (1) crystal clear shots in stark black and white film. (2) His use of editing was long shots with a stationary camera in which the characters acted out and emoted within the frame largely still and immobile but generating emotions in a small field. (3) Scenarios were simple and (4) the characters usually underplayed and portrayed subtle emotions. This style befitted the natural demeanor of Swedish people who are generally warm and generous but not terribly demonstrative. Swedish people do not touch profusely, they don’t hug and embrace, and they don’t show outward fury or extreme emotion. It is a matter of their nation al character. Bergman’s films resepcted that tradition and shot people in that manner. (5) the films focused on thoughts and ideas that may be best reflected in contemplative expressions on the characters’ faces. (6) Action, when it arises, and it does arise infrequently but powerfully is often swift and decisive. In Bergman films aren’t normally brutally physical but when they are the effort is powerful. (7) Bergman’s films often arrive at some fundamental philosophical point or issue that the film is trying to suggest or interrogate.
Seventh Seal
While Bergman was accused of pornography with his Monika his following films revealed a far more introspective persona. In Smiles of a Summer night in 1956, Bergman created a comedy loosely based on Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream where four couple try to work out their romantic woes. In Sweden people to often stay awake during rhe Summer solstice, the shortest night of the year and it is often a time for retreats and re-evalution of life. The film was the source material for Sondheim’s 1973 A Little Night Music and Woody Allen’s A Midsummer Night’s Sex Comedy (1982). However it was his next film that would establish Bergman’s reputation of as stoic, philosophical and deep. In The Seventh Seal, Bergman discusses bands of people traveling during the middle ages during the time of the Black Death, a horrible disease spread by rats, the Bubonic Plague. Max Von Sydow, an actor that would be bergman’s favorite performer for a decade plays a knight returning to Europe from the crusades. He is stalked by a black figure along the coast of Sweden who calls himself
82
death and is the incarnation of mortality. With some humor the knight offers to paly chess with death to avoid going with him. Here starts a titanic debate about life and death and Bergman delves into where death stands in our lives. Is death a constant presence or simply a one time visitor. Can death be avoided or must pain and anxiety exist side by side with death. In contrast to the dark debate Bergman introduces to a young travelling family of players including an actor father and mother who carry their children in a cart across the land. While many of the characters worry and bemoan their fate and live in fear of death, the players act to live and for the most part give a joyous and loving sense to their life and existence. The knight is impressed by their philosophy and attitude and considering his life mostly over, he toys with death just long enough to make sure the family of players departs and evades death’s clutches. Seventh Seal was hailed as a European breakthrough about life, human dignity and existential dilemmas. From 1957 on Bergman’s films were enshrined in a glowing reverence that has never diminished and grown only stronger over time. He sought other complex and thorny issues. He tackled psychoanalysis and psychiatric issues. He dealt with gult and contrition over a life time. He described the use of artifice and illusion in the theatrical art. He explored duty and obligation in marriage. He played with ideas about memory and family. He explored marriages and long term relationships and obligtions of people to their family and society.
Virgin Spring
Even Bergman was emboldened by his reception abroad and sought to tackle
more varied and complex issues in his films. Many of his films held complex metaphors and one of the best was 1960’s Oscar winner for best foreign language film, The Virgin spring. In this short (90 minute) and powerful exploration of crime, guilt, expiation, revenge,religion, and forgiveness Bergman provides a lens for society. In the film set again in the middle ages, a prosperous famer sends his daughter, Karin, to deliver candles to the church,. Parents Tore and Maretta the girl alone may come to harm but they send their pregnant and unwed servant girl, Ingeri along to protect Karin. Alonfg the way the young teenager Karin encounters three seedy travelers. The three men ask her to stop and lunch with them. Karin innocently sits with them and even shres her food. Suddenly she realizes their lusty intent and become frightened and tries to flee. Ingeri, who has lagged behind watches all from a distance but does not become involved to help or harm. The men surround Karin rap her and one hits her over the head killing the girl. Three rapist/thieves leaveher body by a stream and the youngest, merely a little boy along for the travel tries vainly to bury the girl. The three arrive by accident at tore maretta house and beg for shelter. One of the murderers not realizing he is in the house of the girl he has killed offers to sell Karin’s cloak to the mother. The mother prophetically says, “I will speak to the master and see what reward should be paid for such a precious garment.’ She runs to her husband fearing the men have harmed her daughter. Tore undergoes a long night ritual of clensing and scourging his body to take revenge. He bathes in hot water, questions the returned servant girl Ingire and beats his flesh with a birch branch. At first light he withdraws his sword from the crusades and enters the chamber where the three men sleep and murders them all by hand, with sword to the heart, crushing one in wresting in the fire and breaking the little boy b throwing him into a wall and killing him. It is a brutal and powerful act of vengeance. At last Tore and Maretta find the body of Karin and at the stream where she
83
died. Tore not understanding how god could have allowed such an act of violence, he cries to the heavens saying, ‘god I don’t understand you. They life Karin’s head to g=begin the burial process. A stream of fresh water flows where her head laid and the parents take it as a sign from heaven. Tore promises to build a church where his daughter has tied and in some strange way the family achieves some peace with god over the tragedy of their daughter’s death.
Bergman’s films often deal with mythic issues and here the girl Karin’s grail quest ends tragically. Her death invokes rights of revenge and more canage but he result is a deeper understanding of god and a new covenant borne from the conviction that god does not sanction the actions of the wicked but that human action is needed to restore the balance of life. Some have seen Virgin Spring as a metaphor for the senseless carnage of the second world war and the harsh justice of the allies to clean the slate and start Europe anew. In many regards the stark scenes of Virgin spring are some of Bergman’s finest images. When tor learns the men have killed his daughter he goes to a windy plain and wrestles a lone birth tree to the ground causing it to bend and break. Hen he takes his sword to hack its limbs. It is a grand visual statement of Tore’s emotion wrestling with god and divine will. It stands as one of the great symbols of modern European film.
Bergman produced over 50 films and television productions during his 35 year career as a film director. After 1985 he retired from film and spent the next ten years as the national director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre of Stockholm, the Swedish national theatre creating classic productions of new and classic dramas. During his life, Bergman was one of the most revered directors in the world both in theatre and film.
Terms
Swedish style: The form of Swedish film is nearly impossible to separate from Bergman’s style. Bergman’s sharp camera work first fro m Gunnar Fischer and later by Sven Nyquest was praised and imitated by nearly all directors across the globe. Bergman’s long takes, complicated philosophical positions and serious approach to subjects were a part of the Swedish tradition. Similarly there is great tenderness and humor in all of Bergman’s works.
Films:
Bergman, Ingar. “Summer with monika” (1952)
Bergman, Ingar. “Seventh Seal” (1957)
Bergman, Ingar. “Virgin Spring.” (1960)
Readings:
Wexler Center for the arts. “Bergman at 100.” https://wexarts.org/film-video/ingmar-bergman- 100?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI3bmMkOuO9QIVi8mGCh35CQHDEAAYASAAEgIxo_D_BwE The Bergman Center in Sweden.
https://www.bergmancenter.se/in-english- 2/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI3bmMkOuO9QIVi8mGCh35CQHDEAAYAyAAEgJ4nfD_BwE Love, Anthony. “The immortal World of Ingmar Bergman.” New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-immortal-world-of-ingmar-bergman
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15 cinema
Bergman and Swedish film
Ingmar Bergman was one of the great directors of the twentieth century. He could be dark and morbid but was often simply stark and revealing. Bergman did not suffer from the Italian need for grim neorealism and often peppered his films with lonings for the infinite and the cosmic. His films were known for slow editing, long takes and slow moving narratives. Much of the understanding of Bergman may be wrong because Bergman liked comedy, humor irony and had a mixed view of people. He did not think that people always behaved well, but he also did not succumb to a pessimism, that the species of mankind was doomed due to our many flaws. Mostly, bergman appears as a philosopher looking out at the universe and seeking evidence of god and dinvine inspiration but finding little evidence of that. His films were widely seen in his own country, in Europe and had a strong following in the United States. Many American and world directors were strongly influenced by his technique and style and though his slow evolving narratives might run counter to Americans’ need for pace and action, there is something of his contemplative spirit lurking the best moments of Woody Allen, Francis Ford Coppola, Terrance Malick, Martin Scorsese and David Lynch’s work. More importantly, Bwrgman was a diverse and complicated director with vast and major periods of film work and intelligent progressions in his work and view of the world. Bergman, Scandal and Summer with Monika (1952)
Bergman was considered an ultra serious and ultra cerebral filmmaker but his career started with skin flicks and attacks on his immoral filmmaking. At the end of World War two the big studios started a long decline and American having tasted war and violence and poverty during the thirties and the forties wanted more graphic entertainment. New theatres opene,d the studios were divested of their theatres and art theatres began to proliferate across the country. Many showed foreign films and this broke the American studios strangle hold on film production. German, French, Japanese, Italian and the films of foreign nations began to flood the market. Low brow exhibitors and distributors were looking for the next big wave in entertainment and they would buy and distribute films they through might appeal to diverse audiences with diverse tastes. Distributors bought films for driveins for the youth market. Motorcycle films, horror films and science fiction were popular with that crowd. The art houses liked more cerebral brainy thoughtful European and Asian films. But there was also a big demand for skin flicks, early films from the mid century that had more nude scenes and more fleshy sex scenes, long prohibited in American cinema by The Hollywood Production code. Enter struggling young Swedish director, Ingmar Bergman. He had
85
finished a romance film entitled Summer with monika starring two handsome young Swedish actors, Harriet Andersson and Lars Ekborg.The story was.a simple tale of a young couple, Harry and Monika who meet and fall in love. They take a relative’s boat up to Stockholm and spend a romantic summer on the water romancing, dancing, making love and idling away the time. The film showed fleeting scenes of nudity and depicted a socialized society where hard work and labor intensive life was uncommon. The socialist images and the notion of free loving youth upset conservative groups and the nude scenes were horrifying to church and the conservative community. By the end of the film the couple’ relationship fractures, headstrong Monika is having affairs, her husband, Harry, slaps her and she departs for greener pastures. Harry takes the child to have it christen and soldiers on as a single father still remembering the vivacious Monika. The story was simple and the characters mostly naïve and tender. However, when American distributors realized the film had sex and nudity they immediately booked the film into art houses in the US in 1955 and Bergman became an overnight sensation. Monika was an examination of youth, morality, failed marriages and more of critique of Swedish life than a validation of free love, but Monika generated a strong buzz about Bergman and his work.
Bergman’s technique was (1) crystal clear shots in stark black and white film. (2) His use of editing was long shots with a stationary camera in which the characters acted out and emoted within the frame largely still and immobile but generating emotions in a small field. (3) Scenarios were simple and (4) the characters usually underplayed and portrayed subtle emotions. This style befitted the natural demeanor of Swedish people who are generally warm and generous but not terribly demonstrative. Swedish people do not touch profusely, they don’t hug and embrace, and they don’t show outward fury or extreme emotion. It is a matter of their nation al character. Bergman’s films resepcted that tradition and shot people in that manner. (5) the films focused on thoughts and ideas that may be best reflected in contemplative expressions on the characters’ faces. (6) Action, when it arises, and it does arise infrequently but powerfully is often swift and decisive. In Bergman films aren’t normally brutally physical but when they are the effort is powerful. (7) Bergman’s films often arrive at some fundamental philosophical point or issue that the film is trying to suggest or interrogate.
Seventh Seal
While Bergman was accused of pornography with his Monika his following films revealed a far more introspective persona. In Smiles of a Summer night in 1956, Bergman created a comedy loosely based on Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream where four couple try to work out their romantic woes. In Sweden people to often stay awake during rhe Summer solstice, the shortest night of the year and it is often a time for retreats and re-evalution of life. The film was the source material for Sondheim’s 1973 A Little Night Music and Woody Allen’s A Midsummer Night’s Sex Comedy (1982). However it was his next film that would establish Bergman’s reputation of as stoic, philosophical and deep. In The Seventh Seal, Bergman discusses bands of people traveling during the middle ages during the time of the Black Death, a horrible disease spread by rats, the Bubonic Plague. Max Von Sydow, an actor that would be bergman’s favorite performer for a decade plays a knight returning to Europe from the crusades. He is stalked by a black figure along the coast of Sweden who calls himself death and is the incarnation of mortality. With some humor the knight offers to paly
86
chess with death to avoid going with him. Here starts a titanic debate about life and death and Bergman delves into where death stands in our lives. Is death a constant presence or simply a one time visitor. Can death be avoided or must pain and anxiety exist side by side with death. In contrast to the dark debate Bergman introduces to a young travelling family of players including an actor father and mother who carry their children in a cart across the land. While many of the characters worry and bemoan their fate and live in fear of death, the players act to live and for the most part give a joyous and loving sense to their life and existence. The knight is impressed by their philosophy and attitude and considering his life mostly over, he toys with death just long enough to make sure the family of players departs and evades death’s clutches. Seventh Seal was hailed as a European breakthrough about life, human dignity and existential dilemmas. From 1957 on Bergman’s films were enshrined in a glowing reverence that has never diminished and grown only stronger over time. He sought other complex and thorny issues. He tackled psychoanalysis and psychiatric issues. He dealt with gult and contrition over a life time. He described the use of artifice and illusion in the theatrical art. He explored duty and obligation in marriage. He played with ideas about memory and family. He explored marriages and long term relationships and obligtions of people to their family and society.
Virgin Spring
Even Bergman was emboldened by his reception abroad and sought to tackle
more varied and complex issues in his films. Many of his films held complex metaphors and one of the best was 1960’s Oscar winner for best foreign language film, The Virgin spring. In this short (90 minute) and powerful exploration of crime, guilt, expiation, revenge,religion, and forgiveness Bergman provides a lens for society. In the film set again in the middle ages, a prosperous famer sends his daughter, Karin, to deliver candles to the church,. Parents Tore and Maretta the girl alone may come to harm but they send their pregnant and unwed servant girl, Ingeri along to protect Karin. Alonfg the way the young teenager Karin encounters three seedy travelers. The three men ask her to stop and lunch with them. Karin innocently sits with them and even shres her food. Suddenly she realizes their lusty intent and become frightened and tries to flee. Ingeri, who has lagged behind watches all from a distance but does not become involved to help or harm. The men surround Karin rap her and one hits her over the head killing the girl. Three rapist/thieves leaveher body by a stream and the youngest, merely a little boy along for the travel tries vainly to bury the girl. The three arrive by accident at tore maretta house and beg for shelter. One of the murderers not realizing he is in the house of the girl he has killed offers to sell Karin’s cloak to the mother. The mother prophetically says, “I will speak to the master and see what reward should be paid for such a precious garment.’ She runs to her husband fearing the men have harmed her daughter. Tore undergoes a long night ritual of clensing and scourging his body to take revenge. He bathes in hot water, questions the returned servant girl Ingire and beats his flesh with a birch branch. At first light he withdraws his sword from the crusades and enters the chamber where the three men sleep and murders them all by hand, with sword to the heart, crushing one in wresting in the fire and breaking the little boy b throwing him into a wall and killing him. It is a brutal and powerful act of vengeance. At last Tore and Maretta find the body of Karin and at the stream where she died. Tore not understanding how god could have allowed such an act of violence, he
87
cries to the heavens saying, ‘god I don’t understand you. They life Karin’s head to g=begin the burial process. A stream of fresh water flows where her head laid and the parents take it as a sign from heaven. Tore promises to build a church where his daughter has tied and in some strange way the family achieves some peace with god over the tragedy of their daughter’s death.
Bergman’s films often deal with mythic issues and here the girl Karin’s grail quest ends tragically. Her death invokes rights of revenge and more canage but he result is a deeper understanding of god and a new covenant borne from the conviction that god does not sanction the actions of the wicked but that human action is needed to restore the balance of life. Some have seen Virgin Spring as a metaphor for the senseless carnage of the second world war and the harsh justice of the allies to clean the slate and start Europe anew. In many regards the stark scenes of Virgin spring are some of Bergman’s finest images. When tor learns the men have killed his daughter he goes to a windy plain and wrestles a lone birth tree to the ground causing it to bend and break. Hen he takes his sword to hack its limbs. It is a grand visual statement of Tore’s emotion wrestling with god and divine will. It stands as one of the great symbols of modern European film.
Bergman produced over 50 films and television productions during his 35 year career as a film director. After 1985 he retired from film and spent the next ten years as the national director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre of Stockholm, the Swedish national theatre creating classic productions of new and classic dramas. During his life, Bergman was one of the most revered directors in the world both in theatre and film.
Terms
Swedish style: The form of Swedish film is nearly impossible to separate from Bergman’s style. Bergman’s sharp camera work first fro m Gunnar Fischer and later by Sven Nyquest was praised and imitated by nearly all directors across the globe. Bergman’s long takes, complicated philosophical positions and serious approach to subjects were a part of the Swedish tradition. Similarly there is great tenderness and humor in all of Bergman’s works.
Films:
Bergman, Ingar. “Summer with monika” (1952)
Bergman, Ingar. “Seventh Seal” (1957)
Bergman, Ingar. “Virgin Spring.” (1960)
Readings:
Wexler Center for the arts. “Bergman at 100.” https://wexarts.org/film-video/ingmar-bergman- 100?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI3bmMkOuO9QIVi8mGCh35CQHDEAAYASAAEgIxo_D_BwE The Bergman Center in Sweden.
https://www.bergmancenter.se/in-english- 2/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI3bmMkOuO9QIVi8mGCh35CQHDEAAYAyAAEgJ4nfD_BwE Love, Anthony. “The immortal World of Ingmar Bergman.” New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-immortal-world-of-ingmar-bergman
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Cinema 18 Hitchcock
Alfred Hitchcock was one of the leading film makers of the twentieth century. Born in 1899 and active until 1980, Hitchcock was responsible mostly for suspense mystery films with a Modern sense of humor and a dark pessimistic view of mankind. He was born in England in 1899 and lived the first 40 years of his life in England and then in 1940 when offered an opportunity to direct for David O Selznick at the Selznick studios, moved to the United states in 1940 and continued to work and live in the United States until his death in 1980. He occasionally returned to England and Europe and produced hit films there (Stage Fright, Frenzy), but he became most famous in the United States for a series of mystery and suspense films that he made from 1940 until his death. His earlier British films are also considered classic films, but weren't as widely known in the United States. He attended Saint Ignatius College in of London School of engineering and navigation and worked mostly as an illustrator and attended the University of London briefly studying art.
Hitchcock was interested in in the growing field of filmmaking and initially in the 1920s actually made title cards and was an art director for a number of films. He worked with the Paramount famous Lasky players in London, with German film companies in London, and finally produced films of his own starting with an Anglo German production called The Pleasure Garden in 1925. He learned about many advanced qualities of film technique from UFA (German) studios. As an assistant director, he gained international insight from the combination of German and British methods of film creation. In 1926 he made his one of his earliest thriller films The Lodger, a story concerning Jack the Ripper that was a breakthrough film, and a good example of Hitchcock’s ability to place the audience in the mind of a villain.
Hitchcock’s plot of an innocent protagonist who's falsely accused of a crime and becomes involved in a web of intrigue was a key story line of many Hitchcock films. He also constructed many non-verbal scenes, clever gimmicks, elaborate chases, and concepts that tricked an audience’s perceptions. Hitchcock made the jump to sound film in 1929 with Blackmail the story of a woman who stabs an artist to death, after he attempts to seduce her. Hitchcock emphasizes the moment by really focusing on the knife. In 1930 he makes a film entitled Murder which makes an explicit link between sex and violence which is a theme of many of Hitchcock's films. Hitchcock is often the most Freudian and psychological of directors. In many of his films sex and violence or Eros and thantos are mixed together. In Dial M for Murder the husband rouses his wife from bed to attend her own murder, an act that goes horribly wrong for him. In strangers in a train this occurs when two seemingly conventional men meet and discuss swapping
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murders. In rear window this occurs when James Stewart sends girl friend Grace Kelly into mortal danger in an apartment across the street. in Psycho Hitchcock is always interested in the combination of sex and death and how those ideas come together, particularly when Norman Bates meets Marion Crane and begins to feel attracted to her.
In 1934 Hitchcock scored a big British success with his film the man who knew too much a film that he remade in 1955 with American actors. he makes it a suspense film in which there is also an investigation into family matters and family relationships. At the same time, many of Hitchcock's films are based on chases and usually the chases involved an innocent man who was accused of a crime by some criminal organization or by the police themselves. Hitchcock always had a perverse sense of humor injecting terrors into the lives of ordinary people. Perhaps Hitchcock's most popular film of this early period and the first film that showed complete mastery of the genre is his 1935 film The 39 steps starring Robert Donat and Madeline Carroll. In this film an innocent man is accused of a crime, a woman has been stabbed, and then a man is shot in a Music Hall. The protagonist, Richard Haney must find out why he's been accused of the crime, and why people are chasing him. It turns out that there is a criminal conspiracy, an underworld crime and spy ring, called The 39 steps and as he wanders around England being chased by the police and by the spies, he has to figure out where the spies are located, who the spies are, what kind of spying information they're trying to get out of England, and finally how to outwit them. Of course, this film takes place five years before World War Two erupted and suggested that these spies were German agents who were in England at the time. in 1936 he created secret agent and also sabotage. he worked on suspense films in which the audience knows something and was led to believe something, but the audience has gaps in knowledge about the characters and the situation. In the lady vanishes in 1938 Hitchcock sleekly dealt with the idea of a fast paced witty film that kept the audience guessing about a missing person from the beginning to the end. The plot revolves around a woman on a train that suddenly disappears, and her niece tries to find her and determine her fate. Many Hitchcock films developed around Hitchcock’s concept of the McGuffin, an object, secret or person that the hero and villains desperately need.
In 1939 Hitchcock makes Jamaica inn and then moved to the United states working for selznick producing Rebecca in 1940 both of which were novels by Daphne du marier and both were handsomely produced melodramas, but probably not really much too to Hitchcock's liking. In 1940, he set a new pattern in films directing foreign correspondent. Another spy film this film develops the mature Hitchcock style. In 1941 he tackles Suspicion in which a wife is afraid that her husband is trying to kill her. He is and the film starred big actors Joan Fontaine and a young Cary Grant. Grant’s charm and humor and Hitchcock’s droll plots dovetail nicely and their collaboration is warm and their films successful. In 1943 Hitchcock produces one of his masterworks shadow of doubt which he made with the writer Thornton Wilder who had written the classic American drama, our town. This stage writer crafted a story about Middletown America during the war, but Hitchcock used it as an examination of the corruption below the surface in American culture. The story takes place in a small town in the middle of the war in the middle of the country where the people of a tight knit little community are visited by a big city resident, the character of Uncle Charlie. Charlie’s name sake his niece a young girl idealizes her Uncle Charlie. When they find he is coming to visit they
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are thrilled. But the female Charlie begins to realize that her uncle is not the pleasant older man that she thought he was, but is actually a serial killer who's been killing old women and taking their money, a character known in the press as the Merry Widower, killer. There's a very famous scene in the film in which he talks about older women and describes these fat older women that sit around going to lunch and having beautiful dinners on the money that their husbands made, but they themselves have accomplished nothing and all they do is live in their disgusting houses because they have money. Charlie’s sister smiles and says “well they're alive aren't they?” and Charlie looks at her and grimaces sardonically,”are they?” It's a funny dark film about a murderer and his niece who somehow still cares for her wicked uncle. Hitchcock is really interested in matters of female identity and in notorious in 1946 starring Ingrid Bergman and Cary Grant it's a woman who has been asked to help a federal agent track spies living and working in the United states. She was invited because her family has been accused of being spies themselves. After World War Two Hitchcock did a variety of films that were interesting and experimental including Rope. In Rope, Hitchcock decided that he would make a film in which the length of reels of film would dictate the length of the scenes. A large 35 millimeter panavision camera could carry a reel of film that would last 12 minutes, so Hitchcock composed the entire film out of 12 minute segments in which the actors moved around the stage and conducted their business in 12-minute segments. Rope was also famous because it was the first filming of the Leopold and Loeb case, a very famous criminal case about two young men who murdered another young man because they felt they were superior and they thought they could get away with murder. Hitchcock was really always interested in some debauched idea that he thought would delight an audience.
He played with many ideas from psychoanalysis including in his 1945 film Spellbound starring Gregory Peck and Ingrid Bergman. It was the story of a psychiatrist treating a man with memory loss. Hitchcock incorporated dream sequences designed by Surrealist artist, Salvador Dali. In the 1950s, Hitchcock became even more famous for crime movies as audiences sought pure entertainment following 20 years of war and depression. The period of film noir was enormously popular with audiences ,and in films like strangers on a train in 1951 Hitchcock used humor to get very perverse ideas past censors. The notion of two men swapping murders was disturbing but Hitchcock handled the crazed idea with humor and amusement. Hitchcock’s brand of macabre humor and the strength of the actors and plots made Hitchcock’s lewd and disturbing films popular with audiences. In strangers on a train a tennis player who wants to divorce his wife bumps into a guy on a train and strangers discuss a strange idea for a murderer. Bruno, the stranger, and the man he bumps into, Guy, a professional tennis player discuss the reason why people get caught in murders. Bruno suggests the problem is motive. He suggests that what if two people who didn't know each other meet on the train, and they decided to do each other's murder, then no one could tie them to the murder. The murder goes crisscross. They would perform a murder for each other. Hitchcock makes the unsavory idea fun with animated performances, clever twists, and a great chase sequence. It is still a disturbing film, but a very funny film because one person is talking about the murder and the other person doesn't take the idea of murder very seriously.
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Hitchcock continued during the 1950s to do a series of films about murder. In 1954 he did dial M for murder in which a man tries to kill his wife, unfortunately for him, unsuccessfully. In 1955, in To catch a thief he deals with a thief who has gone out of practice, but is called back into the game, so that he can catch a thief that is using his his style of thievery to steal things. he is being accused of crimes he didn’t commit, so he has to get involved to protect himself. He did a remake in 1955 of The man too Knew too much and the black comedy also in 1955 the trouble with Harry about a dead body that keeps popping up throughout a town.
During this period he had several masterpieces including rear window in 1954 which deals with the idea of voyeurism, or people who gain pleasure from watching things. The story features a photographer who broke a leg and is stuck in a wheel chair. Bored, he is looking out his apartment window and sees a murder and must prove his neighbor is a murderer. He gets his girlfriend to go over and investigate for him and this brings her into jeopardy with the murderer. In 1958 Hitchcock takes on the creepy idea of the myth of of Orpheus and Eurydice. In the myth Orpheus’ wife Eurydice is bit by a snake and dies. He must go to Hades to retrieve her. Hitchcock’s film regarding reviving the dead was entitled, Vertigo, ostensibly the film is about a guy who's afraid of falling. The psychological implications of loss are discussed and the film is clever but audiences stayed away. It was too cerebral for them. Later it became one of Hitchcock's masterpieces of the era dealing with superficial concerns and deeper psychological themes again exploring death and love or thantos or eros. Then in the late 50s he turned his attention to a more wild melodramas including North by Northwest in which he repeats a lot of the ideas that he used in the film Saboteur from the 1940s.
In 1960 he arrives at Psycho, a creepy little horror movie that became the largest grossing film of Hitchcock's career, and he incorporated the beautiful music of Bernard Herrmann making the film more creepy, darker. It tells the strange story of Marion Crane and Norman Bates and the Bates Motel. Next he embarked on a horror film, the birds in 1963, based on an apocalyptic idea of the world’s end. In 1964 he created a film filled with psychological nuisance and compulsion, concerning a psychotic thief entitled Marnie.
Hitchcock finished the sixties with two lesser films, Torn Curtain and Topaz, both of which were created when audiences were not interested in suspense but in music in Swinging London and the Beatles. He returned to England and to form in his last films. Frenzy in 1972 and family plot in 1976 were both entertaining little films using a variety of character actors.
Throughout he dealt with personal themes with specific themes that haunted him. One disturbing theme was that the people more obsessed by love, also sought death. In Vertigo for example as the hero gets closer to the girl, the girl gets closer to committing suicide. In psycho as the girl is trying to get away from all of her troubles she gets mildly interested in Anthony Perkins/Norman Bates at the hotel and this results in her death. in Marnie Sean Connery falls in love with Marnie but he also wants to control her and capture her, to capture her wickedness. In frenzy the villain of the piece likes to strangle women with his necktie. For him seduction and murder are the same. Finally in family plot there is a theme of dopplegangers of two groups that seem to mirror each other. There is a couple of thieves who were involved in thievery, and there is a couple who are criminal investigators who are both mildly dysfunctional but both are
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determined to find the stolen jewels and win the contest of wills. The film is sort of a couple’s dual. Many of Hitchcock films feature the theme of the wrong man wanted for a crime. North By Northwest, The Man Who Knew too Much, The 39 Steps, and Frenzy are all wrong man themed films. For example in vertigo, James Stewart is accused of letting a woman die although that didn’t happened. In North by Northwest Cary Grant is accused of being a spy. He is not. In to catch a thief Cary Grant is accused of a crime he hasn't committed. He must find the actual criminal to acquit himself. In notorious Ingrid Bergman is accused of being a spy or from a family of spies and she has to spy to save her reputation and the reputation of her family. Certain themes reoccur to Hitchcock throughout his career. Sometimes Hitchcock goes into a very dark place sometimes for humor and sometimes, philosophically just to make a statement. In psycho, killing a major character early in the film makes one question his values about the sanctity of human life. By the end of the film we're not really sure that Hitchcock cares much about who gets killed so long as there's a thrill involved. With family plot he seems to have returned to a normalcy after a period of kind of chaotic and violent films. Today Hitchcock is seen as a great technician, using his ability to focus on pivotal incidents and pivotal objects in a film. One of the techniques that Hitchcock used is the mcguffin. The mcguffin was basically a term made up by Hitchcock which meant an object that the characters in the film needed. A mcguffin by itself has no meaning. it didn’t matter what the mcguffin was. It could be a nuclear bomb it could be a secret formula it could be an object it could be a weapon it could be money it could be any number of things, but it was really simply a mechanism for gaining audience attention through the movie. It helped audiences to know what the characters wanted and why they needed that item. Usually if the mcguffin was strong, for example the woman in the Lady Vanishes. Everyone wants to know what happened to the woman. This usually makes the film strong. If the Mcguffin is weak then usually the film is also weakened.
Hitchcock was a trickster playing with audience perceptions. During Psycho, he refused to allow audience members to enter the theater after the film is started to surprise them with the death of the protagonist of the film unveiling the mystery of the murderer. Hitchcock was always interested in technical challenges in his films. He would have long passages in films like Vertigo where there was no dialogue because he wanted the audience to follow the film with their eye. When he used dialogue he liked clever dialogue and witty dialogue so people would have an interest in the characters because they were funny and unusual. He also was wedded to strong leading men whom he enjoyed working with and he would simply cast certain leading men over and over again. He worked with Ray Milland who was in Dial M for murder and appeared in his television show. He liked Joseph Cotton and worked with in a couple of films shadow of doubt and under Capricorn and he also worked with him in The Alfred Hitchcock Presents series. His favorite actors were Cary Grant and James Stewart and he worked with both of them on four films. Towards the end of his career most of the actors he admired had retired and he was constantly in search of new talent. Hitchcock had certain people that were attractive and delivered good performances. He had a stable cast of female leads, beautiful blonde women in the 1940s through the 1960s. He had cast and worked with Ingrid Bergman repeatedly, and
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in the 1950s he worked with Grace Kelly repeatedly and in the 60s he worked several times with Tippi Hedren.
Actually by 1960s it seems that Hitchcock had moved from female actors to working with male actors more. in 1960 he gets a grand performance from Anthony Perkins in psycho, he gets a brilliant performance from Rod Taylor and the birds, he gets a marvelous performance from Sean Connery in Marnie, he gets a so-so performance in 1966 from Paul Newman in in torn curtain, he gets a memorable performance from from John Forsythe in Topaz in 1969, and he gets a amusing performance from Jon Finch in frenzy in 1972 and a series of splendid performances from the cast of his last film family plot in which he's working with William Devane Karen black Bruce Dern and and Barbara Harris.
Terms
Pure cinema: The notion of pure cinema is the combination of image, music and idea that Hitchcock carefully wove together in films to gain the focus of a scene. The shower scene of psycho or the opening scene from strangers on a train or the climactic scene in Rear Window where Stewart watches Grace Kelly in the house in his view all qualify as moments of pure cinema.
McGuffin: A device Hitchcock used. A device in films that kept the audience interest. Usually the object the criminal or the hero is after in a film (a formula, a person, a valuable object, money, a hostage)
Films:
Hitchcock, Alfred: Strangers on a Train (1951)
Hitchcock, Alfred: Dial M For Murder (1954)
Hitchcock, Alfred: Psycho(1960)
Readings:
Ursell, Joe. “The Phenomenal influence of Alfred Hitchcock.” https://www.intofilm.org/news-and-views/articles/hitchcock-feature
Wilson, Bee. “Alfred Hitchcock,from silent film director to inventor of modern horror.” https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jun/15/alfred-hitchcock-inventor-modern-horror
Chapter 19
Post war British Cinema
British society was not interested in fighting in world war two, until Hitler’s aggression made the war inevitable. Prime Minister Chamberlain claimed that England would have peace with Hitler and that the dictator’s demands were reasonable. Like much of Europe, England felt that Germany had been overly penalized after World War one with massive payments and reparations bankrupting the German economy. In essence these drastic tendencies to punish Germany led to the rise of ultra-nationalistic parties like the Nazis who claimed they would restore German national pride. What people did not foresee was this nationalistic trend would lead to the rise of the war mongering genocidal Nazi regime.
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Post War
British film was devastated by the war. Throughout the war from 1940-1945 London was mercilessly bombed and thousands of British people died. Many children and young people were exported out of the city to be safe from the bombing. During air raids people hid in churches, and many badly manufactured bombs (made by slave laborer jews and middle Europeans who hated the Nazis) did not explode on impact and London had the bigger problem of unexploded bombs found throughout the city. Many of these devices have been found buried in buildings to this day.
War effort films
Strong British actors like Lawrence Olivier returned to Britain during the war to make hyper patriotic films like Olivier’s stellar version of Henry V the Shakespeare play of the brave British king who fought the French in the hundred years war between England and France. Such films with color and pageantry showed the brave face of the British people during war time.
David Lean
One of the most astounding directors who trumpeted the British way of life was David Lean who produced films from the forties through the eighties and produced epic entertainment that championed British values and a British world view. His Brief Encounter in 1945 was a story of love between two people during war time.
His Great Expectations from 1946 and Oliver Twist from 1948 valorized the history of British people fighting diversity and poverty. Poverty was a big theme in post war British culture. The farms in England were destroyed and crops and fishing were disrupted, food was scarce and was rationed. In the films Great Expectations and Oliver Twist a poor young man must deal with corruption and adversity in an England where corrupt business interests prevailed. The triumph of pip in GE and Twist in OT was a metaphor for the struggles of the British people in the post war era.
In 1957 Lean scored perhaps his biggest successes with the Oscar winning Bridge on the River Kwai showing the bravery of british soldiers against Japanese oppression in the horrific Japanese work camps (death camps) of the WWII conflict. Lean’s tragic war movie illustrates the values of cooperation and hard work even during war time and the film is an aggressive statement against the futility of war. Another Oscar went to loon time favorite Alex Guinness for his brilliant performance as a British commander, twenty years before he played in star wars.
Another notable triumph was the four-hour epic of the great military hero from Britain, T.E. Lawrence, the English cultural attache who organized the Arab tribes into a unified body to fight the Turks for the British. Lean’s epic dealt with ideas of British racism and how Lawrence overcame both British and Arab prejudices to create a fighting force to help win the first world war. Peter O’Toole became a world famous actor, the 70 millimeter cinematography was lavish, and established a world love of desert scenes and middle eastern peoples and their struggles. Maurice Jarre’s notable score reflected the epic scope of its doomed and magnetic hero, perhaps the greatest English hero of the century.
In 1965, Lean journeyed to the cold reaches of Russia for an epic story set in the Russian revolution, Doctor Zhivago. The film was a love story with a backdrop of war and revolution and the idealistic Doctor Zhivago pitted against a pitiless Communist force.
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Lean’s last film, E.M. Forester’s a A Passage to india was about a woman’s journey to India and her engagement with a people that were held captive by the British for over a century. It is a film that suggests the barriers of prejudice and limits of Englishness in a diverse world. Lean was probably the most powerful of the post war mainstream popular filmmakers.
Post war Comedy
The British Ealing Studio made a variety of funny and significant comedies in the post war period. These films gave rise to a zany form of British comedy. The first British comedy to arrive after the war and become a large popular success was Robert Hammers’ film kind hearts and coronets. This film dealt with a maniacal killer who needed to kill everybody in the family line in order to inherit money. The 1949 film featured an enjoyable lead performance from Alec Guinness who played six different characters in the film including several men and several women. British comedy became an international success. In 1951 Charles Creighton produced the Lavender Hill Mob about a doubty bank teller who plans the perfect robbery. Things go horribly awry a chase ensues and most of the money is lost. Comedy arises from the bungling of the thieves. In the same year, 1951 Alexander McKendrick produced the man in the white suit a social comedy about a tailor that produces a suit that never gets dirty. All the other Tailor’s want to kill him because his suit never needs cleaning. Another entry was 1955’s Alexander MacKendrick film, The Lady Killers where a group of thugs are undone by a smart landlady who realizes they are criminals, and reports them. All of these comedies deal with everyday people navigating absurd situations. Alec Guinness moved from comedy to drama with Lean’s Bridge on the River Kwai and Star Wars became the central figure in Lady Killers, White Suit and Lavender Hill. Another popular figure was Peter Sellers who excelled at multiple roles. In1960’s The Mouse that Roared the Dutchy of Grand Fenwick is a small impoverished country that decides to wage war against the US to obtain war reparations since the US is famous for helping countries it defeats in war. The US of course refuses to fight a poor defenseless country and surrenders which makes things more complicated. It is an absurd farce and Sellars plays multiple male and female characters. It is a cold war comedy with a subtext in world politics and seeks to top Guiness’ achievement playing multiple characters a decade earlier.
British Horror
In the 1950s the small Hammer studios began a series of horror films that were based on the same mythology that has launched universal studios in the twenties and thirties. None of the characters in Universals court were copyrighted because they were taken from books and articles pre-twentieth century in the public domain. They reinvented the universal monsters in gory technicolor with less campy direction, improved special effects and atmospheric noirish settings. The cycle began with 1957’s Horror of Dracula and 1955’s Curse of Frankenstein. These films were immediately massive hits domestically and in the States. Though they took the same characters from the Universal films and they added Technicolor more blood and beautiful women. The characters were more contemporary and England lacked the American production code so the relationship to Eros and Thantos could be more explicit. Characterization was more sexual and licentious and villains were more contemporary anti-heroes.
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Recognizing the power of the label Hammer assigned a sequel to Horror of Dracul in 1960 to talented Hammer director Terrance Fisher. This 1960 feature entitled Brides of Dracula featured a follower of Dracula, Baron Meister decides that attracts young women to him, seduces them and creates his own vampire cult of followers. Fisher’s hammer films featured a deeply Freudian Dracula who is handsome, attractive young and summons girls like a rock star. There is no work involved in seducing women, they willingly succumb. Further Van Helsing played by the indomitable Peter Cushing (who also played Dr. Frankenstein in the Frankenstein films) immediately established himself as an important adversary as the resourceful doctor and vampire exterminator. More importantly, when Dracula tangles with Van Helsing he perversely bites the strong male on the neck. This suggests homosexuality in the relationship that Dracula has with his community. In another scene Dracula has been chained by his mother to his bed room. When freed Dracula possesses his mother and bite her on the neck it suggests not only vampirism but a carnal lusting relation incestuous relationship to his mother. The Freudian bond is further complicated by Van Helsing’s later relationship with mother now a vampire. Dracula is also served by human female servants who nurture his dead victims and help them emerge from their graves. Finally Dracula is physically able to marshall several helpers to assist him against Van Helsing and Van Helsing saves himself from Dracula’s curse by quick thinking, holy water and a cross shaped windmill.
Hammer quickly found ways to revive werewolves in Curse of the Werewolf starring a very young Oliver Reed and a version of the mummy based on the 1932 version starring Boris Karloff. In this version of the mummy is portrayed by Christopher Lee who along with Cushing becomes a mainstay of the hammer horror films for three decades. By the eighties Hammer had moved to television production.
A British post war new wave cinema
There was a new wave in French cinema and a corresponding new wave in British cinema. After years of deprivation with food rationing antiquated appliances, poor housing and few jobs, the film industry responded with a crop of dark brooding realist works showing the hardships of life in post war England. One of the first new wave cinema works was Jack Clayton’s cynical 1959 classic Room at the top. Lawrence Harvey plays a British heel who wants to move up in society and is willing to sleep with any woman who can provide benefits for him. He finds an unhappily married middle aged /French woman, Simone Signoret, and she is attracted to him. However over time he realizes that there is more money to be made by wooing the boss’ daughter so he leaves the girlfriend that has befriended him for a younger woman who can provide more advancement. In the end of this moral fable, his destitute girlfriend Simone Signoret is tragically killed and he goes off to a marriage to a woman he does not love for money status and an escape from poverty. These films all face the reality that working class people could never rise to the stature of wealthy British people. Class systems in the UK, bound people to a class for life. In 1960 Karel Reisz created a monumental study of working class discontent entitled Saturday night and Sunday morning. This film featured a very young Albert Finney as a young factory worker who sleeps with his best friend’s wife, eventually is found out and beaten by his friend’s military thug friends. The film portrays the hardships of life for working class people. The only thing the work poor had were weekend drunks and bouts of infidelity, little
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agency for a life of hardship and backbreaking work. Finney was often effective as the heel and by the mid-sixties graduated to the costume epic tom Jones in which he plays a libindinous English adventurer. In 1974 he was Oscar nominated as Hercule Peirrot in Agatha Christie’s Murder on the Orient Express.
In A taste of Honey in 1961 Rita Tushingham plays a young lonely girl who had an affair with a Black American solider and her subsequent pregnancy ostracizes her from society. Her only friend, a gay youth helps and supports her through the ordeal, the American father long gone. She faces the prospect of finding no love and no support for a mixed-race child and mother in sixties England. Tony Richardson directed this 1961 essay on prejudice and loneliness for the working class. His following film dug deeper into class values. This film entitled The loneliness of the long distance runner dealt with a Bristol boy who also happened to be an expert runner. The film’s hero, colin was from a family of pick pockets and thieves. They learned to run quickly because the whole family were chased by police throughout their careers. Colin is a Borstel boy because he has been sent the famous boy’s reformatory, Borstal. In the film a young Tom Courtney portrays the boy who is a student at Borstal and still maintains a connection to gangs, theft and larceny and is only surrounded by cheap girls and seedy friends who continually push him to more acts of larceny. The cops have it out for him but for some reason the headmaster played by Michael Redgrave takes a liking to colin and nurtures him, not because he likes the boy or really wants to help him but because he hopes the boy can win the cross country race for the school against an interschool play off between reformatory track teams. Colin is an excellent runner and he is flattered and confused by the attention his non-criminal activity gains for him. The master promises him an apprenticeship and a tickey out of Borstal for his help and Colin is swayed by the offer. He realizes early on in the pivotal race at the film’s climax that he can beat the opposing runners but he has to consider will he sell out his class and criminal dna for a chance to move o=up into the middle class and a position as an apprentice. Colin’s decision is the mirror of British society in the sixties when change and opportunity were in the air. He chooses the last seconds of the race to make his stand and determine where he will be in the future. Will he be a pawn of big wig or his own rebellious self? The film is a great study of social realism in England in the sixties.
In 1963 this sporting life by Lindsey Anderson cast Richard Harris as a young soccer player who realizes that his only way out of poverty is by being a sports hero and it changes him into a callous person who cares nothing for his mates, nothing for his teammates, and nothing for his girlfriend. He becomes a more callous person who is successful with the sport but he’s sold his soul for money and pretty society.
British film revealed holes in society in the early 1960s. However these films developed their own vocabulary of tricks and ideas. They showed a new style of quick camera work, black-and-white gritty filming, jump cuts, interesting editing choices, partial dialogue, improvisation, acted scenes from British life including new style musicals created by British directors that featured emerging pop groups of the sixties.
Amongst the notable and influential hits was Richard Lester’s very famous breakthrough new wave movie A Hard days Night featuring the Beatles 1964. The film was a breakthrough for various reasons. First, the Beatles wrote great music and were naturals as young comedians in the film. Second the scenario was grand and dialogue by Alun Jones featured a day in the life of a group of British musicians from the
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emerging British new wave music of the 1960s. Thirdly Richard Lester who had previously directed commercials realized that he could use the same qualities that he brought to commercial filming to make a fiction film. he determined that he could create an entire new style of musical. It is difficult to imagine that Lester and the Beatles created literally the new style of musicals that would later become MTV (1981) marketing a whole new bright style of pop music. In 1964,the Beatles in a hard days night transformed the British musical into a new style of performance in which natural acting, music and playing music became a natural part of life for young British people. British spectacle emerged from Lester and the Beatles vision of swinging London,
in the mid to late 1960s Guy Hamilton emerged with the epic sweep of Goldfinger which propelled Sean Connery and the James Bond series to a worldwide phenomenon. This style continues until the present day. Spy films and swinging London dominated the sixties. Despite the hipster epics, the vein of British social realist films continued. In 1966, Lewis Gilbert delivered Alfie starring Michael Caine as a sour London heel who only supports his massive ego at the expense of the women around him. The prior year Caine became the second major British spy character in a series of spy films based on Len Deighton’s hard knocks spy films about a working class spy, Harry Palmer. The Ipress File and Funeral in Berlin were major hits for a world market hungry for violent spy stories during the cold war. Unlike the James Bond films, these were filled with grim scenes of a still suffering post world war two Europe in which the rebuilding of institutions had stalled and poverty and corruption ravaged many corners of the new Europe. Here, there was no sense that spies were heroes but rather government workers given the dirty job of cleaning society’s messes. In the films Caine’s Palmer is a cold-blooded killer who serves the state to enforce the laws of Britain and to avoid the collapse of a British culture with the influenced by the Soviets and Russian culture.
By the middle of the decade many British films are sex farces (What’s New Pussycat ) and social dramas. One of the new breed of socially conscious kitchen sink dramas was Georgy Girl in 1966.. The kitchen sink dramas were so called because they revolved around average people with average jobs and many of the main conversations and debates of the films were carried on in the doubty kitchens and unattractive apartments of middle class people living humdrum dull lives with dull working class jobs in factories or shops. In Georgy Girl, a young woman is pursued by two men, Joe the husband of her best friend and flatmate, Meredith and an older man, leamington, an older married man who employer to her family. He even proposes a contract to make Georgy his mistress, a less than romantic proposal. In the end, Joe rejects his responsibilities and runs, and Leamington’s wife dies and he proposes to Georgy. She takes up Leamington’s stable offer of marriage, and secures a future for Meredith’s child whom she has adopted. It is a film of the average girl, chubby and largely unloved, finding a measure of happiness in a miserable society.
English films begin a trend towards historical films that glorify English history and literature, a spectacular veneration of a nation’s past glories. These films pave the way for the institutionalization of British historical drama in the television series Masterpiece theatre that begins in the seventies. Films like Lean’s Dr. Zhivago (1965), Zinneman’s A Man for all Seasons (1966)(the biography of British intellectual and politician, Sir Thomas More) and John Schlesinger’s Far from the Madding Crowd (1967) from a
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Victorian epic novel set in the 1870s rural England set the stage for British historical films of the next fifty years. In Schelesinger’s Crowd, Bethsheba inherits land and decides to manage herself but makes a series of romantic missteps including rejecting the love of shepherd Gabriel, marrying a troubled a neighbor who winds up working for her, marrying a troubled cavalry officer who was engaged to another woman and flirting with a rich local landowner. Most of her romantic plans go awry and she winds up with Gabriel where she hammers out a tough but workable relationship.
Late sixties faire including a musical adaptation of Oliver Twist by noted filmmaker Carol Reed, and Cy Enfield’s Zulu that copes with the issue of British colonization of Africa and the response of subject people that rise up against the British forces. For the British this is a contest between British military authority and unruly indigenous people, not a story of brave subject people fighting for their freedom. Finally D H Lawrence’s Women in Love by Ken Russell tells the story of rising feminism amongst women in the nineteenth century and the response of their suitors. In the seventies British film turns to crime with films including the caper film, the Italian job (Michael Caine) Get Carter (again with Michael Caine) and important social films like Sunday bloody Sunday that discuss characters who are well adjusted successful and either gay or bi-sexual. In Sunday bloody Sunday, an artist has an affair with a woman and a gay man and has to decide who or what he is and desires. England’s economy crashes in the seventies, and in 1971 Stanley Kubrick directed one of his most interesting films about British culture A Clockwork Orange based on the Anthony Burgess novel about a future society where juvenile delinquents use drugs and violence to relieve their boredom. Criminal dialogue is based on Russian slang words suggesting the growing influence of Russian culture in the west. Alex, the film’s protagonist is the subject of the society’s draconian experiments at reforming wayward youth and is ultimately cured of his anti-social tendencies, sort of. In the mid-seventies Fred Zinneman delivers the dark crime novel Day of the Jackyl which expertly follows a contract killer through the steps of a big syndicate deal to murder French President Charles DeGaul. It is a spectacular form of suspenseful crime drama. Edward Fox stars as a hired contract killer who is paid a fortune to murder the top leader.
Terms
Kitchen sink drama:a style of drama popular in England in the fifties and sixties reflecting the lives of middle class people in which many debates occur around the kitchen, the center of domestic life
Social realism: A form of drama framed around prosaic everyday experiences of common people. A drama concerned with the struggles of working class people
Films:
Schlesinger, John. “Sunday, bloody Sunday.” (1971)
Schlesinger, John. “Far From the Madding Crowd.” (1967)
Richardson, Tony. “The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner.” (1962)
Readings:
Bedford, tom. “The history of British cinema.” https://www.filminquiry.com/history-british- cinema-1-rise-studio-film/
Calhoun, David. “the 100 best British movies.” https://www.timeout.com/london/film/100- best-british-films
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Cinema 21 French new wave
French new wave cinema began in the 1950s and was a modern form of movie making that was popularized by journals from France. French new wave cinema has been deeply influential in American film in the last 50 years strongly influencing the work of filmmakers like Quentin Tarantino, Martin Scorsese, and Alejandro Gonzalez in Innuratu. The French new wave originated in the 1950s due to the influence of the magazine cashiers de cinema . This magazine illustrated the interest in a new style of film based on the work of classic film makers that young film critics in France in the post war years found to be valuable but were largely underrated by the cinema establishment. Amongst the film makers they lauded were Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford and Jean Renoir. This style of new film was referred to in French as the Nouvelle Vague. (the new style).
Characteristics of this new form of filmmaking included (1) avoiding conventional narrative that had been practiced in film since the beginning of the 20th century and (2) reducing the importance of narrative. These mostly young film makers used (3) improvisation, (4) existential storytelling technique and (5) new techniques of editing and cutting films together to (6) create a lively sensation of real life. The work of these young critics and film makers transformed the industry of film and led the way to the years of (7) auteurs and young independent film makers that arose in the 1960s and 70s and are still felt today. Most of the French film makers felt that the studio system of Hollywood of the 1930s and 40s was very contrived filmmaking and they wanted freedom not allowed to film makers by the studios to create films to a different model. The French felt that the old Hollywood films with easy to follow narratives we're too unconscious and did not demand enough of the audience. Their plan was to create a style of film that would demand more of an audience and engage the audience more fully.
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The French new wave also began with film critic Andre Bazin who created cashier's du cinema, and made it a popular and influential publication. This magazine employed young film makers and critics including Jean Luc Goddard, Francois Truffaut Eric Rohmer, and others that wanted to make films through a more creative process. The members of this group of cinema aesthetes believed they had the skills to create a new style of cinema, and they wanted to exert full control over a new style of films. One of the theories that controlled their filmmaking was the auteur theory, or the author theory. It claimed that there was one universal controlling mind behind the creation of all films and that whoever that person was became the author or auteur of the film. They did not agree that film production was a joint group enterprise but believed in the theory that one individual controlled the making and shaping a film. Despite the auteur theory many films made by the new wave directors did have a group communal creation format. Rohmer was especially fond of getting a group together and working on the scenario as a group. The French critics saw from their experience of covering classic films the influence of an auteur or a guiding intellect. Usually this person was the director or the writer. They identified the work of individual film makers and the individual styles they promoted as being distinctively different than the work of the studios that could be very routine and deprive the work of any nuance or individuality.
For example today the Disney Studios exhibit tight control over their products. Disney animations depend on princesses, Pixar family-friendly works, or Marvel superhero movies the fall under very tightly controlled templates. This was exactly the limitations the new wave producers wished to avoid. They wanted to use the auteur theory to break free of that tight autocratic style that they had seen in American films. The members of the auteur theory group at cashier's do cinema firmly believed that auteurs controlled every part of the film and that people like Renoir, Orson Welles, Alfred Hitchcock, and John Ford were clever individual artists separate from the studio system.
After publishing their ideas in the magazine and writing about these theories the young writers cinemaphiles, and aesthetes took action pushing their ideas into the real world using very small budgets and unknown actors. They determined to enact their theories by creating small films that utilized ideas of auteurism. Because they had small budgets they used outdoor lighting, simple sets, unknown actors, and a very raw style This natural lighting and sound became mainstays of the new French new wave style and influenced American films like Bonnie and Clyde, Easy Rider, and Romero’s Night of the Living Dead. Late sixties experimental American film owes a large debt to the innovations suggested by French filmmakers.
The French new wave style was a complex style. Reverberations of this style are still being felt in the way new young film makers construct films. The new wave still contrasts with studio style. three characteristics define that that French new wave style. (1) First these film makers rejected the ideas of the style of the studio. They rejected the control imposed by studios over their work. They did not use the large money of the studio system. They did not like the tight control of autocratic producers in the studio system, and they did not have the complicated distribution system that made the large studios incredibly profitable and depended upon mass audiences. This group of film makers made their films for a small select audience of people like themselves, cinema philes, aesthetes, professors, and people that concentrated on the aesthetics and art of
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film, rather than purely the entertainment value of film. Thus the films of the French new wave looked incredibly different from the kind of films that Hollywood had been producing.
The directors of the French new wave would use cheap handheld cameras. They would record sound on location. They would use natural lighting and natural locations. There would be very little extreme cutting done. At the time the film was produced takes would be long. Actors would improvise in a scene. The films would have a very natural look unlike the controlled contrived films made by the studio era.
(2)A second characteristic was that new wave films tended to depart from strong narrative traditions. Where Hollywood films followed very strong narratives with very strong scripts, often times the scripts for French new wave films might just be an outline, and actors would be free to improvise around the script to create dialogue on the fly. People in Hollywood films might become complacent while watching them, because they would know where the film started and where the film was going. But in the French new wave films there was always the sense of danger that the film could depart from a strong narrative into some structure that the filmmaker thought was important. They rejected the well thought out scenario of Hollywood and strongly embraced the audience’s ability to be involved with the film and the actors and the concept of improvisation. A way of doing this was to use jump cuts, and actors directly addressing the audience to remind viewers they were watching a film. They rejected the idea of the strongly scripted films created in Hollywood.
(3) A third aspect of French new wave film was the idea of expressing extremely complex ideas to an audience where in films of the Hollywood studio era ideas would be compressed and simplified so that audiences would have a simpler time of watching the film. In the French new wave films ideas about existentialism, ideas about philosophy, ideals about ideas, ideas about consumerism, socialism, politics, life, or religion might be expressed in a very direct way expecting the audience to confront complicated difficult ideas in life. Hollywood films of the 1930s and 40s tended to compress ideas, to simplify ideas, and not to make audiences face ideas that might be difficult or painful for the audience to embrace or accept.
There are many good examples of the new wave cinema. Some of them directly from the French with some of them influenced by films made by the French that arrived at a later time. Some of the most important films that came out of this style were the 400 blows in 1959 directed by the young Francois Truffaut. This is a film about childhood and coming of age. In 1960 there was Jean-Luc Godard famous film breathless in which jean-paul belmondo plays a minor criminal in France who is channeling the ideas and the lifestyle of a modern day Humphrey Bogart character.
One of the popular French films of the sixties, Un homme et una femme (a man and a woman) (1966) was a simple love story of two people meeting and falling in love. However many aspects of this popular film were influenced by new wave style. There are jump cuts that are jarring. There is common and outdoor filming in natural locations. There is a cinema verité feel to many of the scenes of race car driving that seem to mirror a documentary style. The love scenes are warm and tender and largely improvised. Dialogue is spare and some of it is made up on the spot. Director Claude LeLouche allowed his actors the freedom to improvise and be successful as common everyday people.
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French new wave movies become more and more eccentric and individual, like 1974’s weird little film, Celine and Julie go boating. This is a film about two women that meet in a park Celine drops a magic book in front of Julie who is sitting on a park bench reading a book. The women chase each other around the city for a while and end up living together in the same apartment. Then they begin to dream an adventure in which they are thrust into a house where there is a little girl who is alternately murdered and reanimated. Every time the girls entered the house they are occasionally ejected from the house. The story begins again. Finally the women realize they are not just members of the cast of the story, but that they themselves can become authors of the story and change the outcome of the story. The film is a meta-film questioning the value and power of narrative. At one point they actually rescued the girl from the house and bring her into their modern world in 1974, and they have realized that they have the power to re-author the story the way they want to do so. At the end of the film, they are in the park and they are traveling on a boat. they see other people from the story of the murdered girl flying by them in another boat, and they realize that these are simply symbols from the story that they have retold. At the end of the film Julia sitting on a park bench and Celine comes by and drops her magic book again.
French new wave films can be challenging, but highly rewarding. In many French new wave films there is an opportunity for the audience to become involved in the narrative. These films are more open and less planned than traditional studio films from the United states where conventional formats guide and lull audiences into a state of stupor. French new wave films of the fifties, sixties, and seventies encouraged audiences to engage with the material, allow for a more open format, provided the author or authors of the film with license to make the film novel and new, and did not provide convenient conventional formats for audiences. People watching such films have to keep thinking their way through the film. The French new wave style has influenced contemporary filmmakers For example Richard Lester in 1964 created a hard day's night with a very controlling powerful script like a Hollywood film of the studio era but the filming style including a lot of jump cuts and varieties of improvisation borrowed heavily from the French new wave style. Films of the nineties onwards from Quentin Tarantino in American films also have strong scripts and strong directorial control. But there are also elements of improvisation in Quentin Tarantino's films that mirror the efforts and ideas of the French new wave film makers of the mid-century. Terms
Jump cuts: Jump cuts are jumps in editing that expect audiences to leap mentally from one scene to the next.
Auteur theory: auteur theory argues there is one strong controlli ng mind behind every film. This theory was promoted by the magazine Cahier du cinema and the American critic Andrew Sarris in the American magazine, The Village Voice.
Films:
Goddard, Jean Luc. “Breathless” (1959)
Truffaut, Francoise. “Jules and Jim” (1961)
Rohmer, Eric. “The Green Ray.” (1986)
Readings:
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Hitchman, Simon. “French New Wave. Where to Start/”
http://www.newwavefilm.com/new-wave-cinema-guide/nouvelle-vague-where-to- start.shtml
Maio, Alyssa. “French New Wave films.” https://www.filminquiry.com/history-british- cinema-1-rise-studio-film/
22 Cinema
Kurosawa and Japanese cinema Akira Kurosawa (1910-1998)
Kurosawa was possibly the most important Japanese director of the twentieth century. His films exploited both Japanese and Western values and he pioneered a strong style of Japanese samurai films and a sort of east meets west Japanese western or action film.
Rashomon (1950)
Kurosawa’s first big international hit was based on two folk tales, In a grove and the story, Rashomon. It is a philosophical murder mystery told and reflected by a buddhist monk, a wood cutter and a common peasant. They sit in a burned out Buddhist temple during a rain storm recounting a murder trial they witnessed earlier in the day. They are puzzled. The witnesses describe the events in flashback. What was known was that a tough thief was nabbed for a murder of a samurai and attempted rape of his wife. Those are the only facts we know. The story is first recounted by the thief that has
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been caught. He is a tough customer and he is played by Toshiro Mufune who becomes a popular and influential Japanese actor. He tells the tale as a conquest and reassertion of his manhood. He likes the girl, kills her husband she runs away. The second version is by the widowed wife. She claims she is a victim of male power. The thief and the husband were both mean to her. She tried to kill herself but failed. The third tale is told by the ghost of the dead samurai channeled by a local witch. He claims he committed suicide out of disgust with everyone’s behavior. The fourth tale is by the woodsman who saw it all as a an eyewitness from the woods. He claims both men were cowards, were afraid to fight and the wife was worthless. No one in the end knows the whole truth and everyone makes up stories to justify themselves. The film was so popular there was a term coined the Rashomon effect that described a situation where the truth was relative to person telling the story. The film ends with the finding of an orphaned baby which the woodsman promises to raise and to be a better person, news that reassures the monk there are still good people in the world. Rashomon is still the thinking man’s mystery many all-time classics."
Seven Samurai (1953)
Here seven powerful samurai without masters agree to band together to protect a village from bandits. Along the way most of them die but their honorable sacrifice makes them noble and justified warriors loved by the children of the town. Remade in the United States as the Magnificent Seven the film is a great example of the group aesthetic and the need for powerful indomitable heroes.
Ikuru (1954)
Ikuru is a different sort of film and a brilliant social drama. Ikuru tells the story of an accountant and civil servant who pushed paper all day and does no good. He learns he is dying of cancer and fights to build a children’s park in the city before he dies. He walks to the park after it is completed sits in a child’s wing and swings. He is found dead in the cold snow the next morning. The men he worked with all become emotional and cry during a ceremony in his honor. It is a warm and charming story of Japanese people and the sense of community.
Hidden fortress (1958)
Hidden fortress tells the story of a tough Japnese princess held captive by an evil warlord. Two lowly servants try to rescue her to no avail but they align themselves wit ha rogue samurai, (Toshiro mufune) and with his help they are ableto brak into the castle where she is held captive and rescue her. The princess doesn’t need much help and arrives as a fully developed female hero in her own right. This folk tale was translated into George Lucas’ Star Wars twenty years later.
Terms
East meets West: Curiously, Kurosawa films blend eastern and western aesthetics and many of hi samurai films resemble American westerns.
Music: In Kurosawa’s films a blend of western music and Japanese traditional music was used. This created an interesting blend of western and eastern aesthetics.
Action sequences: Kurosawa pioneered action sequences in which frantic movement was paralleled with stillness and calm control.
Films:
Kurosawa, Akira. Rashomon (1950)
Kurosawa, Akira. Seven Samuai (1953)
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Kurosawa, Akira. Hidden Fortress (1958)
Readings:
Audie Bock, International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers: Directors (St. James Press, 1994) pp 550-51
Fred Shimizu, Directory of World Cinema: Japan (Intellect Books, 2010) pp 31-33 Kristin Thompson & David Bordwell, Film History: An Introduction (McGraw-Hill, 2003) pp 255-56, 422-24
Cinema 23
Seventies; The Myths of American Life on Film
Genres and myths of American life become popular again in the sixties and seventies. There were major changes in three areas:
o Film Industry o Technology o Content
Changes in Film Industry included the blockbuster mentality. Films could not simply break even or make a little money. Studios wanted continual massive hits. It was not sufficient for films to make back the investment of money and time, films had to provide big revenue to companies and their investors. This created more pressure on the industry. Many techniques emerged to increase revenue. Some ideas were marketing ideas like sequels. If you make films similar they should be successful. Another aspect of growing revnue was to use new tevhnology like dolby sound to attract people to
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theatres and to make the home market enjoy the entertainment on home screens. Some of the techniques used to increase revenue included:
The sequel
The Dolby soundtrack
The videocassette, laserdisc, DVD, Blu-ray
The direct-to-video release
The camcorder
The computer and
The “all-powerful talent agent” (585).
They all meshed together to encourage a milieu that started developing a new film product. There
Were science fiction spectacles by George Lucas, Steven Spielberg and others. There were creepy ironic directors like David Lynch, political fables by Spike Lee, and these kinds of film persist unto the present day. The Seventies changes film marketing and style: Star Wars made science fiction popular for kids and these became Disneyesque space operas. Disney even bought Lucas’ Star Wars franchise to capitalize. New films began to resemble morning serials of the 1940s. Sequels were used to enhance revenue, in other words, the same product was resold. The terms for films that keep returning are franchises. In 2021 we had the return of spiderman with the eight spiderman movie, this time copying the ideas from animated Spiderverse cartoon film several years ago. Films like Hunger Games, Transformers, Twilight, Harry Potter, Jaws and others depend on franchises to provide revenue for studios. This began when Universal released Jaws in 1975 in the summer scaring people out of the water and into the theatre. This film ushered in an era of blockbuster thrillersChanges in Technology changed how films were viewed and heard. Dolby noise reduction improved the quality of sound. Dolby SVA soundtracks gave the audiences more intense listening experiences both in the theatre and later on home stereo systems. You might have forgotten the film, but the soundtrack could still be played to remind audiences of every moment in the film.Steadicams were used to improve picture quality.Enhanced images contributed to the magic of Forrest Gump and the special effects of merging different time periods in the film. This same trick of merging footage from different eras was successful in putting actor Woody Allen into different eras in the comedy science fiction pseudo-documentary, Zelig. Into the nineties the pace of technological change increased. In The Matrix there was the use of stop motion photography and the new digital images referred to as bullet time because faster shooting timing of 60 to 100 to 1000 frames per second could give the effect of stopping g time or stopping bulllets in motion. By the millennium theatres had mastered digital projection and could show films with a digital copy on a hard drive and no longer needed to rely on mechanical film projectors where moving parts or film could break and delay a show.
Many changes erupted in the Hollywood business climate including a drive for technological films because technology based films like Jurassic Park’s photo realistic dinosaurs were thrilling and novel to audiences. They had never seen anything that big and real appearing before. Also with the dolby sound systems the thunderous sound of the dinosaurs feet were astoundingly real, like listening to thunder from a movie theatre.But apart from technological films there were changes in Hollywood deals.
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Business films were greenlit after a few meetings. If producers could secure bankable stars, directors and successful idea or attach a team to a franchise marketers believed such films were immune to failure. These predictions were not always foolproof. George Lucas’ much lauded return to directing Star Wars in 1998’s The Phantom Menace was universally panned as a poor movie in the series, but audiences hungry for star wars came to see it despite the negative press. Atill sometimes audiences negate fer shure projects. For example in the period between 2015-2020 many Marvel films that previous were part of a successful franchise series floundered despite positive reviews. Audiences simply were immune to the same thrills repeatedly. Howeer many films have succeeded despite negative press because famous names were attached to the property. Also several film connected to formerly popular television programs became successful as film projects simply because audiences already knew the shows and went out of loyalty or nostalgia appeal. A peanuts movie, a simpsons movie and a South Park movie all benefited from name recognition and loyal audiences who had seen the properties on television.
Changes in Content
Seventies-Eighties Archetypes arrived that helped to transform film. For example
films featuring Supermen: Big strong invulnerable guys that reminded men of how men used to be revered were popular in the era of the seventies and eighties. Films such as Superman, Rambo, Dirty Harry, Terminator were all successful in that time period. After the chaos and damage from the poor economy in the seventies, slasher films featuring unstoppable demonic killers that nothing can destroy were fashionable with anti hero murderers like Jason, Freddy Krueger, and Michael Myers.
Cop Films like Heat, Serpico, French Connection made cops movie heroes for a generation. This was ironic given that sixties hippies denied cops, called them pigs and feared authority figures with badges and guns. Some of the popular movie heroes came from films like Lethal Weapon, Dirty Harry, and actors like AlPacino (Serpico, Godfather, Scarface, Dog Day Afternoon0 and Robert , DeNiro (Casino, goodfellas, The Irishmen, the godfather, Taxi Driver).
Genres were revived and revered and audiences flocked to new genres. Monster films like Jaws, Alien, Jurassic Park were box office success and audiences thrilled to see people chased by big scary monsters. There was a vogue for Teen Movies, and many were produced yt producer director John Hughes including Sixteen Candles,Footloose, Dirty Dancing, Ferris Bueller’s Day Off, Risky Business, and Home Alone.Heroes though young seemed more grown up and cynical. Pop heroes were filled with irony including Forrest Gump, Harrison Ford (Indiana Jones and Hans Solo), and anti-hero losers like Ed Wood. Some of the biggest franchises that arrived fron seventies through the nineties included Lucas and Spielberg’s Indiana Jones, Star Wars, and Jurassic Park films. There have been four Indiana Jones films with a fifth on the way for 2022, nine Star Wars movies and spin offs and cartoons, and five Jurassic Park movies with cartoons and spin offs arriving yearly.
Spielberg and Lucas birthed a new generation of clever young directors. Some of the New offbeat directors included John Carpenter, David Lynch, Tim Burton, John Waters, Jim Jarmusch
John Badham who directed Dracula, Saturday Night Fever, Blue Thunder, and War Games with young stars Matthew Broderick and Ally Sheedy. War Games was an
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important film for being one of the First big computer game movies, for bringing Paranoia about nuclear war, and for providing Action-adventure for the eighties generation and for being a film that aped the Spielbergian style of production and editing.
New Comedy
New forms of comedy emerged from cynicism and ironic perspectives. The Coen brothers produced bloody crime movies and more winsome comedies in the eighties onward with films like Blood Simple; O, Brother, Where Art Thou? The Big Lewbowski and Fargo, Spielberg’s protégé and an arch conservative filmmaker Robert Zemekis produced Back to the Future with a white Marty McFly teaching Chuck erry hot play guitar and duck walk, Forrest Gump with Gump never criticizing he Vietnam war, and Flight with a pilot that saves a plane full of people going to jail. Ivan Reitman produced Ghostbusters, Dave, Stripes, and Evolution.
Another new genre was intensely violent films reflecting the outbreak of mass violence in the U. s. including assassination, daily mass shootings, violence at schools and even insurrections at our capital. Ironically, despite wild high profile acts of violence in film, the rate of real violence declined in society from the seventies to the millennium, but on film it wildly escalated. There were films by Oliver Stone (JFK, Doors, Natural Born Killers), Michael Cimino (Deerhunter, Year of the Dragon) Quentin Tarantino (Jackie Brown, Pulp Fiction, Kill Bill, Inglorious Bastards, The Hateful Eight)John Sayles (Roan Inish, Secaucus Seven,Lone Star, Matewan) James Cameron (Aliens, Terminator, Abyss, Titanic).
There were also fillmakers who became known for their versatility and skill in action and drama including Hong Kong’s John Woo (Broken Arrow, MI2, Face Off, The Killers), Ang Lee (Sense and Sensibility, Ice Storm, The Hulk), the team of Merchant and Ivory (Remains of the Day, Room with a View, Howard’s End) and the versatile Ridley Scott (Alien, The Guccis, Gladiator, Hannibal,
Black Hawk Down, Matchstick men, GI Jane, the Martian). From the seventies forward, Hollywood was streaming content at a furious pace.
Important things to know about the United States in the 1970s and beyond
In the 1970s, there were three commercial television channels, ABC, CBS, and NBC; there was also PBS, the public broadcasting system. This situation allowed a great deal of unity among the citizens. Why? They were all watching the same things on television, the sitcoms, the dramas, but most of all, the news.
Recent disunity is caused to a great extent by the fact that now we do not all hear or read the same story; therefore, we don’t all tell the same story. Now we get our news from media that target a certain demographic, leaving everyone else to find their own story from a different source, which is also targeting a certain demographic.
But disunity was also happening in the 1970s: violent protests against the war in Vietnam, women’s struggle for equal rights, and corruption and the disgrace it caused led a president to resign rather than be impeached.In the 1970s, three major events happened in or to the United States:
awar
a struggle for equality
a national scandal
The War
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Our young men were being sent to the other side of the world to kill or be killed.Protests against the war in Vietnam were mounting, and continuing through the 1970s; veterans returning from Vietnam organized as Vietnam Veterans Against the War and agitated for an end to the conflict. American citizens were bitterly divided over the war, and much of the division was based on the fact that most of the young soldiers sent there were from poor families and families of color; they had no political power, wealth, or influence to keep them safe. Those who did enjoy those assets included George W. Bush, who, as a member of the Texas Air National Guard, and was assigned to run a political campaign as his military duty; William Jefferson Clinton, who was studying overseas as a Rhodes scholar; and Donald J. Trump, whose doctor got him a deferment from the military draft
because he had bone spurs on his heels. Ironically two of the only politicians who served valiantly, John Kerry who was wounded decorated and saved men’s lives in Vietnam, and John McCain who flew bomber missions in Vietnam, was captured and tortured for years during the war, were both soundly defeated by men who either never served or never fought in the war. Such ironies illustrate America’s complicated vision of such wars which greatly impacted our films and memory of such wars.
Students whose grade point average fell below a certain level lost their draft deferments and were shipped to Vietnam. The average age of these soldiers was nineteen.
The Vietnamese War was also unpopular because the United States was not fighting to protect itself, but to keep the communist Soviet Union from taking over the country of South Vietnam.
Fifty-eight thousand, two hundred, and twenty (58,220) young Americans died there for this cause, and those who returned are still feeling effects of the war; for example, the use of Agent Orange to defoliate the forests of Vietnam poisoned many Americans slowly, and some are still dying from its effects.
Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, fell to the communist North Vietnamese on April 30, 1975, and Americans fled Vietnam, taking as many Vietnamese allies as they could fit into their planes and helicopters.
Those Vietnamese nationals who had aided the American effort would be killed or “re-educated” under the communist leader Ho Chi Minh, and they tried to get at least their children on the planes and helicopters.
The U. S. embassy in Saigon was the last point of departure: U. S. military helicopters landed on the roof of the building, crowded in as many bodies as they could, and flew them out to waiting U. S. aircraft carriers.
When the carriers’ decks became too crowded with human bodies for the helicopters to land, empty helicopters which were out of fuel were pushed into the ocean to make way for the incoming helicopters.
The passion, discord, and insanity of these events are captured in a poem by David Wojahn:
“It's Only Rock and Roll, but I Like It”: The Fall of Saigon
The guttural stammer of the chopper blades
Raising arabesques of dust, tearing leaves
From the orange trees lining the Embassy compound;
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One chopper left, and a CBS cameraman leans From inside its door, exploiting the artful Mayhem. Somewhere a radio blares the Stones, "I like it, like it, yes indeed..." Carts full
Of files blaze in the yard. Flak-jacketed marines
Gunpoint the crowd away. The overloaded chopper strains
And blunders from the roof. An ice-cream-suited
Saigonese drops his briefcase; both hands
Now cling to the airborne skis. The camera gets
It all: the marine leaning out the copter bay,
His fists beating time. Then the hands giving way."
The passion, discord, and insanity of these events are also depicted in Apocalypse Now (1979), directed by Francis Ford Coppola.
The Struggle for Equality
Women were struggling for equal treatment at home and in the workplace. The Women’s Lib movement (as it was called) of the late 1960s and 1970s was the second feminist movement, and it succeeded in raising the awareness of many Americans that women had not gained full citizenship. Even though the women activists in the 1970s pushed through an Equal Rights Amendment that had been first introduced in 1923, it was not ratified by enough states and so failed. Its failure “reflected a history of both female participation in politics and exclusion from power” (De Hart 217).
Enthusiasm for women’s rights soon led to several strong female political candidates for national office: Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm made a bid for the Presidency in 1972, and in 1984 Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro was nominated by a major political party as its candidate for Vice President of the United States. Beginning in July 2009, the Equal Rights Amendment has been reintroduced in the House of Representatives every year, until now it needs ratification by only one more state to become law.
Women’s struggles for equal rights are shown in a couple of films as examples: Nine to Five (1980), directed by Colin Higgins, and Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore (1974), directed by Martin Scorsese.
The National Scandal
A national scandal at the highest levels: an impeachment proceeding resulted in the resignation of a president before he could be tried by the Senate. His resignation itself resulted in the installation of a man in the office of President of the United States who was never elected, but chosen by the disgraced president, Richard M. Nixon.
Thus Gerald R. Ford, handpicked by Nixon to replace Nixon’s Vice-President, Spiro Agnew (who had resigned in disgrace over his own illicit deeds), moved up to the Presidency. And immediately issued a blanket pardon of Nixon.
All the President’s Men (1976), directed by Alan J. Pakula, depicts the events leading up to Nixon’s resignation.
Important things to know about films and filmmakers in the 1970s
Because the studio system disintegrated in the 1960s, there came the first generation of filmmakers who hadn’t come through the system or via theatre, novels, or television; instead they had learned film as film. Raised on watching movies on TV from an early age, they had learned their craft at film school.
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Coppola went to UCLA, Lucas and Milius to USC, Scorsese to NYU and De Palma to Columbia. Spielberg created his own movie curriculum by making his own films, which were both technically proficient and steeped in film lore. These directors’ movies are full of allusions to other films, Hitchcock (De Palma), Kurosawa (Milius) and Walt Disney (Spielberg).
Big movies came back, and the ideas of the way we live were presented as
myths
Jaws (1975, directed by Steven Spielberg)
The Godfather (1972, directed by Francis Ford Coppola)
American Graffiti (1973, directed by George Lucas)
Science fiction movies were popular, as evidenced by
2001: A Space Odyssey (1968, directed by Stanley Kubrick)
Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977, directed by Stanley Spielberg)
Star Wars (1977+, directed by George Lucas)
Star Wars became a franchise, with nine separate but connected films in the sequence.
T erms
Disunity: American society begins to fragment in the seventies reaching a zenith of divided thinking at the insurrection in Washington in 2020.Sadly Americans can no longer agree on basic facts so making films for multiple voices becomes more complicated.
Films:
Stone, Oliver. JFK. (1991)
Zemeckis, Robert. Back to the Future (1985)
Eastwood, Clint. Sudden Impact (1984)
Readings:
Apocalypse Now. Film clip. Dir. Francis Ford Coppolla. Paramount Pictures,1979. Youtube. youtube.com/ watch?v=Bs9X6NkJDBY.
Glatzer, Robert. Beyond Popcorn: A Critic’s Guide to Looking at Films. Spokane:Eastern Washington UP, 2001.
Green, Willow. “Movie Movements That Defined Cinema: The Movie Brats.” Empire onLine. https://www.empireonline.com/movies/ features/movie-brats-movie-era/ Lewis, Jon. American Film: A History. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008.
Mast, Gerald, and Bruce F. Kawin. A Short History of the Movies. 11th edition. Boston:Longman, 2011.
Steinberg, Randy. "Theatrical Films." Encyclopedia of International Media andCommunications, Donald Johnston, Elsevier Science & Technology, 1st edition, 2003. Credo Reference.
Trailers
Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore (1974), dir. Martin Scorsese. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nf08x-Sk59Y (2:30) Ellen Burstyn.
Nine to Five (1980), dir. Colin Higgins. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= PVKTZ4CEM90 (2:16) Dolly Parton, Jane Fonda, Lily Tomlin.
All the President’s Men (1976), dir. Alan J. Pakula. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DC3YFyah_Yg (2:51) Robert Redford, Dustin Hoffman.
in these films, including
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2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), dir. Stanley Kubrick. https://www.youtube.com/ watch? v=oR e9y-bka0 (2:30) Keir Dullea, Gary Lockwood, William Sylvester, Daniel Richter.
Apocalypse Now (1979), dir. Francis Ford Coppola. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IkrhkUeDCdQ (3:48) Martin Sheen, Robert Duvall, Marlon Brando, Harrison Ford.
Star Wars (1976), dir. George Lucas. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=XHk5kCIiGoM (2:01) Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Alec Guinness.
Cinema 26 The 60s
The 60 something important time of transition in American film many Americans it stops going to the movies and started watching the new medium of television they’ve been around 10 years but has begun to rival film with his complex camera shots good Scripps young actors and really bring out new ways of telling a story much like cereal TV in the millennial. Has taken all three stations like AMC and Netflix to create long cereal longer films in the 1960s the 1960s challenge the output of Hollywood Hollywood not respond well to television in fact most of the major studios refuse to make a films for television and only reluctantly in the 1960s did film studios begin to partner with television stations to create a film that could be shown in both mediums many of the experiments crossing over from television to film created interesting hybrids in the two forms and some of the most interesting films in the 1960s use the television form to grade a fact and some of the of the 1960s use the television form to great effect many of these films in the 1960s again illustrate that society has changed that Madison Avenue in advertising has change the way we think and that we will be quickly becoming a consumer culture so of the films that took off in the 1960s here are some of the most popular ones that really had an impact.
The apartment (1960)
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The apartment from 1960 directed by Billy Wilder in written by Wilder and his his writer AL diamond created a really scathing portrait of American culture in the early 60s in the same way British films in the era had illustrated the problems in British society in the 1950s and the 1960s with his class conscious conscious style and society in the film generally a well-known and nice guy in films Frederick Murray plays a classic he’ll in the film there are three pathetic characters there is Jack Lemmon who is functioning as it is as minor role in a large company his corporate boss played by Fred Meyer brewery and Shirley McClain who is a rising actress the time who plays a lowly office girl who is a pine for the men’s affections in the film Jack Lemmon to court favor with his boss offered to loan his apartment to his boss on certain days of the week his boss played by his boss played by McMurray is a married man who is having an affair with Shirley McClain who is an office girl who falls madly in love with the older Fred McMurray Jack women at first feels no compulsion about loaning his apartment for his boss to use during the week to have a rendezvous with his lady love but overtime lemon character falls in love with the girl himself which creates complications for all the film deals the film deals with the issues of corporatism in America and how large businesses and large corporate raiders can have authority and power over peoples lives the individuals don’t have. The film is a lovely description of all the working class people in the hands of a very nasty old are more entitled people who are farther up on the food chain of American society the apartment is a great indictment of American culture and the disparity between the working class and the corporate leaders society it also illustrates that the corporate leaders of society are not better people just people with more entitlement and more money.
Psycho (1960)
Perhaps not seen as revolutionary at the time Alfred Hitchcock psycho from 1960 is probably one of the most revolutionary films of all time and certainly one of the most revolutionary films of the 1960s Hitchcock wanted to make a cheap horror film to cash in on the trend towards cheap horror films that were being shown in drive-ins and making millions of dollars for cheap exploited directors his studio Paramont did not want him to make a cheap horror film because he was a classic Director of classic Hollywood and he knew how to make really beautiful films Hitchcock did not see himself as part of the value system of upper class society and wanted to make films that were entertaining to all segments of society and that’s why he wanted to make a cheap horror film like psycho he chose the story of Ed Gein who was a important serial killer of the 1950s and his keys in Kansas and made headlines across the country distracted horror writer Robert block to write a novel about the egg in case entitled psycho about the the corrupted Norman Bates and his weird relationship with his mother Paramount objected to Hitchcock wishing to make a horror movie on such a lonely scale and simply refuse to back such a film. Hitchcock was insistent that he could make a great horror film and whatever budget he was given and he had already been directing a television show the Alford Hitchcock presents show for the last five years since 1955 a show that was a massive head and only can only ended after 10 years because he grew tired of doing hedge was not detoured from doing the film of his choice he had always been able to do really what he wanted in Hollywood he just had to find a means to do it so he prompted paramount his company to allow him to make the film if he would put up all of the money for the film Hitchcock actually mortgage his home in Beverly Hills to afford to be
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able to make the film he agreed to a very limited budget of $500,000 he agreed to ship the film in six weeks and he agreed to shoot the film he agreed to shoot the film using his television crew from his television show and he shot the entire film in black-and- white in six weeks using fairly unknown actors the largest actors in the cast were Janet Leigh who played the lead in the film and and a young up-and-coming actor Anthony Perkins who played the young and creepy Norman Bates. The film was shrouded in secrecy Hitchcock was worried that he was going to lose everything if the film was not successful Heist Hitchcock shrouded the film in secrecy and made sure that nobody told anything about the film while they were making it he used a special publicity campaign that said the film would be stronger than secrecy and that no one would be admitted to the film after the film began so that no one could give away the ending so this became a real cause célèbre for a lot of people watching the film that wanted to go see with the special secret film that Hitchcock it made was going to be like in the film Hitchcock also had the surprise of having the star of the film Janet Lee kill killed off in the first half of the film nobody knew the surprises that Hitchcock intended and nobody expected the graphic violence that Hitchcock provided in the film including a frightening shower see sequence and a frightening sequence inside the bathroom open till psycho there had never been a bathroom sequence really filmed in American film before so Hitchcock was striding into new territory with every sequence for psycho when the film arrived Hitchcock demanded that nobody allowed to be allowed in the film after the film after the film had begun the film was a smashing success and audiences around the world thrilled to Hitchcock psycho Hitchcock also made a deal with you Wasserman who was his age as a time and was also getting involved with universal studios a small studio that was in a growth phase Hitchcock it generally received a specific payment for a film but he made a new deal for the distribution of of psycho he agreed to pay all the cost for the film himself upfront and all Paramont had to deal with Hitchcock and Paramount like the arrangement because the studio didn’t have to pay any cost for the film Hitchcock paid all costs and then made all revenue off the film and then his agent Lew Wasserman a secured a deal with Hitchcock where he could obtain money for the film in stock in Universal and the Stock in Universal was growing at a rapid rate and Hitchcock became a very wealthy man immediately after he took stock instead of payment for a psycho universal by the mid-60s had become a major corporate after the success of Hitchcock of psycho Hitchcock never had to work again and basically psycho paid for all of the rest of the films that he would make during the decade and Hitchcock became so wealthy from the stockade purchase three universal they split many times that he didn’t really feel I need to work much after 1970 and only made a couple of films because he felt like making the films but frankly because he become so wealthy through the start of the universal it really change the way films were made in in the late 60s. West Side Story (1961)
Another influential head of the 1960s was west side story directed by by Robert wise who had been the engineer for a citizen Kane in 1941 W. side story was in the style of musical that included people in the downtown area of New York with warren gangs of Puerto Rican and white street gangs fighting for territory in the town. The film was based on Leonard Bernstein’s story that played on Broadway which was a music which was a musical retelling of Romeo and Juliet only featuring street gangs in the New York environment during the early 1960s when social unrest was brewing because more
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immigrants were moving into United States especially from Caribbean countries from Europe from Asia from South America and this social realism of the film really struck a chord with a lot of Americans who realize that a lot of Americans today were coming from different parts of the world than previously been seen before West side story was especially a big hit for young audiences who saw themselves and their diversity reflected in the film and the music was new and novel and featured a new style of American music that was much cheaper and was derived from jazz and Pop sounds unlike musicals in the 1940s and 50s that were conventional pop music.
Dr. no (1962)
In 1962 Terrence young directed one of the major hits in the 1960s the start of the big spike race it was a film entitled doctor know and was based on a novel by by Ian Fleming that starred a young Sean Connery an up-and-coming Scottish actor who had really not been in any major films before but it had the parts in a series of smaller movies that had debuted in the late 50s and early 60s immediately Sean Connery became the embodiment of influence the embodiment of Ian Fleming’s James Bond with his smooth ways with spies and his indomitable ways with women and his unflappable Waze with dangerous criminals the James Bond films might become bigger and better and better attended but Doctor No really set the template for all the James Bond films that were to follow they were action Epix about diabolical villains powerful superhero kind of characters and a strong strong melodrama
8 and 1⁄2 (1963)
International cinema was really becoming popular with American audiences and one of the big hits that was a worldwide hit from Italy and there are a lot of them Italian films that were becoming popular films in the 1950s and 60s was it filmed by Federico Fellini about the movie business itself and a movie Director play it played by Marcello Mastrianni the film was entitled 8 1⁄2 and it dealt with the idea of how film directors and Italians in Rome lead their lives during the profitable 60s when the film community in 8 1⁄2 Fellini shows a society in which everybody is in love with filmmaking and filmmakers and the filmmakers are living in a decadent society in which love sex bones drugs are common place in every day life. What the film wants to show is this horrible wife is an important part of Italian society but it’s not the only thing to live for that society must have deeper values and really wanted to make the point that filmmaking is a lot of fantasy and that yeah people get very involved in their fantasy life when they really should be involved in their day-to-day life with the people they love and the people that are interested in their life and being real people as opposed to movie stars making false artificial films
Dr. Strangelove (1964)
Stanley Kubrick’s 19 64 fours comedy Dr. Strangelove deals with the idea of nuclear annihilation through a mistaken command that a American plane go to Moscow and blowing up Kubrick this did not believe in the idea of nuclear war and did not think it was something to be worried about and made the film a comedy there had been a number of films about the dangers of nuclear war. In the 1950s Roger Corman and other directors and made a variety of films about about the dangers of nuclear radiation specifically in Rodger Corbins world without end which is a cheap and low budget science-fiction film which talks about life after the nuclear apocalypse in which people have been turned into zombies and in mutants by the nuclear radiation although
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Coremans films were laughing at the time a lot of people took the idea of nuclear annihilation seriously in 1959 Stanley Kramer produced one of his political Epix film called on the beach based on a popular novel by Neville shoot at the time on the beach deals with the story of the apocalypse of of the world coming to an end because there has already been a nuclear war and when nuclear sub basically reaches harbor in Australia and all the people they are just waiting for the tradewinds to carry nuclear radiation to Australian kill everyone who’s left on earth it’s a very dark and sobering film. In 1960 for sitting with me made a very serious film about nuclear war entitled failsafe in which buying electrical error a group of farmers in the strategic air command from the United States are given a mistake in mission to fly to Moscow in Bonn Moscow Laplatte avail safe is very dark in that the president must figure out how to deal with the political crisis of a plane that is mistakenly given the order to blow up Moscow what the president decides to do in the film is one of the most faithful moments in all films in the 1960s he tells the Russian ambassador if one plane gets ruined bombs I will send an American plane to blow up New York and of course that’s exactly what happens at the end of the film and it’s a very frightening film but Stanley Kubrick did not see the idea of nuclear war is frightening he saw this comical and then the film Dr. Strangelove he has the character played by Peter Sellers play the president ate a British lieutenant and even Dr. Strangelove in the film and then his multiple roles in the film Peter Sellers excels at making fun of the concept of nuclear war the film is a parity of what would happen if an American plane was sent to Russia to launch a nuclear attack and even at the end of the film slim Pickens who plays the commander of the American playing can’t get the bombs are dropped so in the end he has to jump on the bomb himself and write it down into Moscow himself to actually caused the nuclear Armageddon. Although it’s a funny film it’s also a very silly film but it also makes you think about the issue of nuclear war and how nuclear work affect the entire world
A hard Day’s night (1964)
What are the most impressive musicals in the 1960s is a hard days night featuring the Beatles it is a film that was created very quickly after the Beatles appeared on and celebrate in February 1964 the producers of the film wanted to cash in on the group quickly because nobody thought the Beatles would last so they wanted to film out quickly assuming the Beatles might have a six month lifespan well of course the film was put together in March and April and the script is written in the film began production in May and was released literally April and was literally released in June 1964 so the entire film from idea to filming to editing to actual released to theaters took Wesson six months and was a remarkable success for all involved the Beatles were natural comedians and were very very funny in the film the script was very good and gave the Beatles some very funny biting lines where they could make fun of their working class origins and talk about working class structure in England that the Beatles in Millie Lynn through and The Beatles literally the Beatles had the opportunity to play themselves a group of four working class musicians who were working in the British music industry at a time when British music was taking off in the world audience. The work of Richard last year the Director was exceptional in which he included in the film examples of his cinema style that he learned directing commercials in England he put the Beatles in jump cuts he used a rapid fire style editing he used a close-up shots he was black and
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white film he use jump in musicals of the 1940s and 50s people with simply burn burst in the song inappropriately in the Beatles a hard days night the Beatles were literally sing like they were a rock group singing a song on TV or in rehearsal getting ready to perform in a live performance so everything in the film seems like a natural relationship to the actual environment the Beatles were in and the film still makes enormous sense the audiences that watch it and understand the Beatles are a group of working musicians playing songs they are working on for the film as they’re filming the film Good Bad and the Ugly (1966)
The good the bad and the ugly from 1966 was the third of a trilogy of films created by Italian directors Surgi surgery Sergio Leone and the only light making Italian films that were modeled on American westerns but with of course some of the elements of the Italian cinema the 1960s longshots major vistas many of these films were shot in Spain Clint Eastwood who have been in American television star from Rawhide became an international hero in these films starting with a fist full starting with a fist full of dollars a few dollars more and finally the epic the good the bad and the ugly a three hour western epic from the 1966 era and featuring a lively performance from Clint Eastwood and beautiful camerawork and marvelous iconic directions from Sergio the only the Director of the film. The film was popular with young audiences who liked the ideas of the American western translated into in Italian and Internet idiom.
Bonnie and Clyde (1967)
Bonnie and Clyde produced by Robert town the writer and author pan the Director and actor Warren Beatty in 1967 was a brand new style of film created from the ideas of the French new wave town and pan used our jump cuts in the film that didn’t really make sense the way old-fashioned American films used cutting but we’re completely essential to the rhythm and the methods of Bonnie and cried. Bonnie and Clyde in real life for two 1930s outlaws who were disturbingly our universe disturbing the wall is people who eventually were assassinated by the police who were afraid of them and were afraid that they were rallying the people to their cars because of the depression and because of of prohibition a lot of Americans did not like their government and rebelled against the government and sided with criminals in the 1920s and 30s. Al Kapone al Kapone was considered the fuck hero to a lot of Americans in Bonnie and Clyde with they’re wicked ways were also considered a heroic young people to a lot of Americans. But the film also doubt with criminal Association of beautiful people and Bonnie and Clyde played by Warren Beatty and fade Dunaway in the movie or two very young people who have a glamorous luck and many ways in the film we are told not to hate them but I love them because they are beautiful and they are rebuilding they are rebelling against a society that is old and decadent and what Bonnie and Clyde stand for is the ruthlessness and lawlessness of youth and in the film we get to see a lot of Bonnie and Clyde including their sexual dysfunction cry doesn’t seem to really be terribly sexually attracted to Bonnie and therefore they’re there romance is blunted in more ways than one Robert town writing the script influenced by influenced by the French new wave provides very very little dialogue to cover the deeper issues the film such as sexual dysfunction and such as lawlessness and how it plays a role in American society however the film has enormous Lee graphic visual effects including up to that time the longest on on stage shoot out using gunfire of any film either. Warren Beatty becomes an action star because of the film and they done away becomes a
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overnight success the film also makes stars in Estelle Parsons who wins an Oscar for best supporting female actress and Gene Hackman who plays Clyde Barrow’s tomb older brother but borrow it is a riveting and disturbing film filled with violence film with gun play and film with a wicked sense of humor about the depression about how American society sees poverty and wealth.
In the Heat of the night (1967)
Norman Jewison since 1967 racial prejudice film in the heat of the night deals with a Philadelphia African-American policeman played by Sidney Poitier who confronts a southern racist sheriff played by Rod Steiger in a drama that deals with prejudice against people of color in the south while the two women are trying to solve a murder case it is one of the earliest films to feature an app it is really early films to feature an African-American as a leading performer Sydney Poitier had rocketed to fame in 1963 as the star boys in the field about an African-American laborer who helps a group of German nuns in the Arizona desert create a church he had continued his success with a series of films and this was the first film in which he directly dealt with the issue of racial prejudice in the south plane opposite a white character who is clearly a victim a victim of his own prejudices.
The Producers (1967)
Also in 1967 Mel Brooks has his first major success as a Director with a little film called the producers a comedy about a very warped subject and the producers a group of Broadway producers decide to make a film the day to make a play that they think will be a sure fire loser the goal is that they will have so much insurance on the play that the play will be sure to make money for them even even after the play falls the subject a pic to assure that the play will be a massive failure is a comedy about Adolf Hitler the play is entitled Springtime for Hitler in Germany and they’re even songs entitled Springtime for Hitler in Germany and the idea is that the play will be so offensive to audiences in New York many of whom of course would’ve either remembered World War II might be Jewish might have lost family members in the holocaust that everyone will find them that audiences will find a place so abominable that the play will close overnight despite their best efforts to craft a losing play the producers here played by Gene Wilder a great comedy actor of the 60s 70s and 80s and zero Mostel who has been a great comedy actor in the 50s 60s and 70s discover that despite their best efforts to make a loser play the play has become a massive six the play success creates all kinds of problems for the producers because of course they don’t want to glorify the reign of Hitler and the horrors that he perpetrated on the world and of course they don’t want to profit from a play about Hitler but their entire scheme was to craft a play that would lose money and now they are discovering they have crafted a play that will probably make the money the play is very funny and the film of the players very funny the producers is a very odd film in there as a the Prius is a very odd film is it is there is a film about a group of Broadway producers trying to produce a play and then later in the 1990s the film of the presence is remade into an actual play on Broadway and actually becomes a popular head play on Broadway in the 90s and then of course for things to go full circle the film of the play version of the producers is produced in the early millennium. So so literally the producers deals with the eye deals with the idea of a film about the making of a play that becomes a play about the making of a play there is then translated finally into a film about the making of a play again.
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Planet of the Apes (1968)
1968 science-fiction films began to become popular again and planet of the apes based on a novel by pure boredom who had written also bridge in the River Kwai was produced by Anthony Schaeffer and the film illustrates a group of astronauts they have crash Landing on the planet that is run by a group of apes what they don’t realize is that their own society over the years has evolved into a structure in which eighths of the dominant species and humans are inferior species species the film portrays the problems of humans and apes getting along and is it in Leavelle reference two the political struggles of the civil rights movement in the mid 60s if you think about it in 1968 the United States was on fire with race riots across the nation Martin Luther King had been associated and Robert Kennedy was assassin is not long afterwards America was filled with violent acts and there was no way that Americans could live in peace and harmony in that environment.
2001 (1968)
1968 also gave us another science-fiction film that was revolutionary Stanley Kubrick’s 1968S a space opera lavishly produced in photographs of 2001 a space Odyssey based on a short story by RTC Cork who was a science fiction writer who is deeply invested in the realities of science. In the film the astronauts on board a mission to Jupiter realize realize that their computer how he’s not acting properly and he’s becoming a sentient being and wants to make decisions without the interference of humans in the film the idea of the singularity is is discussed and the concept of perhaps an alien species helping humans or helping the the human race on earth to become sentient thinking beans is explored in complex and thrilling ways there a long passages of beautiful movements in wow large parts of 2001 a space Odyssey are simply a space opera or a journey or a travel log through space the film is also an interesting investigation of man’s destiny in the future and how men will utilize space travel as a way to evolve the human species and the film is long but very beautiful to watch.
Night of the Living Dead (1968)
The other major film about prejudice in 1968 is George Romero’s low budget $150,000 film production of the living dead shot in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. Romero wanted to talk about the racial divide in Pittsburgh where the north side was all African- American people on the southside was all white people and he use the metaphor zombies to do a great job of describing the problem. The film as one of the very first films to have a black protagonist and certainly one of the first films they have a black protagonist in a horror film the hero of the film survives the night and protects the girl from the zombies and realizes that he save them from the fate of being eaten eaten by zombies in the morning sees farmers with shotguns finishing up the zombies he runs out to tell them that he save the girl and protected everybody and in the end they shoot him and kill him so the film is really a thinly veiled metaphor about racial disharmony in the 1960s
Easy rider (1969)
Easy Rider is one of the pivotal films of 1969 and jobs with a two motorcycle riding guys who want to avoid the structures of living in a town environment or living under the laws of provincial small people in small towns played by Peter Fonda and Dennis Hopper the characters of easy Rider are simply freewheeling Americans who
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want to be left alone to pursue their own course of action along the way they pick up a lawyer played by Jack played by jack Nicholson who also wants to be a free wheeling American and along the way they made violent police and violent other gangs who are hostile to their free loving free riding ways eventually Nicholson is killed the performances by finder Hopper and Nicholson or emblematic of the new style of youth oriented American film motorcycle films films about the American frontier and films about American lifestyles that is a color cultural film directed by Dennis Hopper and Peter Fonda Young people who identified with music and identified with the free wheeling lifestyle of people riding motorcycles as a way of life who is a part of the new style of film that was dealing with an alternative American lifestyles counter cultural lifestyles music youth culture bike riders and people that didn’t fit comfortably in the categories in American culture and signaled the birth of the counter culture is a real alternative lifestyle in American culture in the 1960s and 70s.
Cinema 24 Technological cinema
The end of the Millennium
The years from 1988 until 2000 were years of relative calm in American society. President George H. W. Bush was a far more moderate republican than his predecessor Ronald Reagan and President Clinton had the largest surplus and reduction in American debt during the century. Unemployment was low and the economy strong and no foreign wars haunted the country. Progress seemed to be occurring in race relations and the Soviet union collapsed, the Berlin Wall was torn down, Berlin and Germany were reunited, Isrealis and Arabs looked ready to sign a peace accord over the Palestinian territories and Clinton sent George Mitchell to hammer out a deal to fix fighting in Northern Ireland. American foreign policy was successful, welfare had been replaced by workfare and poorer Americans had seen real wages rise for the first time in over a quarter of a century. By all accounts thins were looking up.
Technological film. JFK
Borrowing cues from the French new wave Oliver Stone produced a controversial film revisiting the Kennedy assassination nearly thirty years after it occurred. With a star
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studded cast, Stone questioned the official record of the Kennedy assassination and suggested a barrage of theories of who really killed the president. The film used rapid MTV editing, a theis and anti thesis format to probe the results of the investigation and dynamic leads from Kevin Costner, Joe Pesci and Sissy Spacek. The film fueled renewed speculation about the honesty of the American government and was wildly entertaining.
Silence of the Lambs
Owing to tour de force performances by British veteran Anthony Hopkins, Scott glenn and Jodie Foster, Joanthan demme’s Silence of the lambs single handedly rebirthed slasher thriller films. A few years later Demme would do one of the first features about the AIDS crisis, Philadelphia, about a young victim of the AID crisis and his treatment by the legal system starring Tom Hanks.
Terminator II
James Cameron followed his action spectaculars Terminator and Aliens with Terminator two, a sequel that used many new technological improvements in computer generated film and ushered in tech heavy science fiction films. Cameron followed with the Abyss, True Lies and Titanic having a superb run of hits during the decade. Cameron was an early advocate of more tech and his films had a strong visual sheen, if progressively empty acting and plots.
Jurassic Park
Based on Michael Chrichton’s science fiction novel Spielberg’s Jurassic park wedded chaos theory, genetic manipulation, dinosaurs, paleontology with econlogical messages about the value of all life including animal life to the planet’s survival. The film also featured impressive improved sound with thunderous Tyrannosaurus that surpassed anything previously committed to the screen. Spielberg delivered a knockout set of action sequences with intelligent dinosaurs, plotting acting in tandem and opening doors. Now cgi characters had sentience. The films pace, lively script, charming performers, and clever conclusion mesmerized audiences.
Forrest Gump
Despite director Robert Zemekis’ determinedly conservative view of 50 years of American history (Gump never criticizes Vietnam, Gump serves loyally and quietly, penny and the black panthers and or anyone who criticizes American foreign policy either dies as a rebel or dies of aids or is a drug user, Gump’s only political pronouncement is that’ stuff happens’ or ‘life is like a box of chocolates.’ American achievements are seen only as progressive and good. There is no criticism of prejudice or other aspects of society), the fable and fairy tale of Forrest gump is a pleasant departure for American film towards magical realism. Gump magically loses his leg braces and learns to walk. Despite his limited IQ he becomes a hero a leader and an avatar. The film provides a winsome if vastly untrue portrait of mid 20th century culture. It also uses technology successfully 9like woody allen’s Zelig to merge characters from the past and present into a common place.
Toy Story
Part of Disney’s efforts to dominate and monopolize the film industry and implant the Disneyfication of American culture into the minds of all, working with Steve Jobs, Pixar, and animator John Lassiter, Disney produces the first feature length cartoon film using fully computer capability to make clever, sophisticated and joyful characters in
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woody and Buzz lightyear. Toy Story was the first film fully created digitally and it spelled the eventual demise of physical mechanical film culture. At a time when most computers might not even possess a gig of full memory, Lassiter and his crew linked together hundreds of computers to create the power needed to process 90 minutes of digital animation. The film was a massive success, Disney bought Pixar from Jobs, and secured him so much positive press that his old company, apple hired him back and he created the revamped company that still is one of the most successful firms in America’s technological history. Toy Story lauched toy story two that was an early example of digital distribution of film and birthed an era of Disney Pixar production that stretch to this day.
Run lola run
1998 was an eventful year for tech in film. Tom Twyker’s run Lola run was 90 minutes of watching Fram Potenke run scream and emote her way through a blazing philosophical action film utilizing the Hegalian dialectic. Lola works by threes. Fist she attempts, then she revises her plan and then she synthesizes various ideas to arrive at a successful solution. Lola is fun to watch with animated segments and a simple plot. Lola has 20 minutes to find 100,000 marc for his boyfriend Manni who owes money to the mob and must pay up or die. Lola is on the run to help and Tywker poses many philosophical quandries for our red headed hero.
Phantom Menace
Marred by some racist ideas of a flippant Jar Jar Binks, evil Arab looking aliens and Asian sounding conspirators, and featuring only white anglo heroes in the boy, Ewen Macgregor’s Obi wan and Liam Neeson’s Jedi warrior, still the much maligned film brought back star wars and now converted the action to a virtual synthesized playing field with digital robots and powerful effects.
The Matrix
Dealing again with notions of false consciousness and the notion that the people have been fooled regarding the real nature of reality, the Matrix challenged people who believed in conspiracy theories to get out and fight the power. The concept of the red pill and blue pill became themes in hundreds of stories and Neo’s awakening and mergence in the real world was a revealing look at a culture of consumption and no deeper values. The real miracle of Matric was the use of stop motion high speed cameras hat allowed filmmakers to manipulate anything in time and space and to suspend motion and battles anywhere.This corresponded to action films like Chinese martial arts movies where strings and lifts could suspend fighters in the air for minutes. The film also deals with ideas of surrealism.
Terms
CGI: CGI was a process of animation conducted inside a computer in which a computer produced animated tweened shots in between drawn animated moments in a film. This greatly reduced the amount of drawing needed and freed animators to work on key scenes, set ups and character design.
Bullet time: bullet time was a speeded up use of camera speeds so that many effect seemed to suspend time character could hang in the air while fighting in compsotied shots where one image progressed and another brackground or foreground image lingered.
Films:
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Demme, Jonathan. “Silence of the Lambs.” (1991) Spielberg, Steven. “Jurassic Park.’ (1993) Wachokski Sisters. “The Matrix.’ (1998) Readings:
Filmsite. Films of the nineties.
https://www.filmsite.org/90sintro.html
Roberts, Kayleigh. “Film of the Nineties.” Marie Claire.
https://www.marieclaire.com/culture/g22520389/best-90s-movies/
28 cinema
foreign film recently
The Four aspects of modern world style:
Magical Realism
It is nearly impossible to describe modern foreign film because of its incredible diversity and wild swings in style and theories several things come to mind immediately first many of the films that are existing today in the international cinema participate in the style known as magical realism magical realism is a style that merges our reality with aspects of magic or the unreal. Among such films are Guillermo Del Toro’s pans labyrinth or the shape of water or Lars Von Trier’s melancholia but magical realism isn’t just a style or a way of mixing fantasy with reality it’s a way of interrogating the reality we live in and determining whether the reality we believe to be true is as true as the reality that we find in dreams fairytales and alternative planets.
Postmodern Methodology
A second quality we find in modern European and Asian film and South American film and a Australian film and film from across the globe is a tendency to embrace post modern concerns. Search films are involved with meta-referentiality. That is these are
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films that comment on filmmaking itself and often comment within the film on themselves.
Direct Address
A third quality that distinguishes these films is the ability of many of these films to to address the audience directly and to make the film a statement about the actual Director or a tourist view of what’s going on. This sense of self directed a tour author direct address to the audience is nothing new but it seems more pronounced in modern films where the fourth wall is it just broken often times it doesn’t seem to exist.
Idiosyncratic Films for a Constrained World
A fourth and final quality of these modern European world films is the sense of decorum or the sense of standards of any kind whether it be violence or social morays or religion or standards of conduct or beliefs systems seem to be totally and completely often times abandon. The world becomes a personal place where a person makes their own decisions against a very corrupt and unusual and unyielding world that tries to contain the individual in all of these films the individual tends to be up against powerful infrastructure’s that tend to restrain and confine people but throughout almost all of these films individuals seem to find a way to succeed and thrive in a world order in which individuality is often Hamden forgotten or sacrificed.
Neo-classics
Frankly it’s too early to tell if some of the films from Europe in the last 20 years are actually classics or just notable experiments. However many of the films coming from Europe and Asia are extremely experimental and extremely fun to watch because they offer different takes on reality than things we have found in American films. These are some of the notable foreign films from the last 20 years that I’ve had an impact on international cinema and have been widely enjoyed not only for their stories and entertainment value but for their sense of experimentation.
Amelie (2001)
First is Jean Pierre Jeunet first is Jean Pierre Jhené’s 2001 film family. Emily is a romantic comedy about a eccentric young woman who desires to make everyone’s life around her as attractive and beautiful as she imagines her life to be. All the way is a do- gooder who wants the word rest of the world to be as quirky and as fun-loving as she is weird.
Happy Go Lucky (2008)
A second feature in this style of film is the 2008 film happy go lucky a British film featuring the plucky sally Hawkins who is a joy in every film she is in. In the film Hawkins is an attractive young kindergarten teacher who lives a carefree life hobnobbing in the clubs at night and working hard by day. She doesn’t take life too seriously and doesn’t expect too much from life but she attends to have a good time while doing good for others. She transports herself around town using mass transit but she decides that she should learn to drive and obtain a car. She finds herself in the hands of the world grumpiest driving instructor and she finds herself constantly being rated for her bad driving and lackadaisical attitude. Hopkins takes this provocation as an opportunity to enlighten her instructor and to transform his life and make him a happier person it’s part of a charming group of movies that are about people that are normally better than people normally are.
Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon (2001)
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Ang Lee’s provocative 2001 film crouching Tiger hidden Dragon is a delightful surprise. Posing as your typical martial arts film providing great starring vehicles for Cholla in fat and Michelle Yeoh the film develops into something more. I love story about honor and redemption through the art in and attractiveness of martial arts fighting. People have often criticized Chinese martial arts films for their lack of sensibility but here the very talented Lee and his cast pull off a minor miracle by making a martial arts film a deeply philosophical film of action in the act of doing good for a cause that is worth more than life itself.
Amour (2009)
Amor (2009) is another striking film by Michael hen key it is a film about a husband who is taking care of his wife who has had a stroke. It is a reaffirmation of the idea of love and hanky actually makes the idea of caring for someone who is disabled very endearing and charming and it’s gentle and loving subject is attractive to all audiences City of God (2002)
Fernando morales Catia ones 2002 film city of God is excruciating in watching children navigating through the city of Rio de Janeiro where crime and corruption is rampant. There are more action sequences watching children run through the streets of this city in danger from all sides than there are in all of the fast and furious films put together. An absolute miracle of action sequences set with children in an area where we don’t think children should be and we don’t think of the world as being a hostile place but in the city of God everything is dangerous and everything is exciting.
Spirited Away (2001)
Hayao Miyazaki’s spirited away from 2001 is certainly one of the most provocative and entertaining anime films ever made my sake makes a fable about a family on vacation in which the parents are translated into animals and the daughter must do service and servitude to save them and redeem them back to this world. The term spirited away means literally that ghosts and demons coexist with us and some of the demons inside ourselves must be dealt with to bring people back to the world and to bring the world back from the brink.
The Lives of Others (2006)
In 2006 the lives of others directed by foreign Henkel made a deeply powerful impact on the world by describing the horrific practices of surveillance by the east German secret police during the era of the east German communist takeover of east Germany. In the film a conscientious east German policeman survey Survey is the wife and ongoing daily struggles of a couple that are suspected of being spies or insurgence by the police what the policeman discovers is that the most corrupt thing in east Germany is the east German government in the east German secret police something that even he can’t live with by the end of the film a powerful film and a powerful indictment of surveillance culture in any culture as in Porten today as it was as it was when it was first released a powerful film. When are the academy award for best foreign film in 2006.
Oldboy (2003)
Some films just benefit from old fashion violent action and that’s what happens in old boy by part-time walks in 2003 film with a lot of swagger and some knockdown drag out parts that just make you want to cheer for the wonderful violence in action that is portrayed not just a film for guys who like action and martial arts movies but I film about tolerance and intolerance of life and what one is willing to do to stay free free in a
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society that wishes to a press and hold you down. A tonic for all people who enjoy strong good violent action films.
Pan’s Labyrinth (2006)
Pans labyrinth is one of the most horrific fables of recent years. Released in 2006 Guillermo Del Toro’s startling film about a little girls fantasy life in a labyrinth of magical creatures focused during the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s illustrates the horrific barbarity and cruelty of the Spanish Civil War and how Spanish people were horrifically violent and cruel to each other and how even children weren’t safe or protected from the violence of life in such a culture enormously important film about history in the 20th century about man’s cruelty to man about faith and believe in spirits about the interaction of the supernatural and the magical in every day life and certainly one of the great vindication of the style of magical realism in modern day film. Del Toro has read has remained one of the principal filmmakers of Central and South America and one of the best filmmakers working in worlds Cinema today.
In the Mood for Love (2000)
Wong car weighs 2000 love story in the mood for love was a remarkable romance between two people who are neighbors who realize that their spouses have been having an affair. What makes the film memorable is that every action every new ones every glance every touch every eye-movement is catalog in the film as important and you have to watch every nuance of every character to understand what is truly going on a remarkable film.
Terms
Magical Realism: Films and media where elements of the real are merged with the unreal, fantasy or ghostly elements. The mixture is often uneven
Postmodern media: Media that arrives after 1960 which accelerates the themes of modernism: experimentation, collaging the past and present, provoking originality or eschewing originality for a parody of pastiche of contemporary or past media.
Films:
Lars Von Trier: Melancholia (2011)
Joe Wright: Pride and Prejudice (2005)
Boon Jung Ho: The Host (2006)
Guillermo Del Toro: Blade II (2002)
Readings:
Canet, Fernando. “The New Realistic Trend in Contemporary World Cinema: Ramin Bahrani’s Chop Shop as a Case Study.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279280988_The_New_Realistic_Trend_i n_Contemporary_World_Cinema_Ramin_Bahrani%27s_Chop_Shop_as_a_Case_ Study
Stone, Rob. “World Cinema between the rock of the unknowable and the hard place of the as yet unknown.” https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25785273.2021.1873572
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Cinema 30 Horror
There are many genres in films that are really popular with audiences and have been since the beginning of film and one of the most popular genres was the horror film. The genre began with the beginnings of film in the early 20th century and has remained a popular idiom for film for the last 120 years. The first horror films were based on literary genres such as F W Murnau’s Nosferatu from 1922 which was based on Dracula but Bram Stoker’s widow refused to sell the rights to Murnau. Bram Stoker have been a literary agent working in England in the 1890s. His widow was reluctant to sell his famous masterpiece to a German Director because the British had just been through a very brutal World War with the Germans.
Early horror
The early literary forms of horror where they were based on many bad things that happened in Victorian times. Dracula was the image of all the bad things visited upon British society at the time. One of the great fears in British society was not just the scourge of vampirism, but economic vampirism by large companies. Some people in England were getting very rich at the expense of a lot of other people who were getting progressively poor over the time. Dracula also discussed new woman who had freedom of movement, had more power to navigate society alone. Women were changing things and making men uncomfortable and uncertain. Dracula himself had a certain feminized quality in that he was very mysterious. We rarely see him clearly. He continually changes as he becomes more beautiful obtaining nutrition from drinking more blood and nourishing himself. Then we see the growth of the feminist literary aspect of society.
There is a growth in special effects. Actors like lon Chaney develop complex makeups to play bizarre characters like the Phantom of the Opera or The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Films like Fritz Lang’s Metropolis are reliant on special effects to impact audiences. Then in the twenties and thirties universal horror in the United States makes all these literary characters film characters including Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1931) Dracula (1932) the werewolf of London (1936 ) the wolf man (1940 ). These filmsevolve into more scientific horrors including King Kong (1935) the invisible man (1935) and characters born of scientific mistakes.
Atomic Monsters
Following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 the film community began to envision more monsters from the sky and more monsters born of nuclear energy. At the same time war made the world more fearful of adversaries from the stars. The fifties began with a series of monsters from the stars. John W. Campbell, a science fiction editor from the thirties had written a story entitled, “Who goes there?” about an alien who attacks an arctic base. Howard Hawks bought the property and produced an early gruesome horror tale of men isolated from society and fighting a creature that was hard to kill. The story was even more frightening but Hawks crew had to eliminate nearly thirty minutes of footage because it was deemed too disturbing. The fifties brought lots of monsters created by nuclear energy. There was Them which brought giant ants to ravage los Angeles. The Incredible Shrinking man had a man shrunk to mouse size by
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an atomic cloud. More horrors came from space. In War of the worlds, H. G. Welles nineteenth century classic was modernized as a martian invasion in contemporary times.
Science and Poe
In the late fifties paranoia about science and invasions increased. In the fly the scientist is trying to transmute matter and ends up merging his atoms with a fly. Separating the fly parts from his DNA is no simple matter. Just as frightening was Invasion of the Body Snatchers in which pods from space transformed people into pod people. In the US, Roger Corman embarked on a series of films inspired by Edgar allen Poe. First, there was the Fall of the House of Usher, then The Premature Burial, the Pit and Pendulum, Ligeia and Tales of Terror. Corman focused on classic horror actors such as Vinent Price, boris Karloff, Basil Rathbone and Peter Lorre. Corman’s films were part camp, part thrills and part Poe’s romanticism.
In England, a small struggling studio, Hammer films determined to revive the classic monsters of Universal’s catalogue. By the forties the universal catalogue became comedies with Abbot and Costello meet Frankenstein. The thrill had gone. To revive the universal catalogue the Hammer studios wishedto reinvent classic horror and reinvigorate the characters that had lost their edge. Using a younger generation of British character actors they began with Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee in a revised Curse of Franenstein with many new additions. The films were in technicolor, attractive women, and gore were more apparent. England did not suffer from the Production code and English films were able to show more violence more blood and more nudity. These graphic films were popular with youthful audiences in England in America at drive-in features. Hammer followed the film with Horror of Dracula. Hammer’s vampires were smooth, attractive and seductive. Women did not mind being biten by a count that was sexy and alluring. In 1960’s Dracula sequel, Brides of Dracula, Hammer went further evoking deeper psychological and Freudian interpretations of the vampire. Baron Meister, the anti-hero at the center of Brides is a nobleman influenced by Dracula who not only carnally recruits a series of female brides but he even transforms his mother via the carnal embrace of vampirism. This beckoned comparisons to Freud’s Oedipus complex. Later in the film he seeks to recruit Van Helsing by biting him which suggests a homosexual subtext.
In the sixties, Robert Wise delivered one of the most psychologically frightening films of the era, The Haunting based on Shirley Jackson’s the Haunting of Hill House. In Wise’s version the character played by Julie Harris is lonely and wants to be loved and finds love from the ghosts in a haunted house. In the seventies the supernatural turned religious in William Peter Blatty’s The Exorcist based on exorcisms performed in the early twentieth century. Swedish actor Max Von Sydow became an international sensation as Father Merrin fighting Evil demons. The late seventies brough slashers to the screen with Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Friday the thirteenth, Nightmare on elm Street, and the Halloween films. Though aimed at teen audiences these films pointed to underlying anxieties in United State culture. People feared dreaming, people feared loneliness, and people feared their own families in these films. Anxieties undergirded lots of films marketed in the United States.
At the end of the millennium, Japansee horror such as Ringu, Shutter, and Hju- on (the Grudge) debuted and frightened world audiences. The characters in the
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Japanes e horror films were often women , they often had long hair, many of the protagonists were dead or related to dead characters. These characters had been traumatized. Their characters had been victimized and many times the dead characters were not so much evil as much as troubled.
Today many horror films such as It Follows explores the metaphor of horror as a disease. In it follows a girl has sex and the act of sex curses her with a a spirit that follows her and inhabits all who she has some sexual contact. Scarlett Johannson’s Under the Skin explores an alien that can only understand humans be intercourse and this ritual kills her human partner/victims. Birdbox and Don’t Breathe deal with sensory killers. I Birdbox seeing attract monsters that can kill. In don’t Breathe making any noise can attract killing mysterious alien creatures. Some horrors have become deeply biological. In John Carpenter’s clever and gory rmake on the Thing the monsters emulate people and become them. It is not even clear if the people realize they have been replaced by an alien presence, In Jennifer’s Body the attractive body of a girl is a lure to destroy those lured by physical beauty.
Horror has also taken on a cyber identity. In William Gibson’s Johnny Mnenomic the character plugs his brain in like a massive hard drive. In Ex Machina, a scientist wants to know if the robot he has created can think or is she simply imitating human behavior. In Replicas, Keanu reeves is rebirthing his family as clones because he killed the genuine items in a car crash. In the lawnmower man by Stephen king a intellectually deficit young man is given expanded intellectual power by a computer which transforms him into a menace.
Hunchback of Notre Dame
Perhaps some of the best horror films celebrate humanity. Charles Laughton’s 1939 performance in the Hunchback of Notre Dame is a portrayal of a character that Is disgusted and ashamed of himself. In the end he loses the girl Esmeralda to a handsome young man and he is left all alone in the church, one of the saddest ending scenes in all film, to be ugly distorted and alone is perhaps the worst fate of all.
The Curse of the Cat People
The cat people films deal with people who are aware they might transform but are haunted bt the knowledge and they don’t want to be strange, different or some exotic creature. These films are disturbing because they deal with the characters fear and uncertainty about their origins and purpose in the universe.
Alien
A character only bent on murder and exterminating anything in its path is frightening. The alien in alien is bent on survival by murdering everone in his path. Terms
Freudian horror: Freudian horrors are drawn from repressed fears in the mind.
. Used in cinema as photographic film stock.
Films:
Neumma, Kurt: the Fly (1958)
Hitchcock, Alfred: Psycho(1960)
Readings:
Gelder, Ken. The horror reader. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ubnEyBh3tegC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=a
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rticles+on+horror+films&ots=5SUcwufgkF&sig=OA0Kxkd- _JwyCusoWqiZ_9bYQQs#v=onepage&q=articles%20on%20horror%20films&f=false
Cinema 31
lars von trier
One of the gloomiest Danish directors of all time is a character named Lars von Trier TRIER. Mars volunteer has created a group of very shocking and defiant films that started back in the 1980s and continue to the present day this year he just turned 65 and his films have been provocative from the beginning until the present day some of his films deal with extremely shocking subject matter are you in a lot of audiences might consider his subject matter shocking or perhaps almost pornographic but Lars von tour is an important artist who has been nominated for Oscars has won the Cannes film festival has had a variety of films filmed in this country with American actors like Nicole Kidman with European actors like Björk the singer with actors like John heard from England Stellan Skarsgård Lauren Bacall he’s active with such a wide range of people doing a wide range of people doing such interesting films that he’s very hard to ignore and his films have taken place over a 30 year. And whenever there’s one arriving it’s always a major event to come and take a look at large mentors work.
Anti-christ
Mini films by Larsmont tour are very disturbing and difficult to watch one of his most important films is a film entitled anti-Christ and he deals with ideas religion and transgression and horrible events in at a husband and wife while making love disregard their child climbs out a window and falls out of window and dies the wife of courses stricken with grief about this event because she feels she wasn’t vigilant and then we began to go through a series of psychotherapy and the woman becomes more
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deranged and violent events take place in sexual encounters take place and attempted murders take place and eventually there is a resolution that is extremely violent of the film a lot of people simply cannot watch the Mars one tours films because of the excessive amounts of gruesome violence and irrational behavior in them but in the end it antichrist there are lots of symbols that perhaps the woman or the man or some other creature represent the antichrist in the film and all the terrible things he just shows this all of these events and asked us to think for ourselves about such a Vance.
Dancer in the dark
Another disturbing and symbolic laws run tour film is dancer in the dark star in the the Icelandic singer of Björk and your plays a check immigrant living in the United States who is losing her eyesight and she works at a very modest factory and she has a son whom she is afraid will also lose her eyesight find me one of the people working in the factory accuses her of stealing things and there is a confrontation in a fight and of course murder and death so a suggestion in the film of how people act and get along together and sometimes how they don’t act and get along together and how society suffers from the fact that people can’t learn to get along together and have decent lives as a unit as a society so dance in the dark is very important but there are some very beautiful moments when your character is is dancing by herself in the darkness because she can’t see anymore and there are some very tragic moments that are illustrated by Larsmont tour in that very a gross and graphic moment in the film when these things occur
Dogville
All of Larsmont Tours films are very weird one of the weirdest of them all is 2003 Starkville starring Nicole Kidman in a wide ranging cast of players John heard Stellan Skarsgård Lauren Bacall James Caan all players playing on a stage the plot concerns grace a character who is hiding out from the mob because she has seen a murder and the Marlboro looking for her so she comes to Dogtown and everyone she encounters in the town has some sort of mean they are mean to Grace and over and over again she tries to assert herself and have a wife but the people of God will make that very difficult eventually a group of mobsters actually come to the town and when Grace meets them we discovered that Grace is not wanted by the mall because she had seen witnessed a murder she was wanted by the mall because she is the daughter of one of the mobsters so she argues with her father for a moment and realizes that the only thing is the town will understand Power in violence so she everybody else in the town very weird film very weirdly staged on a stage but in a strange film to watch an interesting example why respond tours strange aesthetics
Breaking the waves
Perhaps one of Larsmont Tours most popular films in one that was nominated for several Oscars in this country was 1996 is breaking the waves starring Emily Watson the British actress and Stellan Skarsgård as her husband in it her husband is an oil worker in an oil rig in the North Sea oil rig area in working for British Petroleum in an accident on the oil rig he is hit with a chain when they’re drilling into the water to find oil and heat and he is horribly hurt and damaged and crippled and unable to move and has lost all mobility because of the horrible damage and he tells his wife to leave him that he’s no good to her anymore and she can’t have a relationship of any kind with him and he just wants to be left alone to die. So his wife goes out into the town outside where
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they live and she is not mentally very well. So in her mind she feels that somehow she has sinned and in some sort of fabulous way with some sort of allegorical manner if she feels the only way she can redeem herself and redeem her husband because a person is that she must go out and sacrifice herself and the way she decides to do that is to have sex with tons of men just to punish her self and punish your body it’s not out of enjoyment it’s not to obtain money it’s simply to vilify her body to scourge her body so that she so that you can show God she is penitent for the sin in her life by sacrificing her body to all of these horrible men and therefore hopefully God will take pity on her for all the bad things she’s done in her life and won’t take it on her husband and maybe store her husband well of course after time she just realizes that she sacrificed her body for no good reason and let her sacrifices in anyway helping her husband but it’s a very tragic story about a woman who believes in a mythology of suffering pain will enable somebody else and so she decide she will suffer to make her husband which of course has no impact and her husband is just horrified by her sacrifice so it’s a very dark and bleak movie probably more as mine tours most popular film ever was the 2011 film melancholia.
And melancholia Kristen Dunst an American actress plays a woman who is about to get married and her sister is very unhappy and is going undergoing a psychiatric treatment her sister is unhappily divorced has a child from that marriage and has a very unhappy life both sisters are very puzzled by a recent news report that describes the fact that they have discovered a new planet that is going to pass very close to earth on the eve of her marriage Kristen Dunst goes out into the wilds takes off all of her clothes in communes with nature because she is sure that something is going wrong because of this planet coming close to the earth so what she does is she has indiscriminate sex with a man prior to her marriage simply because she is feeling uneasy guilty troubled about this planet coming into the atmosphere of the earth and as the planet grows nearer as the planet grows near her she becomes more upset and begins to think that perhaps the earth will be destroyed by the planet that’s the first hour and a half of the film and then in the second hour and a half of the film we see the other sister dealing with her emotional depression and we realize that both sisters suffer from a deep form of depression and that they act out the depression in different ways and eventually towards the end of the film the two sisters after suffering mightily for three hours come together with the sisters child and they build a TP in the they build a teepee in the property of their family as the planet comes close to earth and when it’s too late to do anything everyone begins to realize that the planet is going to strike the earth and the two planets are going to come together and everyone is going to be destroyed in the world will be destroyed and in the end of the film the two planets crash into each other and everyone dies
Meaning in Von Trier’s films
so where is Van der thirst films are very dark very depressing very scary but they’re also films to deal with a lot of philosophical issues that probably the probably Americans haven’t dealt with and probably don’t think about such as she is probably most Europeans and probably most people across the globe don’t think of the same issues that Lars von tour think so but he is a very interesting Director again many people criticize his films has been incomprehensible many people criticize his films has been anti-religious many films many people criticize his films have been anti-intellectual many
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people criticize his films have been pornographic but his films have a slight audience his films are very adventurous his films are very films are very difficult to watch and they deal with very complex issues from a very complex philosophical standpoint and they do attract audiences to each separate film and each film is very different and deals with different subject matter in a different way using a lot of international actors working together as a team Larsmont Tours films are some of the most challenging films made in the world today very complicated and difficult for many audiences to watch but often times rewarding for people that want to think deeply about troubling philosophical issue such as is religion useful or valuable to people is Armageddon something that we’re ready for is religion useful or helpful are people suffering a state of depression do people suffer from false beliefs systems do we actually have an anti-Christ and will that person punish us or cause the end of the world can we trust people does sexuality have something to do with the value of our lives or is it completely nonsense do we believe in social beliefs or do we reject mankind as a hopeless entity that doesn’t do much the scooter valuable for anyone all of our sponsors films are interesting complicated films but again not for all audiences.
31 cinema
post modernism and film
Film is involved in a lot of political and theoretical ideas. One of the most important ideas in contemporary film is the notion of post modernism postmodernism is a style of filmmaking that follows the modern period. The modern period was an era in American art in which there is a wide range of experiment and a real dissection of the past many ideas and themes in modernism were derived from classical ideas. Some of the ideas of modernism for example included mythology history racism new forms of media new ways of presenting information and basically some of the ideas the drive from Ezra Pound who suggested that all modernist artist make something new. Graph paragraph paragraph
Post modernism extends the themes of modernism and goes further than modernism in his experimentation first of all postmodernism is a socially Socio economic Socio cultural aesthetic format it includes new forms of theoretical isolation it is suspicious of unify theoretical frameworks it is philosophical it is sociocultural and it deals with a wide range of aesthetic debates postmodernism does not believe in the idea of universal or all embracing systems of thought postmodernist critics believe that thought changes over time some of the most important post modern critics including Jean François leotard in the post modern condition suggest that there is a growing incredulous incredulity Credit you would see towards what he calls grand schemes or metanarratives of western thought the modern system of thought associated with the enlightenment is no longer tenable to a lot of the post modern critics the project of
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science fiction scientific explanation and mastery of the national and social world the natural and social world the idea of progress characteristic of the enlightenment is no longer acceptable some of the ideas that motivate postmodernism are one suspicion of totalizing theory is an explanation and attempt to offer a comprehensive and all embracing account of all phenomenon to an anti-foundationalism that rejects absolute or universal foundations of knowledge three a rejection of the false universalism or ethnocentric euros centric systems for an anti-essentialism rejects both deep epistemologies and over arching theories of knowledge postmodern theory then basically says the world is heterogeneous not homogeneous people are not all connected together but Herald heterogeneously different groups assert knowledge. For example in contemporary films like the power of the dog we see descriptions of groups there a heterogeneous such as in power of the dog there is an underlying element of homosexual culture in the old west of the Americas that has really been described in American restaurants new films tend to digitalize the world and talk about individuals as smaller groups not as massive homogeneous groups. Therefore it is impossible for a unified or comprehensive account of the world. So they are often sociological and cultural debates in post modern culture this is a post industrial society and although a lot of media is utilized and technology is utilized in such films such as Jurassic Park the matrix and other films terminator many times there is a suspicion of media and technology first there is a tradition and feudalism is represented as the advent of capitalism in the 15th and 16th century however many films that deal with postmodernism tend to go back to the future listing way of thinking not a a capitalist way of thinking second circuit Second economic and social changes characteristic of the 19th and 20th century especially ushered in by industrialization and urbanization in the emergence of mass social movements tend to be profoundly different in post modern films there is a transition from the old industrial order to a most new post industrialism a decline in manufacturing and replacement of old models of standardized or forest mass production with new models of things being very individualized therefore in modern films therefore in modern films a lot of things are individualized for example when you see examples of characters in West Anderson’s films such as the at the hotel grand Budapest you often see characters that are extremely individual and idiosyncratic the idea Wes Anderson films is that he’s not dealing with a holistic society anymore in which people are similar or common or average but he’s dealing with distinctly individual esoteric idiosyncratic individuals that have really wild generations in movement and way of seeing the world for example a film from the post modern era that gives you a good sense of the individualism of these films would be Lars and the real girl. Lars is suffering from mental delusions thinking that a blowup doll girl he has ordered online is actually a real live living girl that can be his girlfriend. This marks him as being a unusual character and part of a new breed of people that are very idiosyncratic characters in a post modern film post another aspect of post modern film is a decline in additional working class society that is that the number of people that are a part of that society no longer exist therefore there’s a domination of the significance of class identities and divisions because people don’t really belong to any specific class anymore at least that’s something films want us to believe the shift away from the politics of mass movements towards the politics a difference seems to really focus on issues of difference for example many modern films deal with feminism the roles and the roles and crises of
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women dealing with society so you no longer have a class struggle but you have a family struggle putting women against everybody else. A second element of this is that we have films directly for specific audiences African-American films Asian American films gay films these are films that break people down by their specific social group and don’t break them down by a cultural group or a class group I would argue that such films actually do exactly the same thing they turn people into specific classes in groups and that and that unfortunately politically you no longer have the commonality of a group of people they’re fighting against organize system you have gay groups women’s groups Hispanic groups African-American groups Asian American groups which really if you think about it defeats the ability for a C lol requires a socially economically challenged class defines the power of the larger organized power groups so that the 10% of the United States for example that controls the majority wealth continues to control the wealth because now instead because now instead of people seeing themselves as part of a working class group they now see them selves is a much smaller group women or Hispanics or Asian Americans or African-Americans and when you think about it instead of being the class of the 90% there are oppressed by the 10% you now have African- American films about 10% of the audience who are really dealing with the rest of society and have a very small ability to fight back against the other 90% of society so Innoway postmodernism is actually weekend the traditional class structure of one thing that becomes clear from post modern films is that these films are extremely political in their content there is a shift away from the politics of mass movement towards the politics of difference there is a new computing in and communications technology is utilized in the sounds but often times it doesn’t seem to help people it seems to hurt them such as films like the matrix or Johnny pneumonic or Jurassic Park or or the terminator all these films basically focus on the way in which technology helps to a process and hold people down inside that’s in the new films of the new technological post modern era new technologies were seen as exhibit at the reshaping social experience in subjectivity two main themes can we determine first there is a speeding up at the circulation of information and images so that people know about a lot more stuff a lot more quickly secondly there is an increase in compression of time in space so the things happen more rapidly and we go through periods of time quicker there’s a DT realization of culture in the construction of forms of identity with your no longer strongly identify with the place so people so people acquire new identities but those new identities are very flexible and they don’t stay with us Geminis for very long how the media and media images and signs are increasingly identified by a key to reality in the modern citizens change the way we see media and signs. Transitions from the old industrial order based on labor and production of goods to a new social production order based upon communication and the circulation signs images and signs have become our private reality and we live we live now in a world of produced signs Jean Baudrillard the famous French philosopher of the late 20th century argued that there was three levels of simulation that are society was going through and these levels of simulation have had a strong impact on the way modern and postmodern films have arrived. For for Jean Badri are there were three levels of simulation won the first stimulus simulation level was at a very obvious level so you would have a puppet or an animation that look nothing like a puppet or a simulation that we look nothing like a real person at the second level the simulation the doppelgänger the the the copy of the person begins to look a lot more
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like a real person but it’s still obviously a robot or not real and then finally you arrive at the third level simulation where the character becomes so much like a real character you actually can’t determine whether or not it’s real or it’s fake. For example in a post modern film like her starring Joaquin Phoenix and using the voice of a scarlet Johansson we have a love story we have a love story be between an AI artificial intelligence and a man who is lonely. In the film her Joaquin phoenix talks to this artificial intelligence woman that he meets online voice characterized by scroll Johansson and the further he gets to know her the more in love with her he becomes because he’s lonely because he can’t find a real woman that needs his high-level criteria for the perfect woman so he begins to start a relationship and Scarlett Johansson’s character in the film. But over time Joaquin Phoenix begins to realize there are problems in this relationship and that his computer AI girlfriend is not always around when he needs her that if she isn’t a constant companion available for his every need and win. When he finally discoveries of the end of the film is that although she is an artificial intelligence and although she can access his girlfriend she is already engaged in about 10,000 different relationships simultaneously because she’s just a computer processor who is talking to a lot of men simultaneously so the idea in this computer simulated representation as John Badri I would say is that we have reached the third level of simulation in her Joaquin Phoenix can no longer distinguish a real woman from the AI that he speaking to online and everybody are that is a very dangerous situation for mankind then because instead of trusting but what we see in front of us is real we have three layers of simulation that are presented to us we have things that are obviously simulated and don’t seem to be real we have things that we have things that seem to approach the real that are close to being realistic but aren’t real and then we finally have things that are so mirroring reality we can’t determine the difference between the the simulation and the actual real object so in films like like her we begin to see that the danger of simulation arising to that level and that’s a very postmodern concern in such films finally we start to see in this hyper reality we live we began to live not just in our primary reality with which would be in the real world beyond the primary reality we now have a secondary virtual reality or hyper reality that we live in an N even though you might find this will be kind of a silly thing to worry about now if you think about it we have many people in our society that would rather spend time in a video game environment then working and living with real people so the idea of a hyper reality or virtual reality universe that Baudrillard suggest might be the third stage simulation made for many peoples lives have already occurred we don’t really need to have a singularity a moment when computers become sentient for people to follow themselves into believing that a hyper reality is a better place to live in the reality they live in so we are the first problem that we deal with in post modern film is the idea of multiple levels simulation the first level of simulation is very very fake and obvious the second level simulation is harder to detect and the third stage of simulation where the simulation becomes so much like the real that we can’t tell the difference between the real and the simulation. Also another problem that we deal with in the bard reality and vision is the Omni presence in the temporary culture of media signs images that are increasingly detached from exterior realities. So what we’re seeing all the time is receiving a reality in which we see it altered reality that appears to be very much like the real for example in the films in the marvel studios with the constant referees representations of
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superheroes that seem to crowd out the reality of life and if you think about the marvel films all you really see is the hawk and door and Iron Man and Spider-Man battling some obscure otherworldly character for the majority of the film Marvel films they were very little reality oriented problems like people don’t really worry about money or they don’t really worry about about love and they don’t really worry about things in the real world they worry about everything that’s in the simulated world of the Marvel universe in the whole concept and description of the Marvel universe it’s self is disturbing it means it’s a separate universe in the world universe or world we exist in every day which makes it a little bit more removed and threatening to the real world that we actually existing supposed modern concerns very real concerns when you’re dealing with film and film technoklogy.
The start of postmodernism actually began in the 1970s and dealt with the idea of universal reason or the ideas of progress that were no longer excepted by a lot of people that believed in the post modern world there would not be universal progress and they were not be an idea of universal reason. If you think about the last four years of the Trump administration there have been contrasting ideas of truth and reality that have been presented by the president that often times do not agree with science or technology or the medical community particularly during the coronavirus this doesn’t mean necessarily there any group is wrong or at some other group is prickly right what it means is that we now exist in a world in which the contrasting views of reality there might be a Republican or a Democrat or a green party or socialist party or a communist party or a or a Chinese view or an Indian view or European view or South American deal the world and all of those different views in the world might actually be true for the people living in the societies or in those parts of the society but they may not be the total way we see the world and there’s a lot more belief in multiple realities in multiple versions of truth we can look at for example scientific reality and the idea of perhaps how people perceive religion as being very very different but think about the different ways in which people perceive truth in today’s world there isn’t one necessarily understanding of truth for example when postmodernism first began to arrive in a row arose in the 1970s because many architects in the 1970s were seen architecture quoting various forms of architecture from previous centuries and seeing the resurgence of different forms of architecture in different times. One of the most prominent architects of the 20th century Frank Lloyd Wright was a real fan of making things new and filling them into the contemporary environment and he was a real critic of things in the past. For example Frank Lloyd Wright often with jokingly say that we need to keep buildings like the capital building and the Lincoln Memorial that are based on Greek temples because they were mistakes from the past. Frank Lloyd Wright had no problem with Greek temples being quick Frank Lloyd Wright has no problem with Greek temples being created by Greeks but I did have a problem with Greek temples being created for contemporary society because contemporary society should be making new buildings the deal with the new structures the new building materials and the new environment that we live in. For Frank Loyd Wright the idea of building a building was to make something that was brand new and they’re sitting with the contemporary environment. To make something from the past like a Greek temple place in Washington DC or some other location would seem out of place for him therefore Frank Lloyd Wright thought of buildings from the past being inserted into the modern environment as being mistakes
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but he joked about them and said well we need to keep borings like the capital and the White House and the Lincoln Memorial because even though they’re kind of silly examples of trying to re-create the past in the present day they really don’t they shouldn’t really exist in today’s world but their mistakes but we can overcome them by making better new buildings are new materials that deal with the environment that we live in today and this is from a man once again who died in the 1950s but had a really good idea but had a really good idea from the modernist period of what would make the modern world the proper world to live in and not to be obsessed with ideas from the past. But post modernist in the post modern era argue that the past and present and future coexist together and unlike unlike frankly rights dictum that the post modern. Or the modern is. Should be doing new things a lot of postmodernist believe that you have a collage of different styles of building constantly going on so you might have a tutor style Bill a tutor style building that looks like something from the tutor era of architecture in England during the tutor. And you might have next door with something that’s a very post modern looking building that was built in the late 20th or early 21st-century that looks very different for post modern architecture there’s nothing wrong with the co-ops and coercion different styles existing together but for a lot of modernist they really felt that if you were going to use the past you had to reinvent the past in some sort of meaningful way for example for architect architecture a pretty Charles Jenks post modern for example for a post modern architecture acrylic Charles Jenks post Martin architecture should be seen as a response to the failure of the modern’s. That is your bringing in different styles of architecture because the stuff that was created in the modernist. From about 1872 around 1950 or 1960 would be considered sometimes a failure if people didn’t like that form of architecture they might respond to it by using a scale from the past that’s for Jenks post modern architecture six to reconnect with its occupants by rejecting the functionalism of modernism and making use of decoration ornamentation and mixing styles of decoration and different periods in places including the vernacular to make a new style of architecture that’s very quiet oriented and very distinctly different and such a Jenks refer to modern architecture or post modern architecture is double coding it would use something modern if it needed to use something modern but the same time it might respond to some form of architecture from the past because that might be more appropriate for what people were thinking and in an era in which they can call upon all the different styles of architectural format because we exist in a time in which the media allows us to sample any architectural form from any architectural. That we are able to see a vision or an image of interestingly enough in post modern art there is often a failure or exhaustion of modernism that is the adolescence of shock or the corresponding loss of modernisms transgressive power ask us to look at art in a brand new way pop art in the 1960s basically took the images from advertising and transform them into a new style of art. People like Andy Warhol actually utilized power pop art or images from society like Marilyn Monroe pictures or Campbell Soup cans or pictures of chairman now because he figured these were the common images people were saying every day. They didn’t want to see great art they wanted to see images that were familiar to them from advertising in the media on a daily basis so far part of the 60s depended on that it was eclectic there was an erosion of aesthetic boundaries and declining of emphasis on originality like. Perhaps Andy Warhol in his art in his film and his prince was the first person to recognize that the idea
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of originality that was so important modernist art and modernist film wasn’t that important to post Martin’s film so if you look at the work of Andy Warhol he actually steals ideas appropriate ideas from other artists and uses their ideas in his art for example he just cardboard copies the labels off of a Campbell Soup can because it’s simply easier for him to do so. If you look at the film of the 1960s you begin to see a new style film that irrupt Ing there is based on styles the past that isn’t totally original for example in a film like Bonnie and Clyde made by one of brothers studio in the 1960s Bonnie and Clyde is nothing more than a re-creation of the 1930s gangster movies that Warner Bros. was making in the 1930s only now they’re remaking the same movies into the 1960s just a little difference in style but the repeating the past and they’re not being original because audiences don’t necessarily want anything original do you Andy Warhol audiences just wanted more of the same so for example in the in the millennial. We seen a hyper reevaluation of this world whole idea of audience it’s just one of the more of the same you don’t just get one Iron Man movie you get Iron Man two and you get Iron Man three you get enough for one you get door to you get door three and soon to be Thor four or if you’re Spider-Man you get Spider-Man one Spider-Man two Spider- Man three and then you get the amazing Spider-Man and then you get the amazing Spider-Man two and then you get Spider-Man no way home can you get Spider-Man in the spider universe and all of this until you get such a confusing array of all the old objects that are really a part and parcel of the original that you realize there’s very very little new being created in this new style of creating art so acquaintances in and erosion aesthetic boundaries and declining of emphasis on originality is one aspect of it eclecticism is basically drawing on and mixing different style genres and artistic conventions including those of modernism as some people refer to it as a stylistic promiscuity that is just stealing styles from old all different kinds and styles of work and central component of this process has been a mixing of elements from both high and low culture that is that you can have some thing that is really high culture such as a film about Mozart like Amadeo’s but the same time you connect the character in Amadeus to be very very silly like it every day average guy now I have his time but of our time so therefore when you make a film like Amadeus you were mixing the low culture of a guy who is kind of a buffoon like Mozart really was in real life but at the same time he’s also high culture and he can also create a form of music is very beautiful and a work of genius or an interesting enough and a lot of post modern culture there’s a lot that is relative in very little is absolute so there isn’t an absolute answer to many problems but there’s just a relative answer that works for now there’s a declining premium on originality a lot of modern films are very original and don’t try to be they try to fit into a genre they might have the personal imprint of the author but it might not be a very personal film a lot of modern films for example with critics like the heritage the cabbage brings out the point they’re in a lot of modern culture there’s a lot of parity there’s a lot of simulation there’s a lot of pastiche and there’s a lot of allegory that’s going on in modern films for example a lot of modern horror films or a literally simulations or parities of other horror films for example the conjuring is nothing more than another haunted house movie even though it was made in the contemporary. They’ve been haunted house movies for 100 years so there’s nothing terribly original event like that it’s really more of a pastiche a former versions of the films and even more clearly we have a lot of earlier films another modern modern films were simply made as simply purely remix of other
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films were made years ago psycho in 1960 is remade in the 1990s psycho they just don’t do anything but just out of reach shoot the film scene for scene for scene house on haunted Hill comes out in 1959 and again is reborn in the early millennial. Just called house on Horace Hill again there’s Texas chainsaw massacre in the 1970s and there’s another version of Texas chainsaw in recent years even in the millennial. There of been copies of films there is a Blair witch film made around the time of the millennium and there was a more recent Blair witch film made it simply copies the original film using the same style. So postmodernism and film came first of all talk about the destruction or the re-creation of the film industry itself has been to exemplify post modern features that is Hollywood has undergone a transition from being about Mastrent rent mass production to be in about forms of independent production that feature idiosyncratic very specific individualistic dress Second films have gone in various ways from two exemplify post modern things or the offer images of post modern society many of those themes are dystopian and character and finally films have been seeing the show is that it features such as a great decision and the collapse of a traditional artistic hierarchies that is a lot of films might merge different styles of films altogether. In 1993 Quinton Tarintino’s pop fiction literally merged together a group of pop fiction crime stories into it he’s into a single film it seems like a lot of filmmakers want to repeat and rebirth the past there is a reactionary postmodernism and a postmodernism of resistance that deals with a lot of different themes for example many modern day post modern films are very self- conscious they’re very aware that they’re quoting the past they’re enter textual films their films that rely on the audience having knowledge of earlier films there’s a lost horse Historia city that is films that are about history tend to deal with the way in which we see the loss of his story yesterday just means that we don’t understand historical times as well so we might make a historical film about somebody from a different era but they seem a lot like people in our contemporary era they don’t seem like they’re really historical figures from another time they seem to be widely aware of things that we might have in the modern era there are so many of the post modern films or conservative that is they operate in a blank slate of things they don’t know anything about the past they don’t know anything about other cultures they literally exist in a period where things are conservative because they don’t have any of what went before are often times many the modern post modern films are anti-modern they don’t believe in progress they don’t believe in technology they don’t believe in in government they don’t believe in institutions that we used to hold sacred in modern society in many times post modern films offer a mixing of conventions are they mixed together different conventions for example a TV show like Buffy the Vampire Slayer which is also a film rate depends on the idea that it’s a team TV show set in the high score but it’s also a vampire vampire show in a horror show said it the same time as being a teen show also a lot of modern films from the modern era or parody other films for example you might have a film like the grand Hotel but Budapest and in that film you see that there’s a very ironic point of view or a film like Raiders in the yard the last Org UC Indiana Jones is a character that’s very ironic he supposed to be a hero but sometimes he doesn’t act very heroic sometimes he’s afraid of snakes sometimes he’s even afraid of women so there’s a parity in an Ira another aspect of a post modern film is the on the oven guard is still showing or the unusual showing is the common place in the films of David Lynch for example you have a mixture of every day a common place themes with some very very
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avant-garde uses a film and the tour put together side-by-side when you look at Twin Peaks the return for 18 hours you see some really avant-garde moments in the film that David Lynch is created and let you see some moments that are very conventional with very conventional actions Dre conventional figures
So according to Jameson Inn many theories about post modern film you see an increase in stylistic self-consciousness uses and references to film history’s quotation from other styles and other films Jamison divines post modern culture in terms of depth of the snow is there is it doesn’t have any depth anymore there’s nothing deeper to represent a new culture of the image of the simulacrum a specialized temporary temporary Alan Aliti awakening of his story yesterday and creation of a new type of emotional ground tone that is people are very blank and they don’t have a whole and there doesn’t seem to be a lot of depth of emotions and a lot of the characters in contemporary films there’s a lot of pastiche and inner text your reference that his films are often quoting each other and there’s a post modern loss of historical gap search films he claims are unable to re-create a real pass but only a simulation of the past because nobody knows about the past and knows what the past was like so when you see a modern day version of World War II like saving Private Ryan it starts off with a lot of energy which is probably what was happening in World War II but frankly immediately turns into a fairly long slog Long slog of simply looking for one character who in the end isn’t all that really important to the story it’s more about the journey than it is about actually finding Private Ryan finally critics of recent Hollywood Cinema for both is emptiness and ideological conservativism are arguing that Hollywood has become more conservative and isn’t trying to push boundaries it’s just trying to push product on younger and younger audiences that they can capitalize on and make money from a more conventional and conservative Hollywood from the mid 70s on this simply means it from the 1970s on we just get more and more of the same we get more terminator we get more Star Wars we get more but more superhero films but we don’t get a whole lot of films that are truly an rationally different and when we break groups up into smaller heterogeneous groups African-American women you know white nails or gay man or whatever we get smaller and smaller groups that have less power to oppose the system and then the largest groups for example like Disney has colonized children those groups obtain the most because companies like Disney cynically exploit that youth market and simply produce more princess movies to accommodate that market without doing much this original or new the characters in modern Disney movies might be different skin tones but they basically share many of the same features that Snow White and Cinderella shared and 50 to 100 years ago so Disney hasn’t really move things forward they’ve just been a conservative company let’s continue to profit off of a very small demographic that they were able they’ve been able to enlarge by marketing the same by marketing the same films to generations of you or us over and over again when it’s done it is then it’s best to raise the traces of 60s and 70s experimentalism in the 60s and 70s there was an attempted real experimental film. People like Andy Warhol created films are eight hours long such as empire in which Andy Warhol simply set up a camera and record the Empire State building for eight hours without stopping that was a very experimental film and simply demanded that we choose to look at things in a brand new way. Whereas Disney films where is Disney films by repeating the princess theories they’ve used in the past seem to be creating new films but really all
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they’re really doing is simply re-creating the same film over and over again so while we might think the Disney film is more entertaining because it presents a princess in a new story really the Disney films might very well be more repetitive than the post modern 60s 70s experimental films Vandy Warhol he just points a camera in the single building. Strongest the post modern films are really antimodernist and reactionary postmodernism that reject the present or the future and reach back in the past and try to create a product that is very self-conscious about film history film technique extensively use as references in quotation and mix is the high and low of our conventions together to create a new film front of Jamison’s distinction between purity in prestige may be helpful this regard. He involves a sense of criticism remark read the text or texted her being parody pasty simply pastiche is simply a blank parity in which is simply a neurotically a minute without parities of ulterior motive’s. For example I feel like the great dictator by Charlie Chaplin in 1940 is making fun of Adolf Hitler because he knows all the conventions of what Hitler a grand dictator is like a pastiche just simply insert images of Hitler into a movie without any reference to really knowing or understanding who Hitler was and why he was important and why mentioning his image would be import. I think in modern parity films like the last night in Soho we see a rendition of the 1960s being performed by actors in in the year 2021 because we want to reach back 60 years into the past to try to understand how films were seen and described and how people acted in there. Last night in Soho is a very knowing film because it represents our way of viewing the past and utilizing the past to try to understand the past and its relationship to the present era
In post modern film ideological conservativism cannot be seen as the standard form for all post modern film post modern films or by their nature diverse and unique oppositional bank and contested Tori potential of postmodernism can be found in many films unlike Jamison holds out the possibility of Hollywood films making use of irony and parity both to address history as Woody Allen doesn’t selling and to subvert Hollywood conventions from but Hollywood films often are in a challenging mode and as a result of the reliance upon irony they may be ideologically ambivalent or contradictory what tends to be unusual in Hollywood films is it in films like blade runner these inconsistencies and dialogical problems may exist without being resolved by the end of the film. In a film like blade runner by Ridley Scott in 1982 the dilemma as to whether Decker or his girlfriend I really robots are actually real people is never resolved. Philip K Dick always holds a lot of ambivalence about the future and about authority figures and their ability to be truthful. And he also determines that the future may be a period of ambivalence in which the robot figures may be as helpful as the human figures in the story I see many of the post modern films are our bond guard in nature they deal with the surface play death list Ness but as part of a critical project to deconstruct and subvert old meanings as well as construct new ones through the repositioning of artistic and cultural discourse is there is a questioning in a lot of post modern films of earlier traditions for example in a film like the queen Helen Mirren plays Elizabeth the second as a monarch who is very aware of her past but many people treat her as this supreme leader of British society there’s a good scene in the queen in which Helen Mirren has her has her car breakdown and the British authorities that she calls offer to rescue her and she bluntly says no I was building transactions in cars back in World War II I know the car is far and I know there’s something wrong with it I can take care of myself so a lot of these films juxtapose the
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way people are with the way people think the world is to challenge original ways in which particular social groups or others such as blacks or indigenous people or women or gays or Post modern films often represent these people in a different light the promise of postmodernism for feminism is it implies the tactics of pastiche irony quotation in juxtaposition it’s a verts the intent and the reappropriating of the meetings there is a counter practice and a lot of post modern films that contest and critiques the predominant forms and images of such films for example in Steven Spielberg’s 19 1993 Jurassic Park there’s always a lot of irony and play throughout the film in 1993 Jurassic Park the scientist jokingly say well thank goodness the dinosaurs aren’t able to open doors which will keep us safe inside and then there is a scene where one of the velociraptors walks up to a doorway looks at it and puts his hand in the doorway and learns how to open the door which provides a lot of irony for what the sciences suggest said. They have assumed that because they are thinking humans they will know more than the dinosaurs but actually the dinosaurs prove them wrong by their actions and their ability to think through a situation when and with the new media so often times we employ a post modern strategy of appropriation which through reworking your pre- existing documentary footage vines sound quotations the lake involves a disarticulation and a re-articulation I’ve given signifying elements of hegemonic racial discourse so basically many times in a film we say synchronism or hybridity in which characters that were assumed to be one thing end up being something very different. For example in Jurassic Park the dinosaurs are assumed to be that deal with a racially mixed England in historical periods and in the contemporary era we have we have a new understanding that produces a contextualized way we will see people of color in these English shows because of the way people of color have been presented in the past. For example inside Enfield’s 1964 Zulu we see African people as being tribal and showing a lot of hostility towards English people who are fighting them in in Africa during the times of the African rebellion but when we see people of color represented in modern modern television shows like Sanditon or Bridgerton or some of the other shows the deal with the mixture of racially mixed groups in England we see the way they are portrayed is much more benign often times superior to some of their white allies in photos and clearly on an intellectual par and in a social park with many of the people that exist in contemporary and classical or British errors so what we begin to say is in all cases filmmakers in the Third World or seem to make use of make use of make use of first world techniques and conventions but for politically subversive ends that is it is argued that it in the respect to the difference in plurality in their self consciousness about their status is a simulacra and has texted engage with a contemporary mass mediated sensibility without losing their sense of activism the jujitsu strategies such films as the aboriginal films and modern films about subject peoples deal with the debate on post colonialism in a very specific way of recontextualizing people of people of color in a new framework less easy to identify is a distinctive post modern film theory mini post modern films are just very distinctively different and each one represents a different technique of how to make that film different and how to suggest post modern philosophies of the future post modern polemicizing against universalizing until the totalizing theory have led to a certain refocusing of interest on the local in the specific which have been detected in the turn away from the screen. The 1970s and even feminist feminist theory recent years what we see is the convergence of feminism and cultural studies and we
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appear to see micron errors in micro history is the say a fragmented female and other spectator rather than any totalizing meta-meta-psychology of the subject of the cinematic apparatus it must remain theoretical and hold onto some large narratives of the social social critical power of feminism is to be maintained.
I think we can understand postmodernism better if we look at it as a continuum from modernism to postmodernism to high postmodernism to see how the styles irrupt and form over time for example in a film like Citizen Kane which is a high watermark of modernism we see that there is a real in interest in how the film is put together particularly Wells uses a lot of very clever an interesting transitions to make the film to make the film a clear void through certain forms of new film technology he also uses sound in camera work in a distance away one of the things the king does very well it’s transitions like he even uses Mr. Thatcher’s diary as a way of transmitting us from the present to the past so we can understand the origins of of Cain and what kind of man he was a second of all there are a lot of cuts that are obvious and interesting and it’s in the film that describe to us many aspects of the film. Wells uses a wide range of technical exaggerations including close-up a long shots deep focus shots and track tracking shots that move from different directions to give us a real sense of the moving of the camera and the fact that we are being placed on the stage watching events as their unfolding. One of the modest moment one of the modernist moments in the film is the way in which Orson Welles uses Bernard Herrmann score to create a music of extreme emotion the operatic score is six in Alexander’s opera and the music that highlights kings youth shows great nostalgia and great sadness and also there is a sense of the Gothic in her about the life of someone who is very powerful but has a very tragic end. Often times to dialogue reveals deeper emotions as when as when Cain speaks to his friend Jeff Leland and says to love on my own terms Jed the
Another good line that symbolizes the power of dialogue in the film is when Cain is at the breakfast table talking to his wife and she looks at him and sees the paper and she says really Charles what will people think in Kane’s is back to her what I tell them to think which is a very funny line but also very dark line in the play people also the play the film of Citizen Kane also illustrates the people and their emotions cannot be controlled and that despite our goal of controlling people people are generally Jennifer generally well for an uncontrollable of figures the world is and another thing that comes through from Kane I think that shows the modernist sense is that the world is frustrating in the world cannot be controlled when I think of some of the elements of Citizen Kane Joaquin is frustrated with his wife I often think back of the car so screw Nager gonna go with paint in the car so dear to illustrate the horrors of war when the town of Grico’s with band during the Spanish Civil War and I think they can live through a similar. In his life where he can’t control some of thosePeople cannot be controlled where Kane can’t control some of the events in his life that frustrate him and despite all of the frustration in the modernist view of the world in citizen Kane I think there’s an underlying theme to the entire movie despite the frustration and the rebuffed we get from the world it is very important in the modern is film in the believe in modernism in the belief in progress in the belief and technology that we constantly continue to try to make the world a better place so even though Cain is frustrated in his own life and even though they attempt even the attempt to make the world a better place fails I think the cane symbolizes
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somebody who underneath it all underneath his frustrations underneath his dictatorial Ness is really at heart a romantic and really firmly believes in the goodness of man and really firmly believes that he can transform the world I think this may have been a core belief of the modernist. Especially when you have the issue of Hitler and then you have in the United States the wonder of somebody like Franklin Delano Roosevelt who does believe in trying and don’t believe in progress and don’t believe in trying to make the world a better place. You know for all of his problems and his insistence on progress and technology modernism and his score is basically a fairly positive for varsity that even the bad things will occur in the future in an hour time by trying by working on the future we can make the world a better place. Psycho probably is a precursor to the post modern era but I think it shows the tensions involved in modernism and how they conflict directly with what’s arriving in the post modern era the first thing that we see the first thing we see in cycle I think is the conception that the world is not controllable or noble that even though Marion crane thinks she can get away with a robbery she doesn’t really know enough to actually be able to pull it off that the world is still a dangerous and very undesirable place secondly I think the second thing that occurs that distorts modernism and psycho is the idea that mysteries abound in confounds all the time and finally I think a third thing that really distorts and destroys modernism in the film is the idea that contain a third problem in psycho that distorts modernism is the idea that the vent the conventions of our we’re all the things we think to be true may not be true after all and that the world may be a more dangerous and more noble place and we believe it to be for example I think today and are still our perceptions about science in the world I don’t think we really necessarily know enough about the planet to be as confident as we are for example the problems we’ve had with climate change in recent years illustrates to us many things we thought to be true about the planet and the climate are things that we can alter in a very dangerous and negative way so things that begin to arrive in in psycho include the idea that there can be surprises that can be unexpected and disturbing and often deadly and that’s something that modernism doesn’t really take into account and I think it takes into account that the world is different and the things are going to occur in the world that are going to change things for us but the idea that surprises can be deeply unpleasant and might even kill us because of course Miriam not realizing that Norman is completely insane doesn’t realize that he is going to victimize her and murder her before she can respond Marion is very confident of her own abilities but she did she is not ready for the unreasonable chaotic aspects of the world that are presented by this post modern element of Norman Bates who is way beyond the rational and way beyond anything that we see in our lives so surprises can be unexpected and disturbing as an important aspect of this transition from modernism to postmodernism finally there is this idea that there is simply no larger order. That man stands alone in the universe and that man and that man can be taken out by the universe anytime the universe decides to do mankind mankind in. Another problem that manifested in cycle is the age of the chaos is rampant and dangerous and constantly unsettling when Marianne goes in to take her shower she has resolved to return the money and she’s going to go back and undo the wrong she is done but she doesn’t determine if there’s something even more chaotic than her own actions she is self obsessed in her own little universe and she doesn’t realize is that why are university is deeply in trouble and that she is going to pay the ultimate price so chaos is rampant and
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dangerous and constantly unsettling our plans in this chaotic universe motorcycle in the world psycho
. Perhaps even more unsettling is the idea that there is no ultimate understanding of all the underlying elements in the world that things simply happen in a random way without any sense or order finally I think we we fear that there is this fear and horror that look around every corner in the world this is the idea that I think we get from Hitchcock that there is no safe place but every place you go danger can lurk in Hitchcock’s 1942 film shadow of doubt he takes his camera into middle of May middle America there we meet the young Charlie who is named for her uncle Charlie and we discover through the course of the film the uncle Charlie is not a benign uncle who is coming to visit his family in middle America during World War II in a very safe place but that uncle Charlie is a horrible killer of older women who simply kills them for their money and this is something that simply Charlie had no understanding of Indian have any way of knowing that her uncle could be this horrific discordant element in society and there is a wonderful scene in shadow of doubt in which uncle Charlie talks about the women in New York he goes yes these fat old women that have these beautiful lunches to eat up all the money their husbands made and they don’t even deserve to live in one of the women at the table says whether they’re alive are they and uncle Charlie looks over the camera and says are they it’s a very devastating moment in the film but I think a lot of the moments and psycho reassure us that the violence and chaos of the and the violence and chaos of the universe is a universal factor that we have to deal with on many levels and we have to except at the very end of cycle that’s one of the most disturbing film moments in any film from any era and it’s Norman Bates still dressed as his mother whom they found in the basement as a skeleton and he looks directly at the camera and says I’m gonna tell them I’m such a sweet old lady that I won’t even swap this fly this and it’s on my hand I’m gonna show that I’m such a sweet old lady I won’t even sweat this fly. Moment the thing that makes the final moment in psycho so compelling is the fact that Norman Bates is completely lost his mind and it’s gone into a fantasy world and we realize that there has been no justice for marrying crane there will be no justice for this man he will not serve time in jail because he’s completely insane and he doesn’t even understand or realize what he is done and he’s completely dissociated with himself he’s gone completely insane so we’re living in a world in which the ultimate rules of reality and society and conventions in law and human diesel decency no longer exist and we’re living in a chaotic universe in which the most bizarre and weird events can happen and there’s no repayment for them there’s no way back from that horror that we see in front of us the void the darkness the the abstract terror in horrible world that makes absolutely no sense so I think that that film encapsulates the problem is that modernism runs into what happens when you get into this new world and there is no nothing but just chaos
Fear and horror lurk around every corner
Sense
But then I think in high post modern art there tends to be a return to almost a Victorian broke sense of order and I think of a film like 19 $.95 and sensibility a Jane Austen novel directed by Asian Director angry and how that film illustrates the way in which the world is seen in this 19 century culture but how it also relates to how we see the world in the post modern culture first of all the film is narrated by and has a woman protagonist
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the subtle change in cents and sensibility is that women are at the center of the story and women dictate the story and we don’t find anything usual unusual or wrong about that the world has changed. Next we discover and sensitive sense and sensibility that women have inside and women can see deeper into things that men have seen so we’ve actually seen a different version of the world presented to us by a woman woman’s gays and remember even though the Director angry is mail the writer of the film Emma Thompson also a famous actors in the film gives a very specific female sensibility to the film that just that derives from Jane Austen seal the World resort rides from a modern day women’s appointment seen by finally we have this idea from postmodernism that humor is kind of a salve to life that humor can actually make life a bit better even when things are at their most horrible and when we don’t really know what’s going on in the world you were can save us and perform a form of salvation in our world that was completely unexpected and provides us with a marvelous relief from the horrors of life and there’s a good scene in which the little girl is hiding under the table and Emma Thompson and you grantor having a conversation about the glow and they’re talking about how things are situated on the globe and they’re trying to explain where locations are in the globe and of course they’re getting everything wrong in a little girl hiding under the table says no it’s not there it’s here and she tries to communicate with them and explain things to them but eventually she stops hiding under the table because she finds their discourse so absurd and so wrong but the humor the same about getting the world wrong and getting the world right is what comes through clearly from the scene that humans do get the world wrong but there’s humor in that and it’s not always is there always a tragic event another thing that’s important I think in the film is that kindness is often more important than drama a lot of people and in the film seem to see their lives is it a dramatic a tragic event but that will come through in the film is that if someone is very kind of someone they can reduce the drama in a persons life and make life more livable secondly I think we have the element of duty and emotion are important for both must be answered well these are very individualistic ideas that come from Jane Austen but remember Jane Austen’s novel and the films in the 1990s are starting to become more individualistic because the reflecting the worldview of individualism there is an outgrowth of the post modern era so in this post modern insight into people the miss judging of emotions the use of humor as a self and the way of using kindness to interject meanness in society and interactions with people come through as very individual ways in which to conduct oneself in a world that sometimes appears chaotic and difficult difficult to understand another aspect of the film is this idea of duty and emotion and both are showing to have their place in society but both are important and bust my butt must be answered a person can’t live only for duty and a person can’t live only for emotion and this kind of contradicts some of the ideas the postmodernism presents that we have to live a life of duty or be robotic or we have to live a life of fully committed to our emotions what the film suggests is there is in postmodernism a middle path in which duty duty and emotions have to be answered in every persons life another aspect of the life in post modern society that comes up in this 19 century stories the idea that money is important to happiness but it’s not it’s self happiness people after the Reagan era the yuppies versus the hippies decided that they had to make it big and they had to make a lot of money but what this 1990s film which is a metaphor from the once again the the early 19 century. To the late 20th century.
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Suggest suggest is that money by itself will not make people happy but without many people may not be happy so there’s a middle ground about happiness and wealth and how those things should be adjudicated in everybody’s life in the film. Finally the FilmRise at the idea that creative thinking and logic or good products of the mind and there’s a marvelous scene in the film in which Kate Winslet is complaining about her love life and her relationship with her boyfriend that is turned out badly and Emma Thompson who is put up with her sister and her emotional life for the entire film finally just is frustrated and runs away from her sister and goes to a corner of the room and says if anyone had a reason to be upset it’s me I’ve sacrificed everything in my life to be a good sister to you why did you whine and complain whine and complain about everything while I have had a lot of heartbreak in my life and I have not been able to reveal that to you or to anyone and what I like about it is is in the end after some very serious creative thinking and after the time of several engagements being broken or you grant comes to court Emma Thompson at the end of the film she burst into tears because the creative thinking that she has a ride that has eventually resulted in a successful release a successful relationship with the man that she has one and all along so hope which seems to have been out the window and probably wasn’t going to survive ends up helping the characters in the film to survive and do quite well with the films and so it’s nice to see that arrive in a very positive viewpoint of postmodernism using the vehicle of the metaphor of the 19th century novel to try to explain how those images and ideas can occur and help people live in a society that might seem crazy and chaotic
Creative thinking and logic are good products.
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Cinema 32
Diverse modern cinema
It is difficult to say where film is going in the near future. Upsets like the worldwide corona virus epidemic curtailed some productions and fueled a rush to embrace streaming media. The murder of George Floyd galvanized activists who wished to see better representation by minorities in American and world film cultures. Better technology made streaming and at home viewing seamless putting pressure on cinemas and outside venues to compete with the comfort of home viewing. Consolidation of the film industry in the states had people wondering if there would be any films but disnety films left. The giant company had used its money and clout to buy up most other film producers acting out a Amazon scenario of devouring competition thus making the remaining player the winner. Foreign films continued to grow making the world cinema market an actual world cinema fueled by film productions across the globe. Countries that were not previously thought of as film capitals such as Brazil or Nigeria were developing their own robust film empires. Video games and reality shows continued to nibble away at the cinema market making these other entertainment ventures as lucrative and viable or more viable than the field of film. Below ar some emerging trends in the film business.
Business and Mergers
There is a disturbing trend in American and world cultures to breed larger corporations to own all the media and therefore have a lock on a market and audiences. Recently high profile figures like Bruce Springsteen and Bob Dylan have cashed out their interests in their songwriting catalogs for millions, perhaps billions of dollars in cash payment revenue. Question remain if these mega-corporations have that much cash and if they may billions for Springsten song titles, are many people likely to record multiple versions of Born to Run in the future. While it hasn’t happened yet, could the same be far behind for movie and television catalogues. Would many people want a constant diet of old episodes of Laverne and Shirley the Golden Girls or Dukes of Hazard? Are we reaching a point where only one company will license and control all previous film products on the internet. Further if Disney continues to buy up film companies do we really want Disney to be making Warner Brother’s crime movies, paramount glossy epics of Universal monster films? There isn’t much evidence that Disney has helped the sputtering Star Wars franchise or the equally sputtering Marvel series which have had a mass of recent failures (XMen Dark Phoenix, Shang Chi, and The Eternals) to name but a few. While in some businesses economies of scale can be an advantage the only people that seem to get an advantage from owning all of a specific media is the company, not consumers, not the public, and posterity.
Magical Realism
Magical realism was a trend most specifically in South American and world literature in which elements of reality and fantasy blended into a seamless whole. Films by Central American directors like Guillermo del Toro, Alfonzo Cuaron and Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu have popularized the genre and these directors often blended reality and fantasy as in Cuaron’s Gravity, del Toro’s The Shape of Water or Inarritu’s Birdman.Such films suggest that audiences now live in a world in which the real, the fantasy and the surreal co-exist seamlessly. This might seem odd but consider that a large number of Republicans still think the 2020 election was stolen despite
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considerable evidence to the contrary. We live in a world of contingent and relative truth in which people can convince themselves through selective social media to believe whatever they want. Even when such beliefs are counter productive or perhaps dangerous.
Thus it is easy for magical realism ideas to penetrate the public consciousness and link reality and real ideas with fake ideas or at least merge the real with ideas that are questionable. What is certain is the elements of rational western thought are more liable to questioning than ever before. The notion of progress, by who and for who is also questionable. In a society in which wealth and power has been sliding towards the hyper wealthy for two or three generations it is easier for the wealthy who control the financial system and the media to manipulate the minds and opinions and the sense of reality characterized by the media. Further knowledge that government was largely unable to control or curtail the corona virus for several years, the government’s abysmal record on civil rights for indigenous people and foreign immigrants, the violence against people of color by local and federal law enforcement authorities and the government’s own admission that they misled the public for years about UFOs fuels an era of mistrust that is reflected in a film culture where dreams and reality overlap regularly and seem to have equal weight. Maybe Disney’s cartoon dream factory is the right place for American film to be centered?
Decentering and Diversity
The shape of the Academy Awards and other Awars in recent years has led to the notion that film production has been more diverse and global and recent decades. The 2021 Academy Award Winner Nomadland dealt with issues of homelessness where a woman has to live in a nomad camp outside of major cities because she cannot get work, pay rent or live in large metropolitan cities where such resources are often beyond the reach of single not well financed people. The film dealt with the dire problem of homelessness and how one group of people dealt with the issue. Over 65,000 people exist in Los Angels just in skid row. There are thousands more living in parked cars and going to work daily at Target, Walmart and Walgreens but hey do not make enough to pay rent.
Further diversity has extended to foreign cultures and foreign films. The academy awards awarded the Best picture award for the first time to a foreign film, Bong Joon- ho’s Parasite, a film about scheming grifters who fight the aristocracy to gain the rights to a life and property. Films about wealth inequality and deeply held anger at unfair economic systems are growing in the media.
Technology
Many new technologies are impacting film. More and more people use streaming and portable media to watch film. The elegant experience of watching films in a big theatre seems to be fading fast. People struggle to pay for multiple phones for full internet access and for streaming devices that they can take and watch anywhere. People are more and more wedded to a digital device. Phones or really small personal computers seem to be central to continuing daily life.
Streaming services such as HBO, paramount, Netflix, AMC, Apple TV, Peakcock, Amazon prime, Disney + and Hulu seem to be the standard for entertainment in our culture. There seem to be new services arriving daily. Further these services seem to be comfortable with being the producers, the distributors and the central destination for
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all media. Netflix has taken a buy it all approach to providing media for television, reality programming, documentaries, feature films and is currently entering the game market.
Along with the increase in tech seems to be an increase in product to feeda media frenzied population who still want to keep watching.
Postmodern condition
Several elements of postmodern culture are fueling changes in cinema. For one thing technological change is accelerating how film is viewed and regarded. In a lifestyle in which people are continually online and connected, the notion of a complete two-hour retreat to film may be reduced to mini series segments. Martin Scorsese’s epic film the Irishman at over three hours in length was not continually viewed by some film fans but watched as segments. Apple tv’s presentation of Peter Jackson’s edited film of the Beatles Get Back sessions was shown as an 8 hour plus mini-series in segments as opposed to a full length film. Length and editing styles may convince people that longer format films may be viewed as mini-series. Conventional longer films maybe segmented.
The growing demand for interactive entertainment may transform film to something akin to the cutscenes in a video game where viewers with a joystick controller determine what segments they will watch and how they will interact with the content. DVD presentations of films were already heading towards multiple content choices within a package. Viewers in that format could choose trailers, deleted scenes, extended edits, alternative endings and multiple angle scenes. The future of video delivery may be akin to further interactive menu choices.
Postmodern culture also has predicted that late stage capitalism may combine forces into super large companies. Without government intervention this trend has already been seen. Larger corporations may have more resources, exert tighter controls or liberalize the availability of media. Corporations are always looking for innovations that could provide more revenue and different offerings could make more subscribers and more media forms available.
Collapse and exhaustion are also conditions of the postmodern condition. A new form like super heroes may be popular for a time and then that media collapses to be replaced by a new form or genre. This cycle of collapse and rebirth of different formats may be a symptom of the public’s restlessness at media usage. There is also a tendency for boundaries in media to dissipate. For example the division between drama and comedy may have been blurred by films such as Being the Ricardos and The Grand Budapest Hotel. People often receive media today as blends of different styles of entertainment.
Terms
Streaming: Streaming in the delivery of films via digital content across the globe. Diversity: Diversity means the film industry has input from a variety of sources.
Films:
Anderson, Wes. Grand Budapest Hotel (2014)
Cuaron, Alfonso. Children of Men. (2006)
Melfi, Theodore. Hidden figures. (2016)
Sorkin, Aaron. Being the Ricardos. (2021)
Readings:
Oliver, David. “The Pandemic Fueled Diversity in Film.”
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https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/movies/2021/04/22/hollywood-diversity- report-pandemic-paved-way-inclusion-movies/7317279002/
Sharf, Zack. Alfonso Cuaron Didn’’t want to Direct Harry Potter.” https://www.indiewire.com/2018/09/alfonso-cuaron-harry-potter-prisoner-azkaban- guillermo-del-toro-1202000189/
33 cinema
Writing About film Process
The process of writing about film involves a series of steps. Students should have a good subject, a strong thesis, good sources, a logical development pattern, a substantial conclusion based on facts, text notes, a strong bibliography and excellent writing.
Subjects
In the field of film there are multiple subjects that people might consider. Obvious topics are actors and good performances or moments that are crescendos. Here are some popular topics that can provide good essays.
The use of a group of actors to create an ensemble.
Discuss how the scenes and sequences of a film are structured.
How does the film deal with difference in gender, race, social background or diversity. How does structure increase or decrease a film’s impact. For example in Saving Private Ryan the film starts with action but has a fairly slow last two hours. A film like Blackhawk down starts slowly but has a last two hours filled with action. How does such structural choice effect a film’s reception.
How does a film construct reality. In films like M. Night Shamelan’s The Sixth Sense, or the Wachoski sisters’ The Matrix, visions of reality are constructed only to be revealed as false later.
How do films like Being the Ricardos question and discuss what we know about famous people like Lucille Ball.
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How does a film like Star Wars deal with issues of family?
How do films in a series like Star Wars establish repetitive patterns that are repeated again and again.
How do films like Alien, Terminator, Halloween, Scream and others promote females as protagonists and heroes instead of male characters?
How do films like hidden Figures or The Help explore issues of representation of people and diversity?
These are only a few subjects that one could explore, but finding a subject that is less obvious and reveals a depth to a film can be useful.
Thesis
A thesis is usually a strongly prepared idea that has a strong subject, a strong defensible opinion and hopefully some preview of where the essay will go. For example there are many flawed thesis statements that do not make audiences want to read further but there are some thesis ideas that are intriguing and keep audiences interested. For example saying that Citizen Kane is a great film is nice but sort of boring. It doesn’t tell us much or intrigue us about the film. However, writing a thesis like this, might make audiences read the essay with interest. While people think Citizen Kane has great male characters (subject) it is really the female characters that make the film change (opinion) as when Kane’s mum makes him leave home to be wealthy, (preview one) or his first wife becomes disgruntled with his newspaper work, (preview two) or his last wife leaves him simply to spite him. (preview three). A thesis like that tells the audience exactly the subject, and has a very definite opinion and a very specific set of three examples (the mum, the first wife, the second wife) that can be fully developed in subsequent paragraphs.
Here is another complex thesis that might start a good essay. Star Wars despite its major characters is really a political film about how totalitarianism impacts subject people particularly illustrated in the way people act in the bar scene, how the soldiers and lieutenants act serving Grand Moff Tarken and Darth Vader and how the sand people conduct their business on the desolate sand planets. Again this complex thesis has a weird topic that has little to do with the main elements of the Star Wars films. It is an idea about minor characters and how they are used in the film. It would require students to draw examples from little known or less famous scenes and it would require people to think about people and scenes that few critics discuss. Would the essay be interesting? It might particularly in the writer can show how politics is exhibited in each scene.
So lets look at how film views marginalized characters. Consider this thesis. In films from Japanese/Thailand horror producers such as Shutter, The Ring, and The Grudge, the view of female ghostly characters is often negative, but perhaps it is a mistake to see these female ghostly characters as the villains and the antagonists of such films since it is Sadako who is the victim desiring justice in Ringu, Kayako, the murdered wife requiring justice in Ju-on (the Grudge), and Natre, the spurned girlfriend of Tun that desires retribution in Shutter. (Shutter) This thesis has a provocative thesis that maybe reading are reading these films all wrong and that such films really are about wrong females and not about male characters at all. These are films where female characters are victimized, abandoned or harmed by men. The examples from each film give writers a chance to focus on the female characters in these horror films.
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Sources
When writing about film it is good to have good sources that can help you.
Sometimes you might seek good sources first and construct the thesis and subject around sources you can find. The first place to find good sources is NOT on google or in Wikipedia. Those are general non specific sources used by children and often uneducated laymen. They don’t provide specific evidence, they are not written by scholars, they are often unsigned and anonymous, they don’t use sources, they present unsubstantiated opinion, they were not edited or verified by anyone, and they might describe or contain information that is either false or untrue. Where possible it is vastly more helpful to look thing up using our specific and targeted databases.
Ebsco e books. These sources are full books on film and social topics
Wilson omni file. Millions of articles on topics related to a film topic.
America one-file. Millions of articles related to topics on film.
JSTOR: A collection of hundreds of thousands of articles related to film topics all written and edited by scholars in a wide range of publications.
Many of the specific databases will give the writer the proper format for listing the source which can save writers time in writing and listing sources in the bibliography.
The use of good sources promotes good writing. You don’t have to use the whole article and you don’t have to read the whole article. Skim the article and look for items that relate to your thesis. Cut and paste quotes and plug those quotes into your own writing where relevant. Whenever you use a quotation or a paraphrase from an article you must place a text note (the author’s name and a page number) and the source in the bibliography. Also paraphrases and quotes must be inserted so that they support your ideas. That is quotes serve and help your writing. If the quote doesn’t help than don’t use it. You use quotes to prove you are right and your ideas are supported by other learned people with similar ideas.
Bibliography
A good bibliography should have anywhere from five sources or more in even a short paper. Why? People reading your writing want to know that you searched and found information on the subject that gives you a comprehensive and full understanding of the subject. If you look at five different sources you may not know everything about a topic but you derive a deeper understanding of the subject and know more varied opinions about it. You could still be wrong about it, but the more research you perform, the deeper your understanding will grow.
Most bibliographies in film can include books, articles, films, interviews and bibographies of people in the film business. Most sources are listed alphabetically in a bibliography by the authors last name, the title of the article, the place it was published, the publisher’s name and the date it was published. Llke this:
Kael, Pauline. The Citizen Kane Book. NY: Harcourt, 1971.
A film generally is the same data listed basically as the film title, the director, the production company and the date. It looks like this:
Star Wars. Directed by George Lucas. 20th Century Fox, 1977.
Magazines are the author, the title of the article, the name of the magazine, the date it was published. It looks like this.
Arthur, Bea. ‘The Bizarre world of Hitchcock.” Ladies Home Journal. 1965.
Sterritt, David. “The Mysterious Mr. Hitchcock.” Christian Science Monitor. April 9, 1983.
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Writing About film
So remember if you have a good subject, a strong thesis, good sources, some
good quotes and paraphrases, a strong bibliography and good writing style you will probably find readers and gain people Interested in your writing.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.162544
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02/16/2022
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90102/overview",
"title": "cinema scenes version two",
"author": "stuart lenig"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51267/overview
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Handout 2
Handout 3
Handout 4
Handout 5
Handout 6
Handout 7
Handout 8
Relationships & Communication
Overview
This is an in class activity where students watch an episode of the NBC television series "The Office" and are assigned a couple of characters to focus on throughout the episode and then answer questions on a handout about the things that went wrong between these characters due to their poor communicating skills and what they could have done different. The things that "blockcommunication" are listed directly on their handouts to help them with identifying effective and ineffective forms of communicaiton.
Relationships & Communication Activity Instructions
Relationships & Communication Activity
The Office, Season 2
(Running time: 21:08)
Here is some detailed information about the episode from Wiki
The Office: Conflict Resolution Information
Materials:
- The Office DVD (see Jackie Felix for a copy of the DVD) if the link above does not open.
- Hand-outs (8 different versions.)
(Typically I end up with 3-4 students per group. It just depends on the size of the class. I also change it up and sometimes and do 6 instead of 8 different scenarios. You can do as you like.)
Begin the lesson by reviewing the things that block communication as covered in the OER and that are listed directly on their handouts.. Then, inform the class that they are about to watch a video where they will be assigned to watch the relationship dynamic between 2 characters. They will be given a worksheet that they all must fill out and turn in. They can take notes while they watch the video but they must fill out the form.
Then, randomly hand-out the forms. Once each student has a form, begin the video.
When the episode is finished have them get into groups based on their pairing. (The characters they were assigned to watch.) For example, one group would be Angela vs. Oscar, and another would be Jim vs. Pam, etc )
Have them work with their group members to come up with the answers to the questions on the hand-out. Give them about 15 minutes. Make sure to reinforce that it is important to be very specific with the examples and answers that they give. Inform them that each group will be presenting their responses to the class.
Finally, together as a class, call on each group to explain to the class what the issue / conflict was and have them give the answers to their questions.
Collect the forms at the end of the activity. (I use this towards their participation points.)
You will be watching a full episode ofthe NBC television series "The Office." You will be provided a handout where you will be assigned a pair of characters you are to focus on during the episode and answer the questions on the form. You are to identify the ineffective ways these characters communicatied and what happened as a result. Finally you are to provide effective ways each could have communicated with one another based on what you learned in your textbook.
All forms are due at the end of the class session. Your handout will list the different things that block communication to help you in answering the questions.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.231386
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Jackeline Felix
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51267/overview",
"title": "Relationships & Communication",
"author": "Module"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87355/overview
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Student Worksheet-Website Evaluation
Overview
Use this worksheet to evaluate websites for credibility and reliability.
Student Worksheets
Use this worksheet to evaluate websites for credibility and reliability.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.248380
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11/01/2021
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87355/overview",
"title": "Student Worksheet-Website Evaluation",
"author": "Amy Betti"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108062/overview
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-
- HQIM Rubric
- NE World Languages
- Nebraska Department of Education
- World Language Education
- ne-world-languages
- License:
- Creative Commons Attribution
- Language:
- English
Education Standards
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Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Mid - Participate in basic exchanges in structured contexts about familiar and predictable topics using high-frequency vocabulary and phrasing.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice High - Participate in basic exchanges by constructing simple questions and answers using familiar vocabulary and language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Low - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges about familiar topics in structured settings and formats.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges about familiar topics with focused structures in a series of connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Mid - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing contextualized interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced High - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate High - Initiate, sustain, and conclude exchanges in a variety of situations on familiar topics by manipulating advanced vocabulary and language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Low - Engage in unplanned exchanges and discussions on a variety of familiar and unfamiliar concrete topics.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Mid - Engage in unplanned, in-depth exchanges and discussions on a variety of concrete and abstract topics across all major time frames.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Low - Participate in basic exchanges with isolated, high-frequency words, fragmented responses, or phrases.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice High - Identify the explicit meaning of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced High - Engage in unplanned, in-depth exchanges by applying social and cultural norms on concrete and abstract topics, across all major time frames.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Comprehend the main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that contain contextualized or familiar vocabulary and language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Mid - Identify elements of the explicit meaning of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Low - Identify isolated words and phrases of messages containing high-frequency vocabulary, predictable language structures, and/or extra-linguistic support.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Express personal meaning on familiar topics by creating combinations of language and structure specific to purpose and audience.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate High - Express personal meaning on familiar and unfamiliar topics using known language to compensate for higher vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Low - Create and deliver information on familiar and unfamiliar topics, using descriptive vocabulary and organized ideas across various time frames.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Mid - Create and deliver information on familiar and unfamiliar topics, using focused or context-specific vocabulary and organized and detailed ideas across most major time frames.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced Low - Analyze the implicit meaning literal meaning, and purpose of messages containing low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Low - Present information on familiar and everyday topics using isolated, high-frequency words and phrases in highly structured contexts.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice Mid - Present information on familiar and predictable topics using high-frequency vocabulary and phrases in structured contexts.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Low - Express personal meaning by combining and recombining familiar vocabulary and language structures in short statements and discrete sentences.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Advanced High - Create and deliver information on familiar and unfamiliar topics, elaborating and clarifying detailed and organized ideas.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Novice High - Present information on familiar and everyday topics using simple sentences in structured contexts.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate Low - Comprehend the main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that contain familiar vocabulary and language structures.
Learning Domain: Communication
Standard: Intermediate High - Comprehend and summarize main idea and some supporting details of messages on familiar topics that may contain low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice Mid - Identify products, practices, and perspectives using high-frequency vocabulary and phrases.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice High - Identify and describe products, practices, and perspectives using simple sentences in structured contexts.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate Low - Investigate, compare, and provide insight into products, practices, and perspectives using familiar vocabulary and limited language structures.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Investigate and compare products, practices, and perspectives using familiar vocabulary and creating combinations of limited and advanced language structures.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced Low - Analyze the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using descriptive vocabulary and organized ideas.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate High - Investigate and compare products, practices, and perspectives using advanced language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced Mid - Analyze and explain the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using focused or context-specific vocabulary and organized and detailed ideas.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice Low - Identify and describe products, practices and perspectives using isolated words and phrases.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced High - Analyze and explain the products, practices and perspectives of various groups using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary within complex language structures.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice Low - Identify expressions unique to the cultures studied.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice Mid - Identify and react with simple expressions and idioms unique to the languages and cultures studied.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Novice High - Identify and respond with culturally appropriate simple expressions in everyday situations in structured or highly predictable situations.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate Low - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, familiar vocabulary, and limited language structures appropriate to the social context in everyday or common scenarios.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced High -Participate appropriately and effectively in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, register, courtesy or style in any given situation.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, familiar vocabulary and combinations of limited and advanced language structures.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Intermediate High - Interact with culturally appropriate learned behaviors, advanced language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced Low - Participate in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, politeness or style in a given situation using familiar language
Learning Domain: Culture
Standard: Advanced Mid - Participate in intercultural situations that require the appropriate application of vocabulary, politeness or style in a given situation using both familiar and unfamiliar language.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Novice Mid - Apply high-frequency vocabulary and predictable language structures to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Intermediate Low - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using familiar vocabulary and language structures in short, connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Novice High - Apply familiar vocabulary and simple sentences to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Novice Low - Apply isolated words and phrases to accomplish tasks or show understanding of concepts in other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom by creating combinations of limited and higher-level language structures in short, connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Intermediate High - Describe familiar concepts and tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using higher-level language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Advanced Low - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using low-frequency vocabulary, higher-level language structures, and various time frames.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Advanced Mid - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with higher-level language structures and various time frames.
Learning Domain: Connections
Standard: Advanced High - Synthesize concepts and engage in tasks from other content areas and/or situations beyond the classroom using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with advanced language structures and various time frames.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice Low - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use isolated, high-frequency words and/or phrases and extra-linguistic supports.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice Low - Identify college and career options that incorporate the language studied using isolated words and phrases.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice Mid - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use high-frequency words and phrases in structured contexts.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate High - Relate training, education, and/or certification requirements for careers of interest using higher-level language structures and known language to compensate for unfamiliar vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice Mid - Identify college and career options that incorporate the language studied using high-frequency vocabulary and predictable language structures.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced High - Develop and appraise educational and career connections to a personal plan of language learning that aligns with personal skills and interests using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with advanced language structures.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice High - Identify college and career options that incorporate the language studied using familiar vocabulary and simple sentences.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced Low - Develop and list educational and career connections to a personal plan of language learning using low-frequency vocabulary and higher-level language structures.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Novice High - Use digital tools to select, categorize, and paraphrase information that tends to use simple sentences in structured formats on familiar or highly contextualized topics.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate Low -Relate, evaluate and summarize personal interests, skills, and values using familiar vocabulary and language structures in short, connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate Low - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using combinations of familiar vocabulary and language structures in short statements.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Relate and describe careers that align with personal skills and interests by creating combinations of limited and higher-level language structures in short, connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced Mid - Develop and describe educational and career connections to a personal plan of language learning that aligns with personal skills and interests using interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary with higher-level language structures.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using combinations of familiar vocabulary and language structures in connected sentences.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Intermediate High - Use digital tools to comment, organize, and compare information in a way that expresses personal meaning using known language to compensate for higher vocabulary.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced Low - Use digital tools to design solutions, synthesize information, and moderate information in a way that requires an understanding of literal and implicit meaning, low-frequency vocabulary, complex language structures, and/or contextual clues.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced Mid - Use digital tools to design solutions, synthesize information, and moderate information in a way that requires an understanding of literal and implicit meaning, contextualized interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary, and complex language structures.
Learning Domain: Communities
Standard: Advanced High - Use digital tools to design solutions, synthesize information, and moderate information in a way that requires an understanding of literal and implicit meaning, interdisciplinary and/or unfamiliar vocabulary, and complex language structures.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice Mid - Use simple words or phrasing to identify what concepts, skills, or information have been learned
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice Low - Use isolated words, phrasing, or images to identify what concepts, skills, or information have been learned.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice High - Use simple sentences or structures to identify and describe what concepts, skills, or information have been learned.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate Low - Reflect on how personal learning, practice, and understanding are evident.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Reflect on how personal learning, practice, and understanding are evident and how learning might be improved.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate High -Reflect on personal learning, practice, and understanding in response to pre-determined goals, outcomes, or expectations.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced Low - Analyze how personal learning, practice, and understanding have developed over time.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced Mid - Analyze how personal learning, practice, and understanding have, or have not, prepared for future growth.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced High - Analyze how personal learning, practice, and understanding can be sustained for future growth.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice Low - Identify what concepts, skills, or information are desired using isolated words, phrasing, or images.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice Mid - Identify what concepts, skills, or information are desired using simple words or phrasing.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Novice High - Identify and describe what concepts, skills, or information are desired using simple sentences or guided models.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate Low - Create simple, short-term goal statements in response to units of study or other focused needs.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate Mid - Create simple, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely goals using guided models in response to units of study or other focused needs.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Intermediate High - Create simple, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely goals that are supported by explanation and are in response to units of study or other focused needs.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced Low - Produce long-term measurable, attainable, relevant, timely goals that reflect personal interest and future plans.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced Mid - Produce long-term measurable, attainable, relevant, timely goals that reflect personal interest and future plans.
Learning Domain: Cognition
Standard: Advanced High - Produce, explain, and analyze the success of long-term measurable, attainable, relevant, timely goals that reflect personal interest and future plans.
NDE World Language HQIM Rubric Short Version_2023 May
Overview
The NDE World Language Advisory Board developed this HQIM in May 2023. It is based on the 2019 Nebraska World Language Standards to support curriculum development or improvement to ensure instructional material quality. It is a rubric for curriculum developers and teachers to evaluate the quality of materials for instructional purposes.
Description
This World Language OER Material Review Rubric is developed with reference to HQIM Review Rubrics for World Language from the Delaware Department of Education. This protocol is intended to help world language educators identify high-quality instructional materials that align with Nebraska World Language Standards to provide students with the opportunity to engage in meaningful interaction with content and other speakers of the language.
The rubric uses indicators, criteria, and gateways to organize the reviewing items in a sequential manner.
Indicator: Specific item that reviewers look for in materials.
Criterion: Combination of all the individual indicators for a single focus area.
Gateway: Organizing feature of the evaluation rubric that combines criteria and prioritizes order for sequential review.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.380103
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Dorann Avey
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108062/overview",
"title": "NDE World Language HQIM Rubric Short Version_2023 May",
"author": "Chrystal Liu"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89757/overview
|
Boston Massacre Painting by Paul Revere
Overview
Smith, Sidney Lawton, Engraver, and Paul Revere. The bloody massacre perpetrated in King - Street Boston on March 5th, by a party of the 29th Regt. / engrav'd printed & sold by Paul Revere, Boston ; re-engraved by Sidney L. Smith. Boston Massachusetts, 1908. Boston, Mass.: Published by Charles E. Goodspeed. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2012648847/
Embellished Engraving of the scene of the Boston Massacre by Paul Revere
Smith, Sidney Lawton, Engraver, and Paul Revere. The bloody massacre perpetrated in King - Street Boston on March 5th, by a party of the 29th Regt. / engrav'd printed & sold by Paul Revere, Boston ; re-engraved by Sidney L. Smith. Boston Massachusetts, 1908. Boston, Mass.: Published by Charles E. Goodspeed. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2012648847/
Embellished Engraving of the scene of the Boston Massacre by Paul Revere
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.398647
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Christopher Gilliland
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89757/overview",
"title": "Boston Massacre Painting by Paul Revere",
"author": "Susan Jennings"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83261/overview
|
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6–8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally).
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies.
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally).
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author's point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).
Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies
Standard: Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.
Cluster: Key Ideas and Details.
Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
Cluster: Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity.
Standard: By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6–8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
Cluster: Key Ideas and Details.
Standard: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
Cluster: Craft and Structure.
Standard: Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies.
Cluster: Craft and Structure.
Standard: Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally).
Cluster: Craft and Structure.
Standard: Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).
Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas.
Standard: Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.442575
|
Lesson Plan
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83261/overview",
"title": "Analyzing and Critical Thinking",
"author": "Lesson"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78048/overview
|
Education Standards
DebtSlapped - Website Guidance
Overview
This website guidance document describes the Debt Slapped project, produced by Consumer Education and Training Services. Debt Slapped provides videos and helpful resource links to help people smartly finance their education.
Debt Slapped | Consumer Education and Training Services
Debtslapped Website
This Debtslapped project was produced by CENTS (Consumer Education and Training Services), a nonprofit organization dedicated to teaching people how to make informed financial decisions. Educators will find the video series Debtslapped as well as many linked guidance sites helping navigate decisions regarding college financing and spending issues.
http://debtslapped.org/
Video Series
Watch these short segments (1-3 minutes) independently or view the entire series.
- Chapter 1: Intro
- Chapter 2: The Project
- Chapter 3: You are a Target Market
- Chapter 4: Now is the New Later
- Chapter 5: It’s the Economy, debt-slapped
- Chapter 6: How Debt Smokes your Money
- Chapter 7: Exposing the Costs of Debt
- Chapter 8: Borrowing Fundamentals
- Chapter 9: Credit Card Details
- Chapter 10: Post-graduation debt-slap
- Chapter 11: Debt-busting Mindset
- Chapter 12: Financial Goals
- Chapter 13: Vital Projections
- Chapter 14: Cutting Down the Cost of College
- Chapter 15: Student Loan Details
- Chapter 16: Saving is so Money
- Chapter 17: Spending Plans
- Chapter 18: Credit Reports and Scores
- Chapter 19: In Over Your Head
- Chapter 20: Be an Engaged Consumer
- Full-length Video
Attribution and License
Attribution
These videos are copyright Debtslapped. All Rights Reserved. They are available for free public viewing via YouTube. Downloading additional classroom materials requires a password. Contact Debtslapped.
- Cover Image by Cari Dobbins from Pixabay
- Debtslapped logo used under fair use
License
Except where otherwise noted, this website guidance document by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
This resource contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.487251
|
Higher Education
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78048/overview",
"title": "DebtSlapped - Website Guidance",
"author": "Finance"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54363/overview
|
Significant Digits and rules for rounding
Significant Digits and Accuracy
Overview
This module is an introduction to Accuracy, Precision, and Sig figs. It includes how to count the number of significant digits and defining accuracy versus precision.
How important are the numbers?
With an experimental science like chemistry, the numbers we record from our experiments are of paramount importance! If our data are not accurate, we cannot draw any conclusions and we've just wasted your hard-earned taxpayer dollars (if in an academic or government lab).
These videos explain why Significant Digits (sig figs) has meaning in any experimental field, defines accuracy and precision, and demonstrates how to count sig figs.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.505345
|
05/15/2019
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54363/overview",
"title": "Significant Digits and Accuracy",
"author": "Amy Petros"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83733/overview
|
Claude Bernard
DCCT Trial 1993
google classroom-monitoring-diabetes-hypertension
IDF Diabetes Atlas
Kids and diabetes in schools by IDF
Oxygen saturation
UKPDS
Using a digital BP monitor
Using a mercury BP monitor
Using glucometer
WHO Constitution
Monitoring diabetes and hypertension
Overview
The course seeks to familiarize the learners with the possibilities involved in the management of diabetes and hypertension. This course is to make medical knowledge simpler and accessible for common people. This will help reduce anxiety about the diseases. Reduction in the incidence of threatening complications like cerebral stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, blindness, diabetic foot and amputations is the goal we need to achieve.
The health-aware person, a learner of this course, can be a patient itself, a relative, a neighbor, or anyone from society. Some basic education and a will to help the patient is all that is required.
Abstract
The central idea of this course is that a trained voluntary health-literate can assist doctors in diagnosing, monitoring, and treating people with diabetes and hypertension. One simple test, one small observation, one timely consultation by the volunteer can prevent dreadful moments for the patient.
This health-aware person, a learner of this course, could be a patient himself or herself, a relative, a neighbor, or anyone from society. Some basic education and a will to help the patient is all that is required.
Diabetes and hypertension are quite prevalent globally.
Global diabetes data report 2010 — 2045
With a large number of patients, it is getting difficult for the present healthcare systems to reach every patient in need of medical intervention. Especially in rural areas and where traveling is still a difficult task, where people are unwilling (for a variety of reasons) to visit a doctor frequently, where there are fewer doctors as compared to the population, such as in India.
Nearly every family has a patient with hypertension, diabetes, or both. Many patients remain undiagnosed because they are asymptomatic many times.
This course seeks to familiarize the learners with the possibilities involved in their role in the management of diabetes and hypertension. The goal of this course is to make medical knowledge simpler and accessible for common people. This will help not only demystify these diseases but also reduce the anxiety about them. Reduction in the incidence of serious and life-threatening complications like cerebral stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, blindness, and diabetic foot and amputations is the goal we need to achieve.
Introduction
Background
The thought behind this course Fear of the disease is mostly due to ignorance. Knowledge is the answer. This is an attempt to do that. People just know the names of diseases but that is not enough. They should gather enough information and live a fear-free life. |
I have a clinic in a village in Konkan, the western part of Maharashtra state in India, where I have been treating diabetes and hypertension patients for the last forty years. In these years, I have learned that there is no alternative to close monitoring of blood sugar and blood pressure for adequate management of diabetes and hypertension. However, most of the time, people around are not educated enough or health-literate to monitor themselves or their family members.
I thought of the above fifteen teenagers of these families. These young students were studying in schools or junior colleges. They already have some health lessons in their curriculum. It was the right time to make them aware of these prevalent diseases. Due to the theatre activities, I am connected to most of the students in the school. So I began a dialogue with them about a project I had in my mind.
I often thought that how lucky are people when they have a doctor in their family. It is really not possible but we can at least have someone who has learned some skills in medicine and has read enough information to guide the family members.
When an elder member in a family is sick everyone is worried. Though they want to help the person they do not know how to do that. If they learn a few medical skills like using a thermometer, measuring a pulse rate, and respiratory rate. They can learn the basics of wound care easily. Using the Blood pressure apparatus is also not a big thing to do. If explained well they can even measure blood glucose with a glucometer. I wanted to make them health-literate as early as possible.
I went to the school in our village and explained the idea to the school authorities and we started Saturday and Sunday discussion sessions with the interested students. We had ten sessions of one hour each. We discussed health and illnesses in general. Diabetes and hypertension were discussed in detail. We learned together to measure blood pressure, feel the pulse, and use a glucometer.
Then, we arranged a camp for diabetes and hypertension for people in the area with the help of these volunteer students. Diagnosis and guidance were the aims. We repeated this activity with different batches of students for the next three years.
These camps were helpful for people. We detected many new cases and could arrange discussion sessions for all new and old patients. Every camp was attended by more than three hundred people; three to four camps in a year. There were around thirty volunteer students who took blood pressure and measured blood sugar under the supervision of volunteer doctors in the village. We held an open discussion among doctors in the village who shared their experiences about the management of diabetes and hypertension in the camps in front of the patients. There was a question-answer session with the audience after the discussion.
We had named this activity ‘school for health’. The present course is an online version of this particular thought. Problem-oriented discussions among the participants will enhance group learning.
Diabetes and hypertension
As silent killer diseases
Diabetes and hypertension are called silent killers.
This means that they can lead to complications causing sudden deaths without any preceding symptoms. This is unique to diabetes and hypertension. Undiagnosed and borderline diseases cause irreversible damage to organs. People remain unaware of the disease that exists within their bodies. They don’t consult a doctor as they do not have a troublesome, recognizable symptom.
Dyslipidemia or increased fats in the blood is another such modern human disease. These are all chronic acquired diseases also listed under the broad name of non-communicable diseases.
Another term used is lifestyle diseases.
We observe heart attacks, cerebral strokes, kidney failures, retinal detachments, ketoacidosis, non-healing wounds, and gangrenes. But we miss the hidden culprits sitting under. Those are long-standing untreated hypertension and hyperglycemia. Those are diabetes and hypertension. They remain the fastest-growing public health issue for the last forty years or so.
The reasons are many. And not all have yet been identified or well-understood. Changed dietary habits, physical inactivity, and stress create the ground for these diseases. And hence there is a need for a different approach to deal with them. Frequent examinations for blood glucose and blood pressure levels are required with a continuous suspicious mind to know if someone is suffering from diabetes or hypertension. And if someone is not being treated adequately.
Medicine has a long history to overcome diseases
Time brings us here and we are to decide about our future with thoughtful actions. Education, communication, and collective actions have always helped us to survive and get through difficult situations till now.
How we think about the cause of a disease has kept changing with time. Many scientists work hard over their lifetimes to find out the facts. Every disease is investigated and the cause is identified. The treatment is sorted out. And we get rid of the problem. We have gotten rid of many diseases till now. Science has got a methodology to deal with diseases.
Knowledge on a fingertip
We are now in the era of the internet. We have vast amounts of information in every field of life. It is at our fingertips, just a click away from every person with an internet connection. The internet and mobile technology are spreading rapidly in every country. Now it has become easier to reach people and communicate. Open education for a better world (OE4BW) is one such kind of momentum. This resource is part of it.
Scientific mind at work
Not all people living at a particular time have the same opinion about a particular subject.
Diabetes and hypertension are not an exception. Education and discussions make the difference. Research should reach people. The patient should follow evidence-based medicine. Small attention is required to know the exact reason behind the suffering. Armed with this knowledge, it is easily possible to stay fit and healthy despite the disease.
Health is wealth
Prevention is the best cure they say. Early diagnosis and proper care are almost like a cure.
Diabetes and hypertension are to some extent preventable diseases. Since we know the risk factors involved we can avoid them. We aim to prevent complications. If complications are treated well we can prevent disabilities.
The present course about monitoring blood glucose and blood pressure is important as a preventive measure at every stage of the disease. Monitoring will prevent repeated hospitalizations. Monitoring will reduce the economic burden due to these chronic diseases.
The course structure
We have divided the course into three modules.
Module 1
The Disease:
Module 2
The patient
Module 3
The monitoring
Restrictions: Knowing the limitations as a volunteer/mediator
Response: Self-assessment of the work
Reaching:: Building the network of voluntary health literates
Research: Comparative study if possible
Module 1 The Disease: The concept of health and disease
Module 1
Diabetes and Hypertension
The concept of health and disease
Life is like a river flowing continuously without a moment of rest. We grow old with every heartbeat. Cells die and newer ones take their place. We are unaware of many minute happenings that take place in our bodies. We are unaware of the working of our minds. The chemical reactions take place throughout the body and messages travel from place to place with the speed of the electric current. The functioning of the body is not noticed by us. We are not disturbed by our bodies most of the time. I think that is what happens when we are in good health. The smooth functioning of our body systems has an ultimate feeling of health to us. Health is the well-being of the mind and that of the body.
“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” – WHO Constitution |
This WHO definition of health, dated back to 1948 is still valid today. It covers the health of mind, body, and our interaction with the society we live in.
Health for all by 2020
Total health is difficult to attain in today’s world. Healthy individuals together will make a healthy society. Hence we had thought of ‘Health for all by 2020’. And now we have already missed that deadline.
Unfortunately, the pandemic of Covid-19 has taken away the little progress if at all we had made by 2020. The world is affected badly today. We were not prepared for this calamity. Uncertainty is ruling the world it seems. That should not dishearten us and we must prepare ourselves and improve our capacity to reach our goal of health for all.
We have witnessed that diabetes and hypertension are making it difficult to fight the virus. Covid-19 is more lethal when an infected person has these comorbidities.
Diabetes and hypertension monitoring has become so important in the present situation.
Life with the disease is bound to be different. But we can help make it bearable, painless, and full of hopes and dreams. Even talking for a few minutes and listening to their experiences is going to help the patients. Here, we are trying to help them, understand the disease well and make timely decisions to maintain their health.
Diabetes and hypertension monitored well are as good as no disease. Keeping the glucose levels and blood pressure in the normal range is all that is necessary. |
Module 1 The Disease: Anatomy
Why study anatomy?
It is like viewing a map to plan a trip. It gives the idea of the locations and their relations to each other.
It is the theatre where the play named `life' is performed. If we want to know about life in health and disease we need to go to the place where every action takes place.
Many people have fear or even a nauseating feeling when they look at blood or wounds. It is a natural response for them. One has to overcome this with an intention to go ahead and study an important subject like anatomy. I think the learner of this course is courageous enough to visualize dissected body parts, not the real ones but in pictures, and learn the science of life.
If we want to study diseases and to know about the functioning of our body, then we need to study anatomy. We should know their relations, positions, and importance. We must appreciate the wonderful design of our bodies. How organs are protected by a bony cage is surprising. How muscles function and perform an activity is amazing. One must note the textures, colours, and shapes of various body parts as a student of medicine. The learner here is being introduced to the world of medicine. Anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are the subjects at the entrance of this world.
Doctors learn anatomy to start the course of medicine after admission into medical college. In the dissection hall, they study cadavers. They dissect bodies to observe and handle bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, tissues, organs. Later on, as a surgeon, they have to know the minute details of the human body as a part of their work.
Nowadays we can visualize internal organs in films of CT scans, MRI, etc. We can learn to some extent with pictures and videos on the internet too. Animation has helped to make simulations and the study of anatomy quite interesting. You can explore the internet to study anatomy whenever you like.
What is our body made up of?
A cell is a building unit of the human body. There are many types of cells and together they give the shape and structure to the body. Cells divide and redivide to form our bodies. It is surprising to see how the life of mankind starts with a single cell. The size achieved in the uterus till birth and its growth afterward are just because of repeated divisions of cells. How cells get differentiated and form tissues, organs, and systems inside the uterus are studied in embryology.
The three-layered embryo turns into a fetus
Initially, the cell divides and forms three layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
The ectoderm forms cells of skin and nails, brain and spinal cord, eyes, epithelium of mouth, nose, and anus.
Endoderm forms cells of the inner lining of the digestive tract and the respiratory tract, and glands, liver, and pancreas.
Mesoderm forms cells of muscles, the circulatory system, kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra.
What does every cell do?
Though cells differ in shape and size for different functions, they all have an outer cell membrane and a nucleus inside. They have an intracellular fluid or a cytoplasm. The other structures are nucleolus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vacuoles, lysosomes, etc. They together are called organelles. They all together carry on functions of the cell.
Functions of a cell can be listed as:
Structure and support of the body.
Growth by the process of division
Passive transport across the cell membrane, e. g. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol
Active transport across the cell membrane e.g. bigger molecules like glucose, proteins, polysaccharides
Energy production by process of respiration
Metabolism: includes catabolic reactions, which are breaking bigger molecules.
Anabolic reactions are constructing bigger molecules
from smaller components.
Reproduction: cells take part in the process of reproduction.
It can be mitotic or meiotic division.
Systems of our body and their functions
1. skin, hair, and nails
| fig.1 Skin |
Skin is our largest organ. It weighs 4 kg and has an area of about two square meters.
Skin not only covers us but does many functions. Any injury to the skin exposes our body to the possibility of infection by microorganisms. Wound care is a very important part of health care. Every person should learn the techniques of dressing wounds and practice them whenever needed.
Protection
Sensation
Excretion/sweat,sebum
Temperature regulation
Vitamin D production using sunlight
2. Skeletal: skull, spine, shoulder, and pelvic girdles, thoracic cage, hands, and feet bones.
| Fig,2 Skeleton |
Skeleton is used as a symbol of fear in movies. It is also linked with the idea of ghosts.
Recognizing the bones is easy if you observe them for their shape and size. People can find some differences between male and female skeletons. Women have a wider pelvis. Less prominent brows and equally less prominent muscle attachment markings over bones.
Skeleton provides the following functions:
The shape of the body is due to the skeleton.
It supports all other organs/bears weight of the body
Protection for soft organs: the skull protects the brain, ribs protect the heart and lungs
Place of muscle attachment
Joints help in locomotion
Producing blood cells
3. muscular
| Fig.3 Muscles in back as an example |
Locomotion
Work
flexibility
4. nervous: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
| fig.4 Nervous System |
Controlling the other systems
Interacting with the surroundings
5.respiratory: nose, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
| fig.5 Respiratory System |
Breathing air in and out
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air and blood
6.cardiovascular: heart, arteries, veins, arterioles, capillaries
| fig. 6 Cardiovascular System |
- Carry oxygen from lungs to body cells
Carry carbon dioxide from cells to lungs
Carry digested food/nutrients from the digestive system to cells
7.lymphatic: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils, and spleen
| fig.7 lymphatic system |
Drain the fluid from capillaries to veins
Maintain the balance of extracellular fluid and that in the vessels
Carry immune cells from the immunity system to the body
Spleen destroys old RBCs (red blood corpuscles)
8. digestive: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.
| fig. 8 |
The figure shows the position of the pancreas
Breaking the food into small size molecules
Excretion of bile and undigested food
The pancreas and liver have various other functions
9. urinary: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
| fig.9 Urinary system |
Filters blood to remove waste
Maintains the blood pressure
10. reproductive: mammary glands, uterus, ovaries, vagina/testes, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis
| fig.10 Reproductive System |
Reproduction
11. endocrine: pituitary, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, suprarenals, pancreas, testes, /ovaries
| Fig. 11 Endocrine System |
Producing hormones that control other systems
Growth and functioning
Module 1 The Disease: Physiology
Functioning of the human body
Physiology tries to understand how the body functions. It is a branch of biology.
It is learned with so many experiments that biology works with the laws of physics and chemistry.
So, in physiology, we need to go in-depth about the processes involved. Every system needs to be studied from that angle.
What are the functions of our body?
Organization
Metabolism
Responsiveness
Movement
Development / Growth
Reproduction
Physiology of blood sugar and blood pressure regulation
How does a normal person always have his/her fasting blood sugar level in a range of 80 to 120 mg/dl,оr blood pressure systolic<120 and diastolic<80 mm of Hg?
These are the desirable ranges for blood sugar and blood pressure in our bodies.
To understand how blood sugar and blood pressure levels are maintained in their respective range, we need to learn the concept of homeostasis.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the stability of the internal environment of the body. This ability of the body to control its interior environment was first explained by the scientist Claude Bernard (recognized as the father of modern physiology). The word he used for that was `milieu interieur’.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernard
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claude-Bernard
The body has different systems working separately but all are well connected and are interdependent too. To have an ideal environment for the best functioning of our body some conditions need to be fulfilled. These conditions are many. For example, body temperature, pH of blood, blood sugar, etc. Our body control systems work together for maintaining these values in the desired range. The system acts like that of the thermostat, which maintains the temperature near the set point.
The human body requires energy for functioning. The energy we get is from the food we eat.
Our food is in three main forms. Those are proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. When these three forms are digested they get absorbed into the blood flow as amino acids, fatty acids, and glucose respectively.
Glucose is used to give instant energy. It is easy to understand that blood glucose/sugar is raised when we eat food containing glucose. Carbohydrates are a rich source of glucose. Then glucose molecules enter cells for their further utilization. Here insulin secreted by beta cells of the pancreas is required for the active transport of glucose molecules through the cell membrane. The glucose that enters the cell undergoes glycolysis. This is an irreversible reaction and it gives one ATP molecule. ATP is used as energy throughout the body.
The body has glucose reserves, stored glucose in the form of glycogen. Mostly in the liver and skeletal muscles. This storage process, called glycogenesis, is also promoted by the hormone insulin. The extra glucose, if available, is converted into fats or adipose tissues for long-term storage. When the glucose level starts falling glycogen molecules are again converted to glucose and brought back into blood circulation for utilization. The reaction is the opposite of glycogenesis. So glycogenolysis is breaking down glycogen molecules in small parts. That is glucose. Glycogenolysis = Glycogen+lysis. The hormone which plays a role here is glucagon. Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas. In some situations when required glucagon can produce glucose from proteins too. It is called gluconeogenesis. At the time of starvation, glucagon converts fatty acids to ketone bodies. The process is called ketogenesis. They increase the acidic level of blood and cause a condition known as ketoacidosis.
Role of hormones in the homeostasis of glucose
1. insulin
Insulin reduces blood sugar by
Glycolysis: by helping glucose enter into the cell.
Glycogenesis: by increasing the glucose conversion to glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Lipogenesis: by converting glucose to fats.
2. Glucagon
Glucagon increases blood sugar by
Glycogenolysis: Converts glycogen to glucose
Gluconeogenesis: Converts amino acids to glucose
Glucagon is an exceptional condition of starvation that produces ketone bodies from fats.
Ketone bodies are used instead of glucose as a source of energy only by the brain and heart.
As if this is the last life-saving alternative available to the body.
Ketogenesis: Fats are converted to ketone bodies.
3. Amylin (islet amyloid polypeptide)
Secreted with insulin by beta cells.
Helps to decrease postprandial blood glucose spikes by
Slowing the gastric emptying
Promoting satiety
4. Incretins
GLP-1
GIP
Incretins are hormones secreted by epithelial cells of the small intestine.
The entry of food or glucose triggers the secretion.
They increase insulin release by beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They decrease glucagon secretion. They also delay gastric emptying and promote satiety.
But they are deactivated by the enzyme DPP4 in a short time.
New drugs DPP4 Inhibitors prolong the action of incretins and reduce blood glucose.
Other hormones
5. Growth hormone secreted by the pituitary gland,
6. Cortisol secreted by suprarenal or adrenal glands,
7. Adrenaline by adrenal glands,
All the above three hormones have hyperglycemic effects. Means they increase blood glucose levels.
| fig.12The graph below is blood glucose values against time. |
Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Types
Diabetes
What is diabetes?
Diabetes is a metabolic disorder causing raised blood sugar, also known as hyperglycemia.
It occurs due to a deficiency of the hormone insulin. But it can also occur due to the phenomenon of insulin resistance, where insulin is ineffective though not deficient. It is called a relative deficiency of insulin.
Insulin is a hormone produced by beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Though diabetes is a metabolic disorder it affects small and large vascular systems, causing inflammation of endothelium (inner walls of the blood vessels). So it is equally a cardiovascular disease. |
Types of diabetes mellitus(DM)
Type1 DM:
Type1 diabetes mellitus was previously known as Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, (IDDM).
It starts early in life and children suffer from this, hence is called juvenile diabetes too. This type of diabetes is due to the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. Autoimmunity is when our immune system fails to recognize our cells and produces antibodies against our own cells.
Destroyed and non-functioning beta cells lead to worrisome conditions for Type1 DM patients as they do not have endogenous insulin to control their blood sugar. If not treated the sugar is too high and causes complications like ketoacidosis and sometimes altered consciousness. The patients can still lead a good life when treated properly with insulin. The life span and the quality of life are improved after insulin treatment. Insulin has saved many lives.
To learn more about juvenile diabetes it is worth visiting the sites below.
Type2 DM:
Type2 diabetes mellitus was previously known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus(NIDDM). It starts mostly after forty years of age and is also called maturity-onset diabetes. As some insulin is produced this diabetes remains asymptomatic for a longer duration.
It is due to the dysfunction of beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and associated insulin resistance. Type2 DM is the commonest type of diabetes. Nearly 90 percent of total diabetics have Type2 DM.
In this course, we are mostly dealing with this type of diabetes.
Gestational diabetes
This type of diabetes is found in some of the expecting mothers (around 2-3 percent) during the
last trimester mostly. The cause here is insulin resistance. This hyperglycemia reduces on its own after the delivery.
Pancreatic diabetes
The main cause here is repeated and chronic pancreatitis. Due to inflammation, the pancreatic tissue is destroyed. There are fibrotic lesions and calcifications in the pancreas. Both exocrine and endocrine functions get affected. The patients have upper abdominal pain and indigestion in association with hyperglycemia. This type of diabetes is difficult to treat as the sugar levels always keep fluctuating. The patients remain malnourished. But monitoring blood sugar is essential to reduce possibilities of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia.
Comparison of Type1 DM to Type 2 DM
| T1DM | T2DM | ||
Juvenile diabetes mellitus |
| ||
| Starts in childhood | Starts after age 40 usually | ||
| Symptoms are acute | symptoms develop gradually | ||
| The patient is usually thin | The patient is usually obese | ||
| Need insulin in the treatment | Insulin may be needed | ||
| Can not be prevented | Risk is reducible |
Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Symptoms
Symptoms of diabetes
Symptoms depend on the level of hyperglycemia. If the blood sugar is below 180mg/dl then the patient may not have any symptoms, that is the patient is asymptomatic.
As we know now, hyperglycemia is a raised blood glucose level. When the blood glucose is more than 180 mg/dl it crosses the renal threshold. Meaning the kidney starts excreting glucose through urine. Normally glucose is nil or is absent in urine. If glucose passes the kidney’s barrier it pulls the amount of water in its proportion by the laws of osmosis. A large quantity of water passes with glucose in urine. This causes dehydration. Cells experience dryness which stimulates the thirst center. The person feels thirsty quite often. As insulin shortage or insulin resistance causes few glucose molecules to enter cells, cells lack the energy source and are starved. This causes hunger. Sugar in urine invites infection by fungi.
Polyuria: passing large amounts of urine, frequently.
Polydipsia: Increased thirst
Polyphagia: Increased appetite.
Glycosuria: Passing glucose in urine.
Unexplained weight loss
Fatigue
Irritability
Delayed wound healing
Blurred vision
Frequent infections
Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Diagnosis
Diagnosis of diabetes
( Patient's serum mixed with the reagent in a laboratory)
If the person has symptoms mentioned above, s/he is investigated further. If s/he has blood tests done twice at an interval positive, s/he is considered to have diabetes. The tests performed are as follows:
Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)
(Fasting means no caloric intake for eight hours.)
FPG ≥ 126mg/dL
OR
Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)/2- Hour plasma glucose(PG)
(Patient is given 75-gram anhydrous glucose dissolved in water 2 hours before the test)
2-hour PG ≥ 200mg/dL
OR
HbA1c ≥ 6.5%
OR
If the patient has classic symptoms of hyperglycemia then
Random plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL
Prediabetes
It is when the individual has high blood sugar levels but not so high to be diagnosed as diabetes. Here the fasting sugar will be 100 mg/dL to 125 mg/dL or the postprandial between 140 mg/dL to 199 mg/dL.
This is just a warning sign that the person may have the disease very soon. A healthy and stress-free lifestyle can change the picture. The onset of diabetes can be prevented by dietary changes and increasing physical activity. Jogging, brisk walking, and aerobics are good, proven exercises. Keeping the mind relaxed will also help reduce elevated blood glucose levels.
Glycosylated hemoglobin/ HbA1c
HbA1c is glycosylated hemoglobin. When blood glucose increases some glucose molecules get attached to hemoglobin molecules. This is in proportion to the rise in glucose concentration.
This property of glucose binding to the Hb molecule is used here to see the glucose behavior for the last three months. HbA1c is helpful to guide us about chronic hyperglycemia. Chronic is for a longer duration. The reading of HbA1c gives an idea about the estimated average blood glucose of the last three months.
One millimole of glucose is 18 mg of glucose
HbA1c report estimated average blood sugar in mg/dL & mmol/dL
HbA1C % 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 | mg/dL 97 126 154 183 212 240 269 298 | mmol/L 5.4 7.0 8.6 10.2 11.8 13.4 14.9 16.5 |
Other investigations
Once diagnosed the patient needs to be further evaluated to see his/her status regarding possible ill effects due to the disease. They have different symptoms. Their systems get ill at a different pace. It will depend on how long s/he has hyperglycemia and his dietary habits. It will also depend on his/her body mass index and whether s/he has hypertension. Smoking and tobacco chewing and alcohol are worrisome addictions that can exacerbate diabetes.
Urine examinations
Previously we used to use urine examination for monitoring and to diagnose too.
I remember doing Benedict's test in my college forty years back. The color of Benedict’s solution would change from blue to green to yellow to brick red. This was bedside clinical laboratory work for the medical students. The more the sugar, the more the color changes. It was routine work and we used to change the drug dosages depending on the results.
But with the introduction of glucometers, a drop of blood gives results in a few seconds. But still, dry strips for glucose and ketone bodies are useful.
(Diasticks) They have replaced Benedict’s test.
Urine for microalbuminuria helps us judge the beginning of kidneys getting affected. Urinary tract infections are common in diabetics. The pus cells in the routine urine test indicate that.
Lipid profile
Dyslipidemia, when present, adds to the complications. The readings about cholesterol, triglycerides, and the proportion of high density and low-density lipids
provide important information about the state/degree of atherosclerosis we expect.
Serum creatinine
To check and see if any renal impairment has begun. Diabetic nephropathy is a common complication. It is aggravated if associated with uncontrolled hypertension. If Nephropathy is present then the treatment needs to be changed accordingly. Drugs are used with precautions.
Ophthalmic check-up
The patient’s vision needs regular checkups if diabetic. Retinopathy and related blindness are avoidable only with good glycemic control. Long-standing hyperglycemia is also connected to cataracts and optic neuritis.
Cardiac check-up
A basic reading of electrocardiogram gives many clues for patient’s
Cardiac status. Rate, rhythm, conduction of electric current, condition of atria and ventricles, and ischemic changes if any are detected.
Module 1 The Disease: Diabetes: Treatment
There are five parts in the management of diabetes mellitus:
- Patient education,
- Diet,
- Exercise
- Drug treatment
- Monitoring
This is applicable to every disease. But in diabetes, the other parts are equally or more important than the drug treatment. Diabetes being a lifelong companion needs continuous attention. Suppression of the disease is the key to success!
People are claiming that they can even exclude the drug treatment if concentrated enough on diet and exercise. The reversal of diabetes is a popular term used in recent times. It is based on these assumptions and there are many stories available on the internet. It will be a great victory if people get free of the disease without the drugs.
But the day has not yet arrived. What we see is people with complications and difficulties beyond their capacity. Sufferings and economic burdens both are on the rise. Diabetes and other diseases combine to make the solutions difficult. We have observed this with wound sepsis, tuberculosis, AIDS, Urinary tract infections, Atherosclerotic vascular diseases, and many more. The Covid 19 is a recent example.
Patient education
The skill to deal with diabetes is a must for every diabetic. The patient has to know what exactly is the cause and process behind his/her suffering. Informing the patient about diet, exercise, drug dosages, possible side effects is essential. Recognizing the symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia is very important.
As the knowledge is ever-changing, updating from experts, magazines should continue.
But the diabetic has to keep away from false advertisements.
Diet
There is a famous term heard often as a diabetic diet. It is a constant fear amongst patients about the diet. People are accustomed to many things in their diet. They have developed the taste over the years from childhood and have developed their formula for eating. Suddenly if they know that they have to restrict themselves to a particular type of food they find the idea difficult.
Diabetes demands meticulous planning in diet. Proper diet to get into the right zone of body mass index, the right blood sugar, and to fulfill the energy demand of the body. A diet should be full of vitamins, healthy nutrients, fruits, and enough fiber.
The doctor treating patients often sends patients to a dietician for proper advice. The dietician takes into consideration the present diet received by the patient, his/her health issues, and the goals of the treatment. The dietician designs meal plans accordingly.
Exercise
The importance and benefits of physical activity have proved beyond doubt now. The lack of physical activity is the leading cause of lifestyle diseases. Simple brisk walking for an hour a day can make a difference. Sedentary behavior is a new urban problem.Household chores, cleaning, gardening, etc. are forgotten. Reduction in this sedentarism and promoting outdoor activities will help a lot.
Being physically active is found to improve insulin sensitivity. It also helps to control blood sugar levels and reduce the average sugar in HbA1c. Altering the dose of insulin and hypoglycemic drugs according to your activity variations is not to be forgotten. The tight control might precipitate hypoglycemia.
Age-related diseases like osteoarthritis affect knee joints and people get into trouble and can not walk for a long time. Frozen shoulders are common in diabetes. Such specific health issues need special attention while treating diabetes.
Hundred years of insulin
Difficult were days for diabetes patients, especially Type 1 DM, before Insulin. Death was inevitable. Starvation was the only treatment known. Diagnosis of Type1 DM was like a death
sentence for the patient.
Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best, John J. R. Macleod, and James B. Collip together made it possible to effectively treat diabetes with purified pancreatic extract named insulin. It has proved a life-saving drug for people with diabetes since then. It is essential to know about this discovery but it is important to know how difficult it is for a patient with average income to get treated with insulin.
Insulin is the only drug for Type 1DM. The dosages are based on readings of blood sugar and need constant titration. As insulin is a peptide, if taken orally it is broken down into amino acids and becomes ineffective. Hence it is effective in the injectable form.
Insulin is advised for
Type 1 DM patients
Uncontrolled sugar in Type 2DM even with high dosages of drugs
Type 2 DM with severe infection, cardiac event, or planned surgery
Type 2 DM who needs steroid treatment
Patient with ketoacidosis
Severe hyperglycemia/patient in comatose condition (blood glucose > 600mg/dL)
Short term period insulin for gestational diabetes patient
If the Type 2 DM is allergic to oral hypoglycemic drugs
Patient with diabetes who is only on intravenous support/ no oral feeding
Action duration | Name | Starts action | Peak of action | End of action |
Rapid | Lispro Aspart Glulisine | 5 to 15 minutes | 30 to 90 minutes | 3 to 5 hours |
Short | Regular | 30 to 60 minutes | 2 to 3 hours | 5 to 8 hours |
Intermediate | Isophane (N.P.H.) | 2 to 4 hours | 4 to 10 hours | 10 to 16 hours |
Long | Glargine Detemir Degludec | 2 to 4 hours | No peak hours | 16 to 24 hours |
The type of insulin and the dose and time to inject change according to the response of the patient to the treatment. It is to be remembered that the regimen of drugs or insulin is not likely to work permanently for any patient. The regimens can be once a day, twice a day, thrice a day, four times a day as per the need.
We will learn more in detail about this in our module about monitoring.
Oral Hypoglycemic drugs
The oral hypoglycemic drugs are effective in Type 2 DM. They are to be prescribed in low dosages, to begin with. The dose of the drug is increased as per the need. A single drug may serve the purpose or if not sufficient drugs may be given in combinations. The selection of a particular drug is based on the patient’s sugar reports and accompanying health conditions.
The commonly used drugs to treat Type 2DM
Metformin
Metformin is the first-line treatment. The mode of action is not yet clearly understood.
It reduces hepatic glucose formation and increases tissue uptake of glucose.
Bad taste, gastrointestinal disturbances, and lactic acidosis are side effects.
But in most patients, it is well tolerated. It is contraindicated when a patient has high serum creatinine values.
Sulfonylureas
They improve the function of beta cells.
The type of drugs under this heading are:
Tolbutamide, Chlorpropamide, Tolazamide, Glyburide, Glimepride, Glipizide,
Gliclazide, etc.
They too cause Gastrointestinal disturbances, hypoglycemia,
and also, have a Disulfiram-like effect.
(They cause nausea after alcohol intake)
Glitazones/Thizolidinediones
Pioglitazone and Rosilglitazone
They increase glucose uptake in tissues.
They have hepatotoxicity and are unsafe for the heart.
Alpha Glucosidase inhibitors
Acarbose, Miglitol
They block the conversion of disaccharides to monosaccharides by blocking the enzyme glucosidase in epithelial cells of the small intestine. Hence reduce the absorption of glucose into the blood.
Indigestion, flatulence, and diarrhea are side effects.
GLP1 Analogs: exenatide and Amylin Analogs: Pramlintide
They increase the secretion of insulin and decrease the secretion of glucagon.
They can cause pancreatitis due to continuous overstimulation of beta cells.
DPP 4 Inhibitors/ Gliptins
Sitagliptin, Vildagliptin, Teneligliptin, Linagliptin, etc.
These drugs come into action only when there is some food intake. They increase the duration of action of incretins secreted by the intestinal cells by inhibiting the enzyme DPP 4. This means they will reduce the glucose only when there is glucose intake. So they do not cause hypoglycemia and are safer drugs. At present they are a bit expensive. But these newer drugs are day by day becoming part of the prescription for Type 2DM.
Headache, Nasopharyngitis, and pancreatitis are side effects.
The dose has to be reduced in renal insufficiency. Safety in the pregnancy and lactating period is not yet established.
For extra reading please see the web page below.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846464/?report=reader
Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors
Dapagliflozin, Empagliflozin etc.
These drugs increase the excretion of glucose by inhibiting glucose reabsorption (which happens physiologically otherwise in renal tubules.)
But due to increased glucose in the urine, they cause polyuria, fungal infections in the urethra and around, and weight loss.
It is not at all advised in Type 1 DM.
To know more about these drugs, their dosages, the prescription details, please go through the webpage/book below.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482386/#_ncbi_dlg_citbx_NBK482386
Module 1 The Disease: Hypertension: Diagnosis
Hypertension
The word hypertension is used to denote increased blood pressure. Sometimes people call it by a short form as high BP. BP is blood pressure. Even patients know now that the BP should not go high as it will lead to a cerebral stroke or a heart attack. The incidence of such events is very common. People have started accepting these attacks as a new normal of life. But awareness about hypertension among people is increasing now. They ask doctors to check their BP quite often. Some doctors do keep watch on the blood pressure of their patients without being asked for it.
What is blood pressure?
We can imagine how amazing the design of our bodies is. The heart the size of a fist pumps the blood all through the six feet tall body and that too through the densely packed tissue. Nearly eighty such cycles in a minute and with no interruption in the entire life.
When blood is pushed through the arteries it has to have some pressure as any fluid flowing through an elastic pipe will have. We often see it when a gardener is watering plants or in a servicing center while washing a car. The forceful water is as energetic as an arrow. The water pump provides that energy. The heart in our body works similarly and gives energy to blood flow with rhythmic contractions. Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to every cell in the body. This process is known as perfusion. So to make it simple blood pressure is an essential function of the cardiovascular system that helps the body with the perfusion of tissues.
When an elastic rubber pipe carrying water is punctured by a pointed object what we get to see is a fountain. The height of the fountain is directly proportional to the pressure of the water flowing through. As a doctor, we witness a sprinkle of blood when a patient is brought with an arterial wound. That is not the case when the vein is injured. Blood simply oozes out when a vein is injured. That is because the blood in the artery flows with a higher pressure than the blood in the vein.
The fluid in the pipe exerts pressure on its wall and it is at a right angle to the wall of the pipe.
Similarly, our blood in the artery exerts pressure on its wall. And that can be measured and studied. The blood pressure of every artery will be different because they have different diameters, different types of walls, and are at different distances from the heart. So blood pressure depends on many factors. The blood poured into the artery by the heart also matters. We call it cardiac output. The amount of blood in the artery depends on the blood volume. Sometimes in dehydration or in hemorrhagic shock, the blood volume is depleted. Blood pressure falls automatically. Tissue perfusion reduces and the person goes in shock. Shock is a medical emergency and requires immediate action.
Definition of hypertension (HTN)
Hypertension is elevated blood pressure; systolic blood pressure(SBP) ≥ 140 mm Hg and /or Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥ 90 mm Hg |
Primary hypertension
Hypertension with no definable cause is termed primary or essential hypertension.
Secondary hypertension
Hypertension caused by a specific organ or metabolic defect is termed secondary hypertension.
Classification of hypertension
Category | SBP/DBP mm of Hg |
Normal | <130/85 |
High Normal | 130-139 or 85 -89 |
Stage 1 hypertension | 140-159 or 90 -99 |
Stage 2 hypertension | 160-179 or 100-109 |
Stage 3 hypertension | >180 or 110 |
Grade 1 Isolated systolic hypertension | 140-159 and <90 |
Grade 2 Isolated systolic hypertension | >160 and <90 |
Evaluation of the patient with hypertension
The patient who is having elevated blood pressure is to be investigated to find out the cause of hypertension. That is to look for the secondary cause if any. In secondary hypertension, if the cause is treatable, patients need not take the life-long antihypertensive drugs.
Diagnostic tests in a patient with hypertension
ECG: to rule out cardiac complications and also for basal
Urinalysis: to rule out renal impairment
Electrolytes: to see levels of Sodium, potassium, and chlorides
Creatinine, BUN: to judge renal functions
CBC: to rule out anemia, infections, etc.
Fasting glucose: to rule out diabetes
Cholesterol: to rule out dyslipidemia
Chest X-Ray: to rule out heart enlargement, and lung pathologies.
Why is controlling hypertension important?
HTN is the most important risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease.
More common than tobacco smoking, dyslipidemia, and diabetes.
HTN is a cause behind 54% of strokes and 47% of ischemic heart disease events globally.
10-12% reduction in systolic blood pressure and 5-6% reduction in diastolic blood pressure can reduce 38% of strokes and 16% of coronary events.
End organ damages like retinopathies( Retina is an inner layer of the eyeball) and renal failures are the results of longstanding uncontrolled hypertension.
Module 1 The Disease: Hypertension: Treatment
Treatment of hypertension
Lifestyle changes
Diet, physical activity, and stress-free living help a lot. Weight reduction, keeping calories balanced, and regular exercises keep you fit.
Eat healthy food
Limit salt intake
Physical activity
Good to avoid alcohol
Do not smoke
Manage stress
Drug treatment
Antihypertensive drugs are available and should be used to bring the blood pressure in a normal acceptable range in every patient. There are many drugs and they have different modes of action. We have to select a particular drug according to the age of the patient, grade of hypertension, and any other disease the patient might be suffering from.
The commonly used drugs are from the following class of antihypertensive drugs. They are given in small doses, to begin with. Blood pressure is measured repeatedly and the dose is titrated. The doctor treating the patient has to consider many factors to get the right drug in the correct required dosage.
The grade and response of blood pressure are taken into account. A combination of drugs is tried to achieve the preferred blood pressure level.
Thiazide diuretics:
Examples: hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, Indapamide, Metolazone, chlorothiazide, Amiloride -
- Preferred in Heart failure, Elderly patients, Systolic hypertension
- contraindications: Gout, Dyslipidemia
Calcium channel blockers:
- Amlodipine, Cilnidipine,Diltiazem, Nifedipine, Verapamil, Benidipine, Efonidipine
- Preferred in Metabolic syndrome, Angina, Elderly, Systolic hypertension, Diabetes
Contraindications: Verapamil or Diltiazem not to be given in Heart block, and congestive HF
ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors.
Examples: Enalapril, Lisinopril, Ramipril, Perindopril
Preferred in :
Metabolic syndrome, Heart failure, Left ventricular dysfunction, Post myocardial infarction, Proteinuria
Contraindications: Pregnancy, Lactation, Bilateral renal artery stenosis, Hyperkalemia, Renal failure
Angiotensin II receptor blockers.
Eexamples: Losartan, Candesartan, Valsartan, Irbesartan, Telmisartan, Olmesartan, Azilsartan
Preferred in:
Metabolic syndrome, Diabetes mellitus, Proteinuria, Left ventricular dysfunction,
ACEi induced cough
- Contraindications:
Pregnancy, Lactation, Hyperkalemia, Renal failure
Beta-blockers.
Examples: Metoprolol, Bisoprolol, Nebivolol
- Preferred in Angina, Post MI( Myocardial Infarction), Tachyarrhythmia, Heart Failure
Contraindications: Heart block, Dyslipidemia, Physically active, Peripheral vascular disease,
Elderly, Asthma, COPD(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
Alpha-Blockers
Examples: Doxazosin, Prazosin
- Preferred in Prostatic hypertrophy, Chronic Kidney Disease
- Contraindications: Orthostatic hypotension, Congestive Heart failure
Centrally acting drugs
Alpha methyldopa
- preferred in pregnancy
- Contraindications: Liver disease
Clonidine
- Preferred in Resistant hypertension
Contraindications: pregnancy and lactation
Hydralazine
- Preferred in Pregnancy, Resistant Hypertension
- Contraindication: Coronary artery disease
Module 2 The patient: Your role
Your role
As we have seen, people with diabetes and hypertension are mostly asymptomatic and many do not seek treatment nor do they visit the doctor. People need screening tests to know whether they have such types of illnesses. So we use this term patient here even for those who are suspected to have high levels of blood sugar, blood pressure, or blood lipids. One who is having prediabetes is on the edge of the disease. S/he is a potential patient and needs repeat examinations. The same is true for hypertension.
So when we use the term patient in this course it is a person who needs care for these diseases. The care may be a preventive measure. Screening tests are also part of patient care. Actually, it is care taken to reduce the number of patients!
Since both diabetes and hypertension affect every organ in the body, and there are so many aspects of studying these diseases; it is difficult to cover the subject in this short course. But you will get whatever you need to know from the internet nowadays.
It is difficult for you to remember all the drugs and details of their indications and contraindications. The information summarised in short here is just to get the idea of it. You can use it as a ready reference when needed.
The medical terminology is not easy to get familiar with within this short time. But with the time you spend with these words, you will find them simple and easier to use.
Your role can be explained shortly as follows
- To help in monitoring the disease.
- To visit the patient frequently and note down variables like blood pressure and blood glucose.
- To see if the patient is showing some symptoms which need some immediate attention by the doctor.
- To help patients in some emergency situations till they are taken to a doctor.
- To motivate the patient to take steps to control diabetes and hypertension.
- To guide the patient about proper diet and exercise.
- To help the patient to maintain proper medical records.
- To become a reliable friend of the patient and his family as such.
- To carry on as a medical guide/ voluntary health worker
- To gain information from resources to keep updated and be ready to use it when needed.
Module 2 The patient: A step towards relieving suffering
A step towards relieving suffering
Knowing about the disease is not enough. Only the patient will give you the unique experience to confirm your knowledge. To study medicine is science but to practice, it is an art.
We study the science behind the diseases and label patients as diabetic, hypertensive, etc.
But they are the individuals suffering. Every patient is an individual and requires separate attention. In real life when we meet them we need to get closer to them. We must assist them to get to know the disease they are facing. And assure them how they can get out of it or make it less troublesome.
Every patient has his/her own way to respond to the disease and the treatment. You are supposed to change your approach accordingly. Some patients can express their feelings, some can not. Some talk a lot, some are very quiet. Some can bear the pain, some will shout and cry loudly. But it is to be remembered that a sick person can not behave as one should behave otherwise. We should always keep calm and be thoughtful before any action.
What we plan to do is to help the patient to get better. In this course, we are limiting ourselves to monitoring diabetes and hypertension. That is we will measure blood pressure and blood sugar regularly. We have tried to understand the need of doing this in the last module. Mainly because both diabetes and hypertension are quite prevalent all over. And they bring about changes in our body so that we land into many acute and chronic troublesome conditions. We aim to prevent this from happening.
Module 2 The patient: Being a volunteer
We get joy and a sense of fulfillment when we help others. That is what volunteering is all about. A grown-up person with compassion and strong emotional and social intelligence will love to be a volunteer. It is found in one study that teenagers love to be a volunteer. They are curious, hard-working, and commit to the cause. They know that to grow is to know more about life. Life all around is a mix of all sorts of events and emotions. Illness is an unavoidable part of life. One has to face it as and when it comes.
A volunteer does things not as a job but as a new challenge. It is an opportunity to learn new skills. It is the way to gain confidence. It will teach you to communicate with others. Presenting the best of you to the community makes a difference. There is a possibility to develop the leader in you when you have a team of volunteers dedicated to a cause.
For science students who want to be a doctor, this course will be like premedical training. They can use their vacation period for this purpose. The idea to work with a doctor on a certain mission will be fun for them. They will get to meet patients and will have the opportunity to observe them. The history taking, physical examination, and investigations are the steps
In diagnosing any illness. To witness these steps with the doctor will be a great experience for these volunteer students.
Module 2 The patient: The first meeting
The first meeting
There are many possibilities for the introduction of a patient with the volunteer.
The volunteer is a patient itself.
The volunteer is from the same family and is related to the patient.
The volunteer stays in the neighborhood of the patient.
The volunteer will visit the patient from a distance regularly at a fixed time.
The volunteer will meet many patients in a health camp.
The volunteer devotes time to the hospitalized patients.
But in any case, the volunteer will require an introduction to the patient.
This will be the first meeting of this sort if the volunteer is not self or from the family.
The meeting place will be mostly the patient’s house. Daylight is preferred as the room will be well lit. The patient who is already diagnosed may have old reports/investigations which might guide you. It will be good to look at those papers carefully. But before that, you need to introduce yourself.
Introducing yourself is a skill to be learned. The meeting should of course begin with this self-introduction. Offering a greeting smile with the introduction will make further conversation easier. You will have to wait for the patient’s response to your presence, your smile. This will say a lot about the patient.
Did the patient smile back?
Is the patient comfortable?
Does the patient appear anxious, frightened, depressed?
Is the posture normal?
Is breathing comfortable?
Are the accompanying persons worried?
The conversation may not begin with the medical problems. It can be anything else trying to get closer to the patient. It need not be a pre-decided one but as the time suggests or the mood permits.
Though the volunteer is not a doctor, the patient should have the same kind of respect. The conversation therefore should be equally genuine and a serious one.
It is good to maintain that formality in the relationship. Let yourself be the listener. Let the patient say something. Allow the patient to begin the story; so you will know what the patient expects from you.
Your introduction, in the beginning, should include that you are there to help patients in monitoring diabetes and hypertension by taking repeated readings of blood sugar and blood pressure. And after a discussion with the doctor, may have to make certain changes in diet, exercise, and if needed in drugs too.
This will help in the fine-tuning of the control of both the diseases and it will give clues to doctors about the well-being of the patient in between the hospital or institutional visits. This also needs to be told in the very first meeting to the patient to clarify your role.
Module 2 The patient: The history
The history
The conversation with the patient may begin with the introduction and friendly smiles. Then one has to know certain details about the patient which have importance in total understanding of the patient and the disease.
When you note it regularly you have it on your records/notes which can be analyzed later on. It is to identify the patient first and not to mix findings with any other patients. Make proper entries carefully.
The name, age, sex, address, education, occupation, marital status are to be noted.
The information about smoking, alcohol intake, and diet history is a must. The patient should be allowed to speak freely about his complaints if s/he has any. The presenting complaint needs some further discussion to know the severity and other details. The complaint made by the patient is called a symptom. From the symptom, we can judge the organ or the system affected.
As we have seen, hypertension and diabetes both may not have any symptoms in the beginning stages. We may have to depend only on investigations to confirm the diagnosis.
But one reading is not enough for diagnosis and two or three high readings will be necessary. With any abnormal reading found you may have to report it to the doctor and know about the risk of complication. The patient may need a hospital visit after that. The doctor may make the decision as per the findings reported by you.
Here is a list of symptoms with their possible systems involvement.
General health | weight: over, under, Energy: fatigue, lassitude, Malaise Sleep: drowsiness, insomnia, disturbed sleep |
Upper Gastrointestinal tract | Pain: dull, burning, deep, spasmodic, Appetite: Reduced appetite, overeating Nausea, Vomiting, Hiccoughs, Fullness, flatulence, Waterbrash Dysphagia |
Lower Gastrointestinal tract | Diarrhea, Constipation, Pain: Dull, Acute, Colicky. Indigestion, Jaundice |
Genital system | Ulcerations, Itching, Dysfunctioning |
Cardiovascular system | Dyspnoea (breathlessness) Pain in the chest: precordial, jaw pain, hand pain, epigastric pain Choking sensation Palpitations, Cough, Edema |
Respiratory System | Cough, Sputum, Breathing difficulties, Wheeze, Chest pain |
Urinary system | Excessive/scanty amount, Increased /decreased frequency Pain: burning, dull, acute |
Nervous system | Stroke Seizure Headache Loss of sensations, Tingling, burning sensations Visual loss Hearing loss Loss of smell |
Skin | Infections, Allergies, pigmentations, |
Locomotor system | Cramps Wasting of muscles weakness/limping Joint pains |
Module 2 The patient: Small observations
The history obtained in short is not enough to conclude many times. But it can suggest to you an organ or a system involved. You are not going to do a complete examination as the doctor does but you can get information from small observations. It is good to know those points as they tell a lot about the patient’s health. This is not to make the diagnosis. But this will make a general assessment of the degree of illness.
Is the patient seriously ill and in need of immediate attention by the doctor?
How is the consciousness level?
How is the mental state?
Is there any pain in the chest that is making the patient restless?
Is the patient able to walk well?
Is the patient obese/ underweight/ normal?
Are the feet edematous?
Is there a wound/rash/eruptions anywhere on the skin?
Is the skin pale/ yellowish?
Is the patient having a high fever?
Module 2 The patient: Vital Signs
Vital signs are so-called because those are the signs of life. In medicine, in a patient's examination, vital signs have a special place. They are written at the beginning of the medical records. They give an immediate idea about the condition of the patient. What are these signs?
Temperature
Pulse
Respiration
Blood pressure
We need to know about these if we have to describe the health of the patient to someone else. Or if we want to record the serial improvement or deterioration in a patient's health.
The record of vital signs can tell you a lot about the patient. The normalcy of these signs will assure you about the general condition of the patient. And deviation of any of these signs from the normal will indicate the illness.
Body temperature:
Everybody knows about the use of a thermometer. We used mercury thermometers till now. We have seen people using digital thermometers too. And now with COVID-19, we are used to seeing the no-touch infrared thermometers.
Whatever be the instrument we must know that the normal body temperature is around 370 celsius /98.60 Fahrenheit. Everyone might have a small variation of this normal is also true. A temperature above 99.50 F is to be considered as a fever.
There are many causes for the patient to have a fever. Infections, inflammation, tissue necrosis, malignancy are common causes of fever. Fever is a common symptom that alerts the patient about the illness.
In simple terms, the patient can have a clear cause like respiratory infection, diarrhea, an infected wound, an abscess somewhere, etc. The patient’s fever may not have a clear explanation. We need to investigate such patients. Diabetes patients are more prone to have infections. We should immediately inform the doctor. Fever is to be seen and looked after by the doctor.
If the fever is high, more than 104 degrees Fahrenheit, the patient needs to be given antipyretic medicine like Acetaminophen/ paracetamol 500 mg stat (immediate) and may need sponging with water.
Pulse:
Pulse is like a wave that travels along the arteries. It is the result of the left ventricle pushing the blood in an aorta to travel through the other arteries with every contraction. The quality of that wave depends also on the elasticity of the arterial wall.
Pulse can be felt in any of the accessible arteries. Usually, the pulse a clinician feels is of the radial artery at the wrist. It is felt with the fingers by lightly pressing the radial artery on the plain radial bone below.
What we feel is mostly the rate, rhythm, and volume of the pulse. The normal pulse is from 55 to 100 beats per minute(bpm). Below 55 bpm is called bradycardia and above 100 bpm is called tachycardia. Changes in the rhythm are a big topic. We will not discuss that here but will just remember that loss in the rhythmic contraction of the heart causes many arrhythmias. And these are due to the defects in the electrical conduction patterns of the heart.
Respiration:
The newborn baby has a respiratory rate (RR) of 44 cycles per minute. It goes on decreasing as we grow up. Adults have a respiratory rate of 14-18 cycles per minute. Increased respiratory rate is tachypnoea. The decrease is bradypnoea.
Respiratory rate is counted as cycles of breathing (inhalation and exhalation) in a minute. It is a skill to count the respiratory rate as it requires the diversion of the patient’s attention. If the patient is conscious about respiration, it affects the normal pattern of breathing.
Tachypnoea is found when the patient has exertion, fear, fever, heart weakness, pain, lung diseases like pneumonia, embolism, pneumothorax. RR increases in anemia, hyperthyroidism.
Bradypnoea is found in the intoxication of CNS depressant drugs, in the condition of uremia, and also when there is raised intracranial pressure.
The image below is from old files and gives an idea about TPR charts.
If you see a file of an admitted patient in any hospital the first thing you notice is this sort of graph which is
Temperature, Pulse, and Respiratory rate chart. This gives an idea about the health of the patient at a glance.
This is mostly maintained by the nursing staff of the ward. Accurate and timely entries in this graph are must.
Blood pressure:
We have already discussed what blood pressure is. Here we will see how we check blood pressure. There are two types of blood pressure apparatus available. One is a manual type and the other is automatic. Manual apparatus requires a stethoscope to auscultate and a pumping balloon to inflate air in the cuff. It has either a mercury column or a dial calibrated to give readings. The electronic types of equipment give readings on screen and do not need a balloon to inflate air. They have an inbuilt motor/pump to push air.
We will see some important precautions at the time of measuring the blood pressure.
The arm cuff used in BP measurement should be wide enough to reduce the error.
The patient should be at rest for ten minutes before measuring ideally.
Feel the brachial and/or radial artery pulse before inflating the air into the cuff.
The patient can be sitting or in a lying down supine position.
When you inflate the air in the cuff, at one point you will notice the disappearance of the pulse. Inflate further for 30 mm above that point. (This you can judge with mercury or dial sphygmomanometer. In digital instruments, we do not see the column but the numbers come on the screen. There you don’t have to feel the pulse too. The readings follow as you start deflating the air in the cuff.)
To get systolic and diastolic readings we have to start deflating the air in the cuff slowly with the stethoscope put at the cubital fossa on the brachial artery. Vibrations of the artery make sounds known as Kortkoff sounds.
The point where the sounds start is the systolic blood pressure.
The point at which the sounds start fading and disappear is the diastolic blood pressure.
In some people, Korotkoff sounds do not disappear but continue till zero. Then the point at which the sounds start fading is taken as diastolic blood pressure.
Whatever be the instrument used the blood pressure is always written as Systolic blood pressure/ Diastolic blood pressure mm of Hg. We say ‘mm of Hg’ as a millimeter of mercury. For example, 120/80 mm of Hg means systolic BP is 120 diastolic BP is 80 mm of mercury.
Oxygen saturation level
https://youtu.be/ifnGCz0cgvs
This investigation has suddenly become an important one in this pandemic of COVID-19. Doctors are advising patients to have a pulse-oximeter reading frequently and report it to them. This reading gives an idea of the severity of the disease and the decision of treating the patient varies accordingly.
Pulse-oximeter is a small machine previously used mainly by chest physicians or in intensive care units. It is a piece of thumb-size clip-like equipment that runs on a battery. There is a small screen for the display of results.
Pulse-oximeter is applied to the fingertip and we can see the pulse and oxygen saturation level on the screen within a few seconds. Such a quick test and easy to use for anyone. Oxygen saturation of more than 95% is considered normal. 92% and below are the patients who will require oxygen to correct their hypoxemia/hypoxia. Low levels of oxygen saturation indicate less supply of oxygen to tissues, that is reduced tissue perfusion. It is a life-threatening condition and is not to be ignored.
But some patients with COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) may have low levels of saturation normally.
Will like to share here a TED lecture titled `Wireless future of medicine'. It is a magic world but not for all. What we are going to learn is simple
https://www.ted.com/talks/eric_topol_the_wireless_future_of_medicine
Module 2 The patient: Height, weight, body mass index(BMI), and waist-hip ratio
Height
Height is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Height goes on increasing from childhood to adolescence till maturity. Then it remains stable for years. But with some degenerating changes and in osteoporosis some reduction is seen. With the change in an erect posture, we do observe a reduction in height.
Height is measured from ground level to the topmost point on the scalp when a person is standing erect and bare feet. It is recorded in centimeters or feet and inches.
Bodyweight
Weight is an important variable and needs frequent measurements to assess and compare health status. In diabetes and hypertension weight needs constant attention. Having an extra burden of weight puts the physiological systems under stress. Obesity is a common medical condition nowadays. It is associated with Dyslipidemia, Type 2DM, hypertension, Cardiovascular diseases.
Alarming weight loss is also seen sometimes and needs investigations. It can be due to cancer, viral infection (such as CMV or HIV), gastroenteritis, parasite infection, depression, bowel diseases, and overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism).
Measuring Weight: Each visit must include weight measurement as a routine. Electronic scale gives accurate and sensitive readings. It is lightweight and portable too. Weight is recorded in pounds or kilograms.
Body mass index(BMI)
BMI is a ratio of Weight in Kilograms to the square of the height in meters. So the unit of BMI is kg/m². BMI is called the Quetelet index. BMI indicates risks of diseases and is used to set goals in the treatment part of both diabetes and hypertension. Below is a short table that will help to interpret the BMI. Here weight reduction will help to get into the normal zone.
BMI calculations are clinically useful to set goals. Explaining the degree of obesity with BMI numbers to the patient becomes easier. Having a BMI chart handy is useful.
BMI | Interpretation |
<18.5 | Underweight |
18.5 to 25 | Normal |
>25 to 30 | Overweight |
>30 to 35 | Class 1 Obese |
>35 to 40 | Class 2 Obese |
>40 | Class 3 Obese |
Waist-hip ratio
Waist circumference tends to increase in midlife. This is mostly due to increased fat in the omentum. This is the age when Type 2DM starts. So this adiposity is found to have a connection with insulin resistance.
The waist-hip ratio is the ratio of body circumference at the waist and hip of a person.
The normal ratio for males is below 0.9 and for females, it is less than 1.
Module 2 The patient: Blood glucose test by the glucometer
Glucometers are handy and are about the same size as that of a mobile phone or smaller than that. They are battery-operated mostly. They have a notch where a strip is to be inserted. Strips have a mark or arrow to tell you which side goes in the notch. The other end has the part where the blood drop is put.
A simple one-minute test is easy to do and gives us a quick reading of blood glucose. It shows the glucose concentration in blood in milligrams of glucose per 100 ml of blood. This number appears on the screen when you perform the test as per the guidelines. Most glucometers give suggestions for the performer of the test on their screens. The glucometer starts functioning with the introduction of a strip and stops with the removal of the strip.
The drop of blood is obtained by pricking a fingertip. It is a good practice to prick not in the center but on the sides of the finger. It is to avoid a prick to the tendon below. If injured it gets inflamed and will have pain for a longer time.
All aseptic precautions are to be taken. Cleaning your hands before doing the test is a must. And cleaning the fingertip of the patient should also be done. Cleaning with a spirit swab is avoided while doing a sugar test as it is possible that the reading might change due to alcohol. Spirit/ alcohol if used, we should wait till it dries out and then make a prick with the lancet.
You have to press the sterile cotton swab at the prick site for about a minute or two. This will stop the oozing of blood. Remember the blood-stained swab and the lancet has to be disposed of and treated like biomedical waste. Your doctor can guide you in this matter. Be careful not to get an accidental prick to you from that lancet. Such pricks do occur if you are not attentive enough.
(A video showing the test here.)
Module 2 The patient: Hypoglycemia
Measuring is one thing and knowing the meaning of the measurement is another thing. If you can not conclude the reading of blood pressure, blood sugar, or temperature then the result you get is just a number. It can not help the patient. So it becomes necessary to learn the meaning of those readings.
What if the patient has a low pulse rate? What If it is high? What may be the cause of the raised temperature? Is the respiration of 30 per minute normal? Is the blood pressure of 180/100 mm Hg acceptable? Such questions may arise in your mind. The reason we are trying to know more about our body functioning is this. It is good if you know which readings are acceptable and which need immediate attention or consultation with the doctor.
Here we will learn more about abnormal test results and the steps we follow then.
Hypoglycemia
Blood glucose level is maintained in a range and many hormones and tissues play a role in this process. We have discussed it before being a part of the homeostasis. Hypoglycemia occurs when glucose utilization is increased and intake and production are decreased. Hormones like catecholamines are released to increase glucose. These increase sympathetic activity and cause symptoms like palpitations, sweating, anxiety, hunger, and tremors.
The common emergency faced by diabetic patients is hypoglycemia. Patients take drugs or insulin injections to reduce the raised blood sugar. But if they take a higher dose of the drug or the injection they can present with hypoglycemia. It can also result from a lower intake of diet or excessive exercise or due to accompanied illness like diarrhea or vomiting. Children with Type 1 DM also have hypoglycemia possibilities as they are playful and may miss a proper time for a meal.
Blood glucose below 70 mg/dL is considered hypoglycemia. A patient’s brain cells require glucose for functioning. If they are deprived of glucose we start getting many symptoms. It will have a different presentation for every patient. Many patients can learn to recognize these and with experience will consume a sweet and get to normal. But if they miss noticing they may become drowsy and their consciousness is affected.
Hypoglycemia may cause death if it is severe and prolonged.
Common symptoms of hypoglycemia
Palpitations due to increased heart rate.
Sweating
Anxiety
Hunger
Tremors
Headache
Confusion
Light-headedness
Irrelevant behavior
Slurring of speech
Visual disturbances
Seizures
Coma
Common causes of hypoglycemia
High dose of Insulin or Oral hypoglycemic drugs
Alcohol
Starvation
Some insulin-producing tumors
Treatment of Hypoglycemia
If the patient is conscious enough we should give him/her sugar to eat. Three to four teaspoonfuls of sugar in powder form or glucose powder should be given. Then check the blood sugar again after fifteen minutes. The patient is advised to take frequent small meals and necessary changes in drug and insulin dosages are to be done. It is to be discussed to remain watchful for symptoms of hypoglycemia next time.
If the patient is not conscious we can rub glucose in a paste form on buccal mucosa. It does raise the sugar level. Non-responding patients will need intravenous glucose. Either call the doctor for this or shift the patient to the hospital for further treatment.
How to avoid or prevent hypoglycemia
We need to educate the patient and the relatives about the condition of hypoglycemia and the need to report to the doctor as early as possible. They should be informed of dangerous complications of not recognizing and not treating hypoglycemia.
Diet, drug treatment, and exercise need proper planning.
Frequent blood glucose examinations tell us about the possibility of hypoglycemia in time.
Be prepared for hypoglycemia treatment
Every diabetic patient must carry a card mentioning that he or she is having diabetes. If he or she is found unconscious then people will know the cause of his unconsciousness from that card. The card should have that type of message for people and that a doctor needs to be informed. Details about contacting the doctor will be helpful for quick treatment.
It is useful to tell friends and other people who are related to the patient by means of work or so that the person has diabetes. The patient has to do this. There is no need to hide the condition of diabetes. Though the patient knows every symptom of hypoglycemia, in a confused state it is difficult for him to do the right things.
It is good to carry a kit containing sugar, fruits, biscuits, or chocolates by the patient when away from home.
Glucometers should be carried on a journey.
It is good if blood sugar is checked before and after any sports activity by the diabetic patient.
Module 2 The patient: Metabolic Syndrome
It is a newer term and relates to the disease complex as a result of the combination of Central/abdominal obesity and insulin resistance. It includes
High blood glucose
High blood pressure
Cardiovascular diseases
High triglycerides
High insulin levels in the blood.
It will be good to see if our patient fits into this complex disease combination. This is important because there the patient needs to be more alert about monitoring. The atherosclerotic changes in vessels need to be reversed by proper daily exercise and dietary changes.
Module 2 The patient: Keep an eye on eyes
Diabetes and the eye problems
You might observe the following eye problems in a diabetes patient
Stye: It is an infection on the eyelid at the base of an eyelash.
Early-onset of refractive error.
Glaucoma: Raised intraocular pressure. Presents with pain in the eye and redness. Can lead to blindness.
Diplopia: Double vision
Early-onset of cataract.
The retina changes: hemorrhage, degeneration.
Corneal abrasion and ulceration
Module 2 The patient: Diabetic foot
Diabetes affects small blood vessels and peripheral nerves badly. Many people experience these changes as the disease progresses. Burning sensation or tingling and numbness are common symptoms. Patients have total loss of sensation sometimes. This is a difficult time and it becomes troublesome to walk or keep balance and stand on feet.
Patients have injuries on soles and they don't know it. Injuries get infected. Bacteria enter cells around the wound and there is swelling and redness. It is called cellulitis. If not intervened by the effective treatment it's a serious condition that can lead to gangrene.
Gangrene is necrosis. This means it is the death of the tissue affected. The necrosed part has to be removed and hence sometimes we see diabetic patients who have to get an amputation done of the affected part of the leg.
Is diabetic foot preventable?
Proper care can prevent a diabetic foot. It is monitoring diabetes well which prevents peripheral neuritis. Regular self-examination of the foot done by the patient is advised. A mirror is to be used to see soles. Using soft footwear can prevent injuries. Early identification of the wound and careful treatment of the wound with frequent dressings and antibiotics is a must.
Every patient should learn wound care. Patients should always avoid tobacco and alcohol. Because they both speed up the process of neuritis. Since the wound is painless patients do not take rest or proper care. If they do not take enough antibiotics the wounds do not heal in time.
Module 3 The monitoring: Readings: monitoring
Monitoring Diabetes and hypertension is not episodic work but a daily routine for the patient. We can say that monitoring is the treatment of these diseases. Since the complete cure is not possible we have to just carry on with monitoring. Even for those who claim the reversal of the disease, how can we be sure about that unless we do check patients repeatedly.
One who has such a kind of illness can not just neglect the care. The patient should always keep in mind that monitoring is the only way to know how well the treatment is working. By doing the blood glucose test frequently you can judge the food you eat, the exercise you do, and the drug treatment you follow is appropriate or not.
You can monitor blood glucose and /or blood pressure when you know the level you are aiming for. When you do it regularly you are able to interpret the result and connect them to food, exercise, and drugs. You can make changes in these three modes of treatment and achieve the glucose and blood pressure levels in the most effective way.
In the past, we used to test urine and monitor diabetes. But that was very crude and not that sensitive. But with glucometers, it has become easier and more accurate to do so now. A negative test in urine examination will indicate that the blood glucose can be anything below 180 mg/dL. It can be reading of hypoglycemia too i.e. below 70 mg/dL. So a blood glucose test really helps you to know the exact status at that particular time.
Monitoring glucose is good for the long-term aim of preventing organ damages. But it is sometimes essential to monitor it strictly in some situations.
- When a diabetic child or an adult takes part in any sports activity it is necessary to make sure that hypoglycemia does not occur in the middle of the game.
The same is the case with a diabetic driver on a long drive. Hypoglycemia is to be avoided as it will interact with alertness while driving.
Diabetes management in pregnancy is also very strict. Needs frequent checkings to maintain blood glucose in the normal range. High blood glucose levels have an adverse effect on a baby’s development.
Alcohol intake in a diabetic always is a risky thing to do. Possible hypoglycemia is to be avoided by doing frequent blood glucose tests.
At the time of illness, blood glucose levels become unpredictable. It becomes mandatory to check it and monitor it.
Before any surgery, we need to get the blood glucose in a normal range. A planned surgery like cataract surgery has good results only when the blood glucose is well controlled.
When any new drug is started or a dose of insulin is changed we need to check it again and again.
If the daily routine changes due to some reason we need to do blood glucose tests. It can be a change in a job you do or the hours of working that change. These changes can change blood glucose too.
When there is concomitant use of steroids or any new drug which has a possible effect on blood glucose level it is a must to check and see if it has changed. We can adjust our antidiabetic drugs accordingly.
In this covid pandemic glycemic control is a must. Diabetes with Covid-19 is found to be a difficult combination to manage. Monitoring blood glucose definitely helps in a good recovery.
Module 3 The monitoring: Recordings: Maintaining records
Keeping a diary is a good habit for everyone. It becomes a must for a person with diabetes and hypertension. The date, time, blood pressure, and glucose test results with other relevant notes will make them useful in the total management. If the patients make it a habit to enter the drugs taken and the dosages also it will be complete documentation. Diet and activity records along with these will help to see the relationship between the efforts taken to keep the control and the results obtained.
Good records make it easy for the patient and the doctor to see the course of the disease well. They can judge the progress just by looking at well-maintained records. It is a doctor who has to stress the importance of keeping the readings recorded properly and in chronological order. It is good if the doctor has all the records with him/her too. Digitization has made it simple to trace and keep records up to date.
We as a mediator or volunteer should play an important role to help the patient maintain their diary/records well. We should guide the patient about the preparation before their visit to the doctor. The patient should know that the doctor expects to see reports, medicines, and dosages. The doctor should get the correct idea of symptoms, diet, physical activities.
With the records in hand, we can actually see a pattern of blood glucose or blood pressure over a definite period and decide the action we need to take. For example, avoiding particular food or to become more active, or changing the drug/insulin dosages. But while doing any major changes we need to consult our doctor
| Diabetes registry proforma |
Name of the volunteer/reporter:
Date:
Time:
Place:
Description: | Details: | Fill in: |
Name of the patient: | ||
Address | ||
Age | ||
Sex | ||
Occupation | ||
Blood glucose today | ||
Age of onset of diabetes | ||
Medicines | oral or Insulin or both | |
Height | cm | |
Weight | kg | |
Abdominal girth | cm | |
Known complications & associated conditions | (tick mark complications/conditions) | |
hypertension | ||
hyperlipidemia | ||
ischemic heart disease | ||
peripheral vascular disease | ||
diabetic foot/amputation | ||
retinopathy | ||
nephropathy | ||
neuropathy | ||
Educational status | illiterate or primary education or secondary education or higher | |
Economical status | poor or middle class or high income |
Module 3 The monitoring: Requesting: Motivating the patient
Patients who are well educated and can afford to visit consultants frequently probably do not need your service. They will manage their illness well. But those who are not educated enough and are poor will require your voluntary work.
Diabetes and hypertension are different from other short-term illnesses. Many people fail to understand this. They want to recover fast. They have a tendency to ignore that they have an illness. This is very common and a natural human behavior. We do not want to see ourselves in any difficult situation. We just try to neglect the need to know the truth, a bitter truth.
People may not like you when you remind them of their illness. They will keep you away. Then it becomes more difficult to deal with them. Our first job is to make them know they need to monitor their disease. You can explain it step by step and not all at a time. With an easy, casual, and friendly approach we should demonstrate that it is an easy task to keep watch on the disease. Though you know many theoretical possibilities of disease progression you must not tell them to the patient on the very first day. This you can achieve as and when the need arises.
Never ever should a patient feel like rejecting the help you are providing. Understand the currents of thoughts the patients have about you and the disease. Observe their expressions and words. It will help you to do that. Make sure that your words or actions will not hurt patients anytime.
There is a possibility that some patients may be very old and do not want to get treated. They may be living with depression. As such diabetes and hypertension can alter the mindset of the patients as a part of the pathology in the later stage of the disease. These patients may have memory problems and may not remember you sometimes. They may be bed-ridden and non-ambulatory. Remember they need you badly then.
Module 3 The monitoring: Resistance: Obstacles in monitoring
There are many obstacles in our way of monitoring diabetes and hypertension. We should identify these and try to find appropriate solutions to them. It is not going to be easy every time. When you know that you have chosen this work to change things then you will work on the ideas to make it happen. We will just try to list a few obstacles . We have to take them as a challenge, a part of our job
- The patient is ignorant/not worried about his/her high blood glucose or blood pressure levels.
The patient does not give you time to test.
The patient does not take medicines in time.
The patient does not follow the diet guidelines.
The patient is tired of doing tests.
The patient tries out illogical things as a part of the treatment.
There are family issues and quarrels that keep you worrying about.
The patient hides information about symptoms, drugs, etc.
Module 3 The monitoring: Referring: Informing the doctor in time
It is important to know when you should seek advice from a doctor. When you see some alarming symptoms you should not waste much time but ask the patient to get examined by the doctor.
If the hypoglycemia does not improve, it means if the blood glucose remains below 50 mg/dL even after giving plenty of glucose or food rich in carbohydrates. The patient might need intravenous administration of glucose that time.
If repeated blood tests for glucose show reading higher than 250 mg/dL. Definitely some change in the treatment is needed.
If the patient has a fever. Fever suggests infection. Diabetes with infection is quite not good for one's health. Fever needs to be properly diagnosed.
Any skin lesions with ulcer or abscess.
Non healing wounds.
Diminishing vision
Severe abdominal pain
If the patient has breathlessness
Module 3 The monitoring: Revisiting: Follow-ups
How frequently should you test the blood glucose and blood pressure is the question.
Some patients don't know the logic behind testing. They try to underestimate the need to do so. The common practice they follow is problem-oriented. They will get examined only if they have some problem. This is a big problem and their diabetes and hypertension remain unmonitored. There are chances that they will have uncontrolled blood glucose and blood pressure. So they are heading towards complications unknowingly.
One should decide the frequency of follow-ups just by test results. If the patient has abnormal test results then we need to do some corrective measures. We need to check again and again to see how effective our measures are. We may have to see it twice, thrice, or even more frequently in some cases. If the patient has learned to check it then it becomes easier. Self-monitoring of glucose and hypertension is best possiblething to have in managing the diseases.
For patients staying in villages and diagnosed with diabetes and hypertension, they should be followed up at least once a month if their previous readings are around normal levels. If they have high readings then they will need multiple testings. Titrating the dosages of drugs will have to be done depending upon the test results.
Module 3 The monitoring: Reminding: Guidance to the patient
Educating patients is a slow process. They can not grasp everything they need to know in one meeting. In each meeting, we should reserve some time to elevate the level of understanding of the patient about the disease. We need to explain the basis of the treatment and give stress on precautions to prevent complications.
Some common questions patients frequently ask or may want to ask are worth going through.
I would like to add a few possible answers here too.
Why did I get this disease?
-It is common nowadays. But it is to be controlled in time. Now since you have it you have to take proper care.
Will I get rid of this and live as before?
-Definitely. With some diet changes, the proper exercise you can control it. But it is learned from the experience so far that you can not ignore it. You have to keep a continuous watch on blood glucose levels, blood pressure and that is not difficult. We can do it. Not to worry. You can always live as before but with some supportive drug treatment.
Can I get some better treatment from another doctor?
-If your blood glucose is well under control and if you do not have symptoms of complications it is better to stick to one physician and monitor properly
How is the other patient in the neighborhood with diabetes not having any problem?
-No two people will have the same response to the treatment.
What will happen if I do not take any treatment for some days? Should I try doing that?
-It is not a wise decision. One should always take the treatment and stay safe.
Why should I continue the medicine if my reports are so normal now?
-Reports being normal is a good thing. But it is because of the treatment they are normal.
How can diabetes cause a heart problem?
If I am not eating sugar now, how do my reports show high blood sugar?
Is it necessary to tell people around me about my illness?
Should I attend the party and eat whatever they will serve or should I suggest to them about my dietary restrictions?
What if I get hypoglycemic on a journey?
Are ayurvedic medicines safer and better than allopathic or modern medicines?
It is an unending list and it will vary from patient to patient. But we need to study these probable questions and deal accordingly. If you know the facts then you can find better words to guide.
The most important thought to remember is never ever to create fear in a patient's mind. Even if you know the bad prognosis you should always speak about hope. Hope keeps people going. Kind words with simple helpful suggestions will make a huge difference.
Module 3 The monitoring: Restrictions: Know your limitations as a volunteer
The volunteer is like a member of the family trying to help another member of the family. The readings of blood glucose and blood pressure are important to decide the prognosis or fate of diabetes and hypertension. Hence timely measurement is going to be a great help for the patient.
But when I thought about this course, I had many questions in mind. Those were mostly about how the patients will cooperate with these volunteers? If the person examining is not qualified in the subject, how well his/her opinion will be honored? What if some decision-making is not helpful for the patient? What if any emergency is beyond the volunteer’s capacity?
These are all very important questions and they need to be answered well before we proceed further to make this course work in reality. To make volunteers capable to face these questions is quite a necessary step.
If the volunteer knows his/her limitations the answer is simple. We need to work with the patient after proper consent. The patient should know well that measuring blood pressure and blood glucose is the only responsibility of the volunteer. The volunteer is there to alarm and suggest further treatment.
The readings obtained by the volunteer are to be finally analyzed by the doctor. The ultimate decision is with the doctor and not the volunteer.
If there is any confusion about readings the patient is free to visit a doctor for further check-up.
I have no doubt about the role of the volunteer in the management of these patients. But the volunteers should never try to replace a doctor at any time. |
Module 3 The monitoring: Risk reduction: the tight control
Body processes are not predictable for us sometimes. The way some cases deteriorate is beyond our understanding.
Infection is a big threat to diabetic patients
We have witnessed in the recent pandemic of covid19 how some people having diabetes and hypertension as comorbidity collapsed suddenly. We could not help them survive. They are easy targets it seems. Let that be HIV, tuberculosis, Urinary tract infections, types of pneumonia or skin and soft tissue infections. The doctor has to be very prompt and very much attentive if the patient is a diabetic. The volunteer should also keep this in mind about diabetes and infections. They are not to be taken lightly. Even a simple skin wound may turn into severe complications if diabetes is not under control. The present situation of fungal infections is worrisome.
Any surgical procedure may it be a tooth extraction requires fine control over blood glucose and blood pressure.
The same is true with cataract surgeries and all other surgeries. The idea of continuous monitoring is the best strategy to follow.
Diabetes and hypertension together are bad for the heart
The risk of a cardiac event is manifolds if the patient has diabetes or hypertension, studies have shown.
Some unpredictability is always experienced in these vascular diseases. Many such sudden incidents make us wonder. We have no answers really. But to keep on thinking whether something done in time could have prevented these from happening. But those are afterthoughts.
We still are not able to cope up with these shocking events and need to concentrate on monitoring well.
Blindness is preventable
Diabetic retinopathy is a complication that leads to loss of vision. But it can be prevented with early diagnosis and good glycemic control of diabetes. It is proved that microvascular complications can be postponed with good monitoring of blood glucose.
Hemodialysis and renal transplants are not the answers
When capillaries of kidneys get affected due to diabetes we say it is diabetic nephropathy. Uncontrolled diabetes and hypertension both cause end-stage renal disease. This is so common complication and the patient lands up with the thrice a week hemodialysis or kidney transplant as a last resort to survive. It is so expensive mode of treatment and many poor people can not just receive it. Monitoring can avoid the need for hemodialysis if applied well at the beginning of the disease.
Peripheral neuropathy leading to gangrene and amputations
The pain is felt due to the sensory nerves doing their work. Touch, temperature, and vibration sense make us responsive. If the nerve function gets affected we start getting some altered sensations. We get unbearable pain and burning or sometimes we can not feel the pain or even the touch. This we call peripheral neuropathy.
Neuropathy can lead to non-healing wounds, cellulitis, gangrene. The patient may require amputation to survive.
The studies done have come to conclusions supporting that the risk of complications gets reduced with the tight control over diabetes and hypertension. This finding is a basis behind the monitoring.
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.780900
|
Rajendra Chavan
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83733/overview",
"title": "Monitoring diabetes and hypertension",
"author": "Full Course"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104696/overview
|
Spring 2023 - ESL 192 Syllabus
ESL 192: Advanced Academic Reading & Writing 3 - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
This is an activity for Advanced ESL students that allows them to incorporate grammar and writing skills with a song, giving them an opportunity to use their voices to describe an authentic situation. This was created as a Canvas Discussion Board Assignment, but it can easily be adapted for various other formats.
The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward.
Action Plan
OER and open pedagogy help this class to be antiracist by providing students with the opportunities to work collaboratively, share their stories and experiences, learn how to use their voices, easily access all course materials no matter what their background, and learn about many different perspectives.
Course Description
This course is the third in a series of advanced integrated ESL skills courses designed to improve critical thinking and analytical academic reading, leading to essay and research paper writing, focusing on synthesis of sources and correct grammar structure. Readings from culturally diverse sources provide exposure to a range of genres and a broader cultural understanding of the world.
Student Learning Outcomes:
1. Students will be able to produce a well-developed in-class 5 paragraph essay with a clear thesis statement and appropriate support in response to a college-level reading on a cultural component, demonstrating the ability to evaluate, analyze, summarize, and synthesize information.
2. Students will be able to identify, explain, and determine the strength of an author’s claim or argument in a reading selection using critical thinking skills, cultural knowledge, a knowledge of genre, and academic vocabulary.
Antiracist Assignment
This is a Discussion Board Assignment that can be adapted to highlight any writing or grammar point.
This assignment uses the song "Use My Voice" by Evanescence.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.810843
|
06/05/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104696/overview",
"title": "ESL 192: Advanced Academic Reading & Writing 3 - Open For Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Cheryl Bucholtz"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93917/overview
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Norco College Art History 2 Syllabus (Dr. Chandler)
Overview
Syllabus.
Syllabus
Syllabus attached as PDF.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.828924
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06/17/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93917/overview",
"title": "Norco College Art History 2 Syllabus (Dr. Chandler)",
"author": "Meghan Chandler"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91062/overview
|
Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template. Mroeun
Overview
This template is for Higher Education courses to share their syllabus, with a focus on opportunities to collaborate.
Math 150 Syllabus Content
(Copy and paste your syllabus into this space. You can also "Import from Google Docs" and attach Word Documents or PDFs.)
Semester | Spring 2022 |
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Lecture Course Times | On-Online |
Course Units | 4 (MATH 150) |
Course Prerequisite | MATH 73 or MATH 80 with a minimum grade of C, or by multiple measures. |
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Instructor’s Name | Dr. Malinni Roeun |
Email Address | MRoeun@Compton.edu |
Office Location | (Remotely) via Zoom |
Office Hours | Live Office Hours via Zoom Monday & Wednesday 4:30 - 6:30 pm Join Zoom Meeting: https://compton-edu.zoom.us/j/94678863849 (Links to an external site.) Meeting ID: 946 8863 849 |
Course Descriptions | MATH 150 This course focuses on the basic principles of statistics, including descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and the role probability plays in statistical analysis. Students will calculate and interpret various descriptive statistics using graphing calculators with statistical testing capabilities and statistical software, as well as by hand. Major topics include methods of data collection and simulation; measures of central tendency, variability, and relative position; graphical summaries of data; linear regression and correlation; distributions, including normal and binomial distributions; probability theory; and inferential statistical methods. Students will choose, justify, use, and interpret the results of inferential techniques, such as confidence intervals, hypothesis tests, the goodness of fit, analysis of variance, and nonparametric tests.
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Course Objectives | MATH 150
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Student Learning Outcomes |
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Course Textbook & Supplies | Elementary Statistics, California 3rd edition by Mario Triola (optional) Access Code: A MyStatLab Access Code to access the course materials. (Required) Texas Instrument 84-Plus Calculator (Required) |
Evaluation | Certain parts of each assignment will count towards your grade for the lecture course while the remaining parts will contribute towards your support course grade. Your instructor will inform you of this once the assignment is given. |
| MATH 150 Course Orientation Video: 5pts Brief Intro: 5pts Student Learning Agreement: 10pts Exams (3): 300 pts Homework: 120 pts Quizzes: 110 pts Final Exam: 150 pts |
Grading Scale | If this course is a prerequisite for a future mathematics course, a grade of C or higher in the lecture course and a grade of P for the support course is required. Also, if you withdraw from either the lecture or the support course, you will be withdrawn from both courses. |
| MATH 150 [90% , 100%] = A [80% , 90%) = B [70% , 80%) = C [60% , 70%) = D [0% , 60%) = F |
Important Dates | Lincoln’s Day Holiday (Campus Closed) ................................................Friday, February 11, 2022 Registration Ends (Full-Semester and First Eight-Week Classes) ........ Friday, February 11, 2022 Spring Semester Classes Begin ........................................................Saturday, February 12, 2022 Add Codes Needed to Add Full-Semester and First Eight-Week Classes....Saturday, February 12, 2022 Add/Drop Period Begins (Full-Semester Classes*) ............................Saturday, February 12, 2022 Weekday Classes Begin .....................................................................Monday, February 14, 2022 Washington’s Day Holiday (Campus Closed) .....................................Monday, February 21, 2022 Last Day to Apply for Spring Degrees and Certificates ......................Friday, February 25, 2022 Last Day to Add (Full-Semester Courses*) ........................................Sunday, February 27, 2022 Last Day to Drop Without Notation on Record (Full-Semester Classes*) ..Sunday, February 27, 2022 Last Day to Drop for an Enrollment Fee Refund (Full-Semester Classes*)..Sunday, February 27, 2022 Spring Recess (No Classes) .......................................................Saturday-Friday, April 9-15, 2022 Mid-Term Classes Begin (Second Eight-Week Classes) .......................Saturday, April 16, 2022 Pass/No Pass Deadline (if applicable) ...................................................Friday, May 13, 2022 Last Day to Drop with a “W” ...........................................................................Friday, May 13, 2022 Memorial Day (Campus Closed) ..................................................................Monday, May 30, 2022 Commencement ............................................................................................Friday, June 10, 2022 Spring Semester Ends ...................................................................................Friday, June 10, 2022 | |
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Course Expectations and Behavior | First Day of Attendance: Students who enroll in a class but do not attend, by logging in and completing brief bio and Student Learning Agreement, the first scheduled class meeting may be dropped from the roster and their places given to waiting students who were unable to enroll at the time of registration. If an illness or emergency prevents a student from attending the first class session, the student must contact the instructor. A student who registers for a class and never attends is still responsible for dropping the class. Failure to properly drop a class may result in a “W” and may hold the student responsible for any and all fees associated with the class. ***More on Attendance Policy – The Attendance Policy as stated in the Catalog is as follows: Students whose absences exceed 10% of the scheduled class meeting time may be dropped by the instructor (for a 3 or 4 unit course – 10% is approximately 3 classes). However, students are responsible for dropping a class within the deadlines published in the class schedule. Withdrawal from the class through the Admissions Office is the student's responsibility. If you have any concerns regarding your attendance, please contact me immediately via email, telephone, or during my office hours. Attendance Without Official Enrollment Students will not be permitted to attend classes in which they are not enrolled. Exceptions may be allowed by the instructor for bonafide visitors. Students who attend a class without proper enrollment (the student did not properly register or add the class) by the published deadline will not be permitted to “late add” the class except under-documented extenuating and mitigating circumstances. Attendance During Semester Students are expected to attend/ login into their classes regularly. Students who miss the first class meeting or who are not in regular attendance/login during the add period for the class may be dropped by the instructor. Students whose absences from the class exceed 10% of the scheduled class meeting time may be dropped by the instructor. However, students are responsible for dropping a class within the deadlines published in the class schedule. Students who stop attending but do not drop may still be retained on the course roster and receive a failing grade. Students may view their registration status on MyECC. Academic Integrity: Academic Honesty – Include a statement regarding Academic Honesty consistent with ECC policy and procedures (BP5500 Section I and AP5520 Section A), such as the one below. ** El Camino College places a high value on the integrity of its student scholars. When an instructor determines that there is evidence of dishonesty in any academic work (including, but not limited to cheating, plagiarism, or theft of exam materials), disciplinary action appropriate to the misconduct as defined in BP 5500 may be taken. A failing grade on an assignment in which academic dishonesty has occurred and suspension from the class are among the disciplinary actions for academic dishonesty (AP 5520). Students with any questions about Academic Honesty or discipline policies are encouraged to speak with their instructor in advance. |
| No. Week | Day 1 & Day 2 | Day 3 & Day 4 |
|---|---|---|
Week#1, 2/14 - 2/20 | Get your book and/ or *Brief bio via Canvas> Dicussions> Student Learning Agreement via Canvas> Quizzes | 1.1, 1.2, Discussion Weekly#1 |
Week#2, 2/21 - 2/27 | 1.3, 2.1 | 2.2, 2.3, Discussion Weekly#2 |
| Week#3, 2/28 - 3/6 | 3.1, 3.2 | 3.3 Exam#1 Practice via MyLab, Discussion Weekly#2 |
| Week#4, 3/7 - 3/13 | Exam#1 Practice via MyLab 4.1 | Exam#1 Chps 1-3, Password: Dodo Discussion Weekly#3 Section 3.2 |
| Week#5, 3/14 - 3/20 | 4.2, 4.3 | 4.4, 4.5, Discussion Weekly#4 section 4.1 |
| Week#6, 3/21 - 3/27 | 5.1, 5.2 | 6.1 Discussion Weekly#5 section 4.3 |
| Week#7, 3/28 - 4/3 | 6.2, 6.3 | 6.4, Discussion Weekly#6 section 5.2 |
| Week#8, 4/4 - 4/10 | Practice Exam#2 Review | Exam#2 Chps 4-6, Password: Fish Discussion Weekly#8, Section 6.4 |
| Week#9, 4/18 - 4/24 | 7.1, 7.2 | 7.3, Discussion Weekly#9, Section 7.1 |
| Week#10, 4/25 - 5/1 | 8.1, 8.2 | 8.3, Discussion Weekly#10, Section 8.3 |
| Week#11, 5/2 - 5/8 | 8.4, 9.1 | 9.2, Discussion Weekly#11, Section 9.2 |
| Week#12, 5/9 - 5/15 | Practice Exam#3 Review | Exam#3 Chps 7-9, Password: Plant Discussion Weekly#12, Practice Exam#3, section 9.2#9) |
| Week#13, 5/16 - 5/22 | 10.1 | 10.2 Discussion Weekly#13, Section 10.2 |
| Week#14, 5/23 - 5/29 | 11.1 | 11.2 Discussion Weekly#14, Section 12.1 |
| Week#15, 5/30 -6/5 | 12.1, 12.2 | Review for Final Exam, Discussion Weekly#14, Section 12.2 |
| Week#16, 6/6 - 6/10 | Final Exam Chps 4-12 | Final Exam Chps 4-12, Password: Flowers |
Rationale
To be continue....
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.860180
|
03/18/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91062/overview",
"title": "Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template. Mroeun",
"author": "Malinni Roeun"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83299/overview
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Cardiac Anatomy
Heart Anatomy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3YTxBreXe4
Echocardiography for the Beginner
Overview
This lesson is a review of cardiac anatomy along with an activity to help the student grasp cardiac anatomy and blood flow.
Instructions
Understanding blood flow through the heart and the antomy of the heart is important for all aspects of echocardiography and is a required building block.
First review the powerpoint, then watch the video for an understanding of the anatomy and blood flow of the heart.
Next complete the crossword to test your knowledge.
Cardiac Anatomy
This resource is helpful for further understanding of the anatomy of the heart.
Bloodflow through the heart
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.880944
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07/07/2021
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83299/overview",
"title": "Echocardiography for the Beginner",
"author": "Kristen Wendling"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115677/overview
|
HIST 1301: United States History, Williams
Overview
This course looks at the “big picture” of United States history. This course explores the ways in which Americans created their highly original society and culture, the stunning geographical changes that marked the early decades of our new nation, documents that reveal the evolution of key American concepts as well as the many controversies that characterized the second half of US history. One of the goals of this course is for students to come to understand the practice of historical thinking: a form of "reading" the past that you can also apply to any number of other aspects of your college work.
Attachments
The attachment for this resource is a sample syllabus for a course on United States History.
About This Resource
The sample syllabus was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled “New Approaches to Frontier History” for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History.
This resource was contributed by Shawna Williams.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.899296
|
Alliance for Learning in World History
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115677/overview",
"title": "HIST 1301: United States History, Williams",
"author": "Syllabus"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99937/overview
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Memphis Gospel and Memphis Symphony Orchestra
Overview
Memphis Gospel and Memphis Symphony Orchestra
Memphis Gospel
Memphis Gospel and Memphis Symphony Orchestra
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:58.914895
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01/13/2023
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99937/overview",
"title": "Memphis Gospel and Memphis Symphony Orchestra",
"author": "Gary Buss"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25616/overview
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W3Schools Tryit Editor
YouTube
How To: Embed a Video in eClass
Overview
Moodle allows you to use HTML to build elements of your course, making facets of your class entirely customizable. While this may appear intimidating at first, it can be as simple or as detailed as you wish. Along with this capability comes the potential to embed a video directly into your course.
The following tutorial includes steps you can use in your own course or website.
Follow the link in resources for “How To: Embed a Video in eClass” to get started on this self-study module.
Embed a YoutUbe Video into Page
The student can successfully locate iframe code in YouTube and use it to embed a video.
Try embedding a video in your course/website using YouTube [link in resources] iframe code. The end result should resemble something like this:
You can do this in Moodle or in the W3Schools editor, which is linked in this module's resources.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.932403
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07/10/2018
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25616/overview",
"title": "How To: Embed a Video in eClass",
"author": "Kim Gibson"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55003/overview
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Ch. 12 Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: Supplemental Slides
Module 6: Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex and Sexuality
Overview
Textbook, slides, and class activities related to race and ethnicity, and gender, sex, and sexuality. Primary text: OpenStax Introduction to Sociology 2e
Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: Learning Objectives
Explain race as a social construction
Distinguish between race and ethnicity
Distinguish between prejudice and discrimination, compare and contrast origins and impacts of individual and institutional (systemic) discrimination
Describe patterns of dominant and subordinate group relations
Distinguish between sex and gender
Explain gender as performance (doing gender)
Identify perspectives on the origin and consequences of gender stratification
Identify patterns and factors related to gender inequality in education and employment
Compare and contrast U.S. attitudes and norms related to sex and sexuality within a global context
Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: Readings
Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: Video Resources
The attached slides provide a useful review of concepts from chapters 11 and 12 in your textbook.
Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex, and Sexuality: Class Activities
Activity 17: Media Log- Race, Ethnicity, Stereotypes, and Intersectionality
Learning Objective: Explore ways in which the media construct our conceptions of racial and ethnic groups, raise awareness of stereotypes applied to individuals as members of raced and gendered groups
Instructions: Spend at least two (2) hours watching television (Netflix, Hulu, etc. are okay too) programming from at least four (4) different sources (note: the easiest way to do this is to watch 30 minutes each on 4 different channels). Observe and note how members of various racial and ethnic groups are portrayed—ask yourself questions such as: “How many [group] characters are presented, are they major or minor characters? What types of roles do they have? What are their activities and attitudes like? Are the portrayals positive or negative—how? What images of [group] does this program portray, what kinds of messages does it send to viewers about [group]?”
Bring your notes to class (on this chart or a separate piece of paper) and be prepared to discuss with your teammates.
Source, Program | Asian/Pacific Islander | Black/African-American | Latinx/Hispanic | White |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Ex: FXX, Mayans MC | None, suspiciously absent for a show that takes place in CA | 1 officer, small part—not really important to story | Gang members, undocumented, family-oriented, criminals, mostly male | Police officers, “border patrol”, angry (disliked immigrants), 1 woman (passive) |
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:58.963720
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06/01/2019
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{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55003/overview",
"title": "Module 6: Stratification- Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sex and Sexuality",
"author": "India Stewart"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115665/overview
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Sex Behavior
Overview
An In-dept Introduction to Male and Female Sex Behavior
Edited by: Gina Marie Hazzard, Catey Kelly, Christina Enodien, and Ryan Lietz
Male Sex Behavior - Blayre Walters:
Masculinization of the Brain and Male Behavior
Objectives:
- Learn the term Sexual Dimorphic Behaviors and how it relates to male sex behavior
- Understand the male hormones involved in sex behavior and their unique functions
Sexual dimorphic behaviors refer to the differences in behavior between males and females of a species. (Lopez-Ojeda & Hurley, 2021). In many species, including humans, these differences are the result of sexual differentiation in the brain during development. Sexual differentiation is the process by which the brain becomes male or female in response to hormonal signals during critical periods of development. Sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, play a crucial role in this process. For example, testosterone is responsible for the development of male-typical behaviors such as aggression, mating behavior, and territoriality, while estrogen is associated with female-typical behaviors such as nurturing and caregiving. The exact mechanisms by which these hormones influence brain development are still being studied, but we know that they have significant effects on the structure and function of the brain regions involved in sexual behavior (Lopez-Ojeda & Hurley, 2021). Understanding the role of sex hormones in sexual differentiation and sexual dimorphic behaviors is becoming more crucial in today’s environment to understand the development of topics like gender identity.
Hormones such as testosterone and estrogen have different effects on the brain, with testosterone being associated with more dominant and aggressive behaviors in males, while estrogen is associated with more nurturing and caregiving behaviors in females. Testosterone is the primary male hormone that regulates sex behavior in the brain. It is produced in the testes and adrenal glands and is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, including increased muscle mass, body hair growth, and deepening of the voice (Anders et al., 2015). Testosterone also affects the brain regions that are involved in sexual behavior. Research has shown that testosterone can modulate the activity of the amygdala, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex, which are all involved in the regulation of sex behavior. For example, testosterone has been shown to increase the activity of the amygdala, which is involved in the processing of sexual stimuli and the initiation of sexual behavior (Anders et al., 2015). Testosterone increases the activity of the hypothalamus, which regulates the release of hormones involved in sex behavior. Research has shown that testosterone levels are positively correlated with sexual desire and arousal in males, and studies have found that men with higher levels of testosterone are more likely to engage in sexual activity and report a higher frequency of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Testosterone also plays a role in the regulation of erectile function, as it enhances the response of the penis to sexual stimuli. Although estrogen is typically regarded as a female hormone, it also plays a crucial role in male sex behavior. Estrogen is produced in small amounts in the testes, and even the brain, where it is converted from testosterone by the aromatase enzyme (Cooke et al., 2017) . Estrogen receptors are present in various brain regions that are involved in the regulation of sex behavior, including the hypothalamus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. Research has shown that estrogen can modulate the activity of these brain regions, leading to changes in male sex behavior. For example, estrogen has been shown to increase sexual motivation and decrease anxiety in male rats (Cooke et al., 2017). In humans, studies have found that estrogen can enhance the responsiveness of the penis to sexual stimuli and improve erectile function. Progesterone is another hormone that is typically associated with female reproductive function but also plays a role in male sex behavior by acting on similar regions of the brain. For example, progesterone has been shown to decrease sexual motivation and increase anxiety in male rats. In humans, studies have found that progesterone can reduce sexual desire and arousal.
Male hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone play a crucial role in the regulation of sex behavior in the brain. Testosterone is the primary male hormone that regulates sexual desire, arousal, and erectile function. Estrogen also plays a role in male sex behavior, enhancing sexual responsiveness and reducing anxiety, while progesterone can have a negative impact on male sex behavior, reducing sexual desire and increasing anxiety. The interplay between these hormones and their effects on the brain regions involved in sex behavior is complex and still not fully understood. Understanding these relationships is important to understanding more complex male sex behaviors and functions as it relates to the brain.
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
- What do sexual dimorphic behaviors refer to?
- Differences in behavior between males and females of the SAME species
- Differences in behavior between males and females of a DIFFERENT species
- Similarities in behavior between males and females of the SAME species
- Similarities in behavior between males and females of DIFFERENT species
- Testosterone is responsible for..?
- modulating mainly the effects of dopaminergic and serotoninergic systems on sexual function
- Being an important role in the normal sexual and reproductive development in women
- regulating sex drive (libido), bone mass, fat distribution, muscle mass and strength, and the production of red blood cells and sperm
- Helping men think logically
- What is the role of the amygdala regarding sex behavior?
- The amygdala is responsible for sexual differentiation in the brain during development
- The amygdala is involved in sexual arousal due to the fear and safety emotions
- The amygdala is in small amounts in the testes and is converted from testosterone by the aromatase enzyme.
- What is the role of estrogen in male sex behavior?
- To modulate the activity of brain regions, leading to changes in male sex behavior
- It is primary male hormone that regulates sexual desire, arousal, and erectile function
- It is responsible for the development of male-typical behaviors such as aggression, mating behavior, and territoriality
- It stimulates breast development and milk production in women
- What animal are most studies conducted on for neuroscience research?
- Cats
- Rats
- Cows
- Birds
- What are the three hormones that play a vital role in understanding male sex behavior?
- Testosterone, Estrogen, Prolactin
- Estrogen, Androgen, Testosterone
- Progesterone, Prolactin, Testosterone
- Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone
PICTURES/VIDEOS
Sexual Behavior and the Brain - start at 0:25 - 7:12
Hormones and Sexual Behavior - start at 7:59 - 9:48
Ejaculation - Skyler Murphy:
Objectives:
- Learn about the physiology of the two phases of ejaculation- emission and expulsion
- Understand the symptoms and causes of two of the most common ejaculation dysfunctions- premature ejaculation and delayed ejaculation
Male ejaculation is defined as the forceful ejection of seminal fluid by men at the end of coitus from their urethral meatus (Coolen et al., 2004). While it is typically associated with orgasm, the two are not one and the same, as ejaculation is considered a spinal reflex while orgasm is a purely cerebral process. Ejaculation is controlled by multiple systems, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system as well as a spinal control center called the spinal ejaculation generator (Son, Jeong, & Jang, 2022). Ejaculation occurs in two phases- emission and expulsion. The emission phase begins with physical or erotic stimulation of the male genitals, which sends sensory input to the spinal ejaculation generator, triggering both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (Coolen et al., 2004). Once these systems are triggered, the sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine and the parasympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine. The release of these neurotransmitters causes secretion of the seminal fluids from epithelial cells and sex glands. The fluid then moves to the posterior urethra, where once the fluid reaches this point, ejaculation becomes unavoidable (Coolen et al., 2004). The next stage of ejaculation is expulsion, at which point semen leaves the male due to rhythmic contractions of the bulbocavernosus and the ischiocavernosus muscles. Semen is ejaculated during the second contraction of the bulbocavernosus muscle in conjunction with multiple contractions of the ischiocavernosus muscle. This is thought to be because of a delay between the first contraction and filling of the upper part of the prostatic urethra. It was found that most of the semen was expelled after 5 or 6 contractions but in the majority of men contractions continued, which is thought to ensure that all semen enters the female (Gerstenberg, Levin, & Wagner, 1990). Once a man ejaculates, he enters a refractory period that can last from several minutes to several hours where he is unable to ejaculate again.
There are several disorders that are connected to ejaculatory dysfunction, two of the most common ones being premature ejaculation and delayed ejaculation. Premature ejaculation is described as ejaculation occurring within 1 minute after the start of sexual intercourse, and occurs in about 20-30% of men (Fiala et al., 2021). There are both physiological and psychological factors that can contribute to premature ejaculation. Physiologically, premature ejaculation can be caused by abnormalities of the afferent-efferent reflex pathway via the communications between different systems active in the reflex process as well as increased sensitivity of the glans penis (Porst and Burri, 2017). It can also be caused by Diabetes Mellitus, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and genetic and urological factors (Son, Jeong, & Jang, 2022). Psychologically, it’s often linked to anxiety, stress, depression, history of sexual suppression or sexual abuse, as well as having a poor body image. The activity of the sympathetic nervous system increases when a person has anxiety, and since it plays such an important role in the phases of ejaculation, it is very common for a person with anxiety to ejaculate quicker since their sympathetic nervous system is already in a heightened state (Son, Jeong, & Jang, 2022). Furthermore, high cortisol levels that are associated with increased stress in a person's life have also been linked to premature ejaculation, indicating that psychoneuroendocrinological interactions may play a significant role in the epidemiology of premature ejaculation (Fiala et al., 2021). These issues often require psychological intervention from a licensed therapist, and people who undergo counseling either alone or with their partner have seen improvements in the incidence of premature ejaculation.
The other most common ejaculatory disorder is delayed ejaculation, which is defined as a marked delay or absence of ejaculation after sufficient sexual stimulation (Son, Jeong, & Jang, 2022). There have been difficulties in defining delayed ejaculation since ejaculation and orgasm often occur in tandem even though ejaculation is a reflex process and orgasm is a purely cerebral process (Abdel-Hamid and Ali, 2018). Similarly to premature ejaculation, there are both psychological and physiological causes of delayed ejaculation, and these factors can often work together to make ejaculation, with a partner especially, very hard to achieve. Some psychological factors include insufficient mental stimulation, which often points to underlying conflicts either within themselves or within their relationship with their chosen partner (Abdel-Hamid and Ali, 2018). Unusual masturbation patterns or fantasies can also contribute to delayed ejaculation. Men who masturbate frequently often find they have trouble ejaculating with a partner since they are used to specific durations, pressures, and speeds that may not be able to be replicated by a partner. Furthermore, men may have specific fantasies that a partner may be unable or unwilling to recreate, preventing men from being properly mentally stimulated to achieve ejaculation (Son, Jeong, & Jang, 2022). Physiologically, age has been linked to decreased penile sensitivity, slower bulbocavernosus reflexes, and reduced spinal stimulation (Abdel-Hamid and Ali, 2018). Certain drugs, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been linked to the inability to ejaculate, and have been seen to increase the likelihood of this phenomenon by up to seven times. Overall, there are a multitude of factors that can cause both premature ejaculation and delayed ejaculation that can interact with each other, and new studies are constantly being completed to try and understand the causes of these sexual dysfunctions as well as possible treatments for them.
Pictures:
"File:Diagram showing the parts of the penis CRUK 333.svg" by Cancer Research UK is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Video on ejaculation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wd3gE9qgdos&ab_channel=EKGScience
EKG Science. (2021, September 7). Erection & Ejaculation | Male Reproductive System [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wd3gE9qgdos
Assessment Questions:
A patient is found to have high cortisol levels in their yearly blood-work, what is the sexual dysfunction that they likely have as a result of these high cortisol levels?
- Performance anxiety
- Delayed ejaculation
- Premature ejaculation
- Retrograde ejaculation
What could be a way to test the importance of the bulbocavernosus muscle in the role it plays in ejaculation?
- Remove the ischiocavernosus muscle
- Electrically stimulate the bulbocavernosus muscle and see what effect it has on ejaculation
- Inhibit bulbocavernosus muscle movement and observe what effect it has on ejaculation
- Numb the penis and observe what effect it has on ejaculation
- Both B and C
Male Sexual desire - Karla Deleon:
Objectives:
- Students will be able to define sexual desire.
- Students will be familiar with regions of the brain and its contributions.
- Students will be able to define HSDD and its factors.
Sexual desire is defined as the subjective psychological status to initiate and maintain human sexual behavior, triggered by internal and/or external stimuli. Sexual desire can be described through drive, motivation and wish, in relation to the three biopsychosocial components of biological, psychological, and social factors. The drive is associated with the biological aspect (anatomically and neuroendocrine system), motivation is associated with the psychological aspect (mental being and state), and wish is associated with the social or cultural aspect. There are many regions of the brain that are critical to the proper functioning of sexual desire within the male body. One of the key regions is the amygdala which is a structure found in the limbic system and is most commonly associated with emotion. The amygdala is responsible for emotional regulation when stimuli of any kind are presented. The hypothalamus is another key region which has control over the pituitary gland, thus being able to release hormones from the body. The thalamus is known as the body’s information relay station, where information from the senses are processed through the thalamus before it is interpreted. In this case, erotic stimuli that comes from the spinal cord is passed through here. The thalamus also plays a part in sexual preference and choosing a partner. Structures such as these set off autonomic responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, and increase in breathing, and are crucial to male erection and ejaculation.
Much like the regular function and increase of sexual desire, there can also be a decrease. When a male experiences a low sexual desire, they have what is called Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSSD), where there is a lack of sexual fantasies and the desire to perform sexual activity. Age, depression, and illness are several factors that can contribute to sexual dysfunction.
Video: NBC News. (2018, July 26). Your Brain Wants You To Have Sex. Here’s How That Works. | Better | NBC News [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DJ0F-UFF4g
"File:Figure 35 03 06.jpg" by CNX OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
- When a male experiences an erection or ejaculation, which system is responsible for the increase in heart rate and breathing?
- Peripheral nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system
- Nervous system
- Somatic nervous system
- Which of the following are signs of a male being diagnosed with Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD)?
- Decrease in testosterone levels
- High sex drive
- Anxiety
- A & C
Male arousal:
Objectives:
- Student will be able to define male sexual arousal
- Student will be able to identify hormones that are produced under the brain activity which enact with the male sexual arousal
- Student will be able to define how to identify the sexual arousal in various ways
The Endothermic behavior of the male arousal can be viewed in two pathways: the hormonal and the physical pathway. Under the hormone pathway, testosterone plays a central role in male sexual arousal. In terms of nonseasonal mammals, which are animals that do not perform reproduction under seasonal conditions, testosterone is low before puberty and higher after puberty, and an identical phenomenon is found in male sexual behavior. In terms of the seasonal mammals, which are animals that perform reproduction under seasonal conditions, testosterone is low during winter and higher during summer and an identical phenomenon is found under male sexual behavior (Alsian Demier, 2016). Furthermore, the research that tested the effect of injection of testosterone versus placebo has shown an increase in male-typical sexual arousal among castrated males. However, the effect of testosterone on male arousal only applies to the minimum level of required testosterone and after that level, the improvement of male sexual behavior is not detected (Carani, C. 1990). In fact, the identical experiment that injected testosterone and a placebo has given a stark increase among castrated males but a basal level of deviance among the hypogonadal males. This indicates that testosterone is an important factor in male sexual arousal yet not the only hormone that enacts to promote sexual arousal. The effect of testosterone is not limited to itself. In the male body, testosterone aromatizes itself to estradiol, another hormone that is essential for modulating male libido and penis erectile. Furthermore, testosterone can also be chemically synthesized to dihydro-T (DHT). This hormone activates the androgen receptor among the male which is needed for sexual differentiation during fetal development and changes in males during puberty. Furthermore, the hormone is also necessary for maintaining a sex drive in men which leads to higher sexual arousal(A. Sansone, 2021).
The arousal is exacted with higher blood pressure is released around the genitalia during the sexual arousal in the male. However, the classification of sexual arousal is into three categories: central arousal, which involves neurobiological events within the central nervous system (CNS); peripheral non-genital arousal, (examples are salivary secretion, skin vasodilatation and feeling of warmth, nipple erection, heart rate, and blood pressure increase), and general neuromuscular tension alteration like a genital erection in male (Levin, R. J. 1994). While the vast research in the past has focused solely on the 3rd category- a genital erection, the other two factors are also key aspects to determining sexual arousal and what stimulates them.
Historically, male erections were the sole basis of measurement for male sexual arousal. However, through technological development, recent studies were able to identify a different way to calculate sexual arousal for males: breathing as a chemical marker for sexual arousal. The participants of 12 females and 12 males were randomly selected to 3 different 10-minute long film clips: sports film( positive- nonsexual), horror film (negative- nonsexual), and erotic film(sexual)(Wang, N. 2022). Then the measured VOC/ CO2 levels along with genital arousal and temperature with respect to each movie. This setting was made to measure the exile of chemical elements in relation to sexual arousal. By measuring VOC and CO2 rates in 3 different genres of films, it validated breathing as a tool for the indicator of sexual arousal. Exhaled breath VOCs showed variation in concentration: males exhibited significantly lower CO2, C2H4O2, and C6H6O breath levels, respectively, for the sex clip compared to the other two clips. (Along with the deviance in the breathing, there were genital responses and temperature variation) (Wang, N. 2022).
Assessment Questions
- Which hormone does not function directly in a male arousal?
- Testosterone
- Estradiol
- DHT
- Estrogen
- Which factors can we measure to identify male arousal through their breathing?
- VOC
- CO2
- C2H4O2
- H2
- Which animals would have the highest testosterone level?
- Male Seasonal mammal under apt season
- Female seasonal mammal under apt season
- Male Seasonal mammal
- Female non-seasonal mammal
- Male Seasonal mammal under inapt season
Picture:
Artoria2e5, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Female Sex Behavior
Aubrey Strause, Grecia Reyes Santos, and Skyler Martinez
Female Reproductive Anatomy - Gina Marie Hazzard
Objectives:
- Learn about the main functions of the female reproductive system
- Learn about the external genitalia
- Learn about the internal genitalia
The main functions of the female reproductive system are reproduction, sexual intercourse, and produces sex hormones that maintain the menstrual cycle. The main function of the female external genitals is to protect the internal parts from infection and to allow sperm to enter for reproductive purposes. Vulva is the collective name for all the external genitals. People often mistake “vagina” as the entirety of the female reproductive system, but the vagina is its own structure within the system. In the vulva or external genitals there are six main parts: the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, hymen, and the urethra (The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 2022).
The labia majora encloses and protects the other external reproductive organs. During puberty, hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora for protective purposes. The labia minora has a variety of different shapes and sizes. The labia minora lies within the labia majora and surrounds the opening of the vagina and urethra. The vaginal opening allows menstrual blood and babies to exit the body. Inside of the vaginal opening lies the hymen, which is a piece of tissue that covers part of the vaginal opening as a remnant of fetal development. Slightly above the vaginal opening is the urethra, where bodily fluids such as urine are excreted (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). Lastly is the clitoris, which is above the urethra and where the two labia minora meet. It is a small, sensitive protrusion of nerves that is covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce. The clitoris has both reproductive and pleasurable functions, as its stimulation results in sexual stimulation that helps to increase blood flow and lubrication within the vagina (Levin, 2020).
The internal genitalia of the female reproductive system have the main role of sexual activity and reproduction. There are five main components: the vagina, cervix, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. The vagina is the muscular canal that joins the cervix to the outside of the body. It widens during childbirth and can shrink back to its original size. It is lined with mucous membranes for protection and reproductive purposes. The cervix is the opening that allows sperm to enter the body and menstrual blood to exit the uterus. During childbirth, the cervix also dilates to facilitate pushing the infant out. The uterus is the organ that houses the fertilized egg and eventually a fetus during pregnancy. The uterus has two parts: the cervix and the corpus. The corpus is the larger part that expands during the course of pregnancy and the cervix is the barrier between the corpus and the vagina. The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are on both sides of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs (ovum) and hormones. The fallopian tubes are the narrow tubes that connect the uterus to the ovaries. They are the pathway for ovum to travel from the ovaries into the uterus, where fertilization of the egg occurs. Some women who become pregnant may have an ectopic pregnancy, where the embryo does not implant in the uterus, and most often implants in the fallopian tubes. These pregnancies are not viable as the fallopian tubes cannot expand with the expansion of the fetus, and can result in maternal mortality at a rate of 5-10% (Mullaney et al., 2023).
"Human female inner genitalia" by Sciencia58 is marked with CC0 1.0.
Assessment Questions:
- What is the collective name for all the female external genitalia?
- Uterus
- Vagina
- Cervix
- Vulva
- What is the main function of the external genitalia?
- Maintaining the menstrual cycle
- Sexual activity and reproduction
- Protection of internal genitalia
- None of the above
- What is the primary function of the internal genitalia?
- Sexual activity and reproduction
- Dilation for childbirth
- Maintaining hormones
- Production of ovum and hormones
Function of Female-Typical Hormones During Fetal and Sexual Development
Objectives:
- Understand the roles of hormones in fetal and pubescent development
- Distinguish between the functions of estrogen and progesterone
- Understand certain consequences women may face with unbalanced hormones
Before diving into the roles of estrogen and progesterone in the development of biological females, it is important to understand that there are no male or female sex-specific hormones. While androgens such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone are associated with the development of male-typical behaviors and estrogens such as estrogen and progesterone are associated with female-typical behaviors, they are only correlated with these behaviors. This is why it is important to remember that correlation does not always mean causation, as you will see later in this section.
The sex of the embryo is determined at conception, but it is not until six weeks into the pregnancy where signs of gonadal differentiation will be visible. At this point in time, if the SRY gene is suppressed and the embryo is female (XX), then the ovaries will start to form. They will primarily produce estrogen and progesterone, which feminizes the brain and allows for the stimulation of estrogen receptors that will be needed during puberty. The ovaries also produce slight amounts of testosterone which is important for inhibiting the development of internal male genitalia aka the wolffian ducts. The lack of testosterone also allows for the development of external female genitalia which consists of the clitoris and labia. The ovaries also do not produce mullerian inhibiting hormones unlike male testis, which promotes the development of the mullerian ducts which consist of the fallopian tubes, uterus and cervix. So while estrogens are not actively present in physical sexual differentiation, it is the lack of androgens produced by the ovaries that result in the female characteristics of the embryo and allow for the feminization of the brain (N. Simon, Personal Communication, Feb 2, 2024).
After birth, the ovaries will stay quiescent, or dormant, until puberty. Once menses starts, the ovaries will actively produce the estrogens estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P). The ovarian hormones promote the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts, body and facial hair, uterine lining, and body fat distribution. Normally, the body is able to regulate itself when it comes to these hormones, but in certain cases that does not happen, which leads to the development of certain disorders. In the uterus, estrogen is important for the maintenance of the mucous membrane, the thickness of the vaginal lining, and the act of self-lubrication for sexual intercourse (Lee et al., 2012). When estrogen levels are elevated, certain health risks can occur such as irregular periods and reproductive problems. When estrogen levels are too low, delayed puberty may occur or possibly not at all, which is known as primary amenorrhea. Women also have the risk of preventing timely sexual development, which can lead to low levels of sexual desire and painful sex. In regards to progesterone, the levels naturally rise after ovulation to prepare the uterus for pregnancy by triggering the vaginal lining to thicken in order to accept a fertilized egg. Progesterone also inhibits muscle contractions from occurring in the uterus so as to not reject an egg. Low levels of progesterone can impact the regularity of periods, and if the levels of progesterone remain high, then it can indicate pregnancy.
"Mullerian duct development" by Devinka98 is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Assessment Questions
- What instances can drastically change a woman’s hormone levels? Select all that apply.
- Puberty
- Disease
- Pregnancy
- Muscle contractions
2. Delayed sexual development is due to ___ ______ levels which can cause _____ ___.
- Low progesterone, normal sex
- High progesterone, painful sex
- Low estrogen, painful sex
- High estrogen, normal sex
Menstrual Cycle
Objectives:
- Learn about the three stages of the menstrual cycle
- Learn how a pregnancy or menstrual period comes to be through a monthly cycle
- Learn about menstrual cycle related disorders
Women that are of reproductive age, typically between the ages of 11 to 16 years old, experience cycles of hormonal activity that occur at approximately every 28 days. With each cycle, the body prepares itself for a potential pregnancy. In the ovaries at the time of puberty in a normal, healthy female are approximately 300,000 eggs. In preparation of a pregnancy, an egg moves down the fallopian tube, where it has the chance of becoming fertilized if a sperm reaches the egg. Regardless of whether or not sperm reaches the egg, it will eventually move its way into the uterus where implantation can occur. If the egg is fertilized, then the egg will attach itself to the uterine wall and develop into a fetus. In the instance when a pregnancy does not occur, then the uterine lining sheds, resulting in menstruation or a “period” (Cleveland Clinic, 2022).
The first phase of the menstrual cycle is the follicular phase, which generally starts on the first day of a period. During this phase, two hormones are released from the anterior pituitary gland in the brain and travel to the ovaries: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The presence of FSH and LH trigger the release of estradiol. However at the low levels that estradiol begins at in this phase, it inhibits further production of LH. FSH stimulation is slightly regulated, but enough of the hormone remains to stimulate the growth of approximately 18 eggs in the ovaries. The shell that surrounds the egg is known as the follicle. Gradually one follicle will become dominant and continue to mature, which results in the rest of the follicles dying. At the same time as the follicle grows, estradiol levels will continue to increase until around day 12 of the menstrual cycle. Thus the ovulatory phase will begin as the follicle phase ends.
The increase in estradiol levels occur as a result of the self-stimulation that estradiol is able to accomplish. The presence of estradiol stimulates the estrogen receptors in the ovarian follicle. The estradiol is then able to bind to the receptors, stimulating more estradiol to be released. This continues to repeat itself until enough estrogen has built up within the follicle triggering a spike in LH production. Approximately five days prior to the LH spike, vaginal discharge may be experienced as the mucus is released to assist in sperm projection to the egg. Once the spike occurs, the dominant follicle will release the egg from the ovary and send it to the fallopian tube, transitioning to the luteal phase.
In the luteal phase, the empty follicle will become the corpus luteum, which releases estrogen and progesterone into the system. Progesterone is the dominant hormone during this time as it prepares the uterus for egg implantation, as well as inhibits the production of LH and FSH once more. If the egg has managed to become fertilized, then it will attach to the uterine wall and progesterone levels will remain high. If the egg was not fertilized, then it will dissolve in the uterus, and the lining that had formed will shed. Now the period, or menses, has started.
Generally, periods last between two to seven days. However, this varies amongst women depending on a variety of factors. These factors include: age, weight, diet, and even medication. Younger women tend to experience longer, more regulated cycles whereas middle aged women may start to experience irregular periods as they near the age of menopause, which marks the end of one's period as a result of aging. While younger women tend to have regulated cycles, there are instances where that is not the case. Conditions where there are irregularities amongst periods and behavior are known as menstrual cycle related disorders.
Examples of such disorders include:
- Polymenorrhea
- Diagnosis when a woman experiences periods more frequently or irregularly during cycles of <21 days.
- Oligomenorrhea
- Diagnosis when a woman experiences periods very infrequently and irregularly during cycles of >42 days.
- Primary Amenorrhea
- Diagnosis when a woman does not experience menstruation by 15.5 years of age.
- Primary Dysmenorrhea (PD)
- Extreme and intense throbbing experienced in the uterus before and leading into menstruation.
- Premenstrual Symptoms (PMS)
- Describes a wide range of symptoms including food cravings, fatigue, mood swings, irritability, etc that occur 5-7 days before menstruation.
- Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)
- Differs from PMS in severity and duration. Women suffer from severe depressive symptoms up to two weeks before and during menstruation.
While the cause of these disorders are not clear, they can be extremely debilitating in the lives of women. There are treatment options that can be discussed with medical professionals such as hormonal birth control to prevent periods, making changes in lifestyle and diet, anti-pain medication such as ibuprofen, and depending on the severity of the case, antidepressants taken in the weeks leading up to the period to improve quality of life (N. Simon, personal communication, Feb 27, 2024).
"Hormone levels during the human menstrual cycle" by C. F. Draper K. Duisters, B.Weger, A. Chakrabarti1, A. C. Harms, L. Brennan, T. Hankemeier, L.Goulet, T. Konz, F. P. Martin, S. Moco & J. van derGreef is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Assessment Questions:
- In the Follicular Phase, which two hormones are released that trigger an increase in estrogen?
- Progesterone and Testosterone
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Progesterone
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone
- Luteinizing Hormone and Progesterone
- During the Ovulatory Phase there is a surge of Luteinizing Hormone. What process results from this surge?
- Menstrual period
- Implantation
- Increase of cervical mucus
- Ovulation
- During the Luteal Phase, what occurs if the egg is not fertilized?
- Uterine lining is shed, beginning of the period
- The embryo will implant in the uterine lining
- Cervical mucus will increase
- None of the above
Olfactory Sensitivity
Objectives:
- Understand what the basic aspects of what the olfactory system is used for
- Be able to identify what olfactory sensitivity is
- Understand how olfactory sensitivity affects a woman’s sex life
Olfactory sensitivity is a sensation that occurs when olfactory receptors in the nose are stimulated by specific chemicals. Olfactory systems consist of things we are able to smell. The olfactory system also contributes to social behavior in humans and has an impact on how we choose specific mates. Specific odors, like androgen-odors, induce sexual arousal because olfactory perception leads to hypothalamic activation. These androgen-odors are otherwise known as pheromones. Olfactory perception is the sensation that results when olfactory receptors in the nose are stimulated by particular chemicals in gaseous form. In a study done by Johanna Bendas, Thomas Hummel and Llona Croy there was an investigation of the relationship between olfactory function and its effect on sexual behavior using healthy individuals. The researchers hypothesized that higher olfactory function would be associated with higher levels of sexual desire, sexual experience and sexual performance. Odor sensitivity correlated positively with sexual experience. Participants with high olfactory sensitivity reported higher pleasantness of sexual activities (Bendas et al., 2018). Women with high olfactory sensitivity reported a higher frequency of orgasms during sex.
Assessment Questions
- High levels of olfactory sensitivity in woman can correlate to which of the following
- Higher frequency of orgasms compared to women with lower levels of olfactory sensitivity.
- Lower frequency of orgasms compared to women with higher levels of olfactory sensitivity
- Higher levels of estrogen
- Higher levels of progesterone
2. Which of the following would be considered a part of the olfactory system?
- Nose
- Mouth
- Eyes
- Ears
Abstinence, Sexual Activity, and Quality of Life
(Catherine Kelly)
Objectives:
- Understand the relationship between quality of life and sexual activity in those sexually active
- Be able to discuss the practice of abstaining from sex along with potential motivators for doing so
Abstinence is the behavioral practice of refraining from sexual activities with oneself or with partners. Abstinence levels have been historically higher in females than males, and over the last 100 years, the percentage of women practicing abstinence has decreased significantly (Wang 2014), but abstinence is still a notable sexually-related behavior worth discussing. There are a variety of sociocultural motivators for one’s decision to be abstinent. In a study exploring abstinence in relation to HIV transmission in South Africa, researchers sought to examine the reasoning participants in the study had for abstaining. While the practice of abstinence is mostly associated as a cultural and behavioral response to sexuality, common abstinence motivators that were observed for individual participants included conservatism, religiosity, as well as the desire to prevent consequences of unsafe sexual behavior, including pregnancy and the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (Mokwena & Morabe 2016). It is important to note that abstinence cannot be interchanged with the term “asexual”. Asexuality is the clinical absence of sexual attraction or desire, whereas abstinence is the conscious choice not to take part in sexual activity, despite having normal sexual attraction and sex drive.
While there appears to be little notable correlation between abstinence and quality of life, studies have displayed evidence that sexual satisfaction plays a large part in quality of life for large populations of both sexually active male and female individuals (Flynn et. al 2016). Obviously, results from studies where people are asked to report how they feel about a particular behavior are subjective, and we cannot conclude that every abstinent person is experiencing poorer quality of life due to not participating in sexual behavior. However, knowing that sexual behavior does have a significant positive effect on the quality of life of sexually active people is valuable knowledge that can be considered when healthcare professionals evaluate patients overall health and wellbeing. Engaging in or refraining from sexual activities alone is not the determinant of quality of life, but rather the combination of one’s beliefs, experiences, environment, physical and psychological health, and medical predispositions.
Assessment Questions:
- Which of the following have been observed as recurring abstinence motivators? (Select Two)
- Higher education
- Avoidance of negative consequences of sexual activity
- Religiosity and personal beliefs
- Open discussion of sex in communities
2. True or false: there is notable correlation between abstinence and quality of life.
- True
- False
Sexual Attraction and Hormones
(Catherine Kelly)
Objectives:
- To understand the basics of categorization of female human sexual motivation
- Be able to discuss how hormonal changes and/or menstruation influences sexual motivation
Sexual motivation for females can be better understood through the endocrinology of sexual attraction. The brain's hypothalamus influences the production of the hormones testosterone and estrogen which are the major chemical substances that influence our sexual attraction and behavior. High levels of these hormones are known to be associated with high sex drive in women, so in cases of low sexual motivation, women can often be treated by being prescribed these hormones (Cappelletti & Wallen 2016). Contrary to popular belief, there are no male and female specific hormones. Rather, the role that hormones like estrogen and testosterone play are different in males and females. Hormones work in conjunction with neurotransmitters to obtain the physical sensations associated with sexual attraction and pleasure. The neurotransmitters most closely associated with sexual experience are dopamine and norepinephrine (Field, 2023). The dopamine pathway and its relation to sexual arousal and behavior has been very well studied, and there is ample evidence suggesting that it plays an important role in arousal, desire, and even orgasm (Meisel & Been 1970).
The female menstrual cycle also has a significant impact on sexual arousal and behavior, as hormone levels fluctuate significantly throughout the cycle. Ovarian hormones and anterior pituitary hormones are the most important hormones that change throughout a menstrual cycle. These changes in hormones are associated with different levels of sexual motivation. Sexual motivation and behavior is reported to be at its highest during the follicular phase leading up to ovulation. Drive declines significantly after ovulation in the luteal phase (Shirazi et. al 2018). This makes sense, as after ovulation, there is less chance of pregnancy as the egg prepares to be shed with the lining of the uterus after not being fertilized. Evolution of the menstrual cycle and hormonal changes have made sure that high sex drive aligns with the highest probability of conception to increase the chances of becoming pregnant.
Assessment Questions:
- Which of the following are primary neurotransmitters released during sexual attraction? (Circle two)
- Acetylcholine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine
- GABA
- Which phase of the menstrual cycle is associated with high levels of Progesterone?
- Luteal
- Follicular
- Ovulation
- Menstruation
- True or false: estrogen is exclusively a female hormone.
- True
- False
Sexual Excitement/Sexual Anxiety
(Catherine Kelly)
Objectives
- Be able to identify the different anatomical differences that arise from a woman being sexually excited
- Understand the difference between physical and psychological sexual stimulation
- Understand the different factors that can cause sexual inhibition and sexual avoidance
Female sex behavior is regulated by a sexual response cycle which consists of desire, excitement, orgasm and resolution. When a woman is sexually aroused, the process that occurs follows a predictable sequence of events.
Female sexual arousal can be initiated by either physical and/or psychological sexual stimulation. Common responses to physiological stimulation are vasocongestion, myotonia, vaginal dilation, and protrusion of the clitoris (Woodard, Diamond 2009). Other responses to sexual excitement can be an increased heart rate, increased blood pressure and higher respiration. Unlike men, when a woman is sexually excited, vaginal lubrication occurs. Although vaginal lubrication occurs as a response to being sexually excited, the amount of lubrication varies from person to person, and many women suffer from inability to self-lubricate. Psychologically, we refer to arousal as subjective arousal, which can be defined as “mental engagement during sexual activity” (Meston & Stanton 2019). Both subjective and genital arousal play key roles in sexual behavior, but the two are often regarded as separate entities that act in distinctly different ways.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_genital.svg
Sexual anxiety can be thought of as anxiety related to engaging in sexual behavior, whereas sexual aversions are defined as “persistent or recurrent extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, all or almost all, genital contact with a sexual partner.” (Brotto 2010). The sexual aversion scale assesses sexual fears, sexual guilt, pregnancy, as well as sexual trauma. All of these factors can have an impact on one’s ability to become sexually excited and engage in sexual behavior. There are a range of psychological therapies available that aim to help people suffering from sexual anxiety or aversion work through their fears and concerns in order to have a healthier sex life, which can ultimatelt lead to overall better wellbeing.
5 Rare Sexual Disorders To Learn About
Check out this video for more information on rare sexual disorders!
Assessment Questions:
- Sexual anxiety can disrupt which of the following?
- Respiration
- Heart rate
- One’s ability to become sexually excited
- Puberty
2. What can cause sexual aversion to occur?
- Low olfactory sensitivity
- High olfactory sensitivity
- Sexual trauma
- A Bad diet
3. What is most likely to occur if a woman is sexually excited?
- Increased blood pressure
- Vaginal lubrication
- Increased body temperature
- Increased appetite
- Glossary
- Abstinence
- Acetylcholine
- Afferent-efferent reflex pathway
- Amygdala
- Androgen
- Aromatase enzyme
- Aromatize
- Bulbocavernosus muscle
- Celibacy
- Cerebral
- Cervix
- Clitoris
- Coitus
- Corpus
- Cortisol
- Diabetes mellitus
- Dihydro-T (DHT)
- Dopamine
- Ectopic pregnancy
- Emission
- Endocrinology
- Erectile Function
- Epithelial cells
- Estrogen
- Estradiol
- Expulsion
- External genitalia
- Fallopian tubes
- Fertilized egg
- Follicle
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Follicular phase
- Glans penis
- Glands
- Hymen
- Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD)
- Hypogonadal
- Hypothalamus
- Implantation
- Ischiocavernosus muscle
- Labia majora
- Labia minora
- Luteal phase
- Luteinizing hormone
- Masturbation
- Menopause
- Menstruation
- Metabolic syndrome
- Mullerian ducts
- Myotonia
- Neurotransmitters
- Norepinephrine
- Nonseasonal mammals
- Olfactory receptors
- Olfactory sensitivity
- Oligomenorrhea
- Orgasm
- Ovaries
- Ovulation
- Ovulatory phase
- Ovum
- Parasympathetic nervous system
- Pheromones
- Polymenorrhea
- Pregnancy
- Prefrontal cortex
- Premature ejaculation
- Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
- Premenstrual Symptoms
- Prepuce
- Primary amenorrhea
- Primary dysmenorrhea
- Progesterone
- Psychoneuroendocrinological interactions
- Puberty
- Quality of life
- Quiescent
- Receptors
- Refractory period
- Responses
- Seasonal mammals
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
- Seminal fluid
- Sexual activeness/frequency
- Sexual anxiety
- Sexual arousal
- Sexual attraction
- Sexual aversions
- Sexual behavior
- Sexual desires
- Sexual dysfunction
- Sexual motivation
- Sexual satisfaction
- Sexual stimuli
- Sexual stimulation
- Sexual trauma
- Sex glands
- Sex hormones
- Sexual development
- Sexual desire
- Sexual desire
- Sexual satisfaction
- Sexual avoidance
- Sexual fears
- Sexual activeness/frequency
- Sexual motivator
- Sexual satisfaction
- Sexual trauma
- Spinal ejaculation generator
- Spinal reflex
- Stimuli
- Testosterone
- Thalamus
- Urethra
- Urethral meatus
- Uterus
- Vagina
- Vaginal discharge
- Vaginal lubrication
- Vaginal opening
- Vaginal pulse amplitude
- Vasodilation
- VOC
- Vulva
- Wolffian ducts
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The smell report. The Smell Report - Sexual Attraction. (n.d.). Retrieved March 9, 2023, from http://www.sirc.org/publik/smell_attract.html
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Sry Gene: Medlineplus genetics. MedlinePlus. Retrieved March 8, 2023, from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sry/
Wang, N., Pugliese, G., Carrito, M., Moura, C., Vasconcelos, P., Cera, N., Li, M., Nobre, P., Georgiadis, J. R., Schubert, J. K., & Williams, J. (2022). Breath chemical markers of sexual arousal in humans. Scientific Reports, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10325-6
Wang, W. (2014, September 24). Record share of Americans have never married. Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2014/09/24/record-share-of-americans-have-never-married/
Woodard, T. L., & Diamond, M. P. (2009, July). Physiologic measures of sexual function in women: A Review. Fertility and sterility. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2771367/
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:59.056000
|
Textbook
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115665/overview",
"title": "Sex Behavior",
"author": "Assessment"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83722/overview
|
Food Reflection
Overview
An activity to practice reflective writing on the topic of food.
STEP 1: To practice reflection, try this activity writing about something very important—food. First, spend five minutes making a list of every food or drink you remember from childhood.
It might look like this:
- Plain cheese quesadillas, made by my mom in the miniscule kitchenette of our one-bedroom apartment
- "Chicken"-flavored ramen noodles, at home alone after school
- Cayenne pepper cherry Jell-O at my grandparents' house
- Wheat toast slathered in peanut butter before school
- Lime and orange freeze-pops
- My stepdad's meatloaf—ironically, the only meatloaf I've ever liked
- Cookie Crisp cereal ("It's cookies—for breakfast!")
- Macintosh apples and creamy Skippy peanut butter
- Tostitos Hint of Lime chips and salsa
- Love Apple Stew that only my grandma can make right
- Caramel brownies, by my grandma who can't bake anymore
STEP 2: Then, identify one of those foods that holds a special place in your memory. Spend another ten minutes free-writing about the memories you have surrounding that food. What makes it so special? What relationships are represented by that food? What life circumstances? What does it represent about you? This response doesn’t need to be formatted in any particular way—just write about what memories and feelings come to mind. It should be at least 200 words.
Sample Response
Here's one sample response below. Note that he starts by writing about the first item on the food list, but then goes on to write about his mom and his relationship with his dad. There is no right way to write your about your food item—you too should feel free to let your reflective writing guide you.
My mom became a gourmet chef in my eyes with only the most basic ingredients. We lived bare bones in a one-bedroom apartment in the outskirts of Denver; for whatever selfless reason, she gave four-year-old the bedroom and she took a futon in the living room. She would cook for me after caring for other mothers' four-year-olds all day long: usually plain cheese quesadillas (never any sort of add-ons, meats, or veggies—besides my abundant use of store-brand ketchup) or scrambled eggs (again, with puddles of ketchup). We would eat them together on the futon in the living room, sometimes watching the evening news, and on rare occasions, watching re-runs of my favorite shows.
When I was 6, my dad eventually used ketchup as a rationale for my second stepmom: "Shane, look! Judy likes ketchup on her eggs too!" But it was my mom I remembered cooking for me every night—not Judy, and certainly not my father. So I even surprised myself when I said, "I don't like that anymore. I like barbecue sauce on my eggs." That’s what Judy served me nearly every weekend until I was ten years old. I never touched the barbecue sauce.
STEP 3: Write a paragraph reflecting on this activity (at least 75 words). Was it easy to write about one of the foods on your list? Were you surprised in any way by your own response? What did you enjoy or dislike about this activity? Why? What lessons can you learn about yourself as a writer from participating in this activity?
Rubric
| Criteria | Proficient | Developing | Not Evident | Points |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Childhood foods | Response includes a freewrite list with at least ten childhood foods or drinks | Response includes a partial list of childhood foods and drinks | Incomplete list | __/3 |
| Memory freewrite | Writes at least 200 words about the context or memory associated with a childhood food or drink. The paragraph is easy to read and follow. | Response is too short, hard to follow, or off-topic. | Missing or incomplete freewrite | __/8 |
| Reflection | Includes a reflection paragraph about the writing assignment that examines what was good or bad about the freewrite activity, and why. At least 75 words. | Reflection is too short or does not dive into enough detail about the assignment. | Incomplete or missing reflection | __/4 |
| Total: | __/15 |
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:59.075361
|
07/20/2021
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83722/overview",
"title": "Food Reflection",
"author": "Quincy Rhoads"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100552/overview
|
Unit 8.1-8.3 Vocabulary List 2
American Sign Language Level 2 (Remix w/ TrueWayASL) Material)
Overview
Unit 8.1 People amoing us
This unit focus on idenitfying people from all walk of life.
Unit 8.1 - People among us
I do not take full credit of Written material. It is under TrueWayASL copyright.
American Sign Language (Level 2)
This unit covers topics of Family and Life Cycle (Birth to Death)
Vocabulary and powerpoint is attached.
TWA_Unit_8.2_Lecture_Slides_with_less_text_Note___There_is_no__with_text__version.pptx
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.093376
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02/04/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100552/overview",
"title": "American Sign Language Level 2 (Remix w/ TrueWayASL) Material)",
"author": "Susana Flores"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112216/overview
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Organizational Patterns - Informative Speaking
Overview
Powerpoint lecture of informative speaking organizational patterns. Discusses four patterns (chronological, topical, spatial, and compare and contrast).
Public Speaking
Informative speaking organizational patterns.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.109532
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02/04/2024
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112216/overview",
"title": "Organizational Patterns - Informative Speaking",
"author": "Diana Mendeszuniga"
}
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96547/overview
|
Political Ideologies Dialogue
Overview
CH 3: Political Ideology
All Sections
No unread replies.No replies.
Read CH 3 (Links to an external site.)-- Political Ideology and then answer the following question:
Create a short dialogue (play) between imaginary members of any two of the political ideologies in chapter three. Create a setting, time period, and give the imaginary members of the ideologies names. Then have them discuss what the government should and should not do. Be as specific as you can, and then respond to three other students' posts.
Discussions
CH 3: Political Ideology
Read CH 3 (Links to an external site.)-- Political Ideology and then answer the following question:
Create a short dialogue (play) between imaginary members of any two of the political ideologies in chapter three. Create a setting, time period, and give the imaginary members of the ideologies names. Then have them discuss what the government should and should not do. Be as specific as you can, and then respond to three other students' posts.
Discussions
CH 3: Political Ideology
All Sections
No unread replies.No replies.
Read CH 3 (Links to an external site.)-- Political Ideology and then answer the following question:
Create a short dialogue (play) between imaginary members of any two of the political ideologies in chapter three. Create a setting, time period, and give the imaginary members of the ideologies names. Then have them discuss what the government should and should not do. Be as specific as you can, and then respond to three other students' posts.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.122828
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08/20/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96547/overview",
"title": "Political Ideologies Dialogue",
"author": "Robert Porter"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105053/overview
|
ESL 100 Spring 23 Syllabus-CNguyen
ESL 100: ESL College Composition-Open for Antiracism (OFAR)
Overview
The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward.
Action Plan
Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be antiracist here.
Previously, I required students to purchase a textbook called Rereading America. A new edition of this textbook would cost them anywhere from $60-$90. This was inaccessible for many students. This was a financial barrier that prevented my students from succeeding in my classroom, and OFAR helped me realize that.
This semester, I've removed this financial barrier and have provided students with access to free readings. I provided PDF's and web links to articles. I also printed out physical copies of the readings.
Another change I made was the essay prompts I assigned. Before, my class focused on unpacking and analyzing ideas surrounding race, class, gender, and education. I received negative feedback from my students that my assignments felt "heavy" and "sad and depressing." Instead of empowering them, as I had hoped, I was reminding them of the struggles they have faced and continue to face in their everyday lives. My students are second language learners--and so they are members of a marginalized group that struggle to thrive in a society that was not built for their success.
This semester, I decided to focus on mental health. We began the semester by talking about procrastination, which is something anyone can relate to. People procrastinate largely because they are struggling with regulating negative emotions. The second essay was focused on the importance of having access to natural spaces. A large benefit of having access to natural spaces is improved mental health. The final essay prompt required students to research a self-care strategy, have them practice it, and record their experiences in their essay. During the last few weeks of class, I taught my students different mindfulness practices which I practiced with them. Students responded positively.
Course Description
ESL 100: ESL College Composition
Course Description
This course is for second-language learners and is equivalent to English 100. The emphasis is on in-class essay writing (thesis, body, and concluding paragraph development), applying analytical and critical thinking into research-based papers, as well as using annotated college-level readings as supporting evidence. An additional focus is on second-language grammar, syntactical structure, and academic vocabulary.
Student Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of ESL 100, the student should be able to:
- Articulate clear, logical and adequately supported ideas in an in-class essay that is effectively organized and satisfactorily edited, using correct sentence structure
- Demonstrate comprehension of college-level readings by annotating and using them in essays and research-based papers.
Antiracist Assignment
Describe your antiracist assignment or module.
The following essay prompt asks students to reflect on why it is important for everyone to have access to natural spaces. Leading up to the due date, students were asked to complete lower-stakes assignments and discussions that helped them build and complete their essays. We discussed how marginalized groups and low-income communities have less access to nature, and how that affects their mental, emotional, and physical health. Here is the prompt:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Using cited ideas from at least 3 reputable sources, write a thesis-driven essay that responds to the following question:
Why is it important for humans to have access to natural spaces?
- For this essay, we will all be using "Ecopsychology: How Immersion in Nature Benefits Your Health" by Jim Robbins as our main source and it should be used in at least one of your body paragraphs. You must also use at least two other sources, and one must be from the databases.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
This essay prompt was written by Stefani Okonyan, an English professor at Fullerton College, who has given me permission to share this prompt. You may contact her: sokonyan@fullcoll.edu
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.146789
|
06/10/2023
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105053/overview",
"title": "ESL 100: ESL College Composition-Open for Antiracism (OFAR)",
"author": "Cindy Nguyen"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87782/overview
|
Activity: Peer Review: Cognitive Styles Heuristic Evaluation
Overview
Heuristic evaluation peer activity using GenderMag Cognitive Style Heuristics.
Pre-Requisites
Overview
Now is your chance to get an outside eye on your team's UI designs. More eyes means more chances to get ideas for making your software more usable.
This process represents a heuristic evaluation. Heuristics evaluations are what you did before (with Cognitive Style Heuristics) except with more than one person independently evaluating the same designs.
Instructions
- Share your team's UI designs. You can post screenshots, links, or a short video. (If someone on your team already shared, mention that and don't re-share.)
- Give feedback on at least one other team's UI designs by answering this question for Cognitive Style Heuristics #2 though #9: Does the design reflect the heuristic? Say EITHER how it does OR how is does not.
- Provide at least one suggestion.
- Comment on at least one thing you liked.
- Please try to choose a design that hasn't been reviewed yet so that everyone gets feedback.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:34:59.160893
|
Activity/Lab
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87782/overview",
"title": "Activity: Peer Review: Cognitive Styles Heuristic Evaluation",
"author": "Information Science"
}
|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93113/overview
|
Texas Government
Overview
Texas Government OER textbook. Written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado. Originally written in Fall 2017, reformatted May 2022. This EBook is the first OER Texas Government textbook ever written in the United States.
Contents
CONTENTS
- Texas History and Culture
- Independence for Texas
- The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848
- The Constitutions of Texas
- State Political Culture
- Federalism
- Division of Powers
- The Evolution of Federalism
- The Texas Legislature
- Qualifications and Organization
- How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas
- The Executive Branch
- The Governor
- The Texas Plural Executive
- The Texas Justice System
- Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges
- Court Organization
- Texas Criminal Justice Process
- Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
- Political Participation
- Voting
- Elections
- Public Opinion
- The Media
- Political Parties
- Interest Groups
- Texas Policy
- Texas Budget and Revenue
- Local Governments
1. Texas History and Culture
1. TEXAS HISTORY AND CULTURE
INDEPENDENCE FOR TEXAS
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
|
As the incursions of the earlier filibusters into Texas demonstrated, American expansionists had desired this area of Spain’s empire in America for many years. After the 1819 Adams-Onís treaty established the boundary between Mexico and the United States, more American expansionists began to move into the northern portion of Mexico’s province of Coahuila y Texas. Following Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821, American settlers immigrated to Texas in even larger numbers, intent on taking the land from the new and vulnerable Mexican nation in order to create a new American slave state.
AMERICAN SETTLERS MOVE TO TEXAS
After the 1819 defined the U.S.-Mexico boundary, Spain began actively encouraging
Americans to settle their northern province. Texas was sparsely settled, and the few Mexican farmers and ranchers who lived there were under constant threat of attack by hostile Indian tribes, especially the Comanche, who supplemented their hunting with raids in pursuit of horses and cattle.
To increase the non-Indian population in Texas and provide a buffer zone between its hostile tribes and the rest of Mexico, Spain began to recruit empresarios. An empresario was someone who brought settlers to the region in exchange for generous grants of land. , a once-prosperous entrepreneur reduced to poverty by the Panic of 1819, requested permission to settle three hundred English-speaking American residents in Texas. Spain agreed on the condition that the resettled people convert to Roman Catholicism.
On his deathbed in 1821, Austin asked his son Stephen to carry out his plans, and Mexico, which had won independence from Spain the same year, allowed Stephen to take control of his father’s grant. Like Spain, Mexico also wished to encourage settlement in the state of Coahuila y Texas and passed colonization laws to encourage immigration. Thousands of Americans, primarily from slave states, flocked to Texas and quickly came to outnumber the Tejanos, the Mexican residents of the region. The soil and climate offered good opportunities to expand slavery and the cotton kingdom. Land was plentiful and offered at generous terms. Unlike the U.S. government, Mexico allowed buyers to pay for their land in installments and did not require a minimum purchase. Furthermore, to many whites, it seemed not only their God-given right but also their patriotic duty to populate the lands beyond the Mississippi River, bringing with them American slavery, culture, laws, and political traditions.
THE TEXAS WAR FOR
INDEPENDENCE
By the early 1830s, all the lands east of the Mississippi River had been settled and admitted to the Union as states. The land west of the river, though in this contemporary map united with the settled areas in the body of an eagle symbolizing the territorial ambitions of the United States, remained largely unsettled by white Americans. Texas (just southwest of the bird’s tail feathers) remained outside the U.S. border. Many Americans who migrated to Texas at the invitation of the Mexican government did not completely shed their identity or loyalty to the United States. They brought American traditions and expectations with them (including, for many, the right to own slaves). For instance, the majority of these new settlers were Protestant, and though they were not required to attend the Catholic mass, Mexico’s prohibition on the public practice of other religions upset them and they routinely ignored it. Accustomed to representative democracy, jury trials, and the defendant’s right to appear before a judge, the Anglo-American settlers in Texas also disliked the Mexican legal system, which provided for an initial hearing by an alcalde, an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. The alcalde sent a written record of the proceeding to a judge in Saltillo, the state capital, who decided the outcome. Settlers also resented that at most two Texas representatives were allowed in the state legislature. Their greatest source of discontent, though, was the Mexican government’s 1829 abolition of slavery. Most American settlers were from southern states, and many had brought slaves with them. Mexico tried to accommodate them by maintaining the fiction that the slaves were indentured servants. But American slaveholders in Texas distrusted the Mexican government and wanted Texas to be a new U.S. slave state. The dislike of most for Roman Catholicism (the prevailing religion of Mexico) and a widely held belief in American racial superiority led them generally to regard Mexicans as dishonest, ignorant, and backward. |
Belief in their own superiority inspired some Texans to try to undermine the power of the Mexican government. When empresario Haden Edwards attempted to evict people who had settled his land grant before he gained title to it, the Mexican government nullified its agreement with him. Outraged, Edwards and a small party of men took prisoner the alcalde of Nacogdoches. The Mexican army marched to the town, and Edwards and his troops then declared the formation of the Republic of Fredonia between the Sabine and Rio Grande Rivers. To demonstrate loyalty to their adopted country, a force led by Stephen Austin hastened to Nacogdoches to support the Mexican army. Edwards’s revolt collapsed, and the revolutionaries fled Texas.
The growing presence of American settlers in Texas, their reluctance to abide by Mexican law, and their desire for independence caused the Mexican government to grow wary. In 1830, it. forbade future U.S. immigration and increased its military presence in Texas. Settlers continued to stream illegally across the long border; by 1835, after immigration resumed, there were twenty thousand Anglo-Americans in Texas.
This 1833 map shows the extent of land grants made by Mexico to American settlers in Texas. Nearly all are in the eastern portion of the state, one factor that led to war with Mexico in 1846
Fifty-five delegates from the Anglo-American settlements gathered in 1831 to demand the suspension of customs duties, the resumption of immigration from the United States, better protection from Indian tribes, the granting of promised land titles, and the creation of an independent state of Texas separate from Coahuila. Ordered to disband, the delegates reconvened in early April 1833 to write a constitution for an independent Texas.
Surprisingly, Mexico’s new president, agreed to all demands, except the call for statehood. Coahuila y Texas made provisions for jury trials, increased Texas’s representation in the state legislature, and removed restrictions on commerce.
Texans’ hopes for independence were quashed in 1834, however, when Santa Anna dismissed the Mexican Congress and abolished all state governments, including that of Coahuila y Texas. In January 1835, reneging on earlier promises, he dispatched troops to the town of Anahuac to collect customs duties. Lawyer and soldier William B. Travis and a small force marched on Anahuac in June, and the fort surrendered. On October 2, Anglo-American forces met Mexican troops at the town of Gonzales; the Mexican troops fled and the Americans moved on to take San Antonio. Now more cautious, delegates to the Consultation of 1835 at San Felipe de Austin voted against declaring independence, instead drafting a statement, which became known as the Declaration of Causes, promising continued loyalty if Mexico returned to a constitutional form of government. They selected Henry Smith, leader of the Independence Party, as governor of Texas and placed Sam Houston, a former soldier who had been a congressman and governor of Tennessee, in charge of its small military force.
REMEMBER THE ALAMO!
Mexico had no intention of losing its northern province. Santa Anna and his army of four thousand had besieged San Antonio in February 1836. Hopelessly outnumbered, its two hundred defenders, under Travis, fought fiercely from their refuge in an old mission known as the Alamo. After ten days, however, the mission was taken and all but a few of the defenders were dead, including Travis and James Bowie, the famed frontiersman who was also a land speculator and slave trader. A few male survivors, possibly including the frontier legend and former
Tennessee congressmen were led outside the walls and executed. The few women and children inside the mission were allowed to leave with the only adult male survivor, a slave owned by Travis who was then freed by the Mexican Army. Terrified, they fled.
The Fall of the Alamo, painted by Theodore Gentilz fewer than ten years after this pivotal moment in hundred men the Texas Revolution, depicts the 1836 assault on the Alamo complex.
Although hungry for revenge, the Texas forces under Sam Houston nevertheless withdrew across Texas, gathering recruits as they went. Coming upon Santa Anna’s encampment on the banks of San Jacinto River on April 21, 1836, they waited as the Mexican troops settled for an afternoon nap. Assured by Houston that “Victory is certain!” and told to “Trust in God and fear not!” the seven descended on a sleeping force nearly twice their number with cries of “Remember the Alamo!” Within fifteen minutes the S a i was over. Approximately half the Mexican troops were killed, and the survivors, including Santa Anna, taken prisoner.
Santa Anna grudgingly signed a peace treaty and was sent to Washington, where he met with President Andrew Jackson and, under pressure, agreed to recognize an independent Texas with the Rio Grande River as its southwestern border. By the time the agreement had been signed, however, Santa Anna had been removed from power in Mexico. For that reason, the Mexican Congress refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and continued to insist that the renegade territory still belonged to Mexico.
THE LONE STAR REPUBLIC
In September 1836, military hero Sam Houston was elected president of Texas, and, following the relentless logic of U.S. expansion, Texans voted in favor of annexation to the United States. This had been the dream of many settlers in Texas all along. They wanted to expand the United States west and saw Texas as the next logical step.
Slaveholders there, such as Sam Houston, and (the latter two of whom died at the Alamo), believed too in the destiny of slavery. Mindful of the vicious debates over Missouri that had led to talk of disunion and war, American politicians were reluctant to annex Texas or, indeed, even to recognize it as a sovereign nation. Annexation would almost certainly mean war with Mexico, and the admission of a state with a large slave population, though permissible under the Missouri Compromise, would bring the issue of slavery once again to the fore. Texas had no choice but to organize itself as the independent Lone Star Republic. To protect itself from Mexican attempts to reclaim it, Texas sought and received recognition from France, Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The United States did not officially recognize Texas as an independent nation until March 1837, nearly a year after the final victory over the Mexican army at San Jacinto.
Uncertainty about its future did not discourage Americans committed to expansion, especially slaveholders, from rushing to settle in the, however. Between 1836 and 1846, its population nearly tripled. By 1840, nearly twelve thousand enslaved Africans had been brought to Texas by American slaveholders. Many new settlers had suffered financial losses in the severe financial depression of 1837 and hoped for a new start in the new nation. According to folklore, across the United States, homes and farms were deserted overnight, and curious neighbors found notes reading only “GTT” (“Gone to Texas”). Many Europeans, especially Germans, also immigrated to Texas during this period.
In keeping with the program of ethnic cleansing and white racial domination, as illustrated by the image at the beginning of this chapter, Americans in Texas generally treated both Tejano and Indian residents with utter contempt, eager to displace and dispossess them. Anglo-American leaders failed to return the support their Tejano neighbors had extended during the rebellion and repaid them by seizing their lands. In 1839, the republic’s militia attempted to drive out the Cherokee and Comanche.
The impulse to expand did not lay dormant, and Anglo-American settlers and leaders in the newly formed Texas republic soon cast their gaze on the Mexican province of New Mexico as well. Repeating the tactics of earlier filibusters, a Texas force set out in 1841 intent on taking Santa Fe. Its members encountered an army of New Mexicans and were taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City. On Christmas Day, 1842, Texans avenged a Mexican assault on San Antonio by attacking the Mexican town of Mier. In August, another Texas army was sent to attack Santa Fe, but Mexican troops forced them to retreat. Clearly, hostilities between Texas and Mexico had not ended simply because Texas had declared its independence.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR, 1846–1848
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
|
Tensions between the United States and Mexico rapidly deteriorated in the 1840s as American expansionists eagerly eyed Mexican land to the west, including the lush northern Mexican province of California. Indeed, in 1842, a U.S. naval fleet, incorrectly believing war had broken out, seized Monterey, California, a part of Mexico. Monterey was returned the next day, but the episode only added to the uneasiness with which Mexico viewed its northern neighbor. The forces of expansion, however, could not be contained, and American voters elected in 1844 because he promised to deliver more lands. President Polk fulfilled his promise by gaining Oregon and, most spectacularly, provoking a war with Mexico that ultimately fulfilled the wildest fantasies of expansionists. By 1848, the United States encompassed much of North America, a republic that stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
JAMES K. POLK AND THE TRIUMPH OF EXPANSION
This map of the Oregon territory during the period of joint occupation by the United States and Great Britain shows the area whose ownership was contested by the two powers.
A fervent belief in expansion gripped the United States in the 1840s. In 1845, a New York newspaper editor, John O’Sullivan, introduced the concept of “manifest destiny” to describe the popular idea of the special role of the United States in overspreading the continent—the divine right and duty of white Americans to seize and settle the American West, thus spreading Protestant, democratic values. In this climate of opinion, voters in 1844 elected James K. Polk, a slaveholder from Tennessee, because he vowed to annex Texas as a new slave state and take Oregon.
Annexing Oregon was an important objective for U.S. foreign policy because it appeared to be an area rich in commercial possibilities. Northerners favored U.S. control of Oregon because ports in the Pacific Northwest would be gateways for trade with Asia. Southerners hoped that, in exchange for their support of expansion into the northwest, northerners would not oppose plans for expansion into the southwest.
President Polk—whose campaign slogan in 1844 had been “Fifty-four forty or fight! asserted tje US' right to gain full control of what was known as Oregon Country, from its southern border at 42° latitude (the current boundary with California) to its northern border at 54° 40′ latitude. According to an 1818 agreement, Great Britain and the United States held joint ownership of this territory, but the 1827 Treaty of Joint Occupation opened the land to settlement by both countries. Realizing that the British were not willing to cede all claims to the territory, Polk proposed the land be divided at 49° latitude (the current border between Washington and Canada). The British, however, denied U.S. claims to land north of the Columbia River (Oregon’s current northern border). Indeed, the British foreign secretary refused even to relay Polk’s proposal to London. However, reports of the difficulty Great Britain would face defending Oregon in the event of a U.S. attack, combined with concerns over affairs at home and elsewhere in its empire, quickly changed the minds of the British, and in June 1846, Queen Victoria’s government agreed to a division at the forty-ninth parallel.
In contrast to the diplomatic solution with Great Britain over Oregon, when it came to Mexico, Polk and the American people proved willing to use force to wrest more land for the United States. In keeping with voters’ expectations, President Polk set his sights on the Mexican state of California. After the mistaken capture of Monterey, negotiations about purchasing the port of San Francisco from Mexico broke off until September 1845. Then, following a revolt in California that left it divided in two, Polk attempted to purchase Upper California and New Mexico as well. These efforts went nowhere. The Mexican government, angered by U.S. actions, refused to recognize the independence of Texas.
Finally, after nearly a decade of public clamoring for the annexation of Texas, in December 1845 Polk officially agreed to the annexation of the former Mexican state, making the Lone Star Republic an additional slave state. Incensed that the United States had annexed Texas, however, the Mexican government refused to discuss the matter of selling land to the United States. Indeed, Mexico refused even to acknowledge Polk’s emissary, John Slidell, who had been sent to Mexico City to negotiate. Not to be deterred, Polk encouraged Thomas O. Larkin, the U.S. consul in Monterey, to assist any American settlers and any Californios, the Mexican residents of the state, who wished to proclaim their independence from Mexico. By the end of 1845, having broken diplomatic ties with the United States over Texas and having grown alarmed by American actions in California, the Mexican government warily anticipated the next move. It did not have long to wait.
WAR WITH MEXICO, 1846–1848
In 1845, when Texas joined the United States, Mexico insisted the United States had a right only to the territory northeast of the Nueces River. The United States argued in turn that it should have title to all land between the Nueces and the Rio Grande as well.
Expansionistic fervor propelled the United States to war against Mexico in 1846. The United States had long argued that the d was the border between Mexico and the United States, and at the end of the Texas war for independence Santa Anna had been pressured to agree. Mexico, however, refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and insisted the border lay farther north, at the Nueces River. To set it at the Rio Grande would, in effect, allow the United States to control land it had never occupied. In Mexico’s eyes, therefore, President Polk violated its sovereign territory when he ordered U.S. troops into the disputed lands in 1846. From the Mexican perspective, it appeared the United States had invaded their nation.
In January 1846, the U.S. force that was ordered to the banks of the Rio Grande to build a fort on the “American” side encountered a Mexican cavalry unit on patrol. Shots rang out, and sixteen U.S. soldiers were killed or wounded. Angrily declaring that Mexico “has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil,” President Polk demanded the United States declare war on Mexico. On May 12, Congress obliged.
The small but vocal antislavery faction decried the decision to go to war, arguing that Polk had deliberately provoked hostilities so the United States could annex more slave territory. Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln and other members of Congress issued the “Spot Resolutions” in which they demanded to know the precise spot on U.S. soil where American blood had been spilled. Many Whigs also denounced the war. Democrats, however, supported Polk’s decision, and volunteers for the army came forward in droves from every part of the country except New England, the seat of abolitionist activity. Enthusiasm for the war was aided by the widely held belief that Mexico was a weak, impoverished country and that the Mexican people, perceived as ignorant, lazy, and controlled by a corrupt Roman Catholic clergy, would be easy to defeat.
U.S. military strategy had three main objectives: 1) Take control of northern Mexico, including New Mexico; 2) seize California; and 3) capture Mexico City. General Zachary Taylor and his Army of the Center were assigned to accomplish the first goal, and with superior weapons they soon captured the Mexican city of Monterrey. Taylor quickly became a hero in the eyes of the American people, and Polk appointed him commander of all U.S. forces.
General Stephen Watts Kearny, commander of the Army of the West, accepted the surrender of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and moved on to take control of California, leaving Colonel Sterling Price in command. Despite Kearny’s assurances that New Mexicans need not fear for their lives or their property, and in fact the region’s residents rose in revolt in January 1847 in an effort to drive the Americans away. Although Price managed to put an end to the rebellion, tensions remained high.
Anti-Catholic sentiment played an important role in the Mexican-American War. The American public widely regarded Roman Catholics as cowardly and vice-ridden, like the clergy in this ca. 1846 lithograph who are shown fleeing the Mexican town of Matamoros accompanied by pretty women and baskets
Kearney in California to find it already in American hands through the joint efforts of California settlers, U.S. naval commander John D. Sloat, and John C. Fremont, a former army captain and son-in-law of Missouri senator Thomas Benton. Sloat, at anchor off the coast of Mazatlan, learned that war had begun and quickly set sail for California. He seized the town of Monterey in July 1846, less than a month after a group of American settlers led by William B. Ide had taken control of Sonoma and declared California a republic. A week after the fall of Monterey, the navy took San Francisco with no resistance. Although some Californios staged a short-lived rebellion in September 1846, many others submitted to the U.S. takeover. Thus Kearny had little to do other than take command of California as its governor. Leading the Army of the South was General Winfield Scott. Both Taylor and Scott were potential competitors for the presidency, and believing—correctly—that whoever seized Mexico City would become a hero, Polk assigned Scott the campaign to avoid elevating the more popular Taylor, who was affectionately known as “Old Rough and Ready." Scott captured in March 1847, and moving in a northwesterly direction from there (much as Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés had done in 1519), he slowly closed in on the capital. Every step of the way was a hard-fought victory, however, and Mexican soldiers and civilians both fought bravely to save their land from the American invaders. Mexico City’s defenders, including young military cadets, fought to the end. According to legend, cadet Juan Escutia’s last act was to save the Mexican flag, and he leapt from the city’s walls with it wrapped around his body. On September 14, 1847, Scott entered Mexico City’s central plaza; the city had fallen. While Polk and other expansionists called for “all Mexico,” the Mexican government and the United States negotiated for peace in 1848, resulting in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. |
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, was a triumph for American expansionism under which Mexico ceded nearly half its land to the United States. The Mexican Cession, as the conquest of land west of the Rio Grande was called, included the current states of California,
New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico also recognized the Rio Grande as the border with the United States. Mexican citizens in the ceded territory were promised U.S. citizenship in the future when the territories they were living in became states. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $3.35 million worth of Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens, paid Mexico $15 million for the loss of its land, and promised to guard the residents of the Mexican Cession from Indian raids.
As extensive as the Mexican Cession was, some argued the United States should not be satisfied until it had taken all of Mexico. Many who were opposed to this idea weresoutherners who, while desiring the annexation of more slave territory, did not want to make Mexico’s large mestizo (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) population part of the United States. Others did not want to absorb a large group of Roman Catholics. These expansionists could not accept the idea of new U.S. territory filled with mixed-race, Catholic populations.
In General Scott’s Entrance into Mexico (1851), Carl Nebel depicts General
Winfield Scott on a white horse entering Mexico City’s Plaza de la Constitución as anxious residents of the city watch. One woman peers furtively from behind the curtain of an upstairs window. On the left, a man bends down to pick up a paving stone to throw at the invaders.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
1.1 The Constitutions of Texas
THE CONSTITUTIONS OF TEXAS
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the constitutions of Texas
- Describe the current constitution of Texas
Constitutions of Texas
Texas has been governed by multiple constitutions.
- The Mexican Constitution of 1824
◦ Texas was part of Mexico
◦ Called for an official religion (Catholicism)
- The Constitution of Coahuila and Texas, 1827
◦ First state constitutions under Mexican rule
- The Texas Constitution of 1836
◦ Texas gains their independence, becomes their own country (Republic of Texas)
- The Texas Constitution of 1845
◦ US Annexation of Texas
◦ Texas is pre-approved to split up in to as much as 5 states
- The Texas Constitution of 1861
◦ Texas secedes from the Union and joins the Confederate States of America
- The Texas Constitution of 1866
◦ Adopted as a condition for readmission to the United States of America
- The Texas Constitution of 1869
◦ State constitution rewritten to abide by Reconstruction policies
◦ Created a powerful Texas Governor
- The Texas Constitution of 1876 ◦ current state constitution
Texas Constitution of 1876
Texas Democrats gained control of Congress in 1873 and decided it was time to draft a new constitution for Texas. The Texas Constitutional Convention of 1875 met in Austin with the purpose of replacing the Constitution of 1869- it was believed that the new constitution should restrict the state government and hand the power back to the people. Some examples of how the government was restricted were (Note: https://www.tsl.texas.gov/exhibits/ forever/representation/page5.html):
- Legislative sessions moved from annual to biennial sessions
- Creation of a plural executive
- Mandated a balanced budget
- State Judges would be elected by the people
- The people would vote on the ratification of amendments
The structure of the current constitution of Texas (Constitution of 1876) is a Preamble, 17 Articles, and 491
Amendments (Since 2015) (Note: http://www.constitution.legis.state.tx.us/). The Texas Constitution does not
contain a “ ” like the U.S. Constitution, therefore making it the second longest state constitution in America (2nd only to Alabama’s).
- Article 1: Bill of Rights
◦ Similar civil liberties and civil rights as in the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights
- Article 2: The Powers of the Government
◦ Establishes three branches of government with separation of powers
- Article 3: Legislative Department
◦ Specifics about the Texas Legislator
- Article 4: Executive Department
◦ Specifics about the plural executive
- Article 5: Judicial Department
◦ Specifics about the Texas Judicial system
- Article 6: Suffrage
◦ Forbids the following from voting:
▪ any non US citizen
▪ any non-registered Texas voter
▪ any convicted felon who has not completed their sentence
▪ any person deemed mentally incompetent by the courts
- Article 7: Education
◦ Mandates an “efficient” free public school system
◦ Established the Permanent School Fund
- Article 8: Taxation and Revenue
◦ Places limits on the raising and spending of public funds
- Article 9: Counties
◦ Authorizes the Texas Legislature to create county governments
- Article 10: Railroads
◦ Regulated the railroad system
- Article 11: Municipal Corporations
◦ Specifics regarding local governments, including empowering them to tax, and how to charter cities
- Article 12: Private Corporations
◦ Specifics regarding private businesses, including how they would be regulated
- Article 13: Spanish and Mexican Land Titles
◦ Specifics on what which land with previous claims would become state property
- Article 14: Public Lands and Land Office
◦ Established the Land Office which regulated land titles • Article 15: Impeachment
◦ Specifics on how to remove a public official from office
- Article 16: General Provisions
◦ Miscellaneous regulations i.e. forbid Congress from printing money, forbid U.S. public officials from holding a state office
- Article 17: Mode of Amending the Constitution of this State
◦ 2/3rds proposal from Congress
◦ Registered voters vote on approval, and with a majority vote the amendment is ratified
The entire Texas Constitution can be accessed at http://www.constitution.legis.state.tx.us/
• | Constitutions of Texas. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
1.2 State Political Culture
STATE POLITICAL CULTURE
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Compare Daniel Elazar’s three forms of political culture
- Describe how cultural differences between the states can shape attitudes about the role of government and citizen participation
- Discuss the main criticisms of Daniel Elazar’s theory
Some states, such as Alaska, are endowed with natural resources. They can use their oil or natural gas reserves to their advantage to fund education or reduce taxes. Other states, like Florida, are favored with a climate that attracts tourists and retirees each winter, drawing in revenues to support infrastructure improvements throughout the state. These differences can lead to strategic advantages in the economic fortunes of a state, which can translate into differences in the levels of taxes that must be collected from citizens.
But their economic fortunes are only one component of what makes individual states unique. Theorists have long proposed that states are also unique as a function of their differing political cultures, or their attitudes and beliefs about the functions and expectations of the government. In the book, American Federalism: A View from the States, Daniel first theorized in 1966 that the United States could be divided into three distinct political cultures: moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic. The diffusion of these cultures throughout the United States is attributed to the migratory patterns of immigrants who settled in and spread out across the country from the east to the west coast. These settlers had distinct political and religious values that influenced their beliefs about the proper role of government, the need for citizen involvement in the democratic process, and the role of political parties.
Daniel Elazar posited that the United States can be divided geographically into three types of political cultures—individualistic, moralistic, and traditionalistic—which spread with the migratory patterns of immigrants across the country.
Moralistic Political Culture
In Elazar’s framework, states with a moralistic political culture see the government as a means to better society
and promote the general welfare. They expect political officials to be honest in their dealings with others, put the interests of the people they serve above their own, and commit to improving the area they represent. The political process is seen in a positive light and not as a vehicle tainted by corruption. In fact, citizens in moralistic cultures have little patience for corruption and believe that politicians should be motivated by a desire to benefit the community rather than by a need to profit financially from service.
Moralistic states thus tend to support an expanded role for government. They are more likely to believe government should promote the general welfare by allocating funds to programs that will benefit the poor. In addition, they see it as the duty of public officials to advocate for new programs that will benefit marginal citizens or solve public policy problems, even when public pressure to do so is nonexistent.
The moralistic political culture developed among the Puritans in upper New England. After several generations, these settlers moved westward, and their values diffused across the top of the United States to the upper Great Lakes. In the middle of the 1800s, Scandinavians and Northern Europeans joined this group of settlers and reinforced the Puritans’ values. Together, these groups pushed further west through the northern portion of the Midwest and West and then along the West Coast. (Note: Daniel Elazar. 1972. American Federalism: A View from the States, 2nd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.)
States that identify with this culture value citizen engagement and desire citizen participation in all forms of political affairs. In Elazar’s model, citizens from moralistic states should be more likely to donate their time and/or resources to political campaigns and to vote. This occurs for two main reasons. First, state law is likely to make it easier for residents to register and to vote because mass participation is valued. Second, citizens who hail from moralistic states should be more likely to vote because elections are truly contested. In other words, candidates will be less likely to run unopposed and more likely to face genuine competition from a qualified opponent. According to Elazar, the heightened competition is a function of individuals’ believing that public service is a worthwhile endeavor and an honorable profession.
Individualistic Political Culture
States that align with Elazar’s individualistic political culture see the government as a mechanism for addressing
issues that matter to individual citizens and for pursuing individual goals. People in this culture interact with the government, in the same manner, they would interact with a marketplace. They expect the government to provide goods and services they see as essential, and the public officials and bureaucrats who provide them expect to be compensated for their efforts. The focus is on meeting individual needs and private goals rather than on serving the best interests of everyone in the community. New policies will be enacted if politicians can use them to garner support from voters or other interested stakeholders, or if there is great demand for these services on the part of individuals.
According to Elazar, the individualist political culture originated with settlers from non-Puritan England and Germany. The first settlements were in the mid-Atlantic region of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey and diffused into the middle portion of the United States in a fairly straight line from Ohio to Wyoming.
Given their focus on pursuing individual objectives, states with an individualistic mindset will tend to advance tax breaks as a way of trying to boost a state’s economy or as a mechanism for promoting individual initiative and entrepreneurship. For instance, New Jersey governor Chris Christie made headlines in 2015 when discussing the incentives he used to attract businesses to the state. Christie encouraged a number of businesses to move to Camden, where unemployment has risen to almost 14 percent, by providing them with hundreds of millions of dollars in tax breaks. (Note: Dean DeChiaro, "$830M in Tax Breaks Later, Christie Says His Camden Plan Won’t Work for America," U.S. News and World Report, 19 August 2015. http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/08/ 19/830m-in-tax-breaks-later-christie-says-his-camden-plan-wont-work-for-america.) The governor hopes these corporate incentives will spur job creation for citizens who need employment in an economically depressed area of the state.
Since this theoretical lens assumes that the objective of politics and the government is to advance individual interests, Elazar argues that individuals are motivated to become engaged in politics only if they have a personal interest in this area or wish to be in charge of the provision of government benefits. They will tend to remain involved if they get enjoyment from their participation or rewards in the form of patronage appointments or financial compensation. As a result of these personal motivations, citizens in individualistic states will tend to be more tolerant of corruption among their political leaders and less likely to see politics as a noble profession in which all citizens should engage.
Finally, Elazar argues that in individualistic states, electoral competition does not seek to identify the candidate with the best ideas. Instead it pits against each other political parties that are well organized and compete directly for votes. Voters are loyal to the candidates who hold the same party affiliation they do. As a result, unlike the case in moralistic cultures, voters do not pay much attention to the personalities of the candidates when deciding how to vote and are less tolerant of third-party candidates.
Traditionalistic Political Culture
Given the prominence of slavery in its formation, a traditionalistic political culture, in Elazar’s argument, sees the
government as necessary to maintaining the existing social order, the status quo. Only elites belong in the political enterprise, and as a result, new public policies will be advanced only if they reinforce the beliefs and interests of those in power.
Elazar associates traditionalistic political culture with the southern portion of the United States, where it developed in the upper regions of Virginia and Kentucky before spreading to the Deep South and the Southwest. Like the individualistic culture, the traditionalistic culture believes in the importance of the individual. But instead of profiting from corporate ventures, settlers in traditionalistic states tied their economic fortunes to the necessity of slavery on plantations throughout the South.
When elected officials do not prioritize public policies that benefit them, those on the social and economic fringes of society can be plagued by poverty and pervasive health problems. For example, although the map below shows that poverty is a problem across the entire United States, the South has the highest incidence. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the South also leads the nation in self-reported obesity, closely followed by the Midwest. (Note: "Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity: Data, Trends and Maps," http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/prevalence-maps.html (March 14, 2016).) These statistics present challenges for lawmakers not only in the short term but also in the long term, because they must prioritize fiscal constraints in the face of growing demand for services.
While the greatest percentage of those living below the poverty line in the United States is found in the South, migration and immigration patterns over the past fifty years have resulted in a significant increase in the percentage of the nation’s poor being located in the West.
While moralistic cultures expect and encourage political participation by all citizens, traditionalistic cultures are more likely to see it as a privilege reserved for only those who meet the qualifications. As a result, voter participation will generally be lower in a traditionalistic culture, and there will be more barriers to participation (e.g., a requirement to produce a photo ID at the voting booth). Conservatives argue that these laws reduce or eliminate fraud on the part of voters, while liberals believe they disproportionally disenfranchise the poor and minorities and constitute a modern-day poll tax.
Finally, under a traditionalistic political culture, Elazar argues that party competition will tend to occur between factions within a dominant party. Historically, the Democratic Party dominated the political structure in the South before realignment during the civil rights era. Today, depending on the office being sought, the parties are more likely to compete for voters.
Texas Political Culture and Elazar’s Theory
Elazar’s Theory claims that Texas is a mixture of traditional and individualistic political cultures. As a result, the voter turnout in Texas is lower than most other American states, with the argument that Texans view political participation as an economic perk versus the value of contributing to society.
Critiques of Elazar’s Theory
Several critiques have come to light since Elazar first introduced his theory of state political culture fifty years ago. The original theory rested on the assumption that new cultures could arise with the influx of settlers from different parts of the world; however, since immigration patterns have changed over time, it could be argued that the three cultures no longer match the country’s current reality. Today’s immigrants are less likely to come from European countries and are more likely to originate in Latin American and Asian countries. (Note: Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova. 26 February 2015. "Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States," http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-unitedstates.) In addition, advances in technology and transportation have made it easier for citizens to travel across state lines and to relocate. Therefore, the pattern of diffusion on which the original theory rests may no longer be accurate, because people are moving around in more, and often unpredictable, directions.
It is also true that people migrate for more reasons than simple economics. They may be motivated by social issues such as widespread unemployment, urban decay, or low-quality health care of schools. Such trends may aggravate existing differences, for example the difference between urban and rural lifestyles (e.g., the city of Atlanta vs. other parts of Georgia), which are not accounted for in Elazar’s classification. Finally, unlike economic or demographic characteristics that lend themselves to more precise measurement, culture is a comprehensive concept that can be difficult to quantify. This can limit its explanatory power in political science research.
• | Revision and Adaptation. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution |
• | Texas Political Culture and Elazar's Theory. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution |
2. Federalism, Division of Powers
2. FEDERALISM
DIVISION OF POWERS
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of federalism
- Discuss the constitutional logic of federalism
- Identify the powers and responsibilities of federal, state, and local governments
Modern democracies divide governmental power in two general ways; some, like the United States, use a combination of both structures. The first and more common mechanism shares power among three branches of government—the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The second, federalism, apportions power between two levels of government: national and subnational. In the United States, the term federal government refers to the government at the national level, while the term states means governments at the subnational level.
Federalism Defined and Contrasted
Fedarlism is an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on behalf of the people with the authority granted to it by the national constitution. (Note: See John Kincaid. 1975. "Federalism." In Civitas: A Framework for Civil Education, eds.Charles Quigley and Charles Bahmueller. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 391–392; William S. Riker. 1975. "Federalism." In Handbook of Political Science, eds. Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley, 93–172.)
Although today’s federal systems vary in design, five structural characteristics are common to the United States and other federal systems around the world, including Germany and Mexico.
First, all federal systems establish two levels of government, with both levels being elected by the people and each level assigned different functions. The national government is responsible for handling matters that affect the country as a whole, for example, defending the nation against foreign threats and promoting national economic prosperity. Subnational, or state governments, are responsible for matters that lie within their regions, which include ensuring the well-being of their people by administering education, health care, public safety, and other public services. By definition, a system like this requires that different levels of government cooperate, because the institutions at each level form an interacting network. In the U.S. federal system, all national matters are handled by the federal government, which is led by the president and members of Congress, all of whom are elected by voters across the country. All matters at the subnational level are the responsibility of the fifty states, each headed by an elected governor and legislature. Thus, there is a separation of functions between the federal and state governments, and voters choose the leader at each level. (Note: Garry Willis, ed. 1982. The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. New York: Bantam Books, 237.)
The second characteristic common to all federal systems is a written national constitution that cannot be changed without the substantial consent of subnational governments. In the American federal system, the twenty-seven amendments added to the Constitution since its adoption were the result of an arduous process that required approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and three-fourths of the states. The main advantage of this supermajority requirement is that no changes to the Constitution can occur unless there is broad support within Congress and among states. The potential drawback is that numerous national amendment initiatives—such as the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which aims to guarantee equal rights regardless of sex—have failed because they cannot garner sufficient consent among members of Congress or, in the case of the ERA, the states.
Third, the constitutions of countries with federal systems formally allocate legislative, judicial, and executive authority to the two levels of government in such a way as to ensure each level some degree of autonomy from the other. Under the U.S. Constitution, the president assumes executive power, Congress exercises legislative powers, and the federal courts (e.g., U.S. district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court) assume judicial powers. In each of the fifty states, a governor assumes executive authority, a state legislature makes laws, and state-level courts (e.g., trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and supreme courts) possess judicial authority.
While each level of government is somewhat independent of the others, a great deal of interaction occurs among them. In fact, the ability of the federal and state governments to achieve their objectives often depends on the cooperation of the other level of government. For example, the federal government’s efforts to ensure homeland security are bolstered by the involvement of law enforcement agents working at local and state levels. On the other hand, the ability of states to provide their residents with public education and health care is enhanced by the federal government’s financial assistance.
Another common characteristic of federalism around the world is that national courts commonly resolve disputes between levels and departments of government. In the United States, conflicts between states and the federal government are adjudicated by federal courts, with the U.S. Supreme Court being the final arbiter. The resolution of such disputes can preserve the autonomy of one level of government, as illustrated recently when the Supreme Court ruled that states cannot interfere with the federal government’s actions relating to immigration. (Note: Arizona v. United States, 567 U.S. __ (2012).)
In other instances, a Supreme Court ruling can erode that autonomy, as demonstrated in the 1940s when, in United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., the Court enabled the federal government to regulate commercial activities that occurred within states, a function previously handled exclusively by the states. (Note: United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U.S. 110 (1942).)
Finally, subnational governments are always represented in the upper house of the national legislature, enabling regional interests to influence national lawmaking. (Note: Ronald L. Watts. 1999. Comparing Federal Systems, 2nd ed. Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen’s University, 6–7; Daniel J. Elazar. 1992. Federal Systems of the World: A Handbook of Federal, Confederal and Autonomy Arrangements. Harlow, Essex: Longman Current Affairs.)
In the American federal system, the U.S. Senate functions as a territorial body by representing the fifty states: Each state elects two senators to ensure equal representation regardless of state population differences. Thus, federal laws are shaped in part by state interests, which senators convey to the federal policymaking process.
Division of power can also occur via a unitary structure or confederation. In contrast to federalism, a unitary system makes subnational governments dependent on the national government, where significant authority is concentrated. Before the late 1990s, the United Kingdom’s unitary system was centralized to the extent that the national government held the most important levers of power. Since then, power has been gradually decentralized through a process of devolution, leading to the creation of regional governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as well as the delegation of specific responsibilities to them. Other democratic countries with unitary systems, such as France, Japan, and Sweden, have followed a similar path of decentralization.
Figure 1. There are three general systems of government—unitary systems, federations, and confederations—each of which allocates power differently.
In a confederation, authority is decentralized, and the central government’s ability to act depends on the consent of the subnational governments. Under the Articles of Confederation (the first constitution of the United States), states were sovereign and powerful while the national government was subordinate and weak. Because states were reluctant to give up any of their power, the national government lacked authority in the face of challenges such as servicing the war debt, ending commercial disputes among states, negotiating trade agreements with other countries, and addressing popular uprisings that were sweeping the country. As the brief American experience with confederation clearly shows, the main drawback with this system of government is that it maximizes regional self-rule at the expense of effective national governance.
Federalism and the Constitution
The Constitution contains several provisions that direct the functioning of U.S. federalism. Some delineate the scope of national and state power, while others restrict it. The remaining provisions shape relationships among the states and between the states and the federal government.
The enumerated powers of the national legislature are found in Article I, Section 8. These powers define the jurisdictional boundaries within which the federal government has authority. In seeking not to replay the problems that plagued the young country under the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution’s framers granted Congress specific powers that ensured its authority over national and foreign affairs. To provide for the general welfare of the populace, it can tax, borrow money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and protect property rights, for example. To provide for the common defense of the people, the federal government can raise and support armies and declare war. Furthermore, national integration and unity are fostered with the government’s powers over the coining of money, naturalization, postal services, and other responsibilities.
The last clause of Article I, Section 8, commonly referred to as the elastiic clause or the necessary and proper cause, enables Congress “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out its constitutional responsibilities. While the enumerated powers define the policy areas in which the national government has authority, the elastic clause allows it to create the legal means to fulfill those responsibilities. However, the open-ended construction of this clause has enabled the national government to expand its authority beyond what is specified in the Constitution, a development also motivated by the expansive interpretation of the commerce clause, which empowers the federal government to regulate interstate economic transactions.
The powers of the state governments were never listed in the original Constitution. The consensus among the framers was that states would retain any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government. (Note: Jack Rakove. 2007. James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic. New York: Pearson; Samuel H. Beer. 1998. To Make a Nation: The Rediscovery of American Federalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.)
However, when it came time to ratify the Constitution, a number of states requested that an amendment be added explicitly identifying the reserved powers of the states. What these Anti-Federalists sought was further assurance that the national government’s capacity to act directly on behalf of the people would be restricted, which the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) provided. The 10th Amendment affirms the states’ reserved powers: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Indeed, state constitutions had bills of rights, which the first Congress used as the source for the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Some of the states’ reserved powers are no longer exclusively within state domain, however. For example, since the 1940s, the federal government has also engaged in administering health, safety, income security, education, and welfare to state residents. The boundary between intrastate and interstate commerce has become indefinable
as a result of broad interpretation of the commerce clause. Shared and overlapping powers have become an integral part of contemporary U.S. federalism. These concurrent powers range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems. (Note: Elton E. Richter. 1929. "Exclusive and Concurrent Powers in the Federal Constitution," Notre Dame Law Review 4, No. 8: 513–542. http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4416&context=ndlr)
Article I, Sections 9 and 10, along with several constitutional amendments, lay out the restrictions on federal and state authority. The most important restriction Section 9 places on the national government prevents measures that cause the deprivation of personal liberty. Specifically, the government cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is
legal; pass a bill of attainder a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; or enact an ex post facto law which criminalizes an act retroactively. The Bill of Rights affirms and expands these constitutional restrictions, ensuring that the government cannot encroach on personal freedoms.
Figure 2. Constitutional powers and responsibilities are divided between the U.S. federal and state governments. The two levels of government also share concurrent powers.
The states are also constrained by the Constitution. Article I, Section 10, prohibits the states from entering into treaties with other countries, coining money, and levying taxes on imports and exports. Like the federal government, the states cannot violate personal freedoms by suspending the writ of habeas corpus, passing bills of attainder, or enacting ex post facto laws. Furthermore, the 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, prohibits
the states from denying citizens the rights to which they are entitled by the Constitution, due process of law, or the equal protection of the laws. Lastly, three civil rights amendments—the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty Sixth—prevent both the states and the federal government from abridging citizens’ right to vote based on race, sex, and age. This topic remains controversial because states have not always ensured equal protection.
The supremacy clause in Article VI of the Constitution regulates relationships between the federal and state governments by declaring that the Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land. This means that if a state law clashes with a federal law found to be within the national government’s constitutional authority, the federal law prevails. The intent of the supremacy clause is not to subordinate the states to the federal government; rather, it affirms that one body of laws binds the country. In fact, all national and state government officials are bound by oath to uphold the Constitution regardless of the offices they hold. Yet enforcement is not always that simple. In the case of marijuana use, which the federal government defines to be illegal, twenty-three states and the District of Columbia have nevertheless established medical marijuana laws, others have decriminalized its recreational use, and four states have completely legalized it. The federal government could act in this area if it wanted to. For example, in addition to the legalization issue, there is the question of how to treat the money from marijuana sales, which the national government designates as drug money and regulates under laws regarding its deposit in banks.
The Distribution of Finances
Federal, state, and local governments depend on different sources of revenue to finance their annual expenditures. In 2014, total revenue (or receipts) reached $3.2 trillion for the federal government, $1.7 trillion for the states, and $1.2 trillion for local governments. (Note: Data reported by http://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/ federal_revenue. State and local government figures are estimated.)
Two important developments have fundamentally changed the allocation of revenue since the early 1900s. First, the ratification of the 16th Amendment in 1913 authorized Congress to impose income taxes without apportioning it among the states on the basis of population, a burdensome provision that Article I, Section 9, had imposed on the national government. (Note: Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co., 158 U.S. 601 (1895).)
With this change, the federal government’s ability to raise revenue significantly increased and so did its ability to spend.
The second development regulates federal grants, that is, transfers of federal money to state and local governments. These transfers, which do not have to be repaid, are designed to support the activities of the recipient governments, but also to encourage them to pursue federal policy objectives they might not otherwise adopt. The expansion of the federal government’s spending power has enabled it to transfer more grant money to lower government levels, which has accounted for an increasing share of their total revenue. (Note: See Robert Jay Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments: A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Issues," Congressional Research Service, Report 7-5700, 5 March 2015.)
The sources of revenue for federal, state, and local governments are detailed in Figure 3. Although the data reflect 2013 results, the patterns we see in the figure give us a good idea of how governments have funded their activities in recent years. For the federal government, 47 percent of 2013 revenue came from individual income taxes and 34 percent from payroll taxes, which combine SS and Medicare tax.
Figure 3. As these charts indicate, federal, state, and local governments raise revenue from different sources.
For state governments, 50 percent of revenue came from taxes, while 30 percent consisted of federal grants. Sales tax—which includes taxes on purchased food, clothing, alcohol, amusements, insurance, motor fuels, tobacco products, and public utilities, for example—accounted for about 47 percent of total tax revenue, and individual income taxes represented roughly 35 percent. Revenue from service charges (e.g., tuition revenue from public universities and fees for hospital-related services) accounted for 11 percent.
The tax structure of states varies. Alaska, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming do not have individual income taxes. Figure 4 illustrates yet another difference: Fuel tax as a percentage of total tax revenue is much higher in South Dakota and West Virginia than in Alaska and Hawaii. However, most states have done little to prevent the erosion of the fuel tax’s share of their total tax revenue between 2007 and 2014 (notice that for many states the dark blue dots for 2014 are to the left of the light blue numbers for 2007). Fuel tax revenue is typically used to finance state highway transportation projects, although some states do use it to fund non-transportation projects.
Figure 4. The fuel tax as a percentage of tax revenue varies greatly across states.
The most important sources of revenue for local governments in 2013 were taxes, federal and state grants, and service charges. For local governments the property tax, a levy on residential and commercial real estate, was the most important source of tax revenue, accounting for about 74 percent of the total. Federal and state grants accounted for 37 percent of local government revenue. State grants made up 87 percent of total local grants.
Charges for hospital-related services, sewage and solid-waste management, public city university tuition, and airport services are important sources of general revenue for local governments.
The bulk of the stimulus funds apportioned to state and local governments was used to create and protect existing jobs through public works projects and to fund various public welfare programs such as unemployment insurance. (Note: James Feyrer and Bruce Sacerdote. 2011. "Did the Stimulus Stimulate? Real Time Estimates of the Effects of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" (Working Paper No. 16759), Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w16759.pdf)
How are the revenues generated by our tax dollars, fees we pay to use public services and obtain licenses, and monies from other sources put to use by the different levels of government? A good starting point to gain insight on this question as it relates to the federal government is Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. Recall, for instance, that the Constitution assigns the federal government various powers that allow it to affect the nation as a whole. A look at the federal budget in 2014 shows that the three largest spending categories were Social Security (24 percent of the total budget); Medicare, Medicaid, the Children’s Health Insurance Program, and marketplace subsidies under the Affordable Care Act (24 percent); and defense and international security assistance (18 percent). The rest was divided among categories such as safety net programs (11 percent), including the Earned Income Tax Credit and Child Tax Credit, unemployment insurance, food stamps, and other low-income assistance programs; interest on federal debt (7 percent); benefits for federal retirees and veterans (8 percent); and transportation infrastructure (3 percent). (Note: Data reported by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2015. "Policy Basics: Where Do Our Federal Tax Dollars Go?" March 11. http://www.cbpp.org/research/policybasics-where-do-our-federal-tax-dollars-go)
It is clear from the 2014 federal budget that providing for the general welfare and national defense consumes much of the government’s resources—not just its revenue, but also its administrative capacity and labor power.
Figure 5. Approximately two-thirds of the federal budget is spent in just three categories: Social Security, health care and health insurance programs, and defense.
Figure 6 compares recent spending activities of local and state governments. Educational expenditures constitute a major category for both. However, whereas the states spend comparatively more than local governments on university education, local governments spend even more on elementary and secondary education. That said, nationwide, state funding for public higher education has declined as a percentage of university revenues; this is primarily because states have taken in lower amounts of sales taxes as internet commerce has increased. Local governments allocate more funds to police protection, fire protection, housing and community development, and public utilities such as water, sewage, and electricity. And while state governments allocate comparatively more funds to public welfare programs, such as health care, income support, and highways, both local and state governments spend roughly similar amounts on judicial and legal services and correctional services.
Figure 6. This list includes some of the largest expenditure items for state and local governments.
Federalism is a system of government that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing authority granted to them by the national constitution. Federal systems like the one in the United States are different from unitary systems, which concentrate authority in the national government, and from confederations, which concentrate authority in subnational governments.
The U.S. Constitution allocates powers to the states and federal government, structures the relationship between these two levels of government, and guides state-to-state relationships. Federal, state, and local governments rely on different sources of revenue to enable them to fulfill their public responsibilities.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
2.2 The Evolution of Federalism
THE EVOLUTION OF FEDERALISM
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe how federalism has evolved in the United States
- Compare different conceptions of federalism
The Constitution sketches a federal framework that aims to balance the forces of decentralized and centralized governance in general terms; it does not flesh out standard operating procedures that say precisely how the states and federal governments are to handle all policy contingencies imaginable. Therefore, officials at the state and national levels have had some room to maneuver as they operate within the Constitution’s federal design. This has led to changes in the configuration of federalism over time, changes corresponding to different historical phases that capture distinct balances between state and federal authority.
The Struggle Between National Power and State Power
As George Washington’s secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795, Alexander championed legislative efforts to create a publicly chartered bank. For Hamilton, the establishment of the was fully within Congress’s authority, and he hoped the bank would foster economic development, print and circulate paper money, and provide loans to the government. Although Thomas , Washington’s secretary of state, staunchly opposed Hamilton’s plan on the constitutional grounds that the national government had no authority to create such an instrument, Hamilton managed to convince the reluctant president to sign the legislation. (Note: The Lehrman Institute. "The Founding Trio: Washington, Hamilton and Jefferson." http://lehrmaninstitute.org/ history/FoundingTrio.asp)
When the bank’s charter expired in 1811, Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans prevailed in blocking its renewal. However, the fiscal hardships that plagued the government during the War of 1812, coupled with the fragility of the country’s financial system, convinced Congress and then-president James to create the 2nd Bank pf the US in 1816. Many states rejected the Second Bank, arguing that the national government was infringing upon the states’ constitutional jurisdiction.
A political showdown between Maryland and the national government emerged when James McCulloch, an agent for the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank, refused to pay a tax that Maryland had imposed on all out-of-state chartered banks. The standoff raised two constitutional questions: Did Congress have the authority to charter a national bank? Were states allowed to tax federal property? In McCulloch v. Maryland, Chief Justice John h ll argued that Congress could create a national bank even though the Constitution did not expressly authorize it. (Note: McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).)
Under the necessary and proper clause of Article 1, Section 8, the Supreme Court asserted that Congress could establish “all means which are appropriate” to fulfill “the legitimate ends” of the Constitution. In other words, the bank was an appropriate instrument that enabled the national government to carry out several of its enumerated powers, such as regulating interstate commerce, collecting taxes, and borrowing money.
The period between 1819 and the 1860s demonstrated that the national government sought to establish its role within the newly created federal design, which in turn often provoked the states to resist as they sought to protect their interests. With the exception of the Civil War, the Supreme Court settled the power struggles between the states and national government. From a historical perspective, the national supremacy principle introduced during this period did not so much narrow the states’ scope of constitutional authority as restrict their encroachment on national powers. (Note: Joseph R. Marbach, Troy E. Smith, and Ellis Katz. 2005. Federalism in America: An Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.)
Dual Federalism
The late 1870s ushered in a new phase in the evolution of U.S. federalism. Under , the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction. Like the layers of a cake, the levels of government do not blend with one another but rather are clearly defined. Two factors contributed to the emergence of this conception of federalism. First, several Supreme Court rulings blocked attempts by both state and federal governments to step outside their jurisdictional boundaries. Second, the prevailing economic philosophy at the time loathed government interference in the process of industrial development.
Industrialization changed the socioeconomic landscape of the United States. One of its adverse effects was the concentration of market power. Because there was no national regulatory supervision to ensure fairness in market practices, collusive behavior among powerful firms emerged in several industries. (Note: Marc Allen Eisner. 2014. The American Political Economy: Institutional Evolution of Market and State. New York: Routledge.)
The new federal regulatory regime was dealt a legal blow early in its existence. In 1895, in United States v. E. C. Knight, the Supreme Court ruled that the national government lacked the authority to regulate manufacturing. (Note: United States v. E. C. Knight, 156 U.S. 1 (1895).)
The case came about when the government, using its regulatory power under the Sherman Act, attempted to override American Sugar’s purchase of four sugar refineries, which would give the company a commanding share of the industry. Distinguishing between commerce among states and the production of goods, the court argued that the national government’s regulatory authority applied only to commercial activities. If manufacturing activities fell within the purview of the commerce clause of the Constitution, then “comparatively little of business operations would be left for state control,” the court argued.
In the late 1800s, some states attempted to regulate working conditions. For example, New York State passed the
Cooperative Federalism
The Great Depression of the 1930s brought economic hardships the nation had never witnessed before. Between
1929 and 1933, the national unemployment rate reached 25 percent, industrial output dropped by half, stock market assets lost more than half their value, thousands of banks went out of business, and the gross domestic product shrunk by one-quarter. (Note: Nicholas Crafts and Peter Fearon. 2010. "Lessons from the 1930s Great
Depression," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 26: 286–287; Gene Smiley. "The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Great Depression." http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html)
Given the magnitude of the economic depression, there was pressure on the national government to coordinate a robust national response along with the states.
While the era of cooperative federalism witnessed a broadening of federal powers in concurrent and state policy domains, it is also the era of a deepening coordination between the states and the federal government in Washington. Nowhere is this clearer than with respect to the social welfare and social insurance programs created during the New Deal and Great Society eras, most of which are administered by both state and federal authorities and are jointly funded.
Thus, the era of cooperative federalism left two lasting attributes on federalism in the United States. First, a nationalization of politics emerged as a result of federal legislative activism aimed at addressing national problems such as marketplace inefficiencies, social and political inequality, and poverty. The nationalization process expanded the size of the federal administrative apparatus and increased the flow of federal grants to state and local authorities, which have helped offset the financial costs of maintaining a host of New Deal- and Great Society–era programs. The second lasting attribute is the flexibility that states and local authorities were given in the implementation of federal social welfare programs. One consequence of administrative flexibility, however, is that it has led to cross-state differences in the levels of benefits and coverage. (Note: R. Kent Weaver. 2000. Ending Welfare as We Know It. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.)
New Federalism
During the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon (1969–1974) and Ronald Reagan (1981–1989), attempts were made to reverse the process of nationalization—that is, to restore states’ prominence in policy areas into which the federal government had moved in the past. New federalism is premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves policy outcomes.
However, Reagan’s track record in promoting new federalism was inconsistent. This was partly due to the fact that the president’s devolution agenda met some opposition from Democrats in Congress, moderate Republicans, and interest groups, preventing him from making further advances on that front. For example, his efforts to completely devolve Aid to Families With Dependent Children (a New Deal-era program) and food stamps (a Great Society-era program) to the states were rejected by members of Congress, who feared states would underfund both programs, and by members of the National Governors’ Association, who believed the proposal would be too costly for states. Reagan terminated general revenue sharing in 1986. (Note: Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments," 30–31.)
Several Supreme Court rulings also promoted new federalism by hemming in the scope of the national government’s power, especially under the commerce clause. For example, in United States v. Lopez, the court struck down the u of 1990, which banned gun possession in school zones. (Note:
United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995).)
It argued that the regulation in question did not “substantively affect interstate commerce.” The ruling ended a nearly sixty-year period in which the court had used a broad interpretation of the commerce clause that by the 1960s allowed it to regulate numerous local commercial activities. (Note: See Printz v. United States, 521 U.S.
898 (1997).)
Cooperative Federalism versus New Federalism
Morton Grodzins coined the cake analogy of federalism in the 1950s while conducting research on the evolution of American federalism. Until then most scholars had thought of federalism as a layer cake, but according to Grodzins the 1930s ushered in “marble-cake federalism”: “The American form of government is often, but erroneously, symbolized by a three-layer cake. A far more accurate image is the rainbow or marble cake, characterized by an inseparable mingling of differently colored ingredients, the colors appearing in vertical and diagonal strands and unexpected whirls. As colors are mixed in the marble cake, so functions are mixed in the American federal system.” (Note: Morton Grodzins. 2004. "The Federal System." In American
Government Readings and Cases, ed. P. Woll. New York: Pearson Longman, 74–78.)
Federalism in the United States has gone through several phases of evolution during which the relationship between the federal and state governments has varied. In the era of dual federalism, both levels of government stayed within their own jurisdictional spheres. During the era of cooperative federalism, the federal government became active in policy areas previously handled by the states. The 1970s ushered in an era of new federalism and attempts to decentralize policy management.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
3. The Texas Legislature, Qualifications and Organization
3. THE TEXAS LEGISLATURE
QUALIFICATIONS AND ORGANIZATION
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Structure of Texas Legislature & Congressional Districts
Article 3 of the Texas Constitution describes the legislative department (branch) of Texas. Texas Legislature utilizes a system with the Texas Senate being the upper house, and the Texas House of
Representatives the lower house. There are a total of 181 members of the Texas Legislature: 31 Senators, and
150 members of the House. Texas uses “single-member districts,” meaning each member of the Texas
Legislature represents one congressional district. Every ten years, after the U.S. census, the congressional districts are redrawn to maintain proportional representation (This is also called reapportionment). (Note:
http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/districts/senate.html) (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/districts/house.html)
The redistricting process in Texas is as follows:
- U.S. Census conducted every 10 years and data is delivered to the Texas Legislator no later than April 1st of the year following the census;
- Texas Legislature begins to draw plans and enact a bill for the new state congressional district lines;
- If Legislature cannot enact a new congressional district map during the first regular session after the census has been conducted, then the Legilsative Redistricting Board (LRB) becomes responsible for reapportionment (Note: Texas Constitution, Article 3, Section 28 (1951) created the LRB). The LRB is made up of the: Lieutenant Governor, Speaker of the House, Attorney General, Comptroller, and Commission of the General Land Office. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/process/LRB.html)
Texas Legislature uses biennial sessions which means they meet every two years on odd-numbered years, for 140 days. The Governor has the power to call a special session outside of the “140 days.” Texas Legislature has two presiding officers: The Lieutenant Governor (currently Dan Patrick), who is elected by Texans, presides over the Texas Senate. The Speaker of the House (currently Joe Straus), is elected by members of the Texas House of Representatives, presides over the lower house. (Note: http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/).
Qualifications to become a member of Texas Legislature
The following are the legal requirements in order for someone to meet the qualifications to become a member of the Texas Legislature. Texas legislators receive an annual salary of $7,200, plus a per diem of $190 for every day they are in session (Note: http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/candidates/guide/qualifications.shtml#b):
- Texas Senator
◦ U.S. Citizen
◦ 5 years as a resident of Texas
◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 26 years old
◦ 4 year terms with unlimited term limit
- Texas Representative (House)
◦ U.S. Citizen
◦ 2 years as a resident of Texas
◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 21 years old
◦ 2 year terms with unlimited term limit
• | Qualifications and Organization. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
3.1 How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas
HOW A BILL BECOMES LAW IN TEXAS
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By the end of this section, you will be able to explain how a bill becomes law in Texas |
| How a Bill becomes Law in Texas How a Bill becomes Law in Texas |
1. | Introduction: Only a member of Texas Legislature can introduce a bill to their respective chamber. For example only a Texas Senator can introduce a bill in the Senate. The bill will also be assigned a number according to the order it was introduced (i.e. first bill introduced in the House would be HB-1). The bill must be introduced separately in both chambers and if increasing taxes or raising funds are required from the bill, it must begin in the House. Bills must be introduced the first 60 days of the regular session, after that introduction of the bill requires a four-fifths from either chamber, unless the Governor has declared an emergency and the bill pertains to that emergency. Once the bill is introduced a caption (short description of the bill) is read aloud, this is also considered the first reading, where after the presiding officer assigns the bill to a committee. |
2. | Committee Action: The Committee (Also called “Little Legislators") will hear testimony for or against the bill, and decide to take no action or issue a report on the bill. If no action is ever taken the bill dies; the Committee’s Report will include a record of how everyone voted, the recommendations regarding the bill. |
3. | Floor Action: Once a copy of the Committee’s Report is sent to all members of the Texas Legislature, the bill is read again by caption, then debated by Legislators. The members of that chamber then cast their votes, either through voice or a record voted, on the bill. The bill needs to obtain a majority vote in order for it to pass; once it passes it is sent to the other side of the chamber. |
4. | Conference Committee: A Conference Committee is only necessary if there are two different versions of the same bill. Conference Committees are made up of 5 members from each chamber, and at least 3 out of the 5 members from each chamber must approve the bill in order for it to be considered passing- If this occurs the bill is signed by the presiding officers of each chamber and sent to the Governor. |
5. | Governor's Desk: The Texas Governor has 4 options when a bill reaches his or her desk: a) Sign it in to law; b) Not sign it, and if Congress is in session the bill becomes law within 10 days without his/her signature, or within 20 days if Congress is not in session; c) Veto the bill, which means it is denied, the veto can be overridden by a 2/3rds vote from the Legislature; or d) line-item, which means the Governor eliminates certain parts of the bill without killing the entire document (this type of veto can only be used on state budget bill). |
Note: Proposed occur in joint resolutions, instead of bills, and need a 2/ 3rds vote from both chambers- if approved the joint resolution is sent to the where the people will decide the fate of the proposed amendment. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/docs/ legref/gtli.pdf#page=7) |
• | Texas Capitol. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : https://www.flickr.com/photos/tslac/8619251251/in/photolist-e8DV7cCQGfH-4EPD7T-an1UKq-aJPWjK-e13S9c-a5kCQy-atYGQu-7EJfYc-82beA1-7EN5WL-i3kPXv-67VwVM-ibHLrR-5sGTr9-aJPW3r-bkucK-5sGTq1-4HNWa7-nVYqiX-kQeQ7i-zjuf7N-qVCNnm-58k5dg-btnkhM-kidp7g-a8dQZg-9BPb1ra69Xrg-58mvch-bCj5Ne-oVCmTi-dT52gB-b5AXGX-51oSqh-7oLm68-9BP4qB-6uMPby-8nFLUC-bxLLWH-jvHg9-65PeeB-7SWsjL-7MWnb3-qNGs1V-6CuxRw-dek42u-bCstQr-6Cuxkh-e1cXnv. : Public Domain: No Known |
• | How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution |
4. The Executive Branch, the Governor
4. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH
THE GOVERNOR
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Qualifications and Roles for Texas Governor
The current Governor is Gregg Abbott. The Governor of Texas is elected by Texans every four years with unlimited terms, with the following qualifications:
- Must be at least 30 years old;
- Resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election;
- Must be a U.S. citizen.
The roles and responsibilities of the Texas Governor are:
- Signing or vetoing bills passed by the Legislature.
- Serving as commander-in-chief of the state’s military forces.
- Convening special sessions of the Legislature for specific purposes.
- Delivering a report on the condition of the state to the Legislature at the beginning of each regular session.
- Estimating of the amounts of money required to be raised by taxation.
- Accounting for all public monies received and paid out by him and recommending a budget for the next two years.
- Granting reprieves and commutations of punishment and pardons upon the recommendation of the Board of Pardons and Paroles and revoking conditional pardons.
- Declaring special elections to fill vacancies in certain elected offices.
- Filling judicial vacancies.
- Appointing qualified Texans to state offices that carry out the laws and direct the policies of state government. Some of these offices are filled by appointment only. Others are ordinarily elected by the people, but the governor must occasionally appoint individuals to fill vacancies. The governor also appoints Texans to a wide range of advisory bodies and task forces that assist him with specific issues.
(Note: http://gov.texas.gov/about/duties)
• | The Governor. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
4.1 The Texas Plural Executive
THE TEXAS PLURAL EXECUTIVE
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Texas Plural Executive
Article 4 of the Texas Constitution describes the executive department (branch) of Texas. Texas utilizes a “plural executive” which means the power of the Governor is limited and distributed amongst other government officials. In other words, there is not one government official in Texas that is solely responsible for the Texas Executive Branch. Below are some of the members of the Texas Plural Executive and their roles:
- Lt. Governor- Serves as the presiding officer of the Texas Senate, first in the line of succession for Governor, member of the Legislative Redistricting Board, Chair of the Legislative Budget Board, elected to 4 years terms by the public with no term limits. Dan Patrick is the current Texas Lieutenant Governor. (Note: https://www.ltgov.state.tx.us/)
- Attorney General- Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4 year terms with no term limits. The current Texas Attorney General is Ken Paxton. (Note: https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/)
- The Texas Secretary of State is appointed by the Texas Governor and confirmed by the Texas Senate. The Secretary of State serves as the chief election officer (meaning the office ensures that county governments abide by election rules), officially attests the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. Rolando Pablos is the current Texas Secretary of State. (Note: http://www.sos.state.tx.us/index.html)
- The Commissioner of the General Land Office is elected by the people to one 4 year term. George P. Bush (son of Jeb Bush) runs the Texas General Land Office, which manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution. (Note: http://www.glo.texas.gov/)
- The Comptroller serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. Glenn Hegar currently serves as the Texas Comptroller and is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/)
- Commissioner of Agriculture, Railroad Commission, State Board of Education, Elected/Appointed Boards and Commissions, Appointed Agency Directors.
• | The Texas Plural Executive. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
5. The Texas Justice System- Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges
5. THE TEXAS JUSTICE SYSTEM
JURISDICTION, TYPES OF LAW, AND THE
SELECTION OF JUDGES
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Types of Jurisdictions
Every court system has jurisdiction over certain cases, from enforcing traffic laws to hearing capital murder charges. There are three types of jurisdictions:
- Origianl jurisdiction– the court that gets to hear the case first. For example Municipal courts typically have original jurisdiction over traffic offenses the occur within city limits.
- Appellate jurisdiction– the power for a higher court to review a lower courts decision. For example, the Texas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over the District Courts (See the hierarchy of Texas Court Structure in this Unit).
- Exclusive Jurisdiction– only that court can hear a specific case. For example only the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Court can hear appeals for death penalty sentences.
Types of Law
There are two basic types of law in any legal system- Civil and Criminal. Below is a table differentiating the two:
There are two types of crime: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are considered minor crimes, and felonies are defined as major crimes. (Note: Texas Penal Code http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/?link=PE)
Selection of Judges
There are two basic methods used to select judges: 1. election 2. merit plan. Sometimes the merit plan is referred to as the Missouri Plan, and consists of an individual selected to become a judge based on their qualifications and/or experience. Texas elects their judges (except at some of the municipal levels), and the table below depicts the specifics for each level of court. (Note: http://courts.state.tx.us/)
Selection and Qualification of Texas Judges
• | Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
5.1 Texas Court Organization
COURT ORGANIZATION
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System |
Structure of the Texas Court System
The structure of the Texas court system is set up as a bifurcated system, meaning there are two highest courts of appeals for criminal and civil cases. The table below depicts the structure of the Texas court system with some additional jurisdiction, and court information. Note that Juvenile Courts fall under the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. (Note: http://www.txcourts.gov/media/1436909/court-structure-chart-jan-2017.pdf)
Structure of the Texas Court System
• | Court Organization. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
5.2 Texas Criminal Justice Process
TEXAS CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process |
Texas Criminal Justice Process
The Texas court systems have two conflicting goals: they must protect the people and the accused. Therefore the state of Texas must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters- this is known as due process. The steps in the Texas criminal justice process are: 1. Arrest, 2. Indictment, 3. Plea bargaining, 4. Trial, and 5. Post-trial.
- Arrest. One aspect pertinent to arrest are the Miranda Rights. Miranda Rights derived from the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona (1966). During the Miranda case the question was whether or not procedures must be utilized by law enforcement officials to ensure that an individual’s 5th Amendment Self-incrimination rights are not violated. The United States Supreme Court ruled that a person must be made aware of their rights prior to being questioned. (Note: http://www.uscourts.gov/ educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-miranda-v-arizona) Once an arrest is made, the defendant is arraigned and bond is set. Arraignment is when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. After this the defendant may receive bail, although bail is not guaranteed (Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 11 & 11a-b).
- Indictment. If the charge is a felony then an indictment must occur for the process to continue. A grand jury is in charge of determining whether there is enough evidence to move forward with the charge- 9 out of 12 grand jury members must agree that the process can move forward. If this occurs it is known as a "true bill" (indictment), if not it is known as a “no bill.”
- Plea bargaining. Due to the fact that there are overcrowded dockets, plea bargaining is the mostcommon method for resolving criminal cases in Texas. Plea bargaining is when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial- the concept is that this saves time and money.
- Trial. If the case reaches trial, the defendant may choose to have a trial by jury (guaranteed by the Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 15); or waive that right and choose trial by a presiding judge. Texas utilizes an adversary system, which means the two sides will attempt to convince the jury or judge why they are correct.
- Post Trial. Post trial is the final step where the defendant, if found guilty, will receive a form of rehabilitation or punishment. Some examples of rehabilitation or punishment are prison time, probation, parole, house arrest, and fines.
• | Texas Criminal Justice Process. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
5.3 Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
CIVIL LIBERTIES AND CIVIL RIGHTS
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Define civil liberties and civil rights |
Defining Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
To be more precise in their language, political scientists and legal experts make a distinction between civil liberties and civil rights, even though the Constitution has been interpreted to protect both. We typically envision civil liberties as being limitations on government power, intended to protect freedoms that governments may not legally intrude on. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 6 denies the government the power to prohibit “the freedom of worship” of religion; the states and the national government cannot forbid people to follow a religion of their choice, even if politicians and judges think the religion is misguided, blasphemous, or otherwise inappropriate. You are free to create your own religion and recruit followers to it (subject to the U.S. Supreme Court deeming it a religion), even if both society and government disapprove of its tenets. That said, the way you practice your religion may be regulated if it impinges on the rights of others. Similarly, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 states the government cannot impose “cruel and unusual punishments” on individuals for their criminal acts. Although the definitions of cruel and unusual have expanded over the years, as we will see later in this chapter, the courts have generally and consistently interpreted this provision as making it unconstitutional for government officials to torture suspects. (Note: http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/SOTWDocs/CN/htm/
CN.1.htm)
Civil Rights, on the other hand, are guarantees that government officials will treat people equally and that
decisions will be made on the basis of merit rather than race, gender, or other personal characteristics. Because of the Constitution’s civil rights guarantee, it is unlawful for a school or university run by a state government to treat students differently based on their race, ethnicity, age, sex, or national origin. In the 1960s and 1970s, many states had separate schools where only students of a certain race or gender were able to study. However, the courts decided that these policies violated the civil rights of students who could not be admitted because of those rules. (Note: Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, 391 U.S. 430 (1968); Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S.
737 (1984).)
Civil Rights are, at the most fundamental level, guarantees by the government that it will treat people equally, particularly people belonging to groups that have historically been denied the same rights and opportunities as others. The proclamation that “all men are created equal” appears in the Declaration of Independence, the due process clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 3a requires that the federal government treat people equally. According to Chief Justice Earl Warren in the Supreme Court case of Bolling v. Sharpe (1954), “discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process.” (Note: Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954).)
We can contrast civil rights with civil liberties, which are limitations on government power designed to protect our fundamental freedoms. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 the application of “cruel and unusual punishments” to those convicted of crimes, a limitation on government power. As another example, the guarantee of equal protection means the laws and the Constitution must be applied on an equal basis, limiting the government’s ability to discriminate or treat some people differently, unless the unequal treatment is based on a valid reason, such as age. A law that imprisons Asian Americans twice as long as Latinos for the same offense, or a law that says people with disabilities don’t have the right to contact members of Congress while other people do, would treat some people differently from others for no valid reason and might well be unconstitutional.
According to the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause, “all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike.” (Note: Phyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202 (1982); F. S. Royster Guano v. Virginia, 253 U.S. 412 (1920).)
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6. Political Participation, Voting
6. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
VOTING
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to:
- Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration
- Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods
- Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud
- Discuss the voting requirements in Texas
- Understand the factors that affect voter turnout
- Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision
Before most voters are allowed to cast a ballot, they must register to vote in their state. This process may be as simple as checking a box on a driver’s license application or as difficult as filling out a long form with complicated questions. Registration allows governments to determine which citizens are allowed to vote and, in some cases, from which list of candidates they may select a party nominee. Ironically, while government wants to increase voter turnout, the registration process may prevent various groups of citizens and non-citizens from participating in the electoral process.
Voter Registration Across the United States
Elections are state-by-state contests. They include general elections for president and statewide offices (e.g., governor and U.S. senator), and they are often organized and paid for by the states. Because political cultures vary from state to state, the process of voter registration similarly varies. For example, suppose an 85-year-old retiree with an expired driver’s license wants to register to vote. He or she might be able to register quickly in California or Florida, but a current government ID might be required prior to registration in Texas or Indiana.
The varied registration and voting laws across the United States have long caused controversy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, southern states enacted literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other requirements intended to disenfranchise black voters in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more blacks required to take them than whites. (Note: Stephen Medvic. 2014. Campaigns and Elections: Players and Processes, 2nd ed.
New York: Routledge.)
Poll Taxes required voters to pay a fee to vote. Grandfather clauses exempted individuals from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if they or their fathers or grandfathers had been permitted to vote prior to a certain point in time. While the Supreme Court determined that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional in 1915, states continued to use poll taxes and literacy tests to deter potential voters from registering. (Note: Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915).)
States also ignored instances of violence and intimidation against African Americans wanting to register or vote.
(Note: Medvic, Campaigns and Elections.)
The ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Amendment (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation. (Note: Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. ___ (2013).)
The Voting Rights Act (a) was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson (b, left) on August 6, 1965, in the presence of major figures of the civil rights movement, including Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. (b, center).
The effects of the VRA were visible almost immediately. In Mississippi, only 6.7 percent of blacks were registered to vote in 1965; however, by the fall of 1967, nearly 60 percent were registered. Alabama experienced similar effects, with African American registration increasing from 19.3 percent to 51.6 percent. Voter turnout across these two states similarly increased. Mississippi went from 33.9 percent turnout to 53.2 percent, while Alabama increased from 35.9 percent to 52.7 percent between the 1964 and 1968 presidential elections. (Note: Bernard Grofman, Lisa Handley, and Richard G. Niemi. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 25.)
Following the implementation of the VRA, many states have sought other methods of increasing voter registration. Several states make registering to vote relatively easy for citizens who have government documentation. Oregon has few requirements for registering and registers many of its voters automatically. North Dakota has no registration at all. In 2002, Arizona was the first state to offer online voter registration, which allowed citizens with a driver’s license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct. Citizens without a driver’s license still need to file a paper application. More than eighteen states have moved to online registration or passed laws to begin doing so. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimates, however, that adopting an online voter registration system can initially cost a state between $250,000 and $750,000. (Note: "The Canvass," April 2014, Issue 48, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/states-and-election-reform-the-canvass-april-2014.aspx.)
Other states have decided against online registration due to concerns about voter fraud and security. Legislators
also argue that online registration makes it difficult to ensure that only citizens are registering and that they are registering in the correct precincts. As technology continues to update other areas of state recordkeeping, online registration may become easier and safer. In some areas, citizens have pressured the states and pushed the process along. A bill to move registration online in Florida stalled for over a year in the legislature, based on security concerns. With strong citizen support, however, it was passed and signed in 2015, despite the governor’s lingering concerns. In other states, such as Texas, both the government and citizens are concerned about identity fraud, so traditional paper registration is still preferred.
How Does Someone Register to Vote?
The National Commission on Voting Rights completed a study in September 2015 that found state registration laws can either raise or reduce voter turnout rates, especially among citizens who are young or whose income falls below the poverty line. States with simple voter registration had more registered citizens. (Note: Tova Wang and Maria Peralta. 22 September 2015. "New Report Released by National Commission on Voting Rights: More Work Needed to Improve Registration and Voting in the U.S." http://votingrightstoday.org/ncvr/resources/ electionadmin.)
In all states except North Dakota, a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residency address, and in many cases party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often 30 days. Beyond these requirements, there may be an oath administered or more questions asked, such as felony convictions. If the application is completely online and the citizen has government documents (e.g., driver’s license or state identification card), the system will compare the application to other state records and accept an online signature or affidavit if everything matches up correctly. Citizens who do not have these state documents are often required to complete paper applications. States without online registration often allow a citizen to fill out an application on a website, but the citizen will receive a paper copy in the mail to sign and mail back to the state.
Another aspect of registering to vote is the timeline. States may require registration to take place as much as thirty days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. Maine first implemented in 1973. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver’s license or utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas), require registration forms to be mailed thirty days before an election. Moving means citizens must reregister or update addresses. College students, for example, may have to re-register or update addresses each year as they move. States that use same-day registration had a 4 percent higher voter turnout in the 2012 presidential election than states that did not. (Note: Ibid.)
Moving requires a voter to re-register or update his or her address in the system. Depending on the state, this notification can sometimes be completed through the Department of Motor Vehicles, as in California.
Some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often
referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout. (Note: Royce Crocker, "The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R40609, September 18, 2013, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf.) In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly. (Note: "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789–Present," http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (November 4, 2015).)
It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent. (Note: John B. Holbein, D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2015. "Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout." American Journal of Political Science (March). doi:10.1111/ajps.12177.)
In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout. (Note: Russell Berman, "Should Voter Registration Be Automatic?" Atlantic, 20 March 2015; Maria L. La Ganga, "Under New Oregon Law, All Eligible Voters are Registered Unless They Opt Out," Los Angeles Times, 17 March 2015.)
Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls. (Note: "'Unusable' Voter Rolls," Wall Street Journal, 7 November 2000.)
Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health. (Note: "Voter List Accuracy,"11 February 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-list-accuracy.aspx)
Who Is Allowed to Register?
In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen, resident, and eighteen years old. But states often place additional requirements on the right to vote. The most common requirement is that voters must be mentally competent and not currently serving time in jail. Some states enforce more stringent or unusual requirements on citizens who have committed crimes. Florida and Kentucky permanently bar felons and ex-felons from voting unless they obtain a pardon from the governor, while Mississippi and Nevada allow former felons to apply to have their voting rights restored. (Note: "Felon Voting Rights," 15 July 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/felon-voting-rights.aspx.)
On the other end of the spectrum, Vermont does not limit voting based on incarceration unless the crime was election fraud. (Note: Wilson Ring, "Vermont, Maine Only States to Let Inmates Vote," Associated Press, 22 October 2008.) Maine citizens serving in Maine prisons also may vote in elections.
Beyond those jailed, some citizens have additional expectations placed on them when they register to vote. Wisconsin requires that voters “not wager on an election,” and Vermont citizens must recite the “Voter’s Oath” before they register, swearing to cast votes with a conscience and “without fear or favor of any person.” (Note: "Voter’s Qualifications and Oath," https://votesmart.org/elections/ballot-measure/1583/voters-qualifications-andoath#.VjQOJH6rS00 (November 12, 2015).)
Voter Decision Making
When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts.
One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization.
Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision.
Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote, because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat.
Voters in Michigan can use straight-ticket voting. To fill out their ballot, they select one box at the top to give a single party all the votes on the ballot.
Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70 percent of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54 percent voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court. (Note: "Presidential Electors," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/ general/president.html (July 15, 2015); "Judicial Retention–Supreme Court," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/ elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/retention/supremeCourt.html (July 15, 2015).) Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features. (Note: Lasse Laustsen. 2014. "Decomposing the Relationship Between Candidates’ Facial Appearance and Electoral Success," Political Behavior 36, No. 4: 777–791.)
They may also vote based on gender or race, because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year, because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president. (Note: Alan Silverleib. 15 June 2008. "Analysis: Age an Issue in the 2008 Campaign?" http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/ 06/15/mccain.age/index.html?iref=newssearch.)
Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win. (Note: Laustsen. "Decomposing the Relationship," 777–791.)
Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways.
Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals, when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting.
In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or thirdchoice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat. (Note: R. Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler. 2000. "A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections," British Journal of Political Science 30, No. 1: 57–75.)
In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly. (Note: Nathan Thomburgh, "Could Third-Party Candidates Be Spoilers?" Time, 3 November 2008.)
One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose.
Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member—congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them. (Note: Matthew E. Glassman, "Congressional Franking Privilege: Background and Current Legislation," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22771, December 11, 2007, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22771.pdf.) Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers.
Another incumbent advantage is gerrymandering, the drawing of district lines to guarantee a desired electoral outcome. Every ten years, following the U.S. Census, the number of House of Representatives members allotted to each state is determined based on a state’s population. If a state gains or loses seats in the House, the state must redraw districts to ensure each district has an equal number of citizens. States may also choose to redraw these districts at other times and for other reasons. (Note: League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006).) If the district is drawn to ensure that it includes a majority of Democratic or Republican Party members within its boundaries, for instance, then candidates from those parties will have an advantage.
Gerrymandering helps local legislative candidates and members of the House of Representatives, who win reelection over 90 percent of the time. Senators and presidents do not benefit from gerrymandering because they are not running in a district. Presidents and senators win states, so they benefit only from war chests and name recognition. This is one reason why senators running in 2014, for example, won reelection only 82 percent of the time. (Note: "Reelection Rates of the Years," https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/reelect.php (November 2, 2015).)
Texas Voter Requirements
Texas voter requirements are: (Note: http://www.votetexas.gov/register-to-vote/need-id)
- Must be a U.S. citizen
- Must be a resident of the county
- Must be at least 18 years old (a person may register to vote at 17 years and 10 months)
- Not a convicted felon (Eligible to vote once the person’s sentence is complete)
- Not declared mentally incapacitated by a court of law
- Must present an acceptable form of photo identification
Texas also has (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election).
• | Revision and Adaptation. : CC BY: Attribution |
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• | Texas Voter Requirements. : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6.1 Elections
ELECTIONS
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Primary Election versus Caucus
The most common method of picking a party nominee for state, local, and presidential contests is the primary. Party members use a ballot to indicate which candidate they desire for the party nominee. Despite the ease of voting using a ballot, have a number of rules and variations that can still cause confusion for citizens. In a closed primary, only members of the political party selecting nominees may vote. A registered Green Party member, for example, is not allowed to vote in the Republican or Democratic primary. Parties prefer this method, because it ensures the nominee is picked by voters who legitimately support the party. An open primary allows all voters to vote. In this system, a Green Party member is allowed to pick either a Democratic or Republican ballot when voting.
Despite the common use of the primary system, at least five states (Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Colorado, and Iowa) regularly use caucuses for presidential, state, and local-level nominations. A caucus is a meeting of party members in which nominees are selected informally. Caucuses are less expensive than primaries because they rely on voting methods such as dropping marbles in a jar, placing names in a hat, standing under a sign bearing the candidate’s name, or taking a voice vote. Volunteers record the votes and no poll workers need to be trained or compensated. The party members at the caucus also help select delegates, who represent their choice at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention.The caucus has its proponents and opponents. Many argue that it is more interesting than the primary and brings out more sophisticated voters, who then benefit from the chance to debate the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. The caucus system is also more transparent than ballots. The local party members get to see the election outcome and pick the delegates who will represent them at the national convention. There is less of a possibility for deception or dishonesty. Opponents point out that caucuses take two to three hours and are intimidating to less experienced voters. These factors, they argue, lead to lower voter turnout. And they have a point—voter turnout for a caucus is generally 20 percent lower than for a primary. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data.
(November 3, 2015).)
Regardless of which nominating system the states and parties choose, states must also determine which day they wish to hold their nomination. When the nominations are for state-level office, such as governor, the state legislatures receive little to no input from the national political parties. In presidential election years, however, the national political parties pressure most states to hold their primaries or caucuses in March or later. Only Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina are given express permission by the national parties to hold presidential primaries or caucuses in January or February. Both political parties protect the three states’ status as the first states to host caucuses and primaries, due to tradition and the relative ease of campaigning in these smaller states.
Types of Elections in Texas
Texas uses three types of elections: 1. Primaries, 2. General, and 3. Special.
- Primary Elections in Texas are open-primaries, although if a majority vote is not reached a run off
election is required. Run off elections are closed-primaries. The goal of Texas primary elections is to choose the best candidate to represent their political party.
- General, or regular, elections will determine a winner and a plurality vote is required. The goal of a general election is to win office.
- Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature and are typically used for constitutional amendments or filling vacant offices.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. | |
• | Types of Elections in Texas. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6.2 Public Opinion
PUBLIC OPINION
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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The collection of public opinion through polling and interviews is a part of American political culture. Politicians want to know what the public thinks. Campaign managers want to know how citizens will vote. Media members seek to write stories about what Americans want. Every day, polls take the pulse of the people and report the results. And yet we have to wonder: Why do we care what people think?
What Is Public Opinion?
Public opinion is a collection of popular views about something, perhaps a person, a local or national event, or a new idea. For example, each day, a number of polling companies call Americans at random to ask whether they approve or disapprove of the way the president is guiding the economy. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Gallup Daily: Obama Job Approval." Gallup. June 6, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/113980/Gallup-Daily-Obama-JobApproval.aspx (February 17, 2016); Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports June 6, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/obama_administration/ daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Roper Center. 2015. "Obama Presidential Approval." Roper Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/polls/presidential-approval/ (February 17, 2016).)
When situations arise internationally, polling companies survey whether citizens support U.S. intervention in places like Syria or Ukraine. These individual opinions are collected together to be analyzed and interpreted for politicians and the media. The analysis examines how the public feels or thinks, so politicians can use the information to make decisions about their future legislative votes, campaign messages, or propaganda.
But where do people’s opinions come from? Most citizens base their political opinions on their beliefs (Note: V. O. Key, Jr. 1966. The Responsible Electorate. Harvard University: Belknap Press.) and their attitudes, both of which begin to form in childhood. Beliefs are closely held ideas that support our values and expectations about life and politics. For example, the idea that we are all entitled to equality, liberty, freedom, and privacy is a belief most people in the United States share. We may acquire this belief by growing up in the United States or by having come from a country that did not afford these valued principles to its citizens.
Our attitudes are also affected by our personal beliefs and represent the preferences we form based on our life experiences and values. A person who has suffered racism or bigotry may have a skeptical attitude toward the actions of authority figures, for example.
Over time, our beliefs and our attitudes about people, events, and ideas will become a set of norms, or accepted ideas, about what we may feel should happen in our society or what is right for the government to do in a situation. In this way, attitudes and beliefs form the foundation for opinions.
Political Socialization
At the same time that our beliefs and attitudes are forming during childhood, we are also being socialized; that is, we are learning from many information sources about the society and community in which we live and how we are to behave in it. Political socialization is the process by which we are trained to understand and join a country’s
political world, and, like most forms of socialization, it starts when we are very young. We may first become aware of politics by watching a parent or guardian vote, for instance, or by hearing presidents and candidates speak on television or the Internet, or seeing adults honor the American flag at an event. As socialization continues, we are introduced to basic political information in school. We recite the Pledge of Allegiance and learn about the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the two major political parties, the three branches of government, and the economic system.
Political socialization begins early. Hans Enoksen, former prime minister of Greenland, receives a helping hand at the polls from five-year-old Pipaluk Petersen (a). Intelligence Specialist Second Class Tashawbaba McHerrin (b) hands a U.S. flag to a child visiting the USS Enterprise during Fleet Week in Port Everglades, Florida. (credit a: modification of work by Leiff Josefsen; credit b: modification of work by Matthew Keane, U.S. Navy)
By the time we complete school, we have usually acquired the information necessary to form political views and be contributing members of the political system. A young man may realize he prefers the Democratic Party because it supports his views on social programs and education, whereas a young woman may decide she wants to vote for the Republican Party because its platform echoes her beliefs about economic growth and family values.
Accounting for the process of socialization is central to our understanding of public opinion, because the beliefs we acquire early in life are unlikely to change dramatically as we grow older. (Note: John Zaller. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.)
Our political ideology, made up of the attitudes and beliefs that help shape our opinions on political theory and policy, is rooted in who we are as individuals. Our ideology may change subtly as we grow older and are introduced to new circumstances or new information, but our underlying beliefs and attitudes are unlikely to change very much, unless we experience events that profoundly affect us. For example, family members of 9/11 victims became more Republican and more political following the terrorist attacks. (Note: Eitan Hersh. 2013. "Long-Term Effect of September 11 on the Political Behavior of Victims’ Families and Neighbors." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (52): 20959–63.)
Similarly, young adults who attended political protest rallies in the 1960s and 1970s were more likely to participate in politics in general than their peers who had not protested. (Note: M. Kent Jennings. 2002. "Generation Units and the Student Protest Movement in the United States: An Intra- and Intergenerational Analysis." Political Psychology 23 (2): 303–324.)
If enough beliefs or attitudes are shattered by an event, such as an economic catastrophe or a threat to personal safety, ideology shifts may affect the way we vote. During the 1920s, the Republican Party controlled the House of Representatives and the Senate, sometimes by wide margins. (Note: United States Senate. 2015. "Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present," United States Senate. June 5, 2015. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/ history/one_item_and_teasers/partydiv.htm (February 17, 2016). History, Art & Archives. 2015. "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives: 1789–Present." United States House of Representatives. June 5, 2015. http://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ (February 17, 2016).)
After the stock market collapsed and the nation slid into the Great Depression, many citizens abandoned the Republican Party. In 1932, voters overwhelmingly chose Democratic candidates, for both the presidency and Congress. The Democratic Party gained registered members and the Republican Party lost them. (Note: V. O.
Key Jr. 1955. "A Theory of Critical Elections." Journal of Politics 17 (1): 3–18.)
Citizens’ beliefs had shifted enough to cause the control of Congress to change from one party to the other, and
Democrats continued to hold Congress for several decades. Another sea change occurred in Congress in the 1994 elections when the Republican Party took control of both the House and the Senate for the first time in over forty years.
Today, polling agencies have noticed that citizens’ beliefs have become far more polarized, or widely opposed, over the last decade. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2014. "Political Polarization in the American Public." Pew Research Center. June 12, 2014. http://www.people-press.org/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-americanpublic/ (February 17, 2016).)
To track this polarization, Pew Research conducted a study of Republican and Democratic respondents over a twenty-five-year span. Every few years, Pew would poll respondents, asking them whether they agreed or disagreed with statements. These statements are referred to as “value questions” or “value statements,” because they measure what the respondent values. Examples of statements include “Government regulation of business usually does more harm than good,” “Labor unions are necessary to protect the working person,” and “Society should ensure all have equal opportunity to succeed.” After comparing such answers for twenty-five years, Pew Research found that Republican and Democratic respondents are increasingly answering these questions very differently. This is especially true for questions about the government and politics. In 1987, 58 percent of Democrats and 60 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement that the government controlled too much of our daily lives. In 2012, 47 percent of Democrats and 77 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement. This is an example of polarization, in which members of one party see government from a very different perspective than the members of the other party. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2015. "American Values Survey." Pew
Research Center. http://www.people-press.org/values-questions/ (February 17, 2016).)
Over the years, Democrats and Republicans have moved further apart in their beliefs about the role of government. In 1987, Republican and Democratic answers to forty-eight values questions differed by an average of only 10 percent, but that difference has grown to 18 percent over the last twenty-five years.
Political scientists noted this and other changes in beliefs following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States, including an increase in the level of trust in government (Note: Virginia Chanley. 2002. "Trust in Government in the Aftermath of 9/11: Determinants and Consequences." Political Psychology 23 (3): 469–483.) and a new willingness to limit liberties for groups or citizens who “[did] not fit into the dominant cultural type.” (Note: Deborah Schildkraut. 2002. "The More Things Change... American Identity and Mass and Elite Responses to 9/11." Political Psychology 23 (3): 532.)
According to some scholars, these shifts led partisanship to become more polarized than in previous decades, as more citizens began thinking of themselves as conservative or liberal rather than moderate. (Note: Joseph Bafumi and Robert Shapiro. 2009. "A New Partisan Voter." The Journal of Politics 71 (1): 1–24.)
Some believe 9/11 caused a number of citizens to become more conservative overall, although it is hard to judge whether such a shift will be permanent. (Note: Liz Marlantes, "After 9/11, the Body Politic Tilts to Conservatism," Christian Science Monitor, 16 January 2002.)
Socialization Agents
An agent of political socialization is a source of political information intended to help citizens understand how to act in their political system and how to make decisions on political matters. The information may help a citizen decide how to vote, where to donate money, or how to protest decisions made by the government.
The most prominent agents of socialization are family and school. Other influential agents are social groups, such as religious institutions and friends, and the media. Political socialization is not unique to the United States. Many nations have realized the benefits of socializing their populations. China, for example, stresses nationalism in schools as a way to increase national unity. (Note: Liping Weng. 2010. "Shanghai Children’s Value Socialization and Its Change: A Comparative Analysis of Primary School Textbooks." China Media Research 6 (3): 36–43.)
In the United States, one benefit of socialization is that our political system enjoys diffuse support, which is support characterized by a high level of stability in politics, acceptance of the government as legitimate, and a common goal of preserving the system. (Note: David Easton. 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley.)
These traits keep a country steady, even during times of political or social upheaval. But diffuse support does not happen quickly, nor does it occur without the help of agents of political socialization.
For many children, family is the first introduction to politics. Children may hear adult conversations at home and piece together the political messages their parents support. They often know how their parents or grandparents plan to vote, which in turn can socialize them into political behavior such as political party membership. (Note: Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes. 2008. The American Voter: Unabridged
Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.)
Children who accompany their parents on Election Day in November are exposed to the act of voting and the concept of civic duty, which is the performance of actions that benefit the country or community. Families active in community projects or politics make children aware of community needs and politics.
Introducing children to these activities has an impact on their future behavior. Both early and recent findings suggest that children adopt some of the political beliefs and attitudes of their parents. (Note: Russell Dalton. 1980. "Reassessing Parental Socialization: Indicator Unreliability versus Generational Transfer." American Political Science Review 74 (2): 421–431.)
Children of Democratic parents often become registered Democrats, whereas children in Republican households often become Republicans. Children living in households where parents do not display a consistent political party loyalty are less likely to be strong Democrats or strong Republicans, and instead are often independents. (Note:
Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.)
A parent’s political orientation often affects the political orientation of his or her child.
While family provides an informal political education, schools offer a more formal and increasingly important one. The early introduction is often broad and thematic, covering explorers, presidents, victories, and symbols, but generally the lessons are idealized and do not discuss many of the specific problems or controversies connected with historical figures and moments. George Washington’s contributions as our first president are highlighted, for instance, but teachers are unlikely to mention that he owned slaves. Lessons will also try to personalize government and make leaders relatable to children. A teacher might discuss Abraham Lincoln’s childhood struggle to get an education despite the death of his mother and his family’s poverty. Children learn to respect government, follow laws, and obey the requests of police, firefighters, and other first responders. The Pledge of Allegiance becomes a regular part of the school day, as students learn to show respect to our country’s symbols such as the flag and to abstractions such as liberty and equality.
As students progress to higher grades, lessons will cover more detailed information about the history of the United States, its economic system, and the workings of the government. Complex topics such as the legislative process, checks and balances, and domestic policymaking are covered. Introductory economics classes teach about the various ways to build an economy, explaining how the capitalist system works. Many high schools have implemented civic volunteerism requirements as a way to encourage students to participate in their communities.
Many offer Advanced Placement classes in U.S. government and history, or other honors-level courses, such as International Baccalaureate or dual-credit courses. These courses can introduce detail and realism, raise controversial topics, and encourage students to make comparisons and think critically about the United States in a global and historical context. College students may choose to pursue their academic study of the U.S. political system further, become active in campus advocacy or rights groups, or run for any of a number of elected positions on campus or even in the local community. Each step of the educational system’s socialization process will ready students to make decisions and be participating members of political society.
We are also socialized outside our homes and schools. When citizens attend religious ceremonies, as 70 percent of Americans in a recent survey claimed, (Note: Michael Lipka. 2013. "What Surveys Say about Workshop Attendance—and Why Some Stay Home." Pew Research Center. September 13, 2013.
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/13/what-surveys-say-about-worship-attendance-and-why-somestay-home/ (February 17, 2016).) they are socialized to adopt beliefs that affect their politics. Religion leaders often teach on matters of life, death, punishment, and obligation, which translate into views on political issues such as abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, and military involvement abroad. Political candidates speak at religious centers and institutions in an effort to meet like-minded voters. For example, Senator Ted Cruz (R-TX) announced his 2016 presidential bid at Liberty University, a fundamentalist Christian institution. This university matched Cruz’s conservative and religious ideological leanings and was intended to give him a boost from the faith-based community.
Friends and peers too have a socializing effect on citizens. Communication networks are based on trust and common interests, so when we receive information from friends and neighbors, we often readily accept it because we trust them. (Note: Arthur Lupia and Mathew D. McCubbins. 1998. The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens
Learn What They Need to Know? New York: Cambridge University Press. John Barry Ryan. 2011. "Social
Networks as a Shortcut to Correct Voting." American Journal of Political Science 55 (4): 753–766.)
Information transmitted through social media like Facebook is also likely to have a socializing effect. Friends “like” articles and information, sharing their political beliefs and information with one another.
Media—newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet—also socialize citizens through the information they provide. For a long time, the media served as gatekeepers of our information, creating reality by choosing what to present. If the media did not cover an issue or event, it was as if it did not exist. With the rise of the Internet and social media, however, traditional media have become less powerful agents of this kind of socialization.
Another way the media socializes audiences is through framing, or choosing the way information is presented. Framing can affect the way an event or story is perceived. Candidates described with negative adjectives, for instance, may do poorly on Election Day. Consider the recent demonstrations over the deaths of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland. Both deaths were caused by police actions against unarmed African American men. Brown was shot to death by an officer on August 9, 2014. Gray died from spinal injuries sustained in transport to jail in April 2015. Following each death, family, friends, and sympathizers protested the police actions as excessive and unfair. While some television stations framed the demonstrations as riots and looting, other stations framed them as protests and fights against corruption. The demonstrations contained both riot and protest, but individuals’ perceptions were affected by the framing chosen by their preferred information sources. (Note: Sarah Bowen. 2015. "A Framing Analysis of Media Coverage of the Rodney King Incident and Ferguson, Missouri, Conflicts." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 6 (1):
114–124.)
Images of protestors from the Baltimore “uprising” (a) and from the Baltimore “riots” (b) of April 25, 2015. (credit a: modification of work by Pete Santilli Live Stream/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by “Newzulu”/YouTube)
Finally, media information presented as fact can contain covert or overt political material. Covert content is political information provided under the pretense that it is neutral. A magazine might run a story on climate change by interviewing representatives of only one side of the policy debate and downplaying the opposing view, all without acknowledging the one-sided nature of its coverage. In contrast, when the writer or publication makes clear to the reader or viewer that the information offers only one side of the political debate, the political message is overt content. Political commentators like Rush Limbaugh and publications like Mother Jones openly state their ideological viewpoints. While such overt political content may be offensive or annoying to a reader or viewer, all are offered the choice whether to be exposed to the material.
Socialization and Ideology
The socialization process leaves citizens with attitudes and beliefs that create a personal ideology. Ideologies depend on attitudes and beliefs, and on the way we prioritize each belief over the others. Most citizens hold a great number of beliefs and attitudes about government action. Many think government should provide for the common defense, in the form of a national military. They also argue that government should provide services to its citizens in the form of free education, unemployment benefits, and assistance for the poor.
When asked how to divide the national budget, Americans reveal priorities that divide public opinion. Should we have a smaller military and larger social benefits, or a larger military budget and limited social benefits? This is the guns versus butter debate, which assumes that governments have a finite amount of money and must choose whether to spend a larger part on the military or on social programs. The choice forces citizens into two opposing groups.
Divisions like these appear throughout public opinion. Assume we have four different people named Garcia, Chin, Smith, and Dupree. Garcia may believe that the United States should provide a free education for every citizen all the way through college, whereas Chin may believe education should be free only through high school. Smith might believe children should be covered by health insurance at the government’s expense, whereas Dupree believes all citizens should be covered. In the end, the way we prioritize our beliefs and what we decide is most important to us determines whether we are on the liberal or conservative end of the political spectrum, or somewhere in between.
Ideologies and the Ideological Spectrum
One useful way to look at ideologies is to place them on a spectrum that visually compares them based on what they prioritize. Liberal ideologies are traditionally put on the left and conservative ideologies on the right. (This placement dates from the French Revolution and is why liberals are called left-wing and conservatives are called right-wing.) The ideologies at the ends of the spectrum are the most extreme; those in the middle are moderate. Thus, people who identify with left- and right-wing ideologies identify with beliefs to the left and right ends of the spectrum, while moderates balance the beliefs at the extremes of the spectrum.
In the United States, ideologies at the right side of the spectrum prioritize government control over personal freedoms. They range from fascism to authoritarianism to conservatism. Ideologies on the left side of the spectrum prioritize equality and range from communism to socialism to liberalism. Moderate ideologies fall in the middle and try to balance the two extremes.
People who espouse left-wing ideologies in the United States identify with beliefs on the left side of the spectrum that prioritize equality, whereas those on the right side of the spectrum emphasize control.
Fascism promotes total control of the country by the ruling party or political leader. This form of government will run the economy, the military, society, and culture, and often tries to control the private lives of its citizens. Authoritarian leaders control the politics, military, and government of a country, and often the economy as well.
Conservative governments attempt to hold tight to the traditions of a nation by balancing individual rights with the good of the community. Traditional conservatism supports the authority of the monarchy and the church, believing government provides the rule of law and maintains a society that is safe and organized. Modern conservatism differs from traditional conservatism in assuming elected government will guard individual liberties and provide laws. Modern conservatives also prefer a smaller government that stays out of the economy, allowing the market and business to determine prices, wages, and supply.
Classical liberalism believes in individual liberties and rights. It is based on the idea of free will, that people are born equal with the right to make decisions without government intervention. It views government with suspicion, since history includes many examples of monarchs and leaders who limited citizens’ rights. Today, modern liberalism focuses on equality and supports government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality. Liberals expect government to provide basic social and educational programs to help everyone have a chance to succeed.
Under socialism, the government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality within the country. Socialists believe government should provide everyone with expanded services and public programs, such as health care, subsidized housing and groceries, childhood education, and inexpensive college tuition. Socialism sees the government as a way to ensure all citizens receive both equal opportunities and equal outcomes. Citizens with more wealth are expected to contribute more to the state’s revenue through higher taxes that pay for services provided to all. Socialist countries are also likely to have higher minimum wages than non-socialist countries.
In theory, communism promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials. This means that the government, or states, should own the property, farms, manufacturing, and businesses. By controlling these aspects of the economy, Communist governments can prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society. Extreme inequality of income, in which some citizens earn millions of dollars a year and other citizens merely hundreds, is prevented by instituting wage controls or by abandoning currency altogether. Communism presents a problem, however, because the practice differs from the theory. The theory assumes the move to communism is supported and led by the proletariat, or the workers and citizens of a country. (Note: Frederick Engels. 1847. The Principles of Communism. Trans. Paul Sweezy. https://www.marxists.org/archive/ marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm (February 17, 2016).)
Human rights violations by governments of actual Communist countries make it appear the movement has been driven not by the people, but by leadership.
We can characterize economic variations on these ideologies by adding another dimension to the ideological spectrum above—whether we prefer that government control the state economy or stay out of it. The extremes are a command economy, such as existed in the former Soviet Russia, and a laissez-faire (“leave it alone”) economy, such as in the United States prior to the 1929 market crash, when banks and corporations were largely unregulated. Communism prioritizes control of both politics and economy, while libertarianism is its near-opposite. Libertarians believe in individual rights and limited government intervention in private life and personal economic decisions. Government exists to maintain freedom and life, so its main function is to ensure domestic peace and national defense. Libertarians also believe the national government should maintain a military in case of international threats, but that it should not engage in setting minimum wages or ruling in private matters, like same-sex marriage or the right to abortion. (Note: Libertarian Party. 2014. "Libertarian Party Platform." June. http://www.lp.org/platform (February 17, 2016).)
The point where a person’s ideology falls on the spectrum gives us some insight to his or her opinions. Though people can sometimes be liberal on one issue and conservative on another, a citizen to the left of liberalism, near socialism, would likely be happy with the passage of the Raise the Wage Act of 2015, which would eventually increase the minimum wage from $7.25 to $12 an hour. A citizen falling near conservatism would believe the Patriot Act is reasonable, because it allows the FBI and other government agencies to collect data on citizens’ phone calls and social media communications to monitor potential terrorism. A citizen to the right of the spectrum is more likely to favor cutting social services like unemployment and Medicaid.
Public opinion on a given issue may differ dramatically depending on the political ideology or party of those polled.
Taking a Poll
Most public opinion polls aim to be accurate, but this is not an easy task. is a science. From design to implementation, polls are complex and require careful planning and care. Mitt Romney’s campaign polls are only a recent example of problems stemming from polling methods. Our history is littered with examples of polling companies producing results that incorrectly predicted public opinion due to poor survey design or bad polling methods.
In 1936, Literary Digest continued its tradition of polling citizens to determine who would win the presidential election. The magazine sent opinion cards to people who had a subscription, a phone, or a car registration. Only some of the recipients sent back their cards. The result? Alf Landon was predicted to win 55.4 percent of the popular vote; in the end, he received only 38 percent. (Note: Arthur Evans, "Predict Landon Electoral Vote to be 315 to 350," Chicago Tribune, 18 October 1936.)
Franklin D. Roosevelt won another term, but the story demonstrates the need to be scientific in conducting polls.
A few years later, Thomas Dewey lost the 1948 presidential election to Harry Truman, despite polls showing Dewey far ahead and Truman destined to lose. More recently, John Zogby, of Zogby Analytics, went public with his prediction that John Kerry would win the presidency against incumbent president George W. Bush in 2004, only to be proven wrong on election night. These are just a few cases, but each offers a different lesson. In 1948, pollsters did not poll up to the day of the election, relying on old numbers that did not include a late shift in voter opinion. Zogby’s polls did not represent likely voters and incorrectly predicted who would vote and for whom. These examples reinforce the need to use scientific methods when conducting polls, and to be cautious when reporting the results.
Polling process errors can lead to incorrect predictions. On November 3, the day after the 1948 presidential election, a jubilant Harry S. Truman triumphantly displays the inaccurate headline of the Chicago Daily Tribune announcing Thomas Dewey’s supposed victory (credit: David Erickson/Flickr).
Most polling companies employ statisticians and methodologists trained in conducting polls and analyzing data. A number of criteria must be met if a poll is to be completed scientifically. First, the methodologists identify the desired population, or group, of respondents they want to interview. For example, if the goal is to project who will win the presidency, citizens from across the United States should be interviewed. If we wish to understand how voters in Colorado will vote on a proposition, the population of respondents should only be Colorado residents. When surveying on elections or policy matters, many polling houses will interview only respondents who have a history of voting in previous elections, because these voters are more likely to go to the polls on Election Day. Politicians are more likely to be influenced by the opinions of proven voters than of everyday citizens. Once the desired population has been identified, the researchers will begin to build a sample that is both random and representative.
A sample consists of a limited number of people from the overall population, selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen. In the early years of polling, telephone numbers of potential respondents were arbitrarily selected from various areas to avoid regional bias. While landline phones allow polls to try to ensure randomness, the increasing use of cell phones makes this process difficult. Cell phones, and their numbers, are portable and move with the owner. To prevent errors, polls that include known cellular numbers may screen for zip codes and other geographic indicators to prevent regional bias. A representative sample consists of a group whose demographic distribution is similar to that of the overall population. For example, nearly 51 percent of the U.S. population is female. (Note: United States Census Bureau. 2012. "Age and Sex Composition in the United States: 2012." United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/population/age/data/2012comp.html (February 17, 2016).)
To match this demographic distribution of women, any poll intended to measure what most Americans think about an issue should survey a sample containing slightly more women than men.
Pollsters try to interview a set number of citizens to create a reasonable sample of the population. This will vary based on the size of the population being interviewed and the level of accuracy the pollster wishes
to reach. If the poll is trying to reveal the opinion of a state or group, such as the opinion of Wisconsin voters about changes to the education system, the sample size may vary from five hundred to one thousand respondents and produce results with relatively low error. For a poll to predict what Americans think nationally, such as about the White House’s policy on greenhouse gases, the sample size should be larger.
The sample size varies with each organization and institution due to the way the data are processed. Gallup often interviews only five hundred respondents, while Rasmussen Reports and Pew Research often interview one thousand to fifteen hundred respondents. (Note: Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports. September 27, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/ obama_administration/daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) Academic organizations, like the American National Election Studies, have interviews with over twenty-five-hundred respondents. (Note: American National Election Studies Data Center. 2016. http://electionstudies.org/studypages/download/datacenter_all_NoData.php (February 17, 2016).)
A larger sample makes a poll more accurate, because it will have relatively fewer unusual responses and be more representative of the actual population. Pollsters do not interview more respondents than necessary, however. Increasing the number of respondents will increase the accuracy of the poll, but once the poll has enough respondents to be representative, increases in accuracy become minor and are not cost-effective. (Note: Michael W. Link and Robert W. Oldendick. 1997. "Good" Polls / "Bad" Polls—How Can You Tell? Ten Tips for Consumers of Survey Research." South Carolina Policy Forum. http://www.ipspr.sc.edu/publication/Link.htm (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/ methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).)
When the sample represents the actual population, the poll’s accuracy will be reflected in a lower margin of error. The margin of error is a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population of citizens. The lower the margin of error, the more predictive the poll. Large margins of error are problematic. For example, if a poll that claims Hillary Clinton is likely to win 30 percent of the vote in the 2016 New York Democratic primary has a margin of error of +/-6, it tells us that Clinton may receive as little as 24 percent of the vote (30 – 6) or as much as 36 percent (30 + 6). A lower of margin of error is clearly desirable because it gives us the most precise picture of what people actually think or will do.
With many polls out there, how do you know whether a poll is a good poll and accurately predicts what a group believes? First, look for the numbers. Polling companies include the margin of error, polling dates, number of respondents, and population sampled to show their scientific reliability. Was the poll recently taken? Is the question clear and unbiased? Was the number of respondents high enough to predict the population? Is the margin of error small? It is worth looking for this valuable information when you interpret poll results. While most polling agencies strive to create quality polls, other organizations want fast results and may prioritize immediate numbers over random and representative samples. For example, instant polling is often used by news networks to quickly assess how well candidates are performing in a debate.
Technology and Polling
The days of randomly walking neighborhoods and phone book cold-calling to interview random citizens are gone. Scientific polling has made interviewing more deliberate. Historically, many polls were conducted in person, yet this was expensive and yielded problematic results.
In some situations and countries, face-to-face interviewing still exists. Exit polls, focus groups, and some public opinion polls occur in which the interviewer and respondents communicate in person. Exit polls are conducted in person, with an interviewer standing near a polling location and requesting information as voters leave the polls. Focus groups often select random respondents from local shopping places or pre-select respondents from Internet or phone surveys. The respondents show up to observe or discuss topics and are then surveyed.
On November 6, 2012, the Connect2Mason.com team conducts exit surveys at the polls on the George Mason University campus. (credit: Mason Votes/Flickr).
When organizations like Gallup or Roper decide to conduct face-to-face public opinion polls, however, it is a timeconsuming and expensive process. The organization must randomly select households or polling locations within neighborhoods, making sure there is a representative household or location in each neighborhood. (Note: "Roper Center. 2015. "Polling Fundamentals – Sampling." Roper. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/support/pollingfundamentals-sampling/ (February 17, 2016).)
Then it must survey a representative number of neighborhoods from within a city. At a polling location, interviewers may have directions on how to randomly select voters of varied demographics. If the interviewer is looking to interview a person in a home, multiple attempts are made to reach a respondent if he or she does not answer. Gallup conducts face-to-face interviews in areas where less than 80 percent of the households in an area have phones, because it gives a more representative sample. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "How Does the Gallup World Poll Work?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/178667/gallup-world-poll-work.aspx (February 17, 2016).)
News networks use face-to-face techniques to conduct exit polls on Election Day.
Most polling now occurs over the phone or through the Internet. Some companies, like Harris Interactive, maintain directories that include registered voters, consumers, or previously interviewed respondents. If pollsters need to interview a particular population, such as political party members or retirees of a specific pension fund, the company may purchase or access a list of phone numbers for that group. Other organizations, like Gallup, use random-digit-dialing (RDD), in which a computer randomly generates phone numbers with desired area codes.
Using RDD allows the pollsters to include respondents who may have unlisted and cellular numbers. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Does Gallup Call Cellphones?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/110383/does-gallup-call-cellphones.aspx (February 17, 2016).)
Questions about ZIP code or demographics may be asked early in the poll to allow the pollsters to determine which interviews to continue and which to end early.
The interviewing process is also partly computerized. Many polls are now administered through computerassisted telephone interviewing (CATI) or through robo-polls. A CATI system calls random telephone numbers until it reaches a live person and then connects the potential respondent with a trained interviewer. As the respondent provides answers, the interviewer enters them directly into the computer program. These polls may have some errors if the interviewer enters an incorrect answer. The polls may also have reliability issues if the interviewer goes off the script or answers respondents’ questions.
Robo-polls are entirely computerized. A computer dials random or pre-programmed numbers and a prerecorded electronic voice administers the survey. The respondent listens to the question and possible answers and then presses numbers on the phone to enter responses. Proponents argue that respondents are more honest without an interviewer. However, these polls can suffer from error if the respondent does not use the correct keypad number to answer a question or misunderstands the question. Robo-polls may also have lower response rates, because there is no live person to persuade the respondent to answer. There is also no way to prevent children from answering the survey. Lastly, the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (1991) made automated calls to cell phones illegal, which leaves a large population of potential respondents inaccessible to robo-polls. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "The Case for Robo-Pollsters: Automated Interviewers Have Their Drawbacks, But Fewer Than Their Critics Suggest," National Journal, 14 September 2009.)
The latest challenges in telephone polling come from the shift in phone usage. A growing number of citizens, especially younger citizens, use only cell phones, and their phone numbers are no longer based on geographic areas. The millennial generation (currently aged 18–33) is also more likely to text than to answer an unknown call, so it is harder to interview this demographic group. Polling companies now must reach out to potential respondents using email and social media to ensure they have a representative group of respondents.
Yet, the technology required to move to the Internet and handheld devices presents further problems. Web surveys must be designed to run on a varied number of browsers and handheld devices. Online polls cannot detect whether a person with multiple email accounts or social media profiles answers the same poll multiple times, nor can they tell when a respondent misrepresents demographics in the poll or on a social media profile used in a poll. These factors also make it more difficult to calculate response rates or achieve a representative sample. Yet, many companies are working with these difficulties, because it is necessary to reach younger demographics in order to provide accurate data. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "Is Polling As We Know It Doomed?" National Journal, 10 August 2009.)
Problems in Polling
For a number of reasons, polls may not produce accurate results. Two important factors a polling company faces are timing and human nature. Unless you conduct an exit poll during an election and interviewers stand at the polling places on Election Day to ask voters how they voted, there is always the possibility the poll results will be wrong. The simplest reason is that if there is time between the poll and Election Day, a citizen might change his or her mind, lie, or choose not to vote at all. Timing is very important during elections, because surprise events can shift enough opinions to change an election result. Of course, there are many other reasons why polls, even those not time-bound by elections or events, may be inaccurate.
Polls begin with a list of carefully written questions. The questions need to be free of framing, meaning they should not be worded to lead respondents to a particular answer. For example, take two questions about presidential approval. Question 1 might ask, “Given the high unemployment rate, do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Question 2 might ask, “Do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Both questions want to know how respondents perceive the president’s success, but the first question sets up a frame for the respondent to believe the economy is doing poorly before answering. This is likely to make the respondent’s answer more negative. Similarly, the way we refer to an issue or concept can affect the way listeners perceive it. The phrase “estate tax” did not rally voters to protest the inheritance tax, but the phrase “death tax” sparked debate about whether taxing estates imposed a double tax on income. (Note: Frank Luntz. 2007. Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear. New York: Hyperion.)
Many polling companies try to avoid leading questions, which lead respondents to select a predetermined answer, because they want to know what people really think. Some polls, however, have a different goal. Their questions are written to guarantee a specific outcome, perhaps to help a candidate get press coverage or gain momentum. These are called push polls. In the 2016 presidential primary race, MoveOn tried to encourage Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) to enter the race for the Democratic nomination. Its poll used leading questions for what it termed an “informed ballot,” and, to show that Warren would do better than Hillary Clinton, it included ten positive statements about Warren before asking whether the respondent would vote for Clinton or Warren. (Note: Aaron Blake, "This terrible polls shows Elizabeth Warren beating Hillary Clinton," Washington Post, 11 February 2015.)
The poll results were blasted by some in the media for being fake.
Senator Elizabeth Warren (a) poses with Massachusetts representatives Joseph P. Kennedy III (left) and Barney Frank (right) at the 2012 Boston Pride Parade. Senator Hillary Clinton (b) during her 2008 presidential campaign in Concord, New Hampshire (credit a: modification of work by “ElizabethForMA”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by Marc Nozell)
Sometimes lack of knowledge affects the results of a poll. Respondents may not know that much about the polling topic but are unwilling to say, “I don’t know.” For this reason, surveys may contain a quiz with questions that determine whether the respondent knows enough about the situation to answer survey questions accurately. A poll to discover whether citizens support changes to the Affordable Care Act or Medicaid might first ask who these programs serve and how they are funded. Polls about territory seizure by the Islamic State (or ISIS) or Russia’s aid to rebels in Ukraine may include a set of questions to determine whether the respondent reads or hears any international news. Respondents who cannot answer correctly may be excluded from the poll, or their answers may be separated from the others.
People may also feel social pressure to answer questions in accordance with the norms of their area or peers. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19."
FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).)
If they are embarrassed to admit how they would vote, they may lie to the interviewer. In the 1982 governor’s race in California, Tom Bradley was far ahead in the polls, yet on Election Day he lost. This result was nicknamed the Bradley effect, on the theory that voters who answered the poll were afraid to admit they would not vote for a black man because it would appear politically incorrect and racist.
In 2010, Proposition 19, which would have legalized and taxed marijuana in California, met with a new version of the Bradley effect. Nate Silver, a political blogger, noticed that polls on the marijuana proposition were inconsistent, sometimes showing the proposition would pass and other times showing it would fail. Silver compared the polls and the way they were administered, because some polling companies used an interviewer and some used robo-calling. He then proposed that voters speaking with a live interviewer gave the socially acceptable answer that they would vote against Proposition 19, while voters interviewed by a computer felt free to be honest. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19." FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).)
While this theory has not been proven, it is consistent with other findings that interviewer demographics can affect respondents’ answers. African Americans, for example, may give different responses to interviewers who are white than to interviewers who are black. (Note: D. Davis. 1997. "The Direction of Race of Interviewer Effects among African-Americans: Donning the Black Mask." American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 309–322.)
In 2010, polls about California’s Proposition 19 were inconsistent, depending on how they were administered, with voters who spoke with a live interviewer declaring they would vote against Proposition 19 and voters who were interviewed via a computer declaring support for the legislation. The measure was defeated on Election Day.
Push Polls
One of the newer byproducts of polling is the creation of push polls, which consist of political campaign information presented as polls. A respondent is called and asked a series of questions about his or her position or candidate selections. If the respondent’s answers are for the wrong candidate, the next questions will give negative information about the candidate in an effort to change the voter’s mind.
In 2014, a fracking ban was placed on the ballot in a town in Texas. Fracking, which includes injecting pressurized water into drilled wells, helps energy companies collect additional gas from the earth. It is controversial, with opponents arguing it causes water pollution, sound pollution, and earthquakes. During the campaign, a number of local voters received a call that polled them on how they planned to vote on the proposed fracking ban. (Note: Kate Sheppard, "Top Texas Regulator: Could Russia be Behind City’s Proposed Fracking Ban?" Huffington Post, 16 July 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/16/fracking-ban-denton-russia_n_5592661.html (February 18, 2016).)
If the respondent was unsure about or planned to vote for the ban, the questions shifted to provide negative information about the organizations proposing the ban. One question asked, “If you knew the following, would it change your vote . . . two Texas railroad commissioners, the state agency that oversees oil and gas in Texas, have raised concerns about Russia’s involvement in the anti-fracking efforts in the U.S.?” The question played upon voter fears about Russia and international instability in order to convince them to vote against the fracking ban.
These techniques are not limited to issue votes; candidates have used them to attack their opponents. The hope is that voters will think the poll is legitimate and believe the negative information provided by a “neutral” source.
Public Opinion and Elections
Elections are the events on which opinion polls have the greatest measured effect. Public opinion polls do more than show how we feel on issues or project who might win an election. The media use public opinion polls to decide which candidates are ahead of the others and therefore of interest to voters and worthy of interview. From the moment President Obama was inaugurated for his second term, speculation began about who would run in the 2016 presidential election. Within a year, potential candidates were being ranked and compared by a number of newspapers. (Note: Paul Hitlin. 2013. "The 2016 Presidential Media Primary Is Off to a Fast Start." Pew Research Center. October 3, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/10/03/the-2016-presidentialmedia-primary-is-off-to-a-fast-start/ (February 18, 2016).)
The speculation included favorability polls on Hillary Clinton, which measured how positively voters felt about her as a candidate. The media deemed these polls important because they showed Clinton as the frontrunner for the Democrats in the next election. (Note: Pew Research Center, 2015. "Hillary Clinton’s Favorability Ratings over Her Career." Pew Research Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/themes/pewresearch/ static/hillary-clintons-favorability-ratings-over-her-career/ (February 18, 2016).)
During presidential primary season, we see examples of the bandwagon effect, in which the media pays more attention to candidates who poll well during the fall and the first few primaries. Bill Clinton was nicknamed the “Comeback Kid” in 1992, after he placed second in the New Hampshire primary despite accusations of adultery with Gennifer Flowers. The media’s attention on Clinton gave him the momentum to make it through the rest of the primary season, ultimately winning the Democratic nomination and the presidency.
Polling is also at the heart of horserace coverage, in which, just like an announcer at the racetrack, the media calls out every candidate’s move throughout the presidential campaign. Horserace coverage can be neutral, positive, or negative, depending upon what polls or facts are covered. During the 2012 presidential election, the Pew Research Center found that both Mitt Romney and President Obama received more negative than positive horserace coverage, with Romney’s growing more negative as he fell in the polls. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Winning the Media Campaign." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/ 11/02/winning-media-campaign-2012/ (February 18, 2016).)
Horserace coverage is often criticized for its lack of depth; the stories skip over the candidates’ issue positions, voting histories, and other facts that would help voters make an informed decision. Yet, horserace coverage is popular because the public is always interested in who will win, and it often makes up a third or more of news stories about the election. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Fewer Horserace Stories-and Fewer Positive Obama Stories-Than in 2008." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/11/01/ press-release-6/ (February 18, 2016).)
Exit polls, taken the day of the election, are the last election polls conducted by the media. Announced results of these surveys can deter voters from going to the polls if they believe the election has already been decided.
In 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump became the center of the media’s horserace coverage. As the field winnowed from over twenty candidates down to three, the media incessantly compared everyone else in the field to Trump. (credit: Max Goldberg)
Public opinion polls also affect how much money candidates receive in campaign donations. Donors assume public opinion polls are accurate enough to determine who the top two to three primary candidates will be, and they give money to those who do well. Candidates who poll at the bottom will have a hard time collecting donations, increasing the odds that they will continue to do poorly. This was apparent in the run-up to the 2016 presidential election. Bernie Sanders, Hillary Clinton, and Martin O’Malley each campaigned in the hope of becoming the Democratic presidential nominee. In June 2015, 75 percent of Democrats likely to vote in their state primaries said they would vote for Clinton, while 15 percent of those polled said they would vote for Sanders. Only 2 percent said they would vote for O’Malley. (Note: Patrick O’Connor. 2015. "WSJ/NBC Poll Finds Hillary Clinton in a Strong Position." Wall Street Journal. June 23, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/new-poll-finds-hillaryclinton-tops-gop-presidential-rivals-1435012049.)
During this same period, Clinton raised $47 million in campaign donations, Sanders raised $15 million, and O’Malley raised $2 million. (Note: Federal Elections Commission. 2015. "Presidential Receipts." http://www.fec.gov/press/summaries/2016/tables/presidential/presreceipts_2015_q2.pdf (February 18, 2016).)
By September 2015, 23 percent of likely Democratic voters said they would vote for Sanders, (Note: Susan Page and Paulina Firozi, "Poll: Hillary Clinton Still Leads Sanders and Biden But By Less," USA Today, 1 October 2015.) and his summer fundraising total increased accordingly. (Note: Dan Merica, and Jeff Zeleny. 2015. "Bernie Sanders Nearly Outraises Clinton, Each Post More Than $20 Million." CNN. October 1, 2015. http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/30/politics/bernie-sanders-hillary-clinton-fundraising/index.html?eref=rss_politics (February 18, 2016).)
Presidents running for reelection also must perform well in public opinion polls, and being in office may not provide an automatic advantage. Americans often think about both the future and the past when they decide which candidate to support. (Note: Robert S. Erikson, Michael B. MacKuen, and James A. Stimson. 2000. "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval." Electoral Studies 19: 295–312.)
They have three years of past information about the sitting president, so they can better predict what will happen if the incumbent is reelected. That makes it difficult for the president to mislead the electorate. Voters also want a future that is prosperous. Not only should the economy look good, but citizens want to know they will do well in that economy. (Note: Erikson et al, "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval.)
For this reason, daily public approval polls sometimes act as both a referendum of the president and a predictor of success.
Public Opinion and Government
The relationship between public opinion polls and government action is murkier than that between polls and elections. Like the news media and campaign staffers, members of the three branches of government are aware of public opinion. But do politicians use public opinion polls to guide their decisions and actions?
The short answer is “sometimes.” The public is not perfectly informed about politics, so politicians realize public opinion may not always be the right choice. Yet many political studies, from the American Voter in the 1920s to the American Voter Revisited in the 2000s, have found that voters behave rationally despite having limited information. Individual citizens do not take the time to become fully informed about all aspects of politics, yet their collective behavior and the opinions they hold as a group make sense. They appear to be informed just enough, using preferences like their political ideology and party membership, to make decisions and hold politicians accountable during an election year.
Overall, the collective public opinion of a country changes over time, even if party membership or ideology does not change dramatically. As James Stimson’s prominent study found, the public’s mood, or collective opinion, can become more or less liberal from decade to decade. While the initial study on public mood revealed that the economy has a profound effect on American opinion, (Note: Michael B. MacKuen, Robert S. Erikson, and James A. Stimson. 1989. "Macropartisanship." American Political Science Review 83 (4): 1125–1142.)
further studies have gone beyond to determine whether public opinion, and its relative liberalness, in turn affect politicians and institutions. This idea does not argue that opinion never affects policy directly, rather that collective opinion also affects the politician’s decisions on policy. (Note: James A. Stimson, Michael B. Mackuen, and Robert S. Erikson. 1995. "Dynamic Representation." American Political Science Review 89 (3): 543–565.)
Individually, of course, politicians cannot predict what will happen in the future or who will oppose them in the next few elections. They can look to see where the public is in agreement as a body. If public mood changes, the politicians may change positions to match the public mood. The more savvy politicians look carefully to recognize when shifts occur. When the public is more or less liberal, the politicians may make slight adjustments to their behavior to match. Politicians who frequently seek to win office, like House members, will pay attention to the long- and short-term changes in opinion. By doing this, they will be less likely to lose on Election Day. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Presidents and justices, on the other hand, present a more complex picture.
Public opinion of the president is different from public opinion of Congress. Congress is an institution of 535 members, and opinion polls look at both the institution and its individual members. The president is both a person and the head of an institution. The media pays close attention to any president’s actions, and the public is generally well informed and aware of the office and its current occupant. Perhaps this is why public opinion has an inconsistent effect on presidents’ decisions. As early as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration in the 1930s, presidents have regularly polled the public, and since Richard Nixon’s term (1969–1974), they have admitted to using polling as part of the decision-making process.
Presidential responsiveness to public opinion has been measured in a number of ways, each of which tells us something about the effect of opinion. One study examined whether presidents responded to public opinion by determining how often they wrote amicus briefs and asked the court to affirm or reverse cases. It found that the public’s liberal (or non-liberal) mood had an effect, causing presidents to pursue and file briefs in different cases. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.")
But another author found that the public’s level of liberalness is ignored when conservative presidents, such as
Ronald Reagan or George W. Bush, are elected and try to lead. In one example, our five most recent presidents’ moods varied from liberal to non-liberal, while public sentiment stayed consistently liberal. (Note: Dan Wood. 2009. Myth of Presidential Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 96-97.)
While the public supported liberal approaches to policy, presidential action varied from liberal to non-liberal.
Overall, it appears that presidents try to move public opinion towards personal positions rather than moving themselves towards the public’s opinion. (Note: Wood, Myth of Presidential Representation.)
If presidents have enough public support, they use their level of public approval indirectly as a way to get their agenda passed. Immediately following Inauguration Day, for example, the president enjoys the highest level of public support for implementing campaign promises. This is especially true if the president has a mandate, which is more than half the popular vote. Barack Obama’s recent 2008 victory was a mandate with 52.9 percent of the popular vote and 67.8 percent of the Electoral College vote. (Note: U.S. Election Atlas. 2015. "United States Presidential Election Results." U.S. Election Atlas. June 22, 2015. http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/ (February 18, 2016).)
When presidents have high levels of public approval, they are likely to act quickly and try to accomplish personal policy goals. They can use their position and power to focus media attention on an issue. This is sometimes referred to as the bully pulpit approach. The term “bully pulpit” was coined by President Theodore Roosevelt, who believed the presidency commanded the attention of the media and could be used to appeal directly to the people. Roosevelt used his position to convince voters to pressure Congress to pass laws.
Increasing partisanship has made it more difficult for presidents to use their power to get their own preferred issues through Congress, however, especially when the president’s party is in the minority in Congress. (Note:
Richard Fleisher, and Jon R. Bond. 1996. "The President in a More Partisan Legislative Arena." Political Research Quarterly 49 no. 4 (1996): 729–748.)
For this reason, modern presidents may find more success in using their popularity to increase media and social media attention on an issue. Even if the president is not the reason for congressional action, he or she can cause the attention that leads to change. (Note: George C. Edwards III, and B. Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the Media." American Political Science Review 93 (2): 327–344.)
Presidents may also use their popularity to ask the people to act. In October 2015, following a shooting at
Umpqua Community College in Oregon, President Obama gave a short speech from the West Wing of the White House. After offering his condolences and prayers to the community, he remarked that prayers and condolences were no longer enough, and he called on citizens to push Congress for a change in gun control laws. President Obama had proposed gun control reform following the 2012 shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary in Connecticut, but it did not pass Congress. This time, the president asked citizens to use gun control as a voting issue and push for reform via the ballot box.
In the wake of a shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon in October 2015, President Obama called for a change in gun control laws (credit: The White House).
In some instances, presidents may appear to directly consider public opinion before acting or making decisions. In 2013, President Obama announced that he was considering a military strike on Syria in reaction to the Syrian government’s illegal use of sarin gas on its own citizens. Despite agreeing that this chemical attack on the Damascan suburbs was a war crime, the public was against U.S. involvement. Forty-eight percent of respondents said they opposed airstrikes, and only 29 percent were in favor. Democrats were especially opposed to military intervention. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2013. "Public Opinion Runs Against Syrian Airstrikes." Pew Research Center. September 4, 2013. http://www.people-press.org/2013/09/03/public-opinion-runs-against-syrian-airstrikes/ (February 18, 2016).)
President Obama changed his mind and ultimately allowed Russian president Vladimir Putin to negotiate Syria’s surrender of its chemical weapons.
However, further examples show that presidents do not consistently listen to public opinion. After taking office in 2009, President Obama did not order the closing of Guantanamo Bay prison, even though his proposal to do so had garnered support during the 2008 election. President Bush, despite growing public disapproval for the war in Iraq, did not end military support in Iraq after 2006. And President Bill Clinton, whose White House pollsters were infamous for polling on everything, sometimes ignored the public if circumstances warranted. (Note: Paul Bedard.
2013. "Poll-Crazed Clinton Even Polled on His Dog’s Name." Washington Examiner. April 30, 2013. http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/poll-crazed-bill-clinton-even-polled-on-his-dogs-name/article/2528486.)
In 1995, despite public opposition, Clinton guaranteed loans for the Mexican government to help the country out of financial insolvency. He followed this decision with many speeches to help the American public understand the importance of stabilizing Mexico’s economy. Individual examples like these make it difficult to persuasively identify the direct effects of public opinion on the presidency.
While presidents have at most only two terms to serve and work, members of Congress can serve as long as the public returns them to office. We might think that for this reason public opinion is important to representatives and senators, and that their behavior, such as their votes on domestic programs or funding, will change to match the expectation of the public. In a more liberal time, the public may expect to see more social programs. In a nonliberal time, the public mood may favor austerity, or decreased government spending on programs. Failure to recognize shifts in public opinion may lead to a politician’s losing the next election. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.")
House of Representatives members, with a two-year term, have a more difficult time recovering from decisions that anger local voters. And because most representatives continually fundraise, unpopular decisions can hurt their campaign donations. For these reasons, it seems representatives should be susceptible to polling pressure. Yet one study, by James Stimson, found that the public mood does not directly affect elections, and shifts in public opinion do not predict whether a House member will win or lose. These elections are affected by the president on the ticket, presidential popularity (or lack thereof) during a midterm election, and the perks of incumbency, such as name recognition and media coverage. In fact, a later study confirmed that the incumbency effect is highly predictive of a win, and public opinion is not. (Note: Suzanna De Boef, and James A. Stimson. 1995. "The Dynamic Structure of Congressional Elections." Journal of Politics 57 (3): 630–648.)
In spite of this, we still see policy shifts in Congress, often matching the policy preferences of the public. When the shifts happen within the House, they are measured by the way members vote. The study’s authors hypothesize that House members alter their votes to match the public mood, perhaps in an effort to strengthen their electoral chances. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.")
The Senate is quite different from the House. Senators do not enjoy the same benefits of incumbency, and they win reelection at lower rates than House members. Yet, they do have one advantage over their colleagues in the House: Senators hold six-year terms, which gives them time to engage in fence-mending to repair the damage from unpopular decisions. In the Senate, Stimson’s study confirmed that opinion affects a senator’s chances at reelection, even though it did not affect House members. Specifically, the study shows that when public opinion shifts, fewer senators win reelection. Thus, when the public as a whole becomes more or less liberal, new senators are elected. Rather than the senators shifting their policy preferences and voting differently, it is the new senators who change the policy direction of the Senate. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.")
Beyond voter polls, congressional representatives are also very interested in polls that reveal the wishes of interest groups and businesses. If AARP, one of the largest and most active groups of voters in the United States, is unhappy with a bill, members of the relevant congressional committees will take that response into consideration. If the pharmaceutical or oil industry is unhappy with a new patent or tax policy, its members’ opinions will have some effect on representatives’ decisions, since these industries contribute heavily to election campaigns.
There is some disagreement about whether the Supreme Court follows public opinion or shapes it. The lifetime tenure the justices enjoy was designed to remove everyday politics from their decisions, protect them from swings in political partisanship, and allow them to choose whether and when to listen to public opinion. More often than not, the public is unaware of the Supreme Court’s decisions and opinions. When the justices accept controversial cases, the media tune in and ask questions, raising public awareness and affecting opinion. But do the justices pay attention to the polls when they make decisions?
Studies that look at the connection between the Supreme Court and public opinion are contradictory. Early on, it was believed that justices were like other citizens: individuals with attitudes and beliefs who would be affected by political shifts. (Note: Benjamin Cardozo. 1921. The Nature of the Judicial Process. New Haven: Yale University Press.)
Later studies argued that Supreme Court justices rule in ways that maintain support for the institution. Instead of looking at the short term and making decisions day to day, justices are strategic in their planning and make decisions for the long term. (Note: Jack Knight, and Lee Epstein. 1998. The Choices Justices Make. Washington DC: CQ Press.)
Other studies have revealed a more complex relationship between public opinion and judicial decisions, largely due to the difficulty of measuring where the effect can be seen. Some studies look at the number of reversals taken by the Supreme Court, which are decisions with which the Court overturns the decision of a lower court. In one study, the authors found that public opinion slightly affects cases accepted by the justices. (Note: Kevin T.
Mcguire, Georg Vanberg, Charles E Smith, and Gregory A. Caldeira. 2009. "Measuring Policy Content on the
U.S. Supreme Court." Journal of Politics 71 (4): 1305–1321.)
In a study looking at how often the justices voted liberally on a decision, a stronger effect of public opinion was revealed. (Note: Kevin T. McGuire, and James A. Stimson. 2004. "The Least Dangerous Branch Revisited: New Evidence on Supreme Court Responsiveness to Public Preferences." Journal of Politics 66 (4): 1018–1035.)
Whether the case or court is currently in the news may also matter. A study found that if the majority of Americans agree on a policy or issue before the court, the court’s decision is likely to agree with public opinion. (Note: Thomas Marshall. 1989. Public Opinion and the Supreme Court. Boston: Unwin Hyman.)
A second study determined that public opinion is more likely to affect ignored cases than heavily reported ones.
(Note: Christopher J. Casillas, Peter K. Enns, and Patrick C. Wohlfarth. 2011. "How Public Opinion Constrains the
U.S. Supreme Court." American Journal of Political Science 55 (1): 74–88.)
In these situations, the court was also more likely to rule with the majority opinion than against it. For example, in Town of Greece v. Galloway (2014), a majority of the justices decided that ceremonial prayer before a town meeting was not a violation of the Establishment Clause. (Note: Town of Greece v. Galloway 572 U.S. ___ (2014).)
The fact that 78 percent of U.S. adults recently said religion is fairly to very important to their lives
Gallup. 2015. (Note: "Religion." Gallup. June 18, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1690/Religion.aspx (February
18, 2016).) and 61 percent supported prayer in school (Note: Rebecca Riffkin. 2015. "In U.S., Support for Daily Prayer in Schools Dips Slightly." Gallup. September 25, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/177401/support-dailyprayer-schools-dips-slightly.aspx.) may explain why public support for the Supreme Court did not fall after this decision. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Supreme Court." Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/4732/supreme-court.aspx (February 18, 2016).)
Overall, however, it is clear that public opinion has a less powerful effect on the courts than on the other branches and on politicians. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.")
Perhaps this is due to the lack of elections or justices’ lifetime tenure, or perhaps we have not determined the best way to measure the effects of public opinion on the Court.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6.3 The Media
THE MEDIA
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Ours is an exploding media system. What started as print journalism was subsequently supplemented by radio coverage, then network television, followed by cable television. Now, with the addition of the Internet, blogs and social media—a set of applications or web platforms that allow users to immediately communicate with one another—give citizens a wide variety of sources for instant news of all kinds. The Internet also allows citizens to initiate public discussion by uploading images and video for viewing, such as videos documenting interactions between citizens and the police, for example. Provided we are connected digitally, we have a bewildering amount of choices for finding information about the world. In fact, some might say that compared to the tranquil days of the 1970s, when we might read the morning newspaper over breakfast and take in the network news at night, there are now too many choices in today’s increasingly complex world of information. This reality may make the news media all the more important to structuring and shaping narratives about U.S. politics. Or the proliferation of competing information sources like blogs and social media may actually weaken the power of the news media relative to the days when news media monopolized our attention.
Media Basics
The term media defines a number of different communication formats from television media, which share information through broadcast airwaves, to print media, which rely on printed documents. The collection of all forms of media that communicate information to the general public is called mass media, including television, print, radio, and Internet. One of the primary reasons citizens turn to the media is for news. We expect the media to cover important political and social events and information in a concise and neutral manner.
To accomplish its work, the media employs a number of people in varied positions. Journalists and reporters are responsible for uncovering news stories by keeping an eye on areas of public interest, like politics, business, and sports. Once a journalist has a lead or a possible idea for a story, he or she researches background information and interviews people to create a complete and balanced account. Editors work in the background of the newsroom, assigning stories, approving articles or packages, and editing content for accuracy and clarity. Publishers are people or companies that own and produce print or digital media. They oversee both the content and finances of the publication, ensuring the organization turns a profit and creates a high-quality product to distribute to consumers. Producers oversee the production and finances of visual media, like television, radio, and film.
The work of the news media differs from public relations, which is communication carried out to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates for office. Public relations is not a neutral information form.
While journalists write stories to inform the public, a public relations spokesperson is paid to help an individual or organization get positive press. Public relations materials normally appear as press releases or paid advertisements in newspapers and other media outlets. Some less reputable publications, however, publish paid articles under the news banner, blurring the line between journalism and public relations.
Media Types
Each form of media has its own complexities and is used by different demographics. (currently aged 18–33) are more likely to get news and information from social media, such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook, while (currently aged 50–68) are most likely to get their news from television, either national broadcasts or local news.
Age greatly influences the choice of news sources. Baby boomers are more likely to get news and information from television, while members of generation X and millennials are more likely to use social media.
Television alone offers viewers a variety of formats. Programming may be scripted, like dramas or comedies. It may be unscripted, like game shows or reality programs, or informative, such as news programming. Although most programs are created by a television production company, national networks—like CBS or NBC—purchase the rights to programs they distribute to local stations across the United States. Most local stations are affiliated with a national network corporation, and they broadcast national network programming to their local viewers.
Before the existence of cable and fiber optics, networks needed to own local affiliates to have access to the local station’s transmission towers. Towers have a limited radius, so each network needed an affiliate in each major city to reach viewers. While cable technology has lessened networks’ dependence on aerial signals, some viewers still use antennas and receivers to view programming broadcast from local towers.
Affiliates, by agreement with the networks, give priority to network news and other programming chosen by the affiliate’s national media corporation. Local affiliate stations are told when to air programs or commercials, and they diverge only to inform the public about a local or national emergency. For example, ABC affiliates broadcast the popular television show Once Upon a Time at a specific time on a specific day. Should a fire threaten homes and businesses in a local area, the affiliate might preempt it to update citizens on the fire’s dangers and return to regularly scheduled programming after the danger has ended.
Most affiliate stations will show local news before and after network programming to inform local viewers of events and issues. Network news has a national focus on politics, international events, the economy, and more. Local news, on the other hand, is likely to focus on matters close to home, such as regional business, crime, sports, and weather. (Note: Jeremy Lipschultz and Michael Hilt. 2003. "Race and Local Television News Crime Coverage," Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education 3, No. 4: 1–10.)
The NBC Nightly News, for example, covers presidential campaigns and the White House or skirmishes between North Korea and South Korea, while the NBC affiliate in Los Angeles (KNBC-TV) and the NBC affiliate in Dallas (KXAS-TV) report on the governor’s activities or weekend festivals in the region.
Cable programming offers national networks a second method to directly reach local viewers. As the name implies, cable stations transmit programming directly to a local cable company hub, which then sends the signals to homes through coaxial or fiber optic cables. Because cable does not broadcast programming through the airwaves, cable networks can operate across the nation directly without local affiliates. Instead they purchase broadcasting rights for the cable stations they believe their viewers want. For this reason, cable networks often specialize in different types of programming.
The Cable News Network (CNN) was the first news station to take advantage of this specialized format, creating a
24-hour news station with live coverage and interview programs. Other news stations quickly followed, such as
MSNBC and FOX News. A viewer might tune in to Nickelodeon and catch family programs and movies or watch ESPN to catch up with the latest baseball or basketball scores. The Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, known better as C-SPAN, now has three channels covering Congress, the president, the courts, and matters of public interest.
Cable and satellite providers also offer on-demand programming for most stations. Citizens can purchase cable, satellite, and Internet subscription services (like Netflix) to find programs to watch instantly, without being tied to a schedule. Initially, on-demand programming was limited to rebroadcasting old content and was commercial-free. Yet many networks and programs now allow their new programming to be aired within a day or two of its initial broadcast. In return they often add commercials the user cannot fast-forward or avoid. Thus networks expect advertising revenues to increase. (Note: Lucas Shaw, "TV Networks Offering More On Demand to Reduce AdSkipping," Bloomberg Technology, 24 September 2014.)
The on-demand nature of the Internet has created many opportunities for news outlets. While early media providers were those who could pay the high cost of printing or broadcasting, modern media require just a URL and ample server space. The ease of online publication has made it possible for more niche media outlets to form. The websites of the New York Times and other newspapers often focus on matters affecting the United States, while channels like BBC America present world news. FOX News presents political commentary and news in a conservative vein, while the Internet site Daily Kos offers a liberal perspective on the news. Politico.com is perhaps the leader in niche journalism.
Unfortunately, the proliferation of online news has also increased the amount of poorly written material with little editorial oversight, and readers must be cautious when reading Internet news sources. Sites like Buzzfeed allow members to post articles without review by an editorial board, leading to articles of varied quality and accuracy. The Internet has also made publication speed a consideration for professional journalists. No news outlet wants to be the last to break a story, and the rush to publication often leads to typographical and factual errors. Even large news outlets, like the Associated Press, have published articles with errors in their haste to get a story out.
The Internet also facilitates the flow of information through social media, which allows users to instantly communicate with one another and share with audiences that can grow exponentially. Facebook and Twitter have millions of daily users. Social media changes more rapidly than the other media formats. While people in many different age groups use sites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, other sites like Snapchat and Yik Yak appeal mostly to younger users. The platforms also serve different functions. Tumblr and Reddit facilitate discussion that is topic-based and controversial, while Instagram is mostly social. A growing number of these sites also allow users to comment anonymously, leading to increases in threats and abuse. The site 4chan, for example, was linked to the 2015 shooting at an Oregon community college. (Note: Daniel Marans, "Did the Oregon Shooter Warn of His Plans on 4chan?" Huffington Post, 1 October 2015.)
Regardless of where we get our information, the various media avenues available today, versus years ago, make it much easier for everyone to be engaged. The question is: Who controls the media we rely on? Most media are controlled by a limited number of conglomerates. A conglomerate is a corporation made up of a number of companies, organizations, and media networks. In the 1980s, more than fifty companies owned the majority of television and radio stations and networks. Now, only six conglomerates control most of the broadcast media in the United States: CBS Corporation, Comcast, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox (formerly News Corporation), Viacom, and The Walt Disney Company. (Note: Vanna Le, "Global 2000: The World’s Largest Media Companies of 2014," Forbes, 7 May 2014.)
The Walt Disney Company, for example, owns the ABC Television Network, ESPN, A&E, and Lifetime, in addition to the Disney Channel. Viacom owns BET, Comedy Central, MTV, Nickelodeon, and Vh2. Time Warner owns Cartoon Network, CNN, HBO, and TNT, among others. While each of these networks has its own programming, in the end, the conglomerate can make a policy that affects all stations and programming under its control.
In 1983, fifty companies owned 90 percent of U.S. media. By 2012, just six conglomerates controlled the same percentage of U.S. media outlets.
Conglomerates can create a monopoly on information by controlling a sector of a market. When a media conglomerate has policies or restrictions, they will apply to all stations or outlets under its ownership, potentially limiting the information citizens receive. Conglomerate ownership also creates circumstances in which censorship may occur. iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel Media) owns music, radio, and billboards throughout the United States, and in 2010, the company refused to run several billboard ads for the St. Pete Pride Festival and
Promenade in St. Petersburg, Florida. The festival organizers said the content of two ads, a picture of same-sex couples in close contact with one another, was the reason the ads were not run. Because iHeartMedia owns most of the billboards in the area, this limitation was problematic for the festival and decreased awareness of the event. Those in charge of the festival viewed the refusal as censorship. (Note: Stephanie Hayes, "Clear Channel Rejects St. Pete Pride Billboards, Organizers Say," Tampa Bay Times, 11 June 2010.)
Newspapers too have experienced the pattern of concentrated ownership. Gannett Company, while also owning television media, holds a large number of newspapers and news magazines in its control. Many of these were acquired quietly, without public notice or discussion. Gannett’s 2013 acquisition of publishing giant A.H. Belo Corporation caused some concern and news coverage, however. The sale would have allowed Gannett to own both an NBC and a CBS affiliate in St. Louis, Missouri, giving it control over programming and advertising rates for two competing stations. The U.S. Department of Justice required Gannett to sell the station owned by Belo to ensure market competition and multi-ownership in St. Louis. (Note: Meg James, "DOJ Clears Gannett-Belo Deal but Demands Sale of St. Louis TV Station," Los Angeles Times, 16 December 2013.)
These changes in the format and ownership of media raise the question whether the media still operate as an independent source of information. Is it possible that corporations and CEOs now control the information flow, making profit more important than the impartial delivery of information? The reality is that media outlets, whether newspaper, television, radio, or Internet, are businesses. They have expenses and must raise revenues. Yet at the same time, we expect the media to entertain, inform, and alert us without bias. They must provide some public services, while following laws and regulations. Reconciling these goals may not always be possible.
Functions of the Media
The media exist to fill a number of functions. Whether the medium is a newspaper, a radio, or a television newscast, a corporation behind the scenes must bring in revenue and pay for the cost of the product. Revenue comes from advertising and sponsors, like McDonald’s, Ford Motor Company, and other large corporations. But corporations will not pay for advertising if there are no viewers or readers. So all programs and publications need to entertain, inform, or interest the public and maintain a steady stream of consumers. In the end, what attracts viewers and advertisers is what survives.
The media are also of society and of public officials. Some refer to the media as the fourth estate, with the branches of government being the first three estates and the media equally participating as the fourth. This role helps maintain democracy and keeps the government accountable for its actions, even if a branch of the government is reluctant to open itself to public scrutiny. As much as social scientists would like citizens to be informed and involved in politics and events, the reality is that we are not. So the media, especially journalists, keep an eye on what is happening and sounds an alarm when the public needs to pay attention. (Note: John Zaller. 2003. "A New Standard of News Quality: Burglar Alarms for the Monitorial Citizen," Political Communication 20, No. 2: 109–130.)
The media also engages in agenda setting, which is the act of choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion. For example, in the early 1980s, famine in Ethiopia drew worldwide attention, which resulted in increased charitable giving to the country. Yet the famine had been going on for a long time before it was discovered by western media. Even after the discovery, it took video footage to gain the attention of the British and U.S. populations and start the aid flowing. (Note: Suzanne Ranks, "Ethiopian Famine: How Landmark BBC Report Influenced Modern Coverage," Guardian, 22 October 2014.)
Today, numerous examples of agenda setting show how important the media are when trying to prevent further emergencies or humanitarian crises. In the spring of 2015, when the Dominican Republic was preparing to exile Haitians and undocumented (or under documented) residents, major U.S. news outlets remained silent. However, once the story had been covered several times by Al Jazeera, a state-funded broadcast company based in Qatar, ABC, the New York Times, and other network outlets followed. (Note: Hisham Aidi, "Haitians in the Dominican
Republic in Legal Limbo," Al Jazeera, 10 April 2015.) With major network coverage came public pressure for the
U.S. government to act on behalf of the Haitians. (Note: "Pressure the Government of the Dominican Republic to Stop its Planned ‘Cleaning’ of 250,000 Black Dominicans," https://petitions.whitehouse.gov/petition/pressuregovernment-dominican-republic-stop-its-planned-cleaning-250000-black-dominicans (November 26, 2015); Led Black, "Prevent Humanitarian Tragedy in Dominican Republic," CNN, 23 June 2015.)
Before the Internet, traditional media determined whether citizen photographs or video footage would become “news.” In 1991, a private citizen’s camcorder footage showed four police officers beating an African American motorist named Rodney King in Los Angeles. After appearing on local independent television station, KTLA-TV, and then the national news, the event began a national discussion on police brutality and ignited riots in Los Angeles. (Note: Erik Ortiz, "George Holliday, Who Taped Rodney King Beating, Urges Others to Share Videos," NBC, 9 June 2015.)
The agenda-setting power of traditional media has begun to be appropriated by social media and smartphones, however. Tumblr, Facebook, YouTube, and other Internet sites allow witnesses to instantly upload images and accounts of events and forward the link to friends. Some uploads go viral and attract the attention of the mainstream media, but large network newscasts and major newspapers are still more powerful at initiating or changing a discussion.
The media also promote the public good by offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness.
Network news informs the electorate about national issues, elections, and international news. The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, NBC Nightly News, and other outlets make sure voters can easily find out what issues affect the nation. Is terrorism on the rise? Is the dollar weakening? The network news hosts national debates during presidential elections, broadcasts major presidential addresses, and interviews political leaders during times of crisis. Cable news networks now provide coverage of all these topics as well.
Local news has a larger job, despite small budgets and fewer resources. Local government and local economic policy have a strong and immediate effect on citizens. Is the city government planning on changing property tax rates? Will the school district change the way Common Core tests are administered? When and where is the next town hall meeting or public forum to be held? Local and social media provide a forum for protest and discussion of issues that matter to the community.
Meetings of local governance, such as this meeting of the Independence City Council in Missouri, are rarely attended by more than gadflies and journalists. (credit: “MoBikeFed”/Flickr)
While journalists reporting the news try to present information in an unbiased fashion, sometimes the public seeks opinion and analysis of complicated issues that affect various populations differently, like healthcare reform and the Affordable Care Act. This type of coverage may come in the form of editorials, commentaries, Op-Ed columns, and blogs. These forums allow the editorial staff and informed columnists to express a personal belief and attempt to persuade. If opinion writers are trusted by the public, they have influence.
Walter Cronkite, reporting from Vietnam, had a loyal following. In a broadcast following the Tet Offensive in 1968, Cronkite expressed concern that the United States was mired in a conflict that would end in a stalemate. (Note:
"Walter Cronkite’s ‘We Are Mired in Stalemate’ Broadcast, February 27, 1968" Digital History,
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/cronkite.cfm (November 29, 2015).) His coverage was based on opinion after viewing the war from the ground. (Note: Joel Achenbach, "Cronkite and Vietnam," Washington Post, 18 May 2012.)
Although the number of people supporting the war had dwindled by this time, Cronkite’s commentary bolstered opposition. Like editorials, commentaries contain opinion and are often written by specialists in a field. Larry Sabato, a prominent political science professor at the University of Virginia, occasionally writes his thoughts for the New York Times. These pieces are based on his expertise in politics and elections. (Note: Larry Sabato, "Our Leaders, Surprise, Have Strong Views," New York Times, 23 February 2009.) Blogs offer more personalized coverage, addressing specific concerns and perspectives for a limited group of readers. Nate Silver’s blog, FiveThirtyEight, focuses on elections and politics.
Media Effects and Bias
Concerns about the effects of media on consumers and the existence and extent of media bias go back to the 1920s. Reporter and commentator Walter Lippmann noted that citizens have limited personal experience with government and the world and posited that the media, through their stories, place ideas in citizens’ minds. These ideas become part of the citizens’ frame of reference and affect their decisions. Lippmann’s statements led to the hypodermic theory, which argues that information is “shot” into the receiver’s mind and readily accepted. (Note: Walter Lippmann. 1922. Public Opinion. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/Lippman/contents.html (August 29, 2015).)
Yet studies in the 1930s and 1940s found that information was transmitted in two steps, with one person reading the news and then sharing the information with friends. People listened to their friends, but not to those with whom they disagreed. The newspaper’s effect was thus diminished through conversation. This discovery led to the minimal effects theory, which argues the media have little effect on citizens and voters. (Note: Bernard Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee. 1954. Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.)
By the 1970s, a new idea, the cultivation theory, hypothesized that media develop a person’s view of the world by presenting a perceived reality. (Note: George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, Nancy Signorielli, and Marilyn Jackson-Beeck. 1979. "The Demonstration of Power: Violence Profile," Journal of Communication 29, No.10: 177–196.) What we see on a regular basis is our reality. Media can then set norms for readers and viewers by choosing what is covered or discussed.
In the end, the consensus among observers is that media have some effect, even if the effect is subtle. This raises the question of how the media, even general newscasts, can affect citizens. One of the ways is through framing: the creation of a narrative, or context, for a news story. The news often uses frames to place a story in a context so the reader understands its importance or relevance. Yet, at the same time, framing affects the way the reader or viewer processes the story.
Episodic framing occurs when a story focuses on isolated details or specifics rather than looking broadly at a whole issue. Thematic framing takes a broad look at an issue and skips numbers or details. It looks at how the issue has changed over a long period of time and what has led to it. For example, a large, urban city is dealing with the problem of an increasing homeless population, and the city has suggested ways to improve the situation. If journalists focus on the immediate statistics, report the current percentage of homeless people, interview a few, and look at the city’s current investment in a homeless shelter, the coverage is episodic. If they look at homelessness as a problem increasing everywhere, examine the reasons people become homeless, and discuss the trends in cities’ attempts to solve the problem, the coverage is thematic. Episodic frames may create more sympathy, while a thematic frame may leave the reader or viewer emotionally disconnected and less sympathetic.
Civil war in Syria has led many to flee the country, including this woman living in a Syrian refugee camp in Jordan in September
2015. Episodic framing of the stories of Syrian refugees, and their deaths, turned government inaction into action. (credit: Enes Reyhan)
Framing can also affect the way we see race, socioeconomics, or other generalizations. For this reason, it is linked to priming: when media coverage predisposes the viewer or reader to a particular perspective on a subject or issue. If a newspaper article focuses on unemployment, struggling industries, and jobs moving overseas, the reader will have a negative opinion about the economy. If then asked whether he or she approves of the president’s job performance, the reader is primed to say no. Readers and viewers are able to fight priming effects if they are aware of them or have prior information about the subject.
Coverage Effects on Governance and Campaigns
When it is spotty, the media’s coverage of campaigns and government can sometimes affect the way government operates and the success of candidates. In 1972, for instance, the McGovern-Fraser reforms created a votercontrolled primary system, so party leaders no longer pick the presidential candidates. Now the media are seen as kingmakers and play a strong role in influencing who will become the Democratic and Republican nominees in presidential elections. They can discuss the candidates’ messages, vet their credentials, carry sound bites of their speeches, and conduct interviews. The candidates with the most media coverage build momentum and do well in the first few primaries and caucuses. This, in turn, leads to more media coverage, more momentum, and eventually a winning candidate. Thus, candidates need the media.
In the 1980s, campaigns learned that tight control on candidate information created more favorable media coverage. In the presidential election of 1984, candidates Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush began using an issue-of-the-day strategy, providing quotes and material on only one topic each day. This strategy limited what journalists could cover because they had only limited quotes and sound bites to use in their reports. In 1992, both Bush’s and Bill Clinton’s campaigns maintained their carefully drawn candidate images by also limiting photographers and television journalists to photo opportunities at rallies and campaign venues. The constant control of the media became known as the “bubble,” and journalists were less effective when they were in the campaign’s bubble. Reporters complained this coverage was campaign advertising rather than journalism, and a new model emerged with the 1996 election. (Note: Elizabeth A. Skewes. 2007. Message Control: How News Is Made on the Presidential Campaign Trail. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 79.)
Campaign coverage now focuses on the spectacle of the season, rather than providing information about the candidates. Colorful personalities, strange comments, lapse of memories, and embarrassing revelations are more likely to get air time than the candidates’ issue positions. Candidate Donald Trump may be the best example of shallower press coverage of a presidential election. Some argue that newspapers and news programs are limiting the space they allot to discussion of the campaigns. (Note: Stephen Farnsworth and S. Robert Lichter. 2012. "Authors’ Response: Improving News Coverage in the 2012 Presidential Campaign and Beyond," Politics & Policy 40, No. 4: 547–556.) Others argue that citizens want to see updates on the race and electoral drama, not boring issue positions or substantive reporting. (Note: "Early Media Coverage Focuses on Horse Race," PBS News Hour, 12 June 2007.) It may also be that journalists have tired of the information games played by politicians and have taken back control of the news cycles. (Note: Stephen Ansolabehere, Roy Behr, and Shanto Iyengar. 1992. The Media Game: American Politics in the Television Age. New York: Macmillan.)
All these factors have likely led to the shallow press coverage we see today, sometimes dubbed pack journalism because journalists follow one another rather than digging for their own stories. Television news discusses the strategies and blunders of the election, with colorful examples. Newspapers focus on polls. In an analysis of the 2012 election, Pew Research found that 64 percent of stories and coverage focused on campaign strategy. Only 9 percent covered domestic issue positions; 6 percent covered the candidates’ public records; and, 1 percent covered their foreign policy positions. (Note: "Frames of Campaign Coverage," Pew Research Center, 23 April 2012, http://www.journalism.org/2012/04/23/frames-campaign-coverage.)
For better or worse, coverage of the candidates’ statements get less air time on radio and television, and sound bites, or clips, of their speeches have become even shorter. In 1968, the average sound bite from Richard Nixon was 42.3 seconds, while a recent study of television coverage found that sound bites had decreased to only eight seconds in the 2004 election. (Note: Kiku Adatto. May 28, 1990. "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," New Republic 202, No. 22: 20–23.)
The clips chosen to air were attacks on opponents 40 percent of the time. Only 30 percent contained information about the candidate’s issues or events. The study also found the news showed images of the candidates, but for an average of only twenty-five seconds while the newscaster discussed the stories. (Note: Erik Bucy and Maria Elizabeth Grabe. 2007. "Taking Television Seriously: A Sound and Image Bite Analysis of Presidential Campaign Coverage, 1992–2004," Journal of Communication 57, No. 4: 652–675.) This study supports the argument that shrinking sound bites are a way for journalists to control the story and add their own analysis rather than just report on it. (Note: Craig Fehrman, "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," Boston Globe, 2 January 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/01/02/the_incredible_shrinking_sound_bite/.)
Candidates are given a few minutes to try to argue their side of an issue, but some say television focuses on the argument rather than on information. In 2004, Jon Stewart of Comedy Central’s The Daily Show began attacking the CNN program Crossfire for being theater, saying the hosts engaged in reactionary and partisan arguing rather than true debating. (Note: "Crossfire: Jon Stewart’s America," CNN, 15 October 2004, http://www.cnn.com/ TRANSCRIPTS/0410/15/cf.01.html.) Some of Stewart’s criticisms resonated, even with host Paul Begala, and Crossfire was later pulled from the air. (Note: Paul Begala, "Begala: The day Jon Stewart blew up my show," CNN, 12 February 2015.)
The media’s discussion of campaigns has also grown negative. Although biased campaign coverage dates back to the period of the partisan press, the increase in the number of cable news stations has made the problem more visible. Stations like FOX News and MSNBC are overt in their use of bias in framing stories. During the 2012 campaign, seventy-one of seventy-four MSNBC stories about Mitt Romney were highly negative, while FOX News’ coverage of Obama had forty-six out of fifty-two stories with negative information. The major networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC—were somewhat more balanced, yet the overall coverage of both candidates tended to be negative. (Note: Pew Research Center: Journalism & Media Staff, "Coverage of the Candidates by Media Sector and Cable Outlet," 1 November 2012.)
Media coverage of campaigns is increasingly negative, with cable news stations demonstrating more bias in their framing of stories during the 2012 campaign.
Due in part to the lack of substantive media coverage, campaigns increasingly use social media to relay their message. Candidates can create their own sites and pages and try to spread news through supporters to the undecided. In 2012, both Romney and Obama maintained Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube accounts to provide information to voters. Yet, on social media, candidates still need to combat negativity, from both the opposition and supporters. Stories about Romney that appeared in the mainstream media were negative 38 percent of the time, while his coverage in Facebook news was negative 62 percent of the time and 58 percent of the time on Twitter. (Note: "Winning the Media Campaign 2012," Pew Research Center, 2 November 2012.)
Once candidates are in office, the chore of governing begins, with the added weight of media attention.
Historically, if presidents were unhappy with their press coverage, they used personal and professional means to change its tone. Franklin D. Roosevelt, for example, was able to keep journalists from printing stories through gentleman’s agreements, loyalty, and the provision of additional information, sometimes off the record. The journalists then wrote positive stories, hoping to keep the president as a source. John F. Kennedy hosted press conferences twice a month and opened the floor for questions from journalists, in an effort to keep press coverage positive. (Note: Fred Greenstein. 2009. The Presidential Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.)
When presidents and other members of the White House are not forthcoming with information, journalists must press for answers. Dan Rather, a journalist for CBS, regularly sparred with presidents in an effort to get information. When Rather interviewed Richard Nixon about Vietnam and Watergate, Nixon was hostile and uncomfortable. (Note: "Dan Rather versus Richard Nixon, 1974," YouTube video, :46, from the National Association of Broadcasters annual convention in Houston on March 19,1974, posted by "thecelebratedmisterk," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGBLAKq8xwc (November 30, 2015); "‘A Conversation With the President,’ Interview With Dan Rather of the Columbia Broadcasting System," The American Presidency Project, 2 January 1972, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3351.)
In a 1988 interview with then-vice president George H. W. Bush, Bush accused Rather of being argumentative about the possible cover-up of a secret arms sale with Iran:
Rather: I don’t want to be argumentative, Mr. Vice President.
Bush: You do, Dan.
Rather: No—no, sir, I don’t.
Bush: This is not a great night, because I want to talk about why I want to be president, why those 41 percent of the people are supporting me. And I don’t think it’s fair to judge my whole career by a rehash of Iran. How would you like it if I judged your career by those seven minutes when you walked off the set in New York? (Note: Wolf Blitzer, "Dan Rather’s Stand," CNN, 10 September 2004.)
Cabinet secretaries and other appointees also talk with the press, sometimes making for conflicting messages. The creation of the position of press secretary and the White House Office of Communications both stemmed from the need to send a cohesive message from the executive branch. Currently, the White House controls the information coming from the executive branch through the Office of Communications and decides who will meet with the press and what information will be given.
But stories about the president often examine personality, or the president’s ability to lead the country, deal with Congress, or respond to national and international events. They are less likely to cover the president’s policies or agendas without a lot of effort on the president’s behalf. (Note: Matthew Eshbaugh-Soha and Jeffrey Peake. 2011. Breaking Through the Noise: Presidential Leadership, Public Opinion, and the News Media. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.)
When Obama first entered office in 2009, journalists focused on his battles with Congress, critiquing his leadership style and inability to work with Representative Nancy Pelosi, then Speaker of the House. To gain attention for his policies, specifically the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), Obama began traveling the United States to draw the media away from Congress and encourage discussion of his economic stimulus package. Once the ARRA had been passed, Obama began travelling again, speaking locally about why the country needed the Affordable Care Act and guiding media coverage to promote support for the act. (Note:
Ibid.)
Congressional representatives have a harder time attracting media attention for their policies. House and Senate members who use the media well, either to help their party or to show expertise in an area, may increase their power within Congress, which helps them bargain for fellow legislators’ votes. Senators and high-ranking House members may also be invited to appear on cable news programs as guests, where they may gain some media support for their policies. Yet, overall, because there are so many members of Congress, and therefore so many agendas, it is harder for individual representatives to draw media coverage. (Note: Gary Lee Malecha and Daniel
J. Reagan. 2011. The Public Congress: Congressional Deliberation in a New Media Age. New York: Routledge.)
It is less clear, however, whether media coverage of an issue leads Congress to make policy, or whether congressional policymaking leads the media to cover policy. In the 1970s, Congress investigated ways to stem the number of drug-induced deaths and crimes. As congressional meetings dramatically increased, the press was slow to cover the topic. The number of hearings was at its highest from 1970 to 1982, yet media coverage did not rise to the same level until 1984. (Note: Frank R. Baumgartner, Bryan D. Jones, and Beth L. Leech. 1997. "Media Attention and Congressional Agendas," In Do The Media Govern? Politicians, Voters, and Reporters in America, eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.) Subsequent hearings and coverage led to national policies like DARE and First Lady Nancy Reagan’s “Just Say No” campaign.
First Lady Nancy Reagan speaks at a “Just Say No” rally in Los Angeles on May 13, 1987 (a). The Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) is an anti-drug, anti-gang program founded in 1983 by a joint initiative of the Los Angeles Police Department and the Los Angeles Unified School District.
Later studies of the media’s effect on both the president and Congress report that the media has a stronger agenda-setting effect on the president than on Congress. What the media choose to cover affects what the president thinks is important to voters, and these issues were often of national importance. The media’s effect on Congress was limited, however, and mostly extended to local issues like education or child and elder abuse. (Note: George Edwards and Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the
Media," American Political Science Review 93, No 2: 327–344; Yue Tan and David Weaver. 2007. "AgendaSetting Effects Among the Media, the Public, and Congress, 1946–2004," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 84, No. 4: 729–745.) If the media are discussing a topic, chances are a member of Congress has already submitted a relevant bill, and it is waiting in committee.
Coverage Effects on Society
The media choose what they want to discuss. This agenda setting creates a reality for voters and politicians that affects the way people think, act, and vote. Even if the crime rate is going down, for instance, citizens accustomed to reading stories about assault and other offenses still perceive crime to be an issue. (Note: Ally Fogg, "Crime Is Falling. Now Let’s Reduce Fear of Crime," Guardian, 24 April 24 2013.)
Studies have also found that the media’s portrayal of race is flawed, especially in coverage of crime and poverty. One study revealed that local news shows were more likely to show pictures of criminals when they were African American, so they overrepresented blacks as perpetrators and whites as victims. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs: Understanding the Relationship between Local News Viewing and Perceptions of African Americans and Crime," Journal of Communication 58, No. 1: 106–125.) A second study found a similar pattern in which Latinos were underrepresented as victims of crime and as police officers, while whites were overrepresented as both. (Note: Travis Dixon. 2015. "Good Guys Are Still Always in White? Positive Change and Continued Misrepresentation of Race and Crime on Local Television News," Communication Research, doi:10.1177/0093650215579223.) Voters were thus more likely to assume that most criminals are black and most victims and police officers are white, even though the numbers do not support those assumptions.
Network news similarly misrepresents the victims of poverty by using more images of blacks than whites in its segments. Viewers in a study were left believing African Americans were the majority of the unemployed and poor, rather than seeing the problem as one faced by many races. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Network News and Racial Beliefs: Exploring the Connection between National Television News Exposure and Stereotypical
Perceptions of African Americans," Journal of Communication 58, No. 2: 321–337.)
The misrepresentation of race is not limited to news coverage, however. A study of images printed in national magazines, like Time and Newsweek, found they also misrepresented race and poverty. The magazines were more likely to show images of young African Americans when discussing poverty and excluded the elderly and the young, as well as whites and Latinos, which is the true picture of poverty. (Note: Martin Gilens. 1996. "Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 60, No.
4: 515–541.)
ia f a , even if unintentional, affects perceptions and policies. If viewers are continually presented with
images of African Americans as criminals, there is an increased chance they will perceive members of this group as violent or aggressive. (Note: Dixon. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs.") The perception that most recipients of welfare are working-age African Americans may have led some citizens to vote for candidates who promised to reduce welfare benefits. (Note: Gilens. "Race and Poverty in America.") When survey respondents were shown a story of a white unemployed individual, 71 percent listed unemployment as one of the top three problems facing the United States, while only 53 percent did so if the story was about an unemployed African American. (Note: Shanto Iyengar and Donald R. Kinder. 1987. News That Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.)
W oi e may also have a priming effect. News organizations like the Los Angeles Times and the Associated Press no longer use the phrase “illegal immigrant” to describe undocumented residents. This may be due to the desire to create a “sympathetic” frame for the immigration situation rather than a “threat” frame. (Note: Daniel C. Hallin. 2015. "The Dynamics of Immigration Coverage in Comparative Perspective," American Behavioral Scientist 59, No. 7: 876–885.)
Media coverage of women has been similarly biased. Most journalists in the early 1900s were male, and women’s issues were not part of the newsroom discussion. As journalist Kay Mills put it, the women’s movement of the 1960s and 1970s was about raising awareness of the problems of equality, but writing about rallies “was like trying to nail Jell-O to the wall.” (Note: Kay Mills. 1996. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?" In Women, the Media and Politics, ed. Pippa Norris. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 43.) Most politicians, business leaders, and other authority figures were male, and editors’ reactions to the stories were lukewarm. The lack of women in the newsroom, politics, and corporate leadership encouraged silence. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn and Edie N. Goldenberg. 1997. "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?" In Do the Media Govern? eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.)
In 1976, journalist Barbara Walters became the first female coanchor on a network news show, The ABC Evening News. She was met with great hostility from her coanchor Harry Reasoner and received critical coverage from the press. (Note: Barbara Walters, "Ms. Walters Reflects," Vanity Fair, 31 May 2008. http://www.vanityfair.com/ culture/2008/06/walters_excerpt200806) On newspaper staffs, women reported having to fight for assignments to well-published beats, or to be assigned areas or topics, such as the economy or politics, that were normally reserved for male journalists. Once female journalists held these assignments, they feared writing about women’s issues. Would it make them appear weak? Would they be taken from their coveted beats? (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?")
This apprehension allowed poor coverage of women and the women’s movement to continue until women were better represented as journalists and as editors. Strength of numbers allowed them to be confident when covering issues like health care, childcare, and education. (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?")
The media’s historically uneven coverage of women continues in its treatment of female candidates. Early coverage was sparse. The stories that did appear often discussed the candidate’s viability, or ability to win, rather than her stand on the issues. (Note: Kahn and Goldenberg, "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?")
Women were seen as a novelty rather than as serious contenders who needed to be vetted and discussed. Modern media coverage has changed slightly. One study found that female candidates receive more favorable coverage than in prior generations, especially if they are incumbents. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn. 1994. "Does Gender Make a Difference? An Experimental Examination of Sex Stereotypes and Press Patterns in Statewide Campaigns," American Journal of Political Science 38, No. 1: 162–195.) Yet a different study found that while there was increased coverage for female candidates, it was often negative. (Note: John David Rausch, Mark Rozell, and Harry L. Wilson. 1999. "When Women Lose: A Study of Media Coverage of Two Gubernatorial
Campaigns," Women & Politics 20, No. 4: 1–22.) And it did not include Latina candidates. (Note: Sarah Allen
Gershon. 2013. "Media Coverage of Minority Congresswomen and Voter Evaluations: Evidence from an Online Experimental Study," Political Research Quarterly 66, No. 3: 702–714.) Without coverage, they are less likely to win.
The historically negative media coverage of female candidates has had another concrete effect: Women are less likely than men to run for office. One common reason is the effect negative media coverage has on families. (Note: Jennifer Lawless and Richard Logan Fox. 2005. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Many women do not wish to expose their children or spouses to criticism. (Note: Brittany L. Stalsburg, "Running with Strollers: The Impact of Family Life on Political Ambition," Eagleton Institute of Politics, Spring 2012, Unpublished Paper, http://www.eagleton.rutgers.edu/research/ documents/Stalsburg-FamilyLife-Political-Ambition.pdf (August 28, 2015).)
In 2008, the nomination of Sarah as Republican candidate John McCain’s running mate validated this concern. Some articles focused on her qualifications to be a potential future president or her record on the issues. But others questioned whether she had the right to run for office, given she had young children, one of whom has developmental disabilities. (Note: Christina Walker, "Is Sarah Palin Being Held to an Unfair Standard?" CNN, 8 September 2008.) Her daughter, Bristol, was criticized for becoming pregnant while unmarried. (Note: Dana Bash, "Palin’s Teen Daughter is Pregnant," CNN, 1 September 2008.) Her husband was called cheap for failing to buy her a high-priced wedding ring. (Note: Jimmy Orr, "Palin Wardrobe Controversy Heightens - Todd is a Cheapo!" Christian Science Monitor, 26 October 2008.) Even when candidates ask that children and families be off-limits, the press rarely honors the requests. So women with young children may wait until their children are grown before running for office, if they choose to run at all.
When Sarah Palin found herself on the national stage at the Republican Convention in September 2008, media coverage about her selection as John McCain’s running mate included numerous questions about her ability to serve based on personal family history. Attacks on candidates’ families lead many women to postpone or avoid running for office. (credit: Carol Highsmith)
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6.4 Political Parties
POLITICAL PARTIES
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals.
This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters.
Political Parties as Unique Organizations
In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition.
Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may
The party platform adopted at the first national convention of the Progressive Party in 1912. Among other items, this platform called for disclosure requirements for campaign contributions, an eight-hour workday, a federal income tax, and women’s suffrage.
find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory.
It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system.
How Political Parties Formed
National political parties as we understand them today did not really exist in the United States during the early years of the republic. Most politics during the time of the nation’s founding were local in nature and based on elite politics, limited suffrage (or the ability to vote in elections), and property ownership. Residents of the various colonies, and later of the various states, were far more interested in events in their state legislatures than in those occurring at the national level or later in the nation’s capital. To the extent that national issues did exist, they were largely limited to collective security efforts to deal with external rivals, such as the British or the French, and with perceived internal threats, such as conflicts with Native Americans.
Soon after the United States emerged from the Revolutionary War, however, a rift began to emerge between two groups that had very different views about the future direction of U.S. politics. Thus, from the very beginning of its history, the United States has had a system of government dominated by two different philosophies. Federalists, who were largely responsible for drafting and ratifying the U.S. Constitution, generally favored the idea of a stronger, more centralized republic that had greater control over regulating the economy. (Note: Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151.) Anti-Federalists preferred a more confederate system built on state equality and autonomy. (Note: Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC:
UNC Press, 11.)
The Federalist faction, led by Alexander Hamilton, largely dominated the government in the years immediately after the Constitution was ratified. Included in the Federalists was President George Washington, who was initially against the existence of parties in the United States. When Washington decided to exit politics and leave office, he warned of the potential negative effects of parties in his farewell address to the nation, including their potentially divisive nature and the fact that they might not always focus on the common good but rather on partisan ends. However, members of each faction quickly realized that they had a vested interest not only in nominating and electing a president who shared their views, but also in winning other elections. Two loosely affiliated party coalitions, known as the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, soon emerged. The Federalists succeeded in electing their first leader, John Adams, to the presidency in 1796, only to see the Democratic-Republicans gain victory under Thomas Jefferson four years later in 1800.
Growing regional tensions eroded the Federalist Party’s ability to coordinate elites, and it eventually collapsed following its opposition to the War of 1812. (Note: James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80.) The Democratic-Republican Party, on the other hand, eventually divided over whether national resources should be focused on economic and mercantile development, such as tariffs on imported goods and government funding of internal improvements like roads and canals, or on promoting populist issues that would help the “common man,” such as reducing or eliminating state property requirements that had prevented many men from voting. (Note: Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books.)
In the election of 1824, numerous candidates contended for the presidency, all members of the DemocraticRepublican Party. Andrew Jackson won more popular votes and more votes in the Electoral College than any other candidate. However, because he did not win the majority (more than half) of the available electoral votes, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, as required by the Twelfth Amendment. The Twelfth Amendment limited the House’s choice to the three candidates with the greatest number of electoral votes. Thus, Andrew Jackson, with 99 electoral votes, found himself in competition with only John Quincy Adams, the second place finisher with 84 electoral votes, and William H. Crawford, who had come in third with 41. The fourth-place finisher, Henry Clay, who was no longer in contention, had won 37 electoral votes. Clay strongly disliked Jackson, and his ideas on government support for tariffs and internal improvements were similar to those of Adams. Clay thus gave his support to Adams, who was chosen on the first ballot. Jackson considered the actions of Clay and Adams, the son of the Federalist president John Adams, to be an unjust triumph of supporters of the elite and referred to it as “the corrupt bargain.” (Note: R. R. Stenberg, "Jackson, Buchanan, and the "Corrupt Bargain" Calumny," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85.)
This marked the beginning of what historians call the Second Party System (the first parties had been the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans), with the splitting of the Democratic-Republicans and the formation of two new political parties. One half, called simply the Democratic Party, was the party of Jackson; it continued to advocate for the common people by championing westward expansion and opposing a national bank. The branch of the Democratic-Republicans that believed that the national government should encourage economic (primarily industrial) development was briefly known as the National Republicans and later became the Whig Party. (Note:
2009. "Democratic-Republican Party," In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; "Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America," http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016).)
In the election of 1828, Democrat Andrew Jackson was triumphant. Three times as many people voted in 1828 as had in 1824, and most cast their ballots for him. (Note: Virginia Historical Society. "Elections from 1789–1828." http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidentialcampaign-0 (March 11, 2016).) The formation of the Democratic Party marked an important shift in U.S. politics. Rather than being built largely to coordinate elite behavior, the Democratic Party worked to organize the electorate by taking advantage of state-level laws that had extended suffrage from male property owners to nearly all white men. (Note: William G. Shade. 1983. "The Second Party System." In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111.) This change marked the birth of what is often considered the first modern political party in any democracy in the world. (Note: Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3.)
It also dramatically changed the way party politics was, and still is, conducted. For one thing, this new party organization was built to include structures that focused on organizing and mobilizing voters for elections at all levels of government. The party also perfected an existing spoils system, in which support for the party during elections was rewarded with jobs in the government bureaucracy after victory. (Note: Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34.)
Many of these positions were given to party bosses and their friends. These men were the leaders of political machines, organizations that secured votes for the party’s candidates or supported the party in other ways. Perhaps more importantly, this election-focused organization also sought to maintain power by creating a broader coalition and thereby expanding the range of issues upon which the party was constructed. (Note: Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton.)
The Democratic Party emphasized personal politics, which focused on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues. This party dominated national politics from Andrew Jackson’s presidential victory in 1828 until the mid-1850s, when regional tensions began to threaten the nation’s very existence. The growing power of industrialists, who preferred greater national authority, combined with increasing tensions between the northern and southern states over slavery, led to the rise of the Republican Party and its leader Abraham Lincoln in the election of 1860, while the Democratic Party dominated in the South. Like the Democrats, the Republicans also began to utilize a mass approach to party design and organization. Their opposition to the expansion of slavery, and their role in helping to stabilize the Union during Reconstruction, made them the dominant player in national politics for the next several decades. (Note: Calvin Jillson. 1994. "Patterns and Periodicity." In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41.)
The Democratic and Republican parties have remained the two dominant players in the U.S. party system since the Civil War (1861–1865). That does not mean, however, that the system has been stagnant. Every political actor and every citizen has the ability to determine for him- or herself whether one of the two parties meets his or her needs and provides an appealing set of policy options, or whether another option is preferable.
At various points in the past 170 years, elites and voters have sought to create alternatives to the existing party system. Political parties that are formed as alternatives to the Republican and Democratic parties are known as h d pa ies, or minor parties. In 1892, a third party known as the Populist Party formed in reaction to what its
constituents perceived as the domination of U.S. society by big business and a decline in the power of farmers and rural communities. The Populist Party called for the regulation of railroads, an income tax, and the popular election of U.S. senators, who at this time were chosen by state legislatures and not by ordinary voters. (Note: Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12.)
The party’s candidate in the 1892 elections, James B. Weaver, did not perform as well as the two main party candidates, and, in the presidential election of 1896, the Populists supported the Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan. Bryan lost, and the Populists once again nominated their own presidential candidates in 1900, 1904, and 1908. The party disappeared from the national scene after 1908, but its ideas were similar to those of the Progressive Party, a new political party created in 1912.
Various third parties, also known as minor parties, have appeared in the United States over the years. Some, like the Socialist Party, still exist in one form or another. Others, like the Anti-Masonic Party, which wanted to protect the United States from the influence of the Masonic fraternal order and garnered just under 8 percent of the popular vote in 1832, are gone.
In 1912, former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt attempted to form a third party, known as the Progressive Party, as an alternative to the more business-minded Republicans. The Progressives sought to correct the many problems that had arisen as the United States transformed itself from a rural, agricultural nation into an increasingly urbanized, industrialized country dominated by big business interests. Among the reforms that the Progressive Party called for in its 1912 platform were women’s suffrage, an eight-hour workday, and workers’ compensation. The party also favored some of the same reforms as the Populist Party, such as the direct election of U.S. senators and an income tax, although Populists tended to be farmers while the Progressives were from the middle class. In general, Progressives sought to make government more responsive to the will of the people and to end political corruption in government. They wished to break the power of party bosses and political machines, and called upon states to pass laws allowing voters to vote directly on proposed legislation, propose new laws, and recall from office incompetent or corrupt elected officials. The Progressive Party largely disappeared after 1916, and most members returned to the Republican Party. (Note: 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388.) The party enjoyed a brief resurgence in 1924, when Robert “Fighting Bob” La Follette ran unsuccessfully for president under the Progressive banner.
In 1948, two new third parties appeared on the political scene. Henry A. Wallace, a vice president under Franklin Roosevelt, formed a new Progressive Party, which had little in common with the earlier Progressive Party.
Wallace favored racial desegregation and believed that the United States should have closer ties to the Soviet Union. Wallace’s campaign was a failure, largely because most people believed his policies, including national healthcare, were too much like those of communism, and this party also vanished. The other third party, the States’ Rights Democrats, also known as the Dixiecrats, were white, southern Democrats who split from the Democratic Party when Harry Truman, who favored civil rights for African Americans, became the party’s nominee for president. The Dixiecrats opposed all attempts by the federal government to end segregation, extend voting rights, prohibit discrimination in employment, or otherwise promote social equality among races. (Note: "Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party," http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016).)
They remained a significant party that threatened Democratic unity throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Other examples of third parties in the United States include the American Independent Party, the Libertarian Party, United We Stand America, the Reform Party, and the Green Party.
None of these alternatives to the two major political parties had much success at the national level, and most are no longer viable parties. All faced the same fate. Formed by charismatic leaders, each championed a relatively narrow set of causes and failed to gain broad support among the electorate. Once their leaders had been defeated or discredited, the party structures that were built to contest elections collapsed. And within a few years, most of their supporters were eventually pulled back into one of the existing parties. To be sure, some of these parties had an electoral impact. For example, the Progressive Party pulled enough votes away from the Republicans to hand the 1912 election to the Democrats. Thus, the third-party rival’s principal accomplishment was helping its least-preferred major party win, usually at the short-term expense of the very issue it championed. In the long run, however, many third parties have brought important issues to the attention of the major parties, which then incorporated these issues into their platforms. Understanding why this is the case is an important next step in learning about the issues and strategies of the modern Republican and Democratic parties. In the next section, we look at why the United States has historically been dominated by only two political parties.
The Party-in-the-Electorate
A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other.
What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful.
Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties. (Note: "Party Affiliation," http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016).)
Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other. (Note: Jeffrey L. Jones, "Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows," http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/ democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016).)
As the chart reveals, generation affects party identification. Millennials (ages 18–34) are more likely to identify as or lean towards the Democratic Party and less likely to favor Republicans than are their baby boomer parents and grandparents (born between 1946 and 1964).
Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her.
Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions.
The Party Organization
A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office.
Local Organizations
Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party.
Political parties are bottom-up structures, with lower levels often responsible for selecting delegates to higher-level offices or conventions.
State Organizations
Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party.
First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million. (Note: Russ Choma, "Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed," 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016).) While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time.
State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the allimportant general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day.
Caucus-goers gather at a Democratic precinct caucus on January 3, 2008, in Iowa City, Iowa. Caucuses are held every two years in more than 1650 Iowa precincts.
Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention.
National Party Organization
The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations.
But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.” (Note: Elizabeth Lehman, "Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues," http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennialsmore-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016).)
Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not.
A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016).)
People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country. (Note: Abdullah Halimah, "Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About," 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016).)
National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties.
In August 2012, Clint Eastwood—actor, director, and former mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea,
California—spoke at the Republican National Convention accompanied by an empty chair representing the Democratic incumbent president Barack Obama.
In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half. (Note: "Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates,"
http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventionscandidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016).)
National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have becoming increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004. (Note: Timothy Zick, "Speech and Spatial Tactics," Texas Law Review February (2006): 581.)
With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours. (Note: Thomas E. Patterson, "Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?" http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016).) One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming.
This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence. (Note: Todd Leopold, "The Day America Met Barack Obama," http://www.cnn.com/ 2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016).)
The Party-in-Government
One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate.
One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate, because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties.
Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures.
(Note: Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27.)
Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an office holder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by
Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it. (Note: Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, "What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act," 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016).)
A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished, because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes.
The Problem of Divided Government
The problem of majority versus minority politics is particularly acute under conditions of divided government. Divided government occurs when one or more houses of the legislature are controlled by the party in opposition to the executive. Unified government occurs when the same party controls the executive and the legislature entirely. Divided government can pose considerable difficulties for both the operations of the party and the government as a whole. It makes fulfilling campaign promises extremely difficult, for instance, since the cooperation (or at least the agreement) of both Congress and the president is typically needed to pass legislation.
Furthermore, one party can hardly claim credit for success when the other side has been a credible partner, or when nothing can be accomplished. Party loyalty may be challenged too, because individual politicians might be forced to oppose their own party agenda if it will help their personal reelection bids.
Divided government can also be a threat to government operations, although its full impact remains unclear.
(Note: David R. Mayhew. 1991. Divided We Govern. New Haven: Yale University Press; George C. Edwards,
Andrew Barrett and Jeffrey S. Peake, "The Legislative Impact of Divided Government," American Journal of Political Science 41, no. 2 (1997): 545–563.) For example, when the divide between the parties is too great, government may shut down. A 1976 dispute between Republican president Gerald Ford and a Democratcontrolled Congress over the issue of funding for certain cabinet departments led to a ten-day shutdown of the government (although the federal government did not cease to function entirely). But beginning in the 1980s, the interpretation that Republican president Ronald Reagan’s attorney general gave to a nineteenth-century law required a complete shutdown of federal government operations until a funding issue was resolved. (Note: Dylan
Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended," The Washington Post, 25 September 2013.)
Clearly, the parties’ willingness to work together and compromise can be a very good thing. However, the past several decades have brought an increased prevalence of divided government. Since 1969, the U.S. electorate has sent the president a Congress of his own party in only seven of twenty-three congressional elections, and during George W. Bush’s first administration, the Republican majority was so narrow that a combination of resignations and defections gave the Democrats control before the next election could be held.
Over the short term, however, divided government can make for very contentious politics. A well-functioning government usually requires a certain level of responsiveness on the part of both the executive and the legislative branches. This responsiveness is hard enough if government is unified under one party. During the presidency of
Democrat Jimmy Carter (1977–1980), despite the fact that both houses of Congress were controlled by Democratic majorities, the government was shut down on five occasions because of conflict between the executive and legislative branches. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.")
Shutdowns are even more likely when the president and at least one house of Congress are of opposite parties. During the presidency of Ronald Reagan, for example, the federal government shut down eight times; on seven of those occasions, the shutdown was caused by disagreements between Reagan and the Republican-controlled Senate on the one hand and the Democrats in the House on the other, over such issues as spending cuts, abortion rights, and civil rights. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.") More such disputes and government shutdowns took place during the administrations of George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama, when different parties controlled Congress and the presidency.
For the first few decades of the current pattern of divided government, the threat it posed to the government appears to have been muted by a high degree of bipartisanship, or cooperation through compromise. Many pieces of legislation were passed in the 1960s and 1970s with reasonably high levels of support from both parties. Most members of Congress had relatively moderate voting records, with regional differences within parties that made bipartisanship on many issues more likely.
In the early 1980s, Republican president Ronald Reagan (left) and Democratic Speaker of the House Tip O’Neil (right) worked together to pass key pieces of legislation, even though they opposed each other on several issues. (credit: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum)
For example, until the 1980s, northern and midwestern Republicans were often fairly progressive, supporting racial equality, workers’ rights, and farm subsidies. Southern Democrats were frequently quite socially and racially conservative and were strong supporters of states’ rights. Cross-party cooperation on these issues was fairly frequent. But in the past few decades, the number of moderates in both houses of Congress has declined. This has made it more difficult for party leadership to work together on a range of important issues, and for members of the minority party in Congress to find policy agreement with an opposing party president.
The Implications of Polarization
The past thirty years have brought a dramatic change in the relationship between the two parties as fewer conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans have been elected to office. As political moderates, or individuals with ideologies in the middle of the ideological spectrum, leave the political parties at all levels, the parties have grown farther apart ideologically, a result called party polarization. In other words, at least organizationally and in government, Republicans and Democrats have become increasingly dissimilar from one another. In the party-ingovernment, this means fewer members of Congress have mixed voting records; instead they vote far more consistently on issues and are far more likely to side with their party leadership. (Note: Drew Desilver, "The Polarized Congress of Today Has Its Roots in the 1970s," 12 June 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/
2014/06/12/polarized-politics-in-congress-began-in-the-1970s-and-has-been-getting-worse-ever-since/ (March 16, 2016).)
It also means a growing number of moderate voters aren’t participating in party politics. Either they are becoming independents, or they are participating only in the general election and are therefore not helping select party candidates in primaries.
The number of moderates has dropped since 1973 as both parties have moved toward ideological extremes.
What is most interesting about this shift to increasingly polarized parties is that it does not appear to have happened as a result of the structural reforms recommended by APSA. Rather, it has happened because moderate politicians have simply found it harder and harder to win elections. There are many conflicting theories about the causes of polarization, some of which we discuss below. But whatever its origin, party polarization in the United States does not appear to have had the net positive effects that the APSA committee was hoping for. With the exception of providing voters with more distinct choices, positives of polarization are hard to find. The negative impacts are many. For one thing, rather than reducing interparty conflict, polarization appears to have only amplified it. For example, the Republican Party (or the GOP, standing for Grand Old Party) has historically been a coalition of two key and overlapping factions: pro-business rightists and social conservatives. The GOP has held the coalition of these two groups together by opposing programs designed to redistribute wealth (and advocating small government) while at the same time arguing for laws preferred by conservative Christians. But it was also willing to compromise with pro-business Democrats, often at the expense of social issues, if it meant protecting long-term business interests.
Recently, however, a new voice has emerged that has allied itself with the Republican Party. Born in part from an older third-party movement known as the Libertarian Party, the Tea Party is more hostile to government and views government intervention in all forms, and especially taxation and the regulation of business, as a threat to capitalism and democracy. It is less willing to tolerate interventions in the market place, even when they are designed to protect the markets themselves. Although an anti-tax faction within the Republican Party has existed for some time, some factions of the Tea Party movement are also active at the intersection of religious liberty and social issues, especially in opposing such initiatives as same-sex marriage and abortion rights. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion," 23 February 2011, http://www.pewforum.org/2011/02/23/tea-party-and-religion/ (March 16, 2016).) The Tea Party has argued that government, both directly and by neglect, is threatening the ability of evangelicals to observe their moral obligations, including practices some perceive as endorsing social exclusion.
Although the Tea Party is a movement and not a political party, 86 percent of Tea Party members who voted in
2012 cast their votes for Republicans. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion.") Some members of the Republican Party are closely affiliated with the movement, and before the 2012 elections, Tea Party activist Grover Norquist exacted promises from many Republicans in Congress that they would oppose any bill that sought to raise taxes. (Note: Paul Waldman, "Nearly All the GOP Candidates Bow Down to Grover Norquist, The Washington Post, 13 August 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2015/08/13/nearly-all-the-gop-candidates-bowdown-to-grover-norquist/ (March 1, 2016).) The inflexibility of Tea Party members has led to tense floor debates and was ultimately responsible for the 2014 primary defeat of Republican majority leader Eric Cantor and the 2015 resignation of the sitting Speaker of the House John Boehner. In 2015, Chris Christie, John Kasich, Ben Carson, Marco Rubio, and Ted Cruz, all of whom were Republican presidential candidates, signed Norquist’s pledge as well.
Vying for the Republican nomination, 2016 presidential candidates Ted Cruz (a) and John Kasich (b), like many other Republicans, signed a pledge not to raise taxes if elected.
Movements on the left have also arisen. The Occupy Wall Street movement was born of the government’s response to the Great Recession of 2008 and its assistance to endangered financial institutions, provided through the Troubled Asset Relief Program, TARP. The Occupy Movement believed the recession was caused by a failure of the government to properly regulate the banking industry. The Occupiers further maintained that the government moved swiftly to protect the banking industry from the worst of the recession but largely failed to protect the average person, thereby worsening the growing economic inequality in the United States.
On September 30, 2011, Occupy Wall Street protesters marched to the headquarters of the New York Police Department to protest police brutality that occurred in response to the movement’s occupation of Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan. (credit: modification of work by David Shankbone)
While the Occupy Movement itself has largely fizzled, the anti-business sentiment to which it gave voice continues within the Democratic Party, and many Democrats have proclaimed their support for the movement and its ideals, if not for its tactics. (Note: Beth Fouhy, "Occupy Wall Street and Democrats Remain Wary of Each Other," Huffington Post, 17 November 2011.) Champions of the left wing of the Democratic Party, however, such as presidential candidate Senator Bernie Sanders and Massachusetts Senator Elizabeth Warren, have ensured that the Occupy Movement’s calls for more social spending and higher taxes on the wealthy remain a prominent part of the national debate. Their popularity, and the growing visibility of race issues in the United States, have helped sustain the left wing of the Democratic Party. Bernie Sanders’ presidential run made these topics and causes even more salient, especially among younger voters. To date, however, the Occupy Movement has had fewer electoral effects than has the Tea Party. Yet, as manifested in Sanders’ candidacy, it has the potential to affect races at lower levels in the 2016 national elections.
Unfortunately, party factions haven’t been the only result of party polarization. By most measures, the U.S. government in general and Congress in particular have become less effective in recent years. Congress has passed fewer pieces of legislation, confirmed fewer appointees, and been less effective at handling the national purse than in recent memory. If we define effectiveness as legislative productivity, the 106th Congress
(1999–2000) passed 463 pieces of substantive legislation (not including commemorative legislation, such as bills proclaiming an official doughnut of the United States). The 107th Congress (2000–2001) passed 294 such pieces of legislation. By 2013–2014, the total had fallen to 212. (Note: Drew Desilver, "In Late Spurt of Activity, Congress Avoids ‘Least Productive’ Title," 29 December 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/29/in-latespurt-of-activity-congress-avoids-least-productive-title/ (March 16, 2016).)
Perhaps the clearest sign of Congress’ ineffectiveness is that the threat of government shutdown has become a constant. Shutdowns occur when Congress and the president are unable to authorize and appropriate funds before the current budget runs out. This is now an annual problem. Relations between the two parties became so bad that financial markets were sent into turmoil in 2014 when Congress failed to increase the government’s line of credit before a key deadline, thus threatening a U.S. government default on its loans. While any particular trend can be the result of multiple factors, the decline of key measures of institutional confidence and trust suggest the negative impact of polarization. Public approval ratings for Congress have been near single digits for several years, and a poll taken in February 2016 revealed that only 11 percent of respondents thought Congress was doing a “good or excellent job.” (Note: "Congressional Performance," http://www.rasmussenreports.com/ public_content/politics/mood_of_america/congressional_performance (March 16, 2016).) President Obama’s average approval rating has remained low, despite an overall trend of economic growth since the end of the 2008 recession. (Note: "Presidential Approval Ratings – Barack Obama," http://www.gallup.com/poll/116479/barackobama-presidential-job-approval.aspx (March 16, 2016).) Typically, economic conditions are a significant driver of presidential approval, suggesting the negative effect of partisanship on presidential approval.
The Causes of Polarization
Scholars agree that some degree of polarization is occurring in the United States, even if some contend it is only at the elite level. But they are less certain about exactly why, or how, polarization has become such a mainstay of American politics. Several conflicting theories have been offered. The first and perhaps best argument is that polarization is a party-in-government phenomenon driven by a decades-long sorting of the voting public, or a change in party allegiance in response to shifts in party position. (Note: Morris Fiorina, "Americans Have Not Become More Politically Polarized," The Washington Post, 23 June 2014.) According to the sorting thesis, before the 1950s, voters were mostly concerned with state-level party positions rather than national party concerns. Since parties are bottom-up institutions, this meant local issues dominated elections; it also meant national-level politicians typically paid more attention to local problems than to national party politics.
But over the past several decades, voters have started identifying more with national-level party politics, and they began to demand their elected representatives become more attentive to national party positions. As a result, they have become more likely to pick parties that consistently represent national ideals, are more consistent in their candidate selection, and are more willing to elect office-holders likely to follow their party’s national agenda. One example of the way social change led to party sorting revolves around race.
The Democratic Party returned to national power in the 1930s largely as the result of a coalition among low socioeconomic status voters in northern and midwestern cities. These new Democratic voters were religiously and ethnically more diverse than the mostly white, mostly Protestant voters who supported Republicans. But the southern United States (often called the “Solid South”) had been largely dominated by Democratic politicians since the Civil War. These politicians agreed with other Democrats on most issues, but they were more evangelical in their religious beliefs and less tolerant on racial matters. The federal nature of the United States meant that Democrats in other parts of the country were free to seek alliances with minorities in their states. But in the South, African Americans were still largely disenfranchised well after Franklin Roosevelt had brought other groups into the Democratic tent.
The Democratic alliance worked relatively well through the 1930s and 1940s when post-Depression politics revolved around supporting farmers and helping the unemployed. But in the late 1950s and early 1960s, social issues became increasingly prominent in national politics. Southern Democrats, who had supported giving the federal government authority for economic redistribution, began to resist calls for those powers to be used to restructure society. Many of these Democrats broke away from the party only to find a home among Republicans, who were willing to help promote smaller national government and greater states’ rights. (Note: Ian Haney-Lopez, "How the GOP Became the ‘White Man’s Party,’" 22 December 2013, https://www.salon.com/2013/12/22/ how_the_gop_became_the_white_mans_party/ (March 16, 2016).) This shift was largely completed with the rise of the evangelical movement in politics, when it shepherded its supporters away from Jimmy Carter, an evangelical Christian, to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election.
At the same time social issues were turning the Solid South towards the Republican Party, they were having the opposite effect in the North and West. Moderate Republicans, who had been champions of racial equality since the time of Lincoln, worked with Democrats to achieve social reform. These Republicans found it increasing difficult to remain in their party as it began to adjust to the growing power of the small government–states’ rights movement. A good example was Senator Arlen Specter, a moderate Republican who represented Pennsylvania and ultimately switched to become a Democrat before the end of his political career.
A second possible culprit in increased polarization is the impact of technology on the public square. Before the 1950s, most people got their news from regional newspapers and local radio stations. While some national programming did exist, most editorial control was in the hands of local publishers and editorial boards. These groups served as a filter of sorts as they tried to meet the demands of local markets.
As described in detail in the media chapter, the advent of television changed that. Television was a powerful tool, with national news and editorial content that provided the same message across the country. All viewers saw the same images of the women’s rights movement and the war in Vietnam. The expansion of news coverage to cable, and the consolidation of local news providers into big corporate conglomerates, amplified this nationalization. Average citizens were just as likely to learn what it meant to be a Republican from a politician in another state as from one in their own, and national news coverage made it much more difficult for politicians to run away from their votes. The information explosion that followed the heyday of network TV by way of cable, the Internet, and blogs has furthered this nationalization trend.
A final possible cause for polarization is the increasing sophistication of gerrymandering, or the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate. According to the gerrymandering thesis, the more moderate or heterogeneous a voting district, the more moderate the politician’s behavior once in office. Taking extreme or one-sided positions on a large number of issues would be hazardous for a member who needs to build a diverse electoral coalition. But if the district has been drawn to favor a particular group, it now is necessary for the elected official to serve only the portion of the constituency that dominates.
This cartoon, which inspired the term gerrymander, was printed in the Boston Gazette on March 26, 1812, after the Massachusetts legislature redistricted the state to favor the party of the sitting governor, Elbridge Gerry.
Gerrymandering is a centuries-old practice. There has always been an incentive for legislative bodies to draw districts in such a way that sitting legislators have the best chance of keeping their jobs. But changes in law and technology have transformed gerrymandering from a crude art into a science. The first advance came with the introduction of the “one-person-one-vote” principle by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1962. Before then, it was common for many states to practice redistricting, or redrawing of their electoral maps, only if they gained or lost seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. This can happen once every ten years as a result of a constitutionally mandated reapportionment process, in which the number of House seats given to each state is adjusted to account for population changes.
But if there was no change in the number of seats, there was little incentive to shift district boundaries. After all, if a legislator had won election based on the current map, any change to the map could make losing seats more likely. Even when reapportionment led to new maps, most legislators were more concerned with protecting their own seats than with increasing the number of seats held by their party. As a result, some districts had gone decades without significant adjustment, even as the U.S. population changed from largely rural to largely urban. By the early 1960s, some electoral districts had populations several times greater than those of their more rural neighbors.
However, in its one-person-one-vote decision in Reynolds v. Simms (1964), the Supreme Court argued that everyone’s vote should count roughly the same regardless of where they lived. (Note: Reynolds v. Simms, 379 U.S. 870 (1964).) Districts had to be adjusted so they would have roughly equal populations. Several states therefore had to make dramatic changes to their electoral maps during the next two redistricting cycles
(1970–1972 and 1980–1982). Map designers, no longer certain how to protect individual party members, changed tactics to try and create safe seats so members of their party could be assured of winning by a comfortable margin. The basic rule of thumb was that designers sought to draw districts in which their preferred party had a 55 percent or better chance of winning a given district, regardless of which candidate the party nominated.
Of course, many early efforts at post-Reynolds gerrymandering were crude since map designers had no good way of knowing exactly where partisans lived. At best, designers might have a rough idea of voting patterns between precincts, but they lacked the ability to know voting patterns in individual blocks or neighborhoods. They also had to contend with the inherent mobility of the U.S. population, which meant the most carefully drawn maps could be obsolete just a few years later. Designers were often forced to use crude proxies for party, such as race or the socio-economic status of a neighborhood. Some maps were so crude they were ruled unconstitutionally discriminatory by the courts.
Examples of gerrymandering in Texas, where the Republican-controlled legislature redrew House districts to reduce the number of Democratic seats by combining voters in Austin with those near the border, several hundred miles away. Today, Austin is represented by six different congressional representatives.
Proponents of the gerrymandering thesis point out that the decline in the number of moderate voters began during this period of increased redistricting. But it wasn’t until later, they argue, that the real effects could be seen. A second advance in redistricting, via computer-aided map making, truly transformed gerrymandering into a science. Refined computing technology, the ability to collect data about potential voters, and the use of advanced algorithms have given map makers a good deal of certainty about where to place district boundaries to best predetermine the outcomes. These factors also provided better predictions about future population shifts, making the effects of gerrymandering more stable over time. Proponents argue that this increased efficiency in map drawing has led to the disappearance of moderates in Congress.
According to political scientist Nolan McCarty, there is little evidence to support the redistricting hypothesis alone.
First, he argues, the Senate has become polarized just as the House of Representatives has, but people vote for Senators on a statewide basis. There are no gerrymandered voting districts in elections for senators. Research showing that more partisan candidates first win election to the House before then running successfully for the Senate, however, helps us understand how the Senate can also become partisan. (Note: Sean Theriault. 2013.
The Gingrich Senators: The Roots of Partisan Warfare in Congress. New York: Oxford University
Press.) Furthermore, states like Wyoming and Vermont, which have only one Representative and thus elect House members on a statewide basis as well, have consistently elected people at the far ends of the ideological spectrum. (Note: Nolan McCarty, "Hate Our Polarized Politics? Why You Can’t Blame Gerrymandering," The Washington Post, 26 October 2012.) Redistricting did contribute to polarization in the House of Representatives, but it took place largely in districts that had undergone significant change. (Note: Jamie L. Carson et al.,
"Redistricting and Party Polarization in the U.S. House of Representatives," American Politics Research 35, no. 6 (2007): 878–904.)
Furthermore, polarization has been occurring throughout the country, but the use of increasingly polarized district design has not. While some states have seen an increase in these practices, many states were already largely dominated by a single party (such as in the Solid South) but still elected moderate representatives. Some parts of the country have remained closely divided between the two parties, making overt attempts at gerrymandering difficult. But when coupled with the sorting phenomenon discussed above, redistricting probably is contributing to polarization, if only at the margins.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
6.5 Interest Groups
INTEREST GROUPS
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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While the term interest group is not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution, the framers were aware that individuals would band together in an attempt to use government in their favor. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison warned of the dangers of “factions,” minorities who would organize around issues they felt strongly about, possibly to the detriment of the majority. But Madison believed limiting these factions was worse than facing the evils they might produce, because such limitations would violate individual freedoms. Instead, the natural way to control factions was to let them flourish and compete against each other. The sheer number of interests in the United States suggests that many have, indeed, flourished. They compete with similar groups for membership, and with opponents for access to decision-makers. Some people suggest there may be too many interests in the United States. Others argue that some have gained a disproportionate amount of influence over public policy, whereas many others are underrepresented.
Madison’s definition of factions can apply to both interest groups and political parties. But unlike political parties, interest groups do not function primarily to elect candidates under a certain party label or to directly control the operation of the government. Political parties in the United States are generally much broader coalitions that represent a significant proportion of citizens. In the American two-party system, the Democratic and Republican Parties spread relatively wide nets to try to encompass large segments of the population. In contrast, while interest groups may support or oppose political candidates, their goals are usually more issue-specific and narrowly focused on areas like taxes, the environment, and gun rights or gun control, or their membership is limited to specific professions. They may represent interests ranging from well-known organizations, such as the Sierra Club, IBM, or the American Lung Association, to obscure ones, such as the North Carolina Gamefowl Breeders Association. Thus, with some notable exceptions, specific interest groups have much more limited membership than do political parties.
Political parties and interest groups both work together and compete for influence, although in different ways. While interest group activity often transcends party lines, many interests are perceived as being more supportive of one party than the other. The American Conservative Union, Citizens United, the National Rifle Association, and National Right to Life are more likely to have relationships with Republican lawmakers than with Democratic ones. Americans for Democratic Action, Moveon.org, and the Democratic Governors Association all have stronger relationships with the Democratic Party. Parties and interest groups do compete with each other, however, often for influence. At the state level, we typically observe an inverse relationship between them in terms of power. Interest groups tend to have greater influence in states where political parties are comparatively weaker.
What Are Interest Groups and What Do They Want?
Definitions abound when it comes to interest groups, which are sometimes referred to as special interests, interest organizations, pressure groups, or just interests. Most definitions specify that interest group indicates any formal association of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and/ or the making of public policy. Often, this influence is exercised by a lobbyist or a lobbying firm.
Formally, a lobbyist is someone who represents the interest organization before government, is usually compensated for doing so, and is required to register with the government in which he or she lobbies, whether state or federal. The lobbyist’s primary goal is usually to influence policy. Most interest organizations engage in lobbying activity to achieve their objectives. As you might expect, the interest hires a lobbyist, employs one internally, or has a member volunteer to lobby on its behalf. For present purposes, we might restrict our definition to the relatively broad one in the Lobbying Disclosure Act. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes. 2013. Interest Groups in American Politics. Routledge: New York.) This act requires the registration of lobbyists representing any interest group and devoting more than 20 percent of their time to it. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American
Politics.) Clients and lobbying firms must also register with the federal government based on similar requirements. Moreover, campaign finance laws require disclosure of campaign contributions given to political candidates by organizations.
Lobbying is not limited to Washington, DC, however, and many interests lobby there as well as in one or more states. Each state has its own laws describing which individuals and entities must register, so the definitions of lobbyists and interests, and of what lobbying is and who must register to do it, also vary from state to state. Therefore, while a citizen contacting a lawmaker to discuss an issue is generally not viewed as lobbying, an organization that devotes a certain amount of time and resources to contacting lawmakers may be classified as lobbying, depending on local, state, or federal law.
Largely for this reason, there is no comprehensive list of all interest groups to tell us how many there are in the United States. Estimates of the number vary widely, suggesting that if we use a broad definition and include all interests at all levels of government, there may be more than 200,000. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) Following the passage of the Lobbying Disclosure Act in 1995, we had a much better understanding of the number of interests registered in Washington, DC; however, it was not until several years later that we had a complete count and categorization of the interests registered in each of the fifty states. (Note: Jennifer Wolak, Adam J. Newmark, Todd McNoldy, David Lowery, and Virginia Gray, "Much of Politics is Still Local: Multistate Representation in State Interest Communities," Legislative Studies Quarterly 27 (2002): 527–555.) Political scientists have categorized interest groups in a number of ways. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes and Adam J. Newmark. 2013. "Interest Groups in the States." In Politics in the American States. Washington, DC:
CQ Press, 105–131.)
First, interest groups may take the form of membership organizations, which individuals join voluntarily and to which they usually pay dues. Membership groups often consist of people who have common issues or concerns, or who want to be with others who share their views. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a membership group consisting of members who promote gun rights. For those who advocate greater regulation of access to firearms, such as background checks prior to gun purchases, the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence is a membership organization that weighs in on the other side of the issue. (Note: The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence was founded by James and Sarah Brady, after James Brady was permanently disabled by a gunshot following an assassination attempt on then-president Ronald Reagan. At the time of the shooting, Brady was Reagan’s press secretary. http://www.bradycampaign.org/jim-and-sarah-brady (March 1, 2016).)
A Florida member of the NRA proudly displays his support of gun rights (a). In December 2012, CREDO, a San Francisco telecommunications company that supports progressive causes, called on the NRA to stop blocking Congress from passing gun control legislation (b). (credit a: modification of work by Daniel Oines; credit b: modification of work by Josh Lopez)
Interest groups may also form to represent companies, corporate organizations, and governments. These groups do not have individual members but rather are offshoots of corporate or governmental entities with a compelling interest to be represented in front of one or more branches of government. Verizon and Coca-Cola will register to lobby in order to influence policy in a way that benefits them. These corporations will either have one or more inhouse lobbyists, who work for one interest group or firm and represent their organization in a lobbying capacity, and/or will hire a contract lobbyist, individuals who work for firms that represent a multitude of clients and are often hired because of their resources and their ability to contact and lobby lawmakers, to represent them before the legislature.
Governments such as municipalities and executive departments such as the Department of Education register to lobby in an effort to maximize their share of budgets or increase their level of autonomy. These government institutions are represented by a legislative liaison, whose job is to present issues to decision-makers. For example, a state university usually employs a lobbyist, legislative liaison, or government affairs person to represent its interests before the legislature. This includes lobbying for a given university’s share of the budget or for its continued autonomy from lawmakers and other state-level officials who may attempt to play a greater oversight role.
In 2015, thirteen states had their higher education budgets cut from the previous year, and nearly all states have seen some cuts to higher education funding since the recession began in 2008. (Note: Michael Mitchell and Michael Leachman, "Years of Cuts Threaten to Put College Out of Reach for More Students," Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 13 May 2015, http://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/years-of-cuts-threaten-toput-college-out-of-reach-for-more-students.) In 2015, as in many states, universities and community colleges in Mississippi lobbied the legislature over pending budget cuts. (Note: Robert Davidson, "Higher Ed Lobbies for More Funds," http://www.wcbi.com/local-news/higher-ed-lobbies-for-more-funds/ (November 3, 2015).) These examples highlight the need for universities and state university systems to have representation before the legislature. On the federal level, universities may lobby for research funds from government departments. For example, the Departments of Defense and Homeland Security may be willing to fund scientific research that might better enable them to defend the nation.
Interest groups also include associations, which are typically groups of institutions that join with others, often within the same trade or industry (trade associations), and have similar concerns. The American Beverage Association (Note: http://www.ameribev.org/ (March 1, 2016).) includes Coca-Cola, Red Bull North America, ROCKSTAR, and Kraft Foods. Despite the fact that these companies are competitors, they have common interests related to the manufacturing, bottling, and distribution of beverages, as well as the regulation of their business activities. The logic is that there is strength in numbers, and if members can lobby for tax breaks or eased regulations for an entire industry, they may all benefit. These common goals do not, however, prevent individual association members from employing in-house lobbyists or contract lobbying firms to represent their own business or organization as well. Indeed, many members of associations are competitors who also seek representation individually before the legislature.
Finally, sometimes individuals volunteer to represent an organization. They are called amateur or volunteer lobbyists, and are typically not compensated for their lobbying efforts. In some cases, citizens may lobby for pet projects because they care about some issue or cause. They may or may not be members of an interest group, but if they register to lobby, they are sometimes nicknamed “hobbyists.”
Lobbyists representing a variety of organizations employ different techniques to achieve their objectives. One method is inside lobbying or direct lobbying, which takes the interest group’s message directly to a government official such as a lawmaker. (Note: Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") Inside lobbying tactics include testifying in legislative hearings and helping to draft legislation. Numerous surveys of lobbyists have confirmed that the vast majority rely on these inside strategies. For example, nearly all report that they contact lawmakers, testify before the legislature, help draft legislation, and contact executive agencies. Trying to influence government appointments or providing favors to members of government are somewhat less common insider tactics.
Many lobbyists also use outside lobbying or indirect lobbying tactics, whereby the interest attempts to get its message out to the public. (Note: Ken Kollman. 1998. Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Groups Strategies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.) These tactics include issuing press releases, placing stories and articles in the media, entering coalitions with other groups, and contacting interest group members, hoping that they will individually pressure lawmakers to support or oppose legislation. An environmental interest group like the Sierra Club, for example, might issue a press release or encourage its members to contact their representatives in Congress about legislation of concern to the group. It might also use outside tactics if there is a potential threat to the environment and the group wants to raise awareness among its members and the public. Members of Congress are likely to pay attention when many constituents contact them about an issue or proposed bill. Many interest groups, including the Sierra Club, will use a combination of inside and outside tactics in their lobbying efforts, choosing whatever strategy is most likely to help them achieve their goals.
In February 2013, members of the Sierra Club joined a march on Los Angeles City Hall to demand action on climate change and protest the development of the Keystone pipeline. (credit: Charlie Kaijo)
The primary goal of most interests, no matter their lobbying approach, is to influence decision-makers and public policies. For example, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, lobbies to encourage government to enact laws that restrict abortion access, while NARAL Pro-Choice America lobbies to promote the right of women to have safe choices about abortion. Environmental interests like the Sierra Club lobby for laws designed to protect natural resources and minimize the use of pollutants. On the other hand, some interests lobby to reduce regulations that an organization might view as burdensome. Air and water quality regulations designed to improve or protect the environment may be viewed as onerous by industries that pollute as a byproduct of their production or manufacturing process. Other interests lobby for budgetary allocations; the farm lobby, for example, pressures Congress to secure new farm subsidies or maintain existing ones. Farm subsidies are given to some farmers because they grow certain crops and to other farmers so they will not grow certain crops. (Note: "Milking Taxpayers," The Economist, 14 February 2015, http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21643191-cropprices-fall-farmers-grow-subsidies-instead-milking-taxpayers.) As expected, any bill that might attempt to alter these subsidies raises the antennae of many agricultural interests.
Interest Group Functions
While influencing policy is the primary goal, interest groups also monitor government activity, serve as a means of political participation for members, and provide information to the public and to lawmakers. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, by November 2015, thirty-six states had laws requiring that voters provide identification at the polls. (Note: http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id.aspx (November 78, 2015).)
A civil rights group like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) will keep track of proposed voter-identification bills in state legislatures that might have an effect on voting rights. This organization will contact lawmakers to voice approval or disapproval of proposed legislation (inside lobbying) and encourage group members to take action by either donating money to it or contacting lawmakers about the proposed bill (outside lobbying). Thus, a member of the organization or a citizen concerned about voting rights need not be an expert on the legislative process or the technical or legal details of a proposed bill to be informed about potential threats to voting rights. Other interest groups function in similar ways. For example, the NRA monitors attempts by state legislatures to tighten gun control laws.
Interest groups facilitate political participation in a number of ways. Some members become active within a group, working on behalf of the organization to promote its agenda. Some interests work to increase membership, inform the public about issues the group deems important, or organize rallies and promote get-out-the-vote efforts. Sometimes groups will utilize events to mobilize existing members or encourage new members to join. For example, following Barack Obama’s presidential victory in 2008, the NRA used the election as a rallying cry for its supporters, and it continues to attack the president on the issue of guns, despite the fact that gun rights have in some ways expanded over the course of the Obama presidency. Interest groups also organize letter-writing campaigns, stage protests, and sometimes hold fundraisers for their cause or even for political campaigns.
Some interests are more broadly focused than others. AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) has approximately thirty-seven million members and advocates for individuals fifty and over on a variety of issues including health care, insurance, employment, financial security, and consumer protection. (Note: http://www.aarp.org/about-aarp/ (October 3, 2015).)
This organization represents both liberals and conservatives, Democrats and Republicans, and many who do not identify with these categorizations. On the other hand, the Association of Black Cardiologists is a much smaller and far-narrower organization. Over the last several decades, some interest groups have sought greater specialization and have even fragmented. As you may imagine, the Association of Black Cardiologists is more specialized than the American Medical Association, which tries to represent all physicians regardless of race or specialty.
Health care is an important concern for AARP and its members, so the organization makes sure to maintain connections with key policymakers in this area, such as Katherine Sebelius, secretary of Health and Human Services from 2009 to 2014, shown here with John Rother, director of legislation and public policy for AARP. (credit: modification of work by Chris Smith, HHS)
Public vs. Private Interest Groups
Interest groups and organizations represent both private and public interests in the United States. Private interests usually seek particularized benefits from government that favor either a single interest or a narrow set of interests. For example, corporations and political institutions may lobby government for tax exemptions, fewer regulations, or favorable laws that benefit individual companies or an industry more generally. Their goal is to promote private goods. Private goods are items individuals can own, including corporate profits. An automobile is a private good; when you purchase it, you receive ownership. Wealthy individuals are more likely to accumulate private goods, and they can sometimes obtain private goods from governments, such as tax benefits, government subsidies, or government contracts.
On the other hand, public interest groups attempt to promote public, or collective, goods. Such collective goods are benefits—tangible or intangible—that help most or all citizens. These goods are often produced collectively, and because they may not be profitable and everyone may not agree on what public goods are best for society, they are often underfunded and thus will be underproduced unless there is government involvement. The Tennessee Valley Authority, a government corporation, provides electricity in some places where it is not profitable for private firms to do so. Other examples of collective goods are public safety, highway safety, public education, and environmental protection. With some exceptions, if an environmental interest promotes clean air or water, most or all citizens are able to enjoy the result. So if the Sierra Club encourages Congress to pass legislation that improves national air quality, citizens receive the benefit regardless of whether they are members of the organization or even support the legislation. Many environmental groups are public interest groups that lobby for and raise awareness of issues that affect large segments of the population. (Note: Jeffrey M. Berry and Clyde Wilcox. 2009. The Interest Group Society. New York: Pearson.)
As the clean air example above suggests, collective goods are generally nonexcludable, meaning all or most people are entitled to the public good and cannot be prevented from enjoying it. Furthermore, collective goods are generally not subject to crowding, so that even as the population increases, people still have access to the entire public good. Thus, the military does not protect citizens only in Texas and Maryland while neglecting those in New York and Idaho, but instead it provides the collective good of national defense equally to citizens in all states. As another example, even as more cars use a public roadway, under most circumstances, additional drivers still have the option of using the same road. (High-occupancy vehicle lanes may restrict some lanes of a highway for drivers who do not car pool.)
Influence in Elections
Interest groups support candidates who are sympathetic to their views in hopes of gaining access to them once they are in office. (Note: John R. Wright. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon; Mark J. Rozell, Clyde Wilcox, and Michael M. Franz. 2012.
Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering. New York: Oxford University
Press.) For example, an organization like the NRA will back candidates who support Second Amendment rights. Both the NRA and the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence (an interest group that favors background checks for firearm purchases) have grading systems that evaluate candidates and states based on their records of supporting these organizations. (Note: https://www.nrapvf.org/grades/; http://www.bradycampaign.org/ 2013-state-scorecard (March 1, 2016).)
To garner the support of the NRA, candidates must receive an A+ rating for the group. In much the same way, Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal interest group, and the American Conservative Union, a conservative interest group, both rate politicians based on their voting records on issues these organizations view as important. (Note: http://www.adaction.org/pages/publications/voting-records.php; http://acuratings.conservative.org/ (March 1, 2016).) These ratings, and those of many other groups, are useful for interests and the public in deciding which candidates to support and which to oppose. Incumbents have electoral advantages in terms of name recognition, experience, and fundraising abilities, and they often receive support because interest groups want access to the candidate who is likely to win. Some interest groups will offer support to the challenger, particularly if the challenger better aligns with the interest’s views or the incumbent is vulnerable. Sometimes, interest groups even hedge their bets and give to both major party candidates for a particular office in the hopes of having access regardless of who wins.
Some interests groups form political action committees (PACs), groups that collect funds from donors and distribute them to candidates who support their issues. As the chart below makes apparent, many large corporations like Honeywell International, AT&T, and Lockheed Martin form PACs to distribute money to candidates. (Note: https://www.opensecrets.org/pacs/ (March 1, 2016).) Other PACs are either politically or ideologically oriented. For example, the MoveOn.org PAC is a progressive group that formed following the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton, whereas GOPAC is a Republican PAC that promotes state and local candidates of that party. PACs are limited in the amount of money that they can contribute to individual candidates or to national party organizations; they can contribute no more than $5,000 per candidate per election and no more than $15,000 a year to a national political party. Individual contributions to PACs are also limited to $5,000 a year.
Corporations and associations spend large amounts of money on elections via affiliated PACs. This chart reveals the amount donated to Democratic (blue) and Republican (red) candidates by the top ten PACs during the most recent election cycle.
PACs through which corporations and unions can spend virtually unlimited amounts of money on behalf of political candidates are called super PACs. (Note: Conor M. Dowling and Michael G. Miller. 2014. Super PAC! Money, Elections, and Voters after Citizens United. New York: Routledge.) As a result of a 2010 Supreme Court decision, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, there is no limit to how much money unions or corporations can donate to super PACs. Unlike PACs, however, super PACs cannot contribute money directly to individual candidates. If the 2014 elections were any indication, super PACs will continue to spend large sums of money in an attempt to influence future election results.
Influencing Governmental Policy
Interest groups support candidates in order to have access to lawmakers once they are in office. Lawmakers, for their part, lack the time and resources to pursue every issue; they are policy generalists. Therefore, they (and their staff members) rely on interest groups and lobbyists to provide them with information about the technical details of policy proposals, as well as about fellow lawmakers’ stands and constituents’ perceptions. These voting cues give lawmakers an indication of how to vote on issues, particularly those with which they are unfamiliar. But lawmakers also rely on lobbyists for information about ideas they can champion and that will benefit them when they run for reelection. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence.)
Interest groups likely cannot target all 535 lawmakers in both the House and the Senate, nor would they wish to do so. There is little reason for the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence to lobby members of Congress who vehemently oppose any restrictions on gun access. Instead, the organization will often contact lawmakers who are amenable to some restrictions on access to firearms. Thus, interest groups first target lawmakers they think will consider introducing or sponsoring legislation.
Second, they target members of relevant committees. (Note: Richard L. Hall and Frank W. Wayman, "Buying
Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees," American Political Science Review 84.3 (1990): 797-820.) If a company that makes weapons systems wants to influence a defense bill, it will lobby members of the Armed Services Committees in the House and the Senate or the House and Senate appropriations committees if the bill requires new funding. Many members of these committees represent congressional districts with military bases, so they often sponsor or champion bills that allow them to promote policies popular with their districts or state. Interest groups attempt to use this to their advantage. But they also conduct strategic targeting because legislatures function by respectfully considering fellow lawmakers’ positions. Since lawmakers cannot possess expertise on every issue, they defer to their trusted colleagues on issues with which they are unfamiliar. So targeting committee members also allows the lobbyist to inform other lawmakers indirectly.
Third, interest groups target lawmakers when legislation is on the floor of the House and/or Senate, but again, they rely on the fact that many members will defer to their colleagues who are more familiar with a given issue. Finally, since legislation must past both chambers in identical form, interest groups may target members of the conference committees whose job it is to iron out differences across the chambers. At this negotiation stage, a 1 percent difference in, say, the corporate income tax rate could mean millions of dollars in increased or decreased revenue or taxation for various interests.
Interest groups also target the budgetary process in order to maximize benefits to their group. In some cases, their aim is to influence the portion of the budget allocated to a given policy, program, or policy area. For example, interests for groups that represent the poor may lobby for additional appropriations for various welfare programs; those interests opposed to government assistance to the poor may lobby for reduced funding to certain programs. It is likely that the legislative liaison for your university or college spends time trying to advocate for budgetary allocations in your state.
Interest groups also try to defeat legislation that may be detrimental to their views. For example, when Congress considers legislation to improve air quality, it is not unusual for some industries to oppose it if it requires additional regulations on factory emissions. In some cases, proposed legislation may serve as a disturbance, resulting in group formation or mobilization to help defeat the bill. For example, a proposed tax increase may result in the formation or mobilization of anti-tax groups that will lobby the legislature and try to encourage the public to oppose the proposed legislation. Prior to the election in 2012, political activist Grover Norquist, the founder of Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), asked all Republican members of Congress to sign a “Taxpayer Protection Pledge” that they would fight efforts to raise taxes or to eliminate any deductions that were not accompanied by tax cuts. Ninety-five percent of the Republicans in Congress signed the pledge. (Note: Sean Lengell, "Boehner: Grover Norquist Just a ‘Random’ Guy," Washington Times, 3 November 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/blog/ inside-politics/2011/nov/3/boehner-grover-norquist-just-random-guy/.) Some interests arise solely to defeat legislation and go dormant after they achieve their immediate objectives.
Once legislation has been passed, interest groups may target the executive branch of government, whose job is to implement the law. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has some leeway in providing care for military veterans, and interests representing veterans’ needs may pressure this department to address their concerns or issues. Other entities within the executive branch, like the Securities and Exchange Commission, which maintains and regulates financial markets, are not designed to be responsive to the interests they regulate, because to make such a response would be a conflict of interest. Interest groups may lobby the executive branch on executive, judicial, and other appointments that require Senate confirmation. As a result, interest group members may be appointed to positions in which they can influence proposed regulation of the industry of which they are a part.
In addition to lobbying the legislative and executive branches of government, many interest groups also lobby the judicial branch. Lobbying the judiciary takes two forms, the first of which was mentioned above. This is lobbying the executive branch about judicial appointments the president makes and lobbying the Senate to confirm these appointments. The second form of lobbying consists of filing amicus briefs, which are also known as “friend of the court” briefs. These documents present legal arguments stating why a given court should take a case and/or why a court should rule a certain way. In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the Supreme Court case that legalized samesex marriage nationwide, numerous interest groups filed amicus briefs. (Note: Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. ___ (2015).)
For example, the Human Rights Campaign filed a brief arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process and equal protection clauses required that same-sex couples be afforded the same rights to marry as oppositesex couples. In a 5–4 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed.
Members of the Human Rights Campaign, an interest that supports LGBT rights, march toward the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015, the day that the Obergefell v. Hodges decision is announced. (credit: modification of work by Matt Popovich)
Measuring the effect of interest groups’ influence is somewhat difficult because lobbyists support lawmakers who would likely have supported them in the first place. Thus, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, does not generally lobby lawmakers who favor abortion rights; instead, it supports lawmakers and candidates who have professed “pro-life” positions. While some scholars note that lobbyists sometimes try to influence those on the fence or even their enemies, most of the time, they support like-minded individuals. Thus, contributions are unlikely to sway lawmakers to change their views; what they do buy is access, including time with lawmakers. The problem for those trying to assess whether interest groups influence lawmakers, then, is that we are uncertain what would happen in the absence of interest group contributions. For example, we can only speculate what the ACA might have looked like had lobbyists from a host of interests not lobbied on the issue.
How are lobbying and interest group activity regulated? As we noted earlier in the chapter, James Madison viewed factions as a necessary evil and thought preventing people from joining together would be worse than any ills groups might cause. The First Amendment guarantees, among other things, freedom of speech, petition, and assembly. However, people have different views on how far this freedom extends. For example, should freedom of speech as afforded to individuals in the U.S. Constitution also apply to corporations and unions? To what extent can and should government restrict the activities of lobbyists and lawmakers, limiting who may lobby and how they may do it?
Interest Groups and Free Speech
Most people would agree that interest groups have a right under the Constitution to promote a particular point of view. What people do not necessarily agree upon, however, is the extent to which certain interest group and lobbying activities are protected under the First Amendment.
In addition to free speech rights, the First Amendment grants people the right to assemble. We saw above that pluralists even argued that assembling in groups is natural and that people will gravitate toward others with similar views. Most people acknowledge the right of others to assemble to voice unpopular positions, but this was not always the case. At various times, groups representing racial and religious minorities, communists, and members of the LGBT community have had their First Amendment rights to speech and assembly curtailed. And as noted above, organizations like the ACLU support free speech rights regardless of whether the speech is popular.
Today, the debate about interest groups often revolves around whether the First Amendment protects the rights of individuals and groups to give money, and whether government can regulate the use of this money. In 1971, the Federal Election Campaign Act was passed, setting limits on how much presidential and vice-presidential candidates and their families could donate to their own campaigns. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence; Rozell, Wilcox, and Franz, Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering.) The law also allowed corporations and unions to form PACs and required public disclosure of campaign contributions and their sources. In 1974, the act was amended in an attempt to limit the amount of money spent on congressional campaigns. The amended law banned the transfer of union, corporate, and trade association money to parties for distribution to campaigns.
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court upheld Congress’s right to regulate elections by restricting contributions to campaigns and candidates. However, at the same time, it overturned restrictions on expenditures by candidates and their families, as well as total expenditures by campaigns. (Note: Buckley v. Valeo, 75-436, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).) In 1979, an exemption was granted to get-out-the vote and grassroots voter registration drives, creating what has become known as the soft-money loophole; soft money was a way in which interests could spend money on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law. To close this loophole, Senators John McCain and Russell Feingold sponsored the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002 to ban parties from collecting and distributing unregulated money.
Some continued to argue that campaign expenditures are a form of speech, a position with which two recent
Supreme Court decisions are consistent. The Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (Note: Citizens
United v. Federal Election Commission, 08-205, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).) and the McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (Note: McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission, 12-536, 572 U.S. ___ (2014).) cases opened the door for a substantially greater flow of money into elections. Citizens United overturned the soft money ban of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections. Essentially, the Supreme Court argued in a 5–4 decision that these entities had free speech rights, much like individuals, and that free speech included campaign spending. The McCutcheon decision further extended spending allowances based on the First Amendment by striking down aggregate contribution limits. These limits put caps on the total contributions allowed and some say have contributed to a subsequent increase in groups and lobbying activities.
With his Harper’s Weekly cartoon of William “Boss” Tweed with a moneybag for a head, Thomas Nast provided an enduring image of the corrupting power of money on politics. Some denounce “fat cat” lobbyists and the effects of large sums of money in lobbying, while others suggest that interests have every right to spend money to achieve their objectives.
Regulating Lobbying and Interest Group Activity
While the Supreme Court has paved the way for increased spending in politics, lobbying is still regulated in many ways. (Note: Adam J. Newmark, "Measuring State Legislative Lobbying Regulation, 1990–2003." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 5 (2005): 182–191; Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") The 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act defined who can and cannot lobby, and requires lobbyists and interest groups to register with the federal government. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 further increased restrictions on lobbying. For example, the act prohibited contact between members of Congress and lobbyists who were the spouses of other Congress members. The laws broadened the definition of lobbyist and require detailed disclosure of spending on lobbying activity, including who is lobbied and what bills are of interest. In addition, President Obama’s Executive Order 13490 prohibited appointees in the executive branch from accepting gifts from lobbyists and banned them from participating in matters, including the drafting of any contracts or regulations, involving the appointee’s former clients or employer for a period of two years. The states also have their own registration requirements, with some defining lobbying broadly and others more narrowly.
Second, the federal and state governments prohibit certain activities like providing gifts to lawmakers and compensating lobbyists with commissions for successful lobbying. Many activities are prohibited to prevent accusations of vote buying or currying favor with lawmakers. Some states, for example, have strict limits on how much money lobbyists can spend on lobbying lawmakers, or on the value of gifts lawmakers can accept from lobbyists. According to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, lobbyists must certify that they have not violated the law regarding gift giving, and the penalty for knowingly violating the law increased from a fine of $50,000 to one of $200,000. Also, revolving door laws also prevent lawmakers from lobbying government immediately after leaving public office. Members of the House of Representatives cannot register to lobby for a year after they leave office, while senators have a two-year “cooling off” period before they can officially lobby. Former cabinet secretaries must wait the same period of time after leaving their positions before lobbying the department of which they had been the head. These laws are designed to restrict former lawmakers from using their connections in government to give them an advantage when lobbying. Still, many former lawmakers do become lobbyists, including former Senate majority leader Trent Lott and former House minority leader Richard Gephardt.
Third, governments require varying levels of disclosure about the amount of money spent on lobbying efforts. The logic here is that lawmakers will think twice about accepting money from controversial donors. The other advantage to disclosure requirements is that they promote transparency. Many have argued that the public has a right to know where candidates get their money. Candidates may be reluctant to accept contributions from donors affiliated with unpopular interests such as hate groups. This was one of the key purposes of the Lobbying Disclosure Act and comparable laws at the state level.
Finally, there are penalties for violating the law. Lobbyists and, in some cases, government officials can be fined, banned from lobbying, or even sentenced to prison. While state and federal laws spell out what activities are legal and illegal, the attorneys general and prosecutors responsible for enforcing lobbying regulations may be understaffed, have limited budgets, or face backlogs of work, making it difficult for them to investigate or prosecute alleged transgressions. While most lobbyists do comply with the law, exactly how the laws alter behavior is not completely understood. We know the laws prevent lobbyists from engaging in certain behaviors, such as by limiting campaign contributions or preventing the provision of certain gifts to lawmakers, but how they alter lobbyists’ strategies and tactics remains unclear.
The need to strictly regulate the actions of lobbyists became especially relevant after the activities of lobbyist Jack
Abramoff were brought to light. A prominent lobbyist with ties to many of the Republican members of Congress, Abramoff used funds provided by his clients to fund reelection campaigns, pay for trips, and hire the spouses of members of Congress. Between 1994 and 2001, Abramoff, who then worked as a lobbyist for a prominent law firm, paid for eighty-five members of Congress to travel to the Northern Mariana Islands, a U.S. territory in the Pacific. The territory’s government was a client of the firm for which he worked. At the time, Abramoff was lobbying Congress to exempt the Northern Mariana Islands from paying the federal minimum wage and to allow the territory to continue to operate sweatshops in which people worked in deplorable conditions. In 2000, while representing Native American casino interests who sought to defeat anti-gambling legislation, Abramoff paid for a trip to Scotland for Tom DeLay, the majority whip in the House of Representatives, and an aide. Shortly thereafter, DeLay helped to defeat anti-gambling legislation in the House. He also hired DeLay’s wife Christine to research the favorite charity of each member of Congress and paid her $115,000 for her efforts. (Note: Geov Parrish, "Making Sense of the Abramoff Scandal," 19 December 2005 http://www.alternet.org/story/29827/ making_sense_of_the_abramoff_scandal (March 1, 2016).) In 2008, Jack Abramoff was sentenced to four years in prison for tax evasion, fraud, and corruption of public officials. (Note: Neil A. Lewis, "Abramoff Gets 4 Years in Prison for Corruption," New York Times, 4 September 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/05/washington/ 05abramoff.html?_r=0.) He was released early, in December 2010.
Jack Abramoff (center) began his lifetime engagement in politics with his involvement in the 1980 presidential campaign of Ronald Reagan (left) while an undergraduate at Brandeis University and continued it with his election to chair of the College Republican National Committee in a campaign managed by Grover Norquist (right). Abramoff thus gained unique access to influential politicians, upon which he capitalized in his later work as a DC lobbyist. Since his release from federal prison in 2010 after being convicted for illegal lobbying activity, Abramoff has become an outspoken critic of the lobbying industry.[footnote]http://gawker.com/5856082/corrupt-lobbyist-jack-abramoffs-plan-to-endcorrupt-lobbying (March 1, 2016).[/footnote]
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
7. Texas Policy, Texas Budget and Revenue
7. TEXAS POLICY
TEXAS BUDGET AND REVENUE
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Taxation
Any government relies on a variety of taxes in order to make revenue to spend on public services.There are different types of taxes:
- Income tax– taxes collected from an individual’s income (There is no state income tax in Texas);
- General sales tax – based on taxes collected from retail prices of items;
- Excise taxes– taxes collected on specific products such as tobacco and gasoline;
- Ad valorem tax– taxes based according to the value of the property.
The federal government’s number one tax source for revenue is income tax- The 16th Amendment of the United
States Constitution authorized an income tax. The state of Texas’ main revenue source are from sales tax. Article 8 of the Texas Constitution describes the “Taxation and Revenue” specifics. Local governments heavily rely on property taxes as their main source of tax revenue. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/)
Other Revenue Sources
There are also no tax revenue sources that the state of Texas receives from various sources such as:
- Federal grants in aid– these types of funds come from the federal government to aid state or local governments, and sometimes require matching monies from the receiving government and/or are to be used for a specific use.
- Borrowing– The Texas Constitution does allow for the state or local governments to borrow funds through bonds. There are two types of bonds:
◦ General-obligation bonds: Bonds repaid from taxes, usually approved by taxpayers through vote;
◦ Revenue bonds: Typically paid through the revenue made from the projects created by the bond i.e. sports facilities, public college dorms. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/)
- Economic Stablization Fund– The “Rainy Day Fund” is a type of savings account for the state of Texas. Since 1990, any surplus from previous budget cycles, and collections from oil and gas production are deposited in to this account- the Texas Constitution limits the balance of the Rainy Day Fund to no more than 10% of the general revenue deposited during the preceding budget cycle. At the end of fiscal year 2016, Texas’ Rainy Day Fund was approximately $9.7 billion dollars. The Texas Constitution authorizes the Legislature to utilize monies from the Rainy Day Fund for a budget deficit, projected revenue shortfall, or any other purpose they choose.
◦ “Appropriations for the first two circumstances require approval by three-fifths of the Legislature, while a general-purpose appropriation needs a two-thirds majority for passage. The Legislature has made seven appropriations totaling $10.6 billion from the ESF since its inception, most recently in 2013. All were approved by two-thirds votes. The purposes for these appropriations have included water projects, disaster relief, public education, economic development and health and human services. Only one appropriation—$3.2 billion in 2011, representing 34 percent of the fund balance at that time—was made to cover a budget gap (for fiscal 2011).” (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/economy/fiscal-notes/2016/september/rainy-day.php)
Texas Budgetary Process
The budget process for Texas is outlined below (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/transparency/revenue/):
- Request for Funds. On even numbered years all government agencies submit a strategic planrequesting funds to the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor’s Office of Budget, Planning and Policy (GOBPP). The strategic plans’ request for funds must adhere to Texas’s mission statement provided by the Governor and the LBB. The instructions and forms to submit the request for funds are prepared by the LBB.
- Analysis of Requests. The requests for funds and strategic plans are then reviewed by the LBB and the GOBPP. The LBB is made up of ten members from the Texas Senate and Texas House and Co-Chaired by the Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House. The GOBPP is an agency in the Executive Branch that answers to the Governor.
- Budget proposal sent to Legislature. The LBB and Governor then submit their budget proposals tothe Texas Legislature. The Texas Legislature then reviews the proposals through the Senate and House Finance Committees. After both chambers approve an appropriations bill, then the bill is sent to each respective chamber for a vote .
- Comptroller Verfiesi. Once the Texas Legislature has approved the appropriations bill, then the Texas State Comptroller must certify that enough tax revenue will be generated to fund the budget. The Texas Constitution mandates a balance budget (Article 3, Section 49). If the Comptroller cannot certify the appropriations bill, then the Texas Legislature has the option to vote on allowing the state to go in to debt by a 4/5ths vote from each chamber.
- Governor. Once the Comptroller certifies the appropriations bill, then the Governor is allowed to sign the bill in to law. The Governor of Texas also has the power of line item veto, where only parts of the budget are rejected.
Texas Revenue
The tax revenue of Texas for 2016-2017 biennium (Note: http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf)
The estimated total state revenue for the 2016-2017 biennium is $214 billion dollars. The percentage breakdown for certain line items is: 34% will come from federal funds; 28% will be derived from sales taxes; 8% from licenses, fees, fines and penalties; 2.4% from cigarette, tobacco, and alcohol taxes; and 1.8% from the lottery.
Texas Budget Expenditures
The state of Texas spends over half of their budget on Health and Human Services & Education. 36.8% of the state’s budget is spent on Health and Human Services, and 36.7 was spent on Education. Health and Human Services includes Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Medicaid, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Department of Aging and Disability Services. Education is split in to two categories:
Public education, and Higher education. (Note: [footnote]http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf)[/footnote]
• | Texas Budget and Revenue. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
7.1 Local Governments
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• | Identify the differences between county and municipal governments in terms of their responsibilities and funding sources |
• | Describe the two primary types of municipal government and the three basic types of county government |
County and city governments make up an important component of the overall structure of the government. Not only do they affect citizens directly; it is also easier for citizens to interact with local government officials because their offices and the community’s school board or city council meetings are often close by. Despite this fact, voter turnout in local elections tends to be lower than in state and national elections. Municipal and county governments differ in structure and purpose in several ways.
County Government
County governments serve a larger geographical area than cities and towns, but a smaller area than states. They are created by the state government and typically operate under provisions set out in the state constitution. As such, they are essentially administrative units of the state. Census estimates from 2012 indicate that there are just over three thousand counties in the United States. (Note: Brian Lavin. 30 August 2012. "Census Bureau Reports There are 89,004 Local Governments in the United States (CB12-161)," https://www.census.gov/newsroom/ releases/archives/governments/cb12-161.html.) County systems usually take one of three basic forms: the commission system, the council-administrator system, and the council-elected executive system.
The most common form of county government is the commision system. Under this structure, an elected commission, which generally consists of a small number of commissioners, serves as the governing body within the county, performing all legislative and executive functions. These include adopting a budget, passing county resolutions, and hiring and firing county officials. (Note: Frank Coppa. 2000. County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.)
Under the council-adminstrator system, the voters elect council members to serve for a specified period of time, and the council in turn appoints an administrator to oversee the operation of the government. The administrator serves at the directive of the council and can be terminated by the council. The goal of this arrangement is to divide administrative and policymaking responsibilities between the elected council and the appointed administrator. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government.) Under a council-elected executive system, the voters elect both the members of the council and the executive. The executive performs functions similar to those of the state governor. For instance, he or she can veto the actions of the council, draft a budget, and provide suggestions regarding public policy. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government.)
Although the tasks they perform can vary from state to state, most counties have a courthouse that houses county officials, such as the sheriff, the county clerk, the assessor, the treasurer, the coroner, and the engineer. These officials carry out a variety of important functions and oversee the responsibilities of running a county government. For instance, the county coroner investigates the cause of death when suspicious circumstances are present. The county clerk oversees the registration of voters and also certifies election results for the county. In addition, this officeholder typically keeps the official birth, death, and marriage records. The county treasurer oversees the collection and distribution of funds within the county, while the county assessor conducts property tax evaluations and informs individual citizens or business owners of their right to contest the appraised value of their property. Finally, a county engineer will oversee the maintenance and construction of county infrastructure. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government.) In short, counties help to maintain roads and bridges, courthouses and jails, parks and pools, and public libraries, hospitals, and clinics. (Note: http://www.naco.org/counties (March 14, 2016).) To provide these services, county governments typically rely on property tax revenue, a portion of sales tax receipts, and funds from intergovernmental transfers by way of federal or state grants.
City Government
Municipal governments oversee the operation and functions of cities and towns. Census estimates for 2012 show just over 19,500 municipal governments and nearly 16,500 township governments in the United States. (Note: Lavin, "Census Bureau Reports There are 89,004 Local Governments in the United States (CB12-161).") The vast majority of municipal governments operate on one of two governing models: a mayor-council system or a council-manager system.
Under the mayor-council system voters elect both a mayor and members of the city council. The city council performs legislative functions and the mayor the executive functions. Under this system, the mayor may be given a great deal of authority or only limited powers. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government," http://www.nlc.org/buildskills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-structures/forms-of-municipal-government (March 14, 2016).) Under a strong mayor system, the mayor will be able to veto the actions of the council, appoint and fire the heads of city departments, and produce a budget. Under a weak mayor system, the mayor has little authority compared to the council and acts in a ceremonial capacity as a spokesperson for the city. (Note: "Mayoral Powers," http://www.nlc.org/build-skills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-officials/mayoral-powers (March 14, 2016).)
In a council-manager system of government, either the members of the city council are elected by voters along with a mayor who presides over the council, or the voters elect members of the city council and the mayor is chosen from among them. In either case, the city council will then appoint a city manager to carry out the administrative functions of the municipal government. This frees the city council to address political functions such as setting policy and formulating the budget. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government.")
Municipal governments are responsible for providing clean water as well as sewage and garbage disposal. They must maintain city facilities, such as parks, streetlights, and stadiums. In addition, they address zoning and building regulations, promote the city’s economic development, and provide law enforcement, public transportation, and fire protection. Municipal governments typically rely on property tax revenue, user fees from trash collection and the provision of water and sewer services, a portion of sales tax receipts, and taxes on business.
The Sporting Park in Kansas City, Kansas, is home to various sporting events. The stadium first opened for business in 2011, and taxpayers financed $146 million of the total cost to build the stadium, an office park, and a youth soccer complex.
(Note: Mark Alesia, "Kansas City has Stadium Success Story—in Major League Soccer," Indy Star, 18 March
2015. http://www.indystar.com/story/news/2015/03/17/kansas-city-stadium-success-story-major-league-soccer/ 24928853/. (credit: Wesley Fryer))
The International City/County Management Association (ICMA) provides networking opportunities, professional development, and statistical data in order to support local government leaders and other individuals throughout the world. Visit the ICMA Priorities page to learn what makes a better leader and how you might improve your local community.
• | Revision and Adaptation. | : Daniel M. Regalado. |
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.775258
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U.S. History
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96669/overview
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Alder p000085
Overview
Alder module.
Image and content credit: Fernando Agudelo-Silva
Micrograph
Light background with brown and golden blob
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.824266
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Forestry and Agriculture
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"author": "Botany"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94553/overview
|
Assignment: I Am George Floyd
Overview
This is an assignment appropriate for introductory sociology courses. Students watch a webinar, "I Am George Floyd," summarize and react to it, and apply sociological concepts and/or theories.
Introduction to Sociology
I Am George Floyd Assignment
You will view a webinar entitled, “I Am George Floyd: Reflections and Strategies for Anti-Racism Across Minnesota State” hosted by the Minnesota State Indigenous Men & Men of Color Work Group.
The “I Am George Floyd” webinar was Wed, 3 June, 2020. The webinar runs about 1.5 hours. Students should watch at least an hour of the webinar. The webinar is available to Minnesota State University and Colleges staff and students via MediaSpace.
First, write two paragraphs (about 200 words) on what you saw and heard from three of the presenters. What stands out to you?
Second, apply three or four sociological concepts and/or theories that we have studied or are currently studying. How does sociology help one to understand racism more deeply and how to confront it?
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.837576
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06/26/2022
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94553/overview",
"title": "Assignment: I Am George Floyd",
"author": "Sue Wika"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95074/overview
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simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_400x, p000120
Overview
simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_400x, p000120
| one layer surface cells top layer is flat |
simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_400x, p000120
simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_400x, p000120
| epithelia | Anatomy p000120 |
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.851344
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Diagram/Illustration
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"title": "simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_400x, p000120",
"author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61849/overview
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自分について/About yourself, Intermediate Low, Japanese
Overview
Students will answer questions about themselves, such as: name, major, hobbies, and schedule. Students will answer basic questions using one-word answers in the beginning, then guess which classmate is being talked about based on secretly written facts. Finally, students will ask each other questions to find another student with something in common.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.881714
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Mimi Fahnstrom
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61849/overview",
"title": "自分について/About yourself, Intermediate Low, Japanese",
"author": "Activity/Lab"
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25859/overview
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Chapter 3: Values, Goals, and Motivations
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 3: Values, Goals, and Motivation
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Define core values and identify your own personal core values.
- Identify the benefits and rewards of setting goals.
- Identify short-term, mid-term, and long-term goals.
- Apply the SMART goal model to your goals.
- Brainstorm long-term, mid-term and short-term goals to create a Personal Action Plan.
- Identify the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Values, Goals, and Motivation
Assessing Your Core Values
The journey of achieving success in college begins with a single step: identifying your personal values. Your personal values are your core beliefs and guiding principles. They shape the roles you play in daily life. They color your interests and passions and frame your thoughts and words. In essence, your values are a compass that helps you make decisions and choices.
Identifying your own values helps you plan for:
- Your academic goals
- Your career goals
- Your financial goals
- How you spend and manage your time
- How you spend and manage your money
Values are the things that you believe are fundamentally important in the way you live and work. They shape how you interact with others. They determine your priorities (whether you’re conscious of them or not), and they shape the choices you make. They are the measures by which you judge yourself and they’re also the measures by which you judge others.
When your actions are consistent with your values, you feel peaceful with the choices you make even if the outcome of those choices is not positive. When some action or decision is not aligned with your values, you feel conflicted and remorseful.
You can assess your core values by checking to see if it meets these three criteria:
- It has been freely chosen from amongst alternatives after consideration and thought.
- It is prized, cherished, and considered precious and is publicly affirmed when appropriate.
- It is acted upon consistently, modeled for others, and pursued even when there are consequences for doing so.
Why Find Your Core Values?
This might seem like a rhetorical question, but in fact, it is quite important to understand the power and importance of core values. They are your foundation as a person, guiding your actions and your decisions. The stronger the foundation the better and greater the person you will be able to become.
What are your values, then? Which are most important to you, and which are least important? How do your values fit into your educational goals? How do your educational goals relate to your future career? Are you spending your time in a way that prioritizes your goals? Does your budget reflect your goals?
To help you answer these questions, you can use a “self-assessment” survey. These surveys can help you evaluate your personal identity—your thoughts, actions, attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors—in relation to the task at hand, like going to college and preparing for a career.
Many different self-assessment surveys are available from college career centers and online sites. Some are designed as personality tests, like the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, or as inventories, like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MTBI®), the most widely used personality inventory in history. You may also come across instruments designed as scales, or measures, games, surveys, and more. These descriptors are often interchangeably used, although most often they refer to questionnaires. The distinctions are not as important as whether or not the instrument meets your self-assessment needs.
You can visit a career counselor at your college’s Career Services Office and request assessments to further explore your values. You can also use other assessments available through your school.
The Values Clarification Questionnaire, in two parts, looks at the specific values of ambition, appearance, family, friendship, independence, wealth, education, freedom, happiness, privacy, security, honesty. A scorecard and interpretation are generated.
Setting Goals
Some people are goal-oriented and seem to easily make decisions that lead to achieving their goals, while others seem just to “go with the flow” and accept what life gives them. While the latter may sound pleasantly relaxed, moving through life without goals may not lead anywhere at all. The fact that you’re in college now shows you already have the major goal to complete your college program.
A goal is a result we intend to reach mostly through our own actions. Things we do may move us closer to or farther away from that result. Studying moves us closer to success in a difficult course, while sleeping through the final examination may completely prevent reaching that goal. That’s fairly obvious in an extreme case, yet a lot of college students don’t reach their goal of graduating. The problem may be a lack of commitment to the goal, but often students have conflicting goals. One way to prevent problems is to think about all your goals and priorities and learn ways to manage your time, your studies, and your social life to best reach your goals. Also, consider whether your goals support your core values. You are more likely to achieve a goal that is aligned directly with your values.
To help his widowed mother, Juan went to work full time after high school but now, a few years later, he’s dissatisfied with the kinds of jobs he has been able to get and has begun taking classes toward an Associates Degree in Computer Science in the evenings. He’s often tired after work and his mother would like him to spend more time at home, and his girlfriend also wants to spend more time with him. Sometimes he cuts class to visit his mother or spend time with his girlfriend.
In her senior year of college, Becky has just been elected president of her sorority and is excited about planning a major community service project. She knows she should be spending more time on her senior thesis, but she feels her community project may gain her contacts that can help her find a better job after graduation. Besides, the sorority project is a lot more fun, and she’s enjoying the esteem of her position. Even if she doesn’t do well on her thesis, she’s sure she’ll pass.
After an easy time in high school, Morgan is surprised their college classes are so hard. They have enough time to study for their first-year courses, but they also have a lot of friends and fun things to do. Sometimes they're surprised to look up from their computer to see it’s midnight already, and they haven't started reading that chapter yet. Where does the time go? When they're stressed, however, they can’t study well, so they tell themself they'll get up early and read the chapter before class, and then they turn back to their computer to see who’s online.
Sachito was successful in cutting back her hours at work to give her more time for her college classes, but it’s difficult for her to get much studying done at home. Her husband has been wonderful about taking care of their young daughter, but he can’t do everything, and lately, he’s been hinting more about asking her sister to babysit so that the two of them can go out in the evening the way they used to. Lately, when she’s had to study on a weekend, he leaves with his friends, and Sachito ends up spending the day with her daughter—and not getting much studying done.
What do these very different students have in common? Each has goals that conflict in one or more ways. Each needs to develop strategies to meet their other goals without threatening their academic success. And all of them have time management issues to work through, Morgan because they feel they don’t have enough time to do everything they want or need to do, and Juan becaus,e even though he has enough time, he needs to learn how to manage it more effectively. For all four of them, motivation and attitude will be important as they develop strategies to achieve their goals.
It all begins with setting goals and thinking about values and priorities!
Benefits of Goal Setting
Setting goals can turn your dreams into reality. You may have a dream to one day graduate from college, buy a new car, own your own home, travel abroad, etc. Any of these dreams can be broken down into a detailed goal and plan of action. For example, maybe you want to buy a home in 20 years. You will need $40,000 as a down payment. That’s a lot of money and may not feel achievable. But, if you break that $40,000 into 20 years, that’s $2,000 a year. That sounds more manageable. And if we break it down even more, you can buy that house if you save about $165 a month, or $42 a week, or $6 a day! Can you save $6 a day, maybe by packing your lunch instead of the drive-thru? Our big dream is now an achievable, realistic goal.
Setting goals has many benefits, including turning your dreams into reality. Goal setting allows you to create a plan to focus on your goal, rather than dreaming about the future. It also reduces anxiety and worry. It is much less anxiety-producing to focus on saving $6 a day than it is to save $40,000. It is also motivating because you will be able to measure your progress and successes. At the end of one year, you will have saved $2,000, which will motivate you to keep saving and maybe even increase your saving goal. You will use your time and resources more wisely, often leading to faster and increased results.
As you think about your own goals, think about more than just being a student. You’re also a person with your own core values, individual needs, and desires, hopes and dreams, plans and schemes. Your long-term goals likely include graduation and a career but may also involve social relationships with others, a romantic relationship, family, hobbies or other activities, where and how you live, and so on. While you are a student you may not be actively pursuing all your goals with the same fervor, but they remain goals and are still important in your life. Think about what goals you would like to achieve academically, vocationally (career), financially, personally, physically, and spiritually.
Types of Goals
There are different types of goals, based on time and topic.
Long-term goals may begin with graduating from college and everything you want to happen thereafter. Often your long-term goals (graduating with a bachelor’s degree) guide your mid-term goals (transferring to a University), and your short-term goals (getting an A on your upcoming exam) become steps for reaching those larger goals. Thinking about your goals in this way helps you realize how even the little things you do every day can keep you moving toward your most important long-term goals. Common long-term goals include things like earning your Bachelor’s degree, owning a home, getting a job in your career area, buying a new car, etc.
Mid-term goals involve plans for this school year or your time here at college or goals you want to achieve within the next six months to two years. Mid-term goals are often stepping stones to your long-term goals, but they can also be independent goals. For example, you may have a goal of transferring to University, which is a midterm goal that brings you closer to your long-term goal of getting your Bachelor’s degree. Or, you may have a goal to pay off your credit card debt within the next 12 months or to save for a car that you plan to buy next year. When making mid-term goals related to your long-term goals, make a list of accomplishments that will lead you to your final goal.
Short-term goals focus on today and the next few days and perhaps weeks. Short-term goals expect accomplishment in a short period of time, such as trying to get a bill paid in the next few days or getting an A on your upcoming exam. The definition of a short-term goal need not relate to any specific length of time. In other words, one may achieve (or fail to achieve) a short-term goal in a day, week, month, year, etc. The time frame for a short-term goal relates to its context in the overall timeline that it is being applied. For instance, one could measure a short-term goal for a month-long project in days; whereas one might measure a short-term goal for someone’s lifetime in months or in years. Often, people define short-term goals in relation to their mid-term or long-term goals.
An example of how short-term and mid-term goals relate to long-term goals is wanting to earn your Bachelor’s degree. If you have a goal of earning your Bachelor’s degree in four years, a mid-term goal is getting your Associate's Degree and getting accepted to your top choice University in two years. This can be broken down into a series of short-term goals such as your GPA goal for this semester, your goal grade on an upcoming exam, and the amount of time you plan to study this weekend. Every long-term goal can be broken down into smaller steps and eventually lead to the question, “what do I have to do today to achieve my goal?”
You will make goals in different areas of life and at different times in your life. At this point in your life, academic goals may take precedence but there are also other areas to consider.
Academic – You clearly already have an academic goal and are actively working on pursuing it. Academic goals may include things like a target GPA, completing your Associate’s Degree, or transferring to a University. It may also include short-term goals like completing your homework before the weekend.
Career – At this point, your career goals are closely linked to your academic goals, such as getting a degree or certificate in your chosen career field. You may also have career goals of gaining experience in your field through internships and work experience.
Financial – Your financial goals are often tied to your career goals. You may have a salary goal or you may have the goal of saving for a home, a car, or a vacation. You may also have goals to reduce debt and manage your budget.
Health/Physical – Almost all of us have worked on physical goals. Many people have the goal to lose weight, increasing their exercise, or drinking more water. Other health goals could include establishing a regular sleep schedule, eating more fruits and vegetables, or seeing your doctor regularly. Health goals can also include mental health such as meditating or working to reduce stress and anxiety.
Social/Relationships – Even though it may feel like it sometimes, your life is more than school and work. You should also establish goals for your social relationships. For example, make a goal to stay in contact with a friend who moved, visit your family every week, or to have a date with your significant other once a week. Your social relationships are a vital part of your life and deserve your attention and focus.
Spiritual – Many people have religious goals, such as attending church regularly, practicing daily prayer, or joining a church group. Even if you aren’t religious, you may have spiritual goals such as time alone to meditate.
Personal/Hobbies – In addition to work and school, you may have hobbies or personal interests that you want to devote time and energy to. Perhaps you have a goal of rebuilding a motorcycle or learning how to knit or sew.
SMART Goals
Turn your dreams into reality by following the SMART goal-setting process. SMART goals are commonly associated with Peter Drucker’s management by objectives concept. It gives structure and organization to the goal-setting process by establishing defined actions, milestones, objectives and deadlines. Creating SMART goals helps with motivation and focus and keeps you moving forward. Every goal can be made into a SMART goal!
When writing your goals, follow these SMART guidelines. You should literally write them down because the act of finding the best words to describe your goals helps you think more clearly about them.
- Goals should be SPECIFIC.
- What exactly do you want to achieve? Avoid vague terms like “good,” and “more.” The more specific you are, the most likely you are to succeed.
- A specific goal has a much greater chance of being accomplished than a general goal.
- To set a specific goal, answer the six “W” questions:
Who: Who is involved?
What: What do I want to accomplish?
Where: Identify a location.
When: Establish a time frame.
Which: Identify requirements and constraints.
Why: Specific reasons, purpose or benefits of accomplishing the goal.
“I will get a 3.5 GPA this semester so that I can apply to the Surgical Tech Program.”
- Goals should be MEASURABLE.
- Break your goal down into measurable elements so you have concrete evidence of your progress.
- Using numbers, quantities or time is a good way to ensure measurability.
- When you measure your progress, you stay on track, reach your target dates, and experience success!
- To determine if your goal is measurable, ask…
How much?
How many?
How often?
How will I know when it is accomplished?
“I will study 18 hours per week, 3 hours per day for six days a week.”
- Goals should be ATTAINABLE.
- A goal should be something to strive for and reach for but something that is achievable and attainable. For example, completing an Associate’s Degree in one year may not be attainable while working full time with a family.
- Ask yourself if you have the time, money, resources and talent to make it happen
- Weigh the effort, time and other costs your goal will take against the benefits and other priorities you have in life.
- You can attain most any goal you set when you plan your steps wisely and establish a time frame that allows you to carry out those steps.
“I will complete 9 credit hours this semester while working part-time.”
- Goals should be REALISTIC.
- Your goal should be realistic and relevant. Ask yourself if your goal and timeline is realistic for your life, why is the goal important to you, and what is the objective behind your goal? What makes the goal worthwhile for YOU?
- Be sure the goal is relevant to you.
- Why is this goal important to you? (Make sure your goal aligns with your values.)
- What are the benefits and rewards of accomplishing this goal?
- Why will you be able to stay committed in the long-run?
- Is it something that will still be important to you a month or year from now?
“I will become a Surgical Technician in two years to pursue my interests and values in helping others and provide for my family.”
- Goals should be TIMEABLE.
- Your goal should have a clear deadline. This will help you stay accountable and motivated.
- Keep the timeline realistic but also a little challenging to create a sense of accountability and avoid procrastination.
- With no deadline, there’s no sense of urgency, which leads to procrastination.
- “Someday,” “soon,” and “eventually” are not deadlines.
- Be specific with each deadline for each step along the way.
“I will complete the draft of my research paper one-week before the deadline.”
You can watch this supplemental video on SMART goals if you wish to explore the idea further.
Putting Your Goals Into Action
Be certain you want to reach the goal. We are willing to work hard and sacrifice to reach goals we really care about, ones that support our core values. But, we’re likely to give up when we encounter obstacles if we don’t feel strongly about a goal. If you’re doing something only because your parents or someone else wants you to, then it’s not your own personal goal—and you may have some more thinking to do about your life.
Writing down your goals helps you to organize your thoughts and be clear with your goals, ensuring you meet the SMART goal criteria. When you write your goals, state them positively, stating what you will do rather than what you won’t do. When you focus on doing something, that behavior often increases. On the other hand, when you focus on not doing something, that behavior also often increases. For example, if you have a goal to increase your health, you may focus on increasing your water intake to at least 64 ounces per day. This will lead you to think about and drink more water! But, if you focus on not drinking soda, you are likely to think about soda all day and end up drinking more.
After you have written down your goal, post it in a visible place to remind you every day of what it is you are working toward. When you see your goal, ask yourself, “Did my choices today help move more toward my goal? Are my actions supporting my goals?” Being reminded of your goal can help you stay motivated and focused.
Consider sharing your goal with friends, family or classmates. Sharing your goal with supportive people who care about you will help you stay on track. Share your goal with people you know will be encouraging and cheer you on as you work toward your goal. In return, offer the same support for your friends’ goals and dreams.
How to Stay Motivated: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Now we have learned about your personal values and the goal-setting process, what will motivate you to work toward your goals and persist to meet them?
Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal and are described as either intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors). Intrinsic motivation can come from the benefits associated with the process of pursuing a goal. For example, your goals and values are fundamental guides for human behavior. Some are biological in origin, some are cultural in nature and some are unique to the individual. Extrinsic motivation can also come from the benefits associated with achieving a goal, such as the fame and fortune that come with being the first person on Mars (Deci & Ryan, 1985). One easy way to consider intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is through the eyes of a student. Does the student work hard on assignments because the act of learning is pleasing (intrinsic motivation)? Or does the student work hard to get good grades, which will help land a good job (extrinsic motivation)?
A good way to distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is that intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.
Think about why you are pursuing an education. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are likely intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is likely more extrinsic in nature.
In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counterintuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work.
Physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then the intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced.
In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment.
Watch the following video by LearnMyTest that explains the difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- There are three criteria for identifying your core values. Identifying your core values is the first step of the goal-setting process.
- Self-assessments can help you define your core values.
- Goal setting is a process with many rewards and benefits that allows you to get what you want from life.
- There are short-term, mid-term, and long-term goals. They are often stepping stones for bigger goals.
- You will create goals in several areas of your life including academic, financial, career, and personal.
- The SMART goal-setting model is a very effective system for identifying and creating goals.
- A Personal Action Plan can help you define your goals using the SMART goal model.
- Motivation describes the wants and needs that direct behavior toward a goal and are described as either intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors)
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Discover Your Values and Goals. Authored by: Heather Syrett, Eduardo Garcia, and Marcy May. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Finding Your Core Values. Provided by: Thousand Insights. Located at: https://thousandinsights.wordpress.com/articles/on-leadership/finding-your-core-values/. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Goal. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal. License: CC BY-SA 3.
- Motivation in General Psychology: An Introduction. Authored by: Tori Kearns, Deborah Lee. Provided by: Open Textbook Library. Located at: https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/general-psychology-an-introduction. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Motivation in Psychology, 2c. Authored by: Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett. Provided by: OpenStax. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/10-1-motivation. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Personal Identity in EDUC 1300. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/chapter/personal-identity/. License: CC BY 4.0
- SMART_Criteria. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMART_criteria. License: CC BY-SA 3.0
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
- Life Stage Progression Assessment. Provided by: Career Test for the Soul. Located at: http://www.career-test.biz/stages_assessment.htm. License: All Rights Reserved
- SMART Goals - Quick Overview. Provided by: DecisionSkills. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-SvuFIQjK8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Explained. Provided by: Learn My Test. Located at: https://youtu.be/dyr7wg9s7gM License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.923942
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25860/overview
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Chapter 4: Manage Your Time
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 4: Manage Your Time
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Understand the relationship between goals and time management.
- Consider how your priorities impact your time.
- Identify procrastination behaviors and strategies to avoid them.
- Assess your current use of time.
- Understand the basic principles of time management and planning.
- Use a calendar planner and daily to-do list to plan ahead for study tasks and manage your time effectively.
- Explore time management tips and strategies.
- Identify your time management personality.
Manage Your Time
Manage Your Time
Goals And Time
Now that you have spent some time exploring your values, goals, and motivation, you can easily see how you need to manage your time well in order to accomplish your goals. When you have a long-term goal and break it down into mid-term and short-term goals, it leads to the question, “What do I need to do today in order to achieve my goal?” This question is at the heart of time management. Your goals and values guide how you spend your time and resources. Having clearly defined goals with specific deadlines leads you to be deliberate in planning your time and makes it easier to establish an effective time management system.
One of the main goals of a college education is learning how to learn. In this section, we zoom in on learning how to skillfully manage your time. To be successful in college, it’s imperative to be able to effectively manage your time and to manage all aspects of your life including school, work, family, and social opportunities. Time management isn’t difficult, but you do need to learn how to do it well.
In the following Alleyoop Advice video, Alleyoop (Angel Aquino) discusses what many students discover about college: there is a lot of free time—and just as many challenges to balance free time with study time.
Identifying Your Priorities
Thinking about your goals gets you started, but it’s also important to think about priorities. We often use the word “priorities” to refer to how important something is to us. We might think, This is a really important goal, and that is less important. Try this experiment: go back to the goals you wrote in the last chapter and see if you can rank each goal as a 1 (top priority), 2 (middle priority), or 3 (lowest priority).
It sounds easy, but do you actually feel comfortable doing that? Maybe you gave a priority 1 to passing your GPA and a priority 3 to playing your guitar. So what does that mean—that you never play guitar again, or at least not while in college? Whenever you have an hour free between class and work, you have to study because that’s the higher priority? What about all your other goals—do you have to ignore everything that’s not a priority 1? And what happens when you have to choose between different goals that are both number 1 priorities?
In reality, priorities don’t work that way. It doesn’t make a lot of sense to try to rank goals as always more or less important. The question of priority is really a question of what is more important at a specific pont in time. It is important to do well in your classes, but it’s also important to earn money to support yourself , and it is important to spend time with your family and loved ones. You shouldn’t have to choose between these, except at any given time. Priorities always involve time: what is most important to do right now. Time management is mostly a way to manage priorities so you can meet all your goals.
When you manage your time well, you don’t have to ignore some goals completely in order to meet other goals. In other words, you don’t have to give up your life when you register for college, but you may need to work on managing your life and time more effectively.
But, time management works only when you’re committed to your goals. Attitude and motivation are very important, as you learned in the last chapter. If you haven’t yet developed an attitude for success, all the time management skills in the world won’t keep you focused and motivated to succeed.
The Eisenhower Box
One way to help you identify your priorities is with the “Eisenhower Box,” a tool to help evaluate urgency and importance. Items may be placed at more precise points within each quadrant. This is also referred to as the Covey Quadrant Model or the Covey Matrix.
The “Eisenhower Box” stems from a quote attributed to Dwight D. Eisenhower: “I have two kinds of problems, the urgent and the important. The urgent are not important, and the important are never urgent.”
Using the Eisenhower Box, tasks are evaluated using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent, and then placed in according quadrants in an Eisenhower Box (also known as an “Eisenhower Matrix” or “Eisenhower Method”). It is important to understand the difference between urgency and importance. An urgent item needs to be dealt with immediately. An item that is important needs to be dealt with but may or may not needs to be dealt with immediately. Tasks are then handled as follows:
- Important/Urgent quadrant items must be taken care of immediately. Examples include:
- Crises like accidents
- A flat tire
- A screaming baby
- A broken water heater
- Last minute deadlines
- Pressing problems
- Important/Not Urgent quadrant items need to be accomplished but have an end date or due date that isn’t urgent or pressing. Examples include:
- Homework
- Studying for an upcoming exam
- Exercise
- Planning an upcoming trip
- Time with friends, family, and relationships
- Unimportant/Urgent quadrant are items that can often feel urgent but they really aren’t. Although they may feel like they need to be attended to immediately, they are not very important and can actually wait. Examples include:
- Text messages
- Social media alerts
- Some phone calls
- Junk mail (real and electronic)
- Unimportant/Not Urgent quadrant are are your time wasters, things that are not important and not urgent. Examples include things like:
- Streaming
- Video games
- Hanging out with friends (not planned social events)
- Web surfing
- Scrolling
As you can see, the Urgent/Important Quadrant (#1) needs to be attended to first and should top your list of priorities, followed by the Not Urgent/Important Quadrant (#2). You can imagine that the Quadrant #1 is a stressful place, with emergencies and crises, and one you would like to avoid. Life will bring you plenty of Quadrant #1 items so try your best to keep things out of that quadrant. Work productively in Quadrant #2 so items don’t unnecessarily end up being urgent. For example, a paper or a test shouldn’t be urgent, as they aren’t last minute crisis. The more you focus on Quadrant #2, the more you accomplish with less stress.
Overcoming Procrastination
Procrastination Checklist
Do any of the following descriptions apply to you?
- My paper is due in two days and I haven’t really started writing it yet.
- I’ve had to pull an all-nighter to get an assignment done on time.
- I’ve turned in an assignment late or asked for an extension when I really didn’t have a good excuse not to get it done on time.
- I’ve worked right up to the minute an assignment was due.
- I’ve underestimated how long a reading assignment would take and didn’t finish it in time for class.
- I’ve relied on the Internet for information (like a summary of a concept or a book) because I didn’t finish the reading on time.
If these sound like issues you’ve struggled with in the past, you might want to consider whether you have the tendency to procrastinate and how you want to deal with it in your future classes. You’re already spending a lot of time, energy, and money on the classes you’re taking—don’t let all of that go to waste!
Procrastination is a way of thinking that lets one put off doing something that should be done now. This can happen to anyone at any time. It’s like a voice inside your head keeps coming up with these brilliant ideas for things to do right now other than studying: “I really ought to get this room cleaned up before I study” or “I can study anytime, but tonight’s the only chance I have to do X.” That voice is also very good at rationalizing: “I really don’t need to read that chapter now; I’ll have plenty of time tomorrow at lunch.…”
Procrastination is very powerful. Some people battle it daily, others only occasionally. Most college students procrastinate often, and about half say they need help to avoid procrastination. Procrastination can threaten one’s ability to do well on an assignment or test.
People procrastinate for different reasons. Some people are too relaxed in their priorities, seldom worry, and easily put off responsibilities. Others worry constantly, and that stress keeps them from focusing on the task at hand. Some procrastinate because they fear failure; others procrastinate because they fear success or are so perfectionistic that they don’t want to let themselves down. Some are dreamers. Many different factors are involved, and there are different styles of procrastinating.
Strategies to Combat Procrastination
Just as there are different causes, there are different possible solutions to procrastination. Different strategies work for different people. The time management strategies described earlier can help you avoid procrastination. Because this is a psychological issue, some additional psychological strategies can also help:
- Since procrastination is usually a habit, accept that and work on breaking it as you would any other bad habit: one day at a time. Know that every time you overcome feelings of procrastination, the habit becomes weaker and eventually, you’ll have a new habit of being able to start studying right away.
- Schedule times for studying using a daily or weekly planner. Commit to your study schedule in the same way you commit to other obligations like class time or school. Carry it with you and look at it often. Just being aware of the time and what you need to do today can help you get organized and stay on track.
- If you keep thinking of something else you might forget to do later (making you feel like you “must” do it now), write yourself a note about it for later and get it out of your mind.
- Counter a negative with a positive. If you’re procrastinating because you’re not looking forward to a certain task, try to think of the positive future results of doing the work, like getting a good grade or raising your GPA.
- Counter a negative with a worse negative. If thinking about the positive results of completing the task doesn’t motivate you to get started, think about what could happen if you keep procrastinating. You’ll have to study tomorrow instead of doing something fun you had planned. Or you could fail the test. Some people can jolt themselves right out of procrastination.
- On the other hand, fear causes procrastination in some people—so don’t dwell on the thought of failing. If you’re studying for a test, and you’re so afraid of failing it that you can’t focus on studying and you start procrastinating, try to put things in perspective. Even if it’s your most difficult class and you don’t understand everything about the topic, that doesn’t mean you’ll fail, even if you may not receive an A or a B.
- Study with a motivated friend. Form a study group with other students who are motivated and won’t procrastinate along with you. You’ll learn good habits from them while getting the work done now.
- Keep your studying “bite-sized”: When confronted with 150 pages of reading or 50 problems to solve, it’s natural to feel overwhelmed. Try breaking it down: What if you decide that you will read for 45 minutes or that you will solve 10 problems? That sounds much more manageable.
- Turn off your phone, close your chat windows, and block distracting Web sites. Treat your studying as if you’re in a movie theater—just turn it off.
- Set up a reward system: If you read for 40 minutes, you can check your phone for 5 minutes. But keep in mind that reward-based systems only work if you stick to an honor system.
- Study in a place reserved for studying ONLY. Your bedroom may have too many distractions (or temptations, such as taking a nap), so it may be best to avoid it when you’re working on school assignments.
- Use checklists: Make your incremental accomplishments visible. Some people take great satisfaction and motivation from checking items off a to-do list. Be very specific when creating this list, and clearly describe each task one step at a time.
- Get help. If you really can’t stay on track with your study schedule, or if you’re always putting things off until the last minute, see a college counselor. They have lots of experience with this common student problem and can help you find ways to overcome this habit.
In the following video, Joseph Clough shares key strategies for conquering procrastination once and for all.
Pomodoro Technique
A well-known technique for managing time that can help with procrastination is called the Pomodoro Technique, developed by Francesco Cirillo in the 1980s and named after the popular tomato-shaped kitchen timer (pomodoro means “tomato” in Italian.) This simple technique is a method of managing procrastination by breaking down your work periods into small, manageable units. The system operates on the belief that by dividing your work and breaks into regular, short increments you can avoid feeling overwhelmed by a looming task while also avoiding burn out.
Here are the basics:
- Consider in advance how many pomodoros you might need to achieve your task.
- Set a timer for 25 minutes, and start your task.
- It doesn’t have to be a tomato timer. You can use your phone timer (but put it on Do Not Disturb.)
- There are several online versions or apps for Pomodoro Timers – do a quick search to find one that works best for you.
- It doesn’t have to be 25 minutes, you can tweak this as you get more comfortable with the method.
- If a distraction pops into your head, write it down and immediately return to your task.
- When the buzzer rings, you’ve completed one increment, also known as one pomodoro.
- Take a five-minute break. You can check the distractions that popped into your head, stretch, grab a cup of tea, etc.
- After four pomodoros, take a fifteen- to thirty-minute break.
- Repeat!
Give it a try if you’re interested in breaking your studying into manageable tomato-sized bites while developing a greater understanding of time management and how long it will take to complete a task.
Watch this supplemental video that explains the Pomodoro Technique.
Assess Your Use Of Time
The best way to know how you spend your time is to record what you do all day in a time log, every day for a week, and then add that up. First, you want to take your best guess at how you are currently spending your time so you can compare that with how you are actually spending your time. This helps you identify the areas you need to work on. This will likely be an assignment or activity in your EDUC 1300/1200/1100 course.
Activity: Where Does the Time Go?
See if you can account for a week’s worth of time. For each of the activity categories listed, make your best estimate of how many hours you spend in a week. (For categories that are about the same every day, just estimate for one day and multiply by seven for that line.)
Now use your calculator to total your estimated hours. Is your number larger or smaller than 168, the total number of hours in a week? If your estimate is higher, go back through your list and adjust numbers to be more realistic. But if your estimated hours total fewer than 168, don’t just go back and add more time in certain categories. Instead, ponder this question: Where does the time go? We’ll come back to this question.
Next, print the Time Log and carry it with you throughout the week. Every few hours, fill in what you have been doing. Do this for a week before adding up the times; then enter the total hours. You might be surprised that you spend a lot more time than you thought on your phone, playing video games, hanging out with friends, or watching videos. You might find that you study well early in the morning even though you thought you are a night person, or vice versa. You might learn how long you can continue at a specific task before needing a break.
Time Log
Establishing A Time Management System
Now that you’ve evaluated how you have done things in the past, you’ll want to think about how you might create a schedule for managing your time well going forward. The best schedules have some flexibility built into them, as unexpected situations and circumstances will likely arise during your time as a student.
For every hour in the classroom, college students should spend, on average, about two to three hours on that class reading, studying, writing papers, and so on. Look at the following scenarios to get an idea of how many hours you should be spending on your classes outside of class time.
12 credit hours over a 15-week session = 12 hours a week in class + 24-36 hours outside of class
6 credit hours over a 15-week session = 6 hours a week in class + 12-18 hours outside of class
3 credit hours over a 6-week session = 8 hours a week in class + 16-24 hours outside of class
If you’re a full-time student with twelve hours a week in class plus your study time, that 36-42 hours is about the same as a typical full-time job, which is why you are considered to be a full-time student. If you work part-time or have a family, time management skills are even more essential. To succeed in college, everyone has to develop effective strategies for dealing with time.
Look back at the number of hours you wrote in the Assess Your Use of Time for a week of studying. Do you have two to three hours of study time for every hour in class? Many students begin college not knowing this much time is needed, so don’t be surprised if you underestimated this number of hours. Remember this is just an average amount of study time—you may need more or less for your own courses. To be safe, and to help ensure your success, add another five to ten hours a week for studying.
To reserve this study time, you may need to adjust how much time you spend on other activities. Activity 3 will help you figure out what your typical week should look like.
Activity: Where Should Your Time Go?
Plan for the ideal use of a week’s worth of time. Fill in your hours in this order:
- Hours attending class
- Study hours (2 times the number of class hours plus 5 or more hours extra)
- Work, internships, and fixed volunteer time
- Fixed life activities (sleeping, eating, hygiene, chores, transportation, etc.)
Now subtotal your hours so far and subtract that number from 168. How many hours are left? ____________ Then portion out the remaining hours for “discretionary activities” (things you don’t have to do for school, work, or a healthy life).
- Discretionary activities
| CATEGORY OF ACTIVITY | HOURS PER WEEK |
| Attending class | |
| Studying, reading, and researching (outside of class) | |
| Working (employment) | |
| Transportation to work or school | |
| Sleeping | |
| Eating (including preparing food) | |
| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) | |
| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. | |
| Volunteer service or internship | |
| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) | |
| Subtotal: | |
| Discretionary activities: | |
| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) | |
| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) | |
| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) | |
| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) | |
| Exercise or sports activities | |
| Hobbies or other interests done alone | |
| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. | |
| Other—specify: ________________________ | |
| Other—specify: ________________________ |
This activity shows most college students that they do have time for their studies without losing sleep or giving up their social life. But you may have less time for discretionary activities, like video games or watching movies, than in the past. Something, somewhere has to give. That’s part of time management and why it’s important to keep your goals and priorities in mind.
Below is an example of a student’s weekly schedule, with designated times for class, work and study time.
Kai’s Schedule
Since Kai’s Spanish class starts his schedule at 9:00 every day, Kai decides to use that as the base for his schedule. He doesn’t usually have trouble waking up in the mornings (except on the weekends), so he decides that he can do a bit of studying before class. His Spanish practice is often something he can do while eating or traveling, so this gives him a bit of leniency with his schedule.
| Sunday | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | |
| 7:00 AM | |||||||
| 8:00 AM | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | ||
| 9:00 AM | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | ||
| 10:00 AM | US History I | Spanish 101 | US History I | Spanish 101 | US History I | Work | |
| 11:00 AM | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra | Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) | College Algebra | ||
| 12:00 PM | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | Spanish 101 | ||||
| 1:00 PM | Spanish 101 | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) | Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) | Spanish 101 | ||
| 2:00 PM | US History I | Work | Work | Intro to Psych | |||
| 3:00 PM | |||||||
| 4:00 PM | |||||||
| 5:00 PM | College Algebra | College Algebra | College Algebra | ||||
| 6:00 PM | |||||||
| 7:00 PM | |||||||
| 8:00 PM | Intro to Psych | Intro to Psych | |||||
| 9:00 PM | US History I | US History I | |||||
| 10:00 PM |
Creating a Planner
Now that you know what you need to be spending your time on, let’s work on getting it put into a schedule or calendar. The first thing you want to do is select what type of planner or calendar you want to use. There are several to choose from. The following chart outlines some pros and cons to different systems. online calendars, weekly calendars, monthly calendars and wall calendars.
| Type | Example | Cost | Pros | Cons |
| Weekly Planner | $5-$10 |
|
| |
| Monthly Planner | $5-$15 |
|
| |
| Daily Planner | $5-$10 |
|
| |
| Electronic Calendar | Free |
|
| |
| Dry Erase Calendar | $15 – $20 |
|
|
What Goes in Your Planner?
Now that you have selected your planner, it’s time to fill it in. But what goes in it? Well, everything! Start by putting in your top priorities and then move on to your discretionary time.
Priorities
- Class time
- Work Time
- Designated study time (2-3 hours per hour in class)
- Assignment due dates (check your syllabus)
- Exam dates and quizzes (check your syllabus)
- Appointments
- Birthdays of family and friends
Discretionary Time
- Social events
- Parties
- Exercise
- Club activities
- Church activities
Reminders
- Birthdays
- Anniversaries
- Holidays
Your schedule will vary depending on the course you’re taking. So pull out your syllabus for each class and try to determine the rhythm of the class by looking at the following factors:
- Will you have tests or exams in this course? When are those scheduled?
- Are there assignments and papers? When are those due?
- Is there any group or collaborative assignments? You’ll want to pay particular attention to the timing of any assignment that requires you to work with others.
Remember your goals. Does your schedule reflect your goals? Set your short and long-term goals accordingly. Ask yourself the following:
- What needs to get done today?
- What needs to get done this week?
- What needs to get done by the end the first month of the semester?
- What needs to get done by the end the second month of the semester?
- What needs to get done by the end of the semester?
Don’t try to micromanage your schedule. Don’t try to estimate exactly how many minutes you’ll need two weeks from today to read a given chapter in a given textbook. Instead, just choose the blocks of time you will use for your studies. Don’t yet write in the exact study activity, just reserve the block. Next, look at the major deadlines for projects and exams that you wrote in earlier. Estimate how much time you may need for each and work backward on the schedule from the due date.
Plan Backwards
As a college student, you will likely have big assignments, papers, or projects that you are expected to work on throughout the semester. These are often tricky for students to schedule since it isn’t a regularly occurring event, like a weekly quiz or a homework assignment. These big projects often feel overwhelming so students have a tendency to shy away from them and procrastinate on them. This often results in a lot of last-minute stress and panic when the deadline is looming. A way to plan for these big projects is to plan backward. Start at the final project and then figure out all the steps that come before it and assign due dates for yourself. For example, you have a research paper due May 1. Start there!
| Assignment | Due Date |
| Research Paper Due | May 1 |
| Final Draft | April 28 |
| Rough Draft | April 21 |
| Final Outline | April 7 |
| Find sources | March 24 |
| Thesis statement | March 17 |
| Select topic | March 10 |
You have now created a series of assignments for yourself that will keep you on track for your project. Put these dates in your planner the same way you would any other assignment.
Establish A To-Do List
People use to-do lists in different ways, and you should find what works best for you. As with your planner, consistent use of your to-do list will make it an effective habit.
Some people prefer not to carry their planner everywhere but instead, copy the key information for the day onto a to-do list. Using this approach, your daily to-do list starts out with your key scheduled activities and then adds other things you hope to do today. This is a good fit for those that prefer to keep a wall calendar at home rather than carry their planner with them.
Some people use their to-do list only for things not included in their planners, such as short errands, phone calls or e-mail, and the like. This still includes important things, but they’re not scheduled out for specific times like your planner is.
Although we call it a daily list, the to-do list can also include things you may not get to today but don’t want to forget about. Keeping these things on the list, even if they’re a low priority, helps ensure that eventually, you’ll get to it.
Just as there are several options for planners, there are different types of to-do lists. Check your planner to see if it has one incorporated. If not, get a small notebook or pad of paper that you will designate as your to-do list. Of course, there’s always an app for that! Your smartphone likely came with a Reminder App or another type of To-Do List app. There are also many free apps to choose from and there are apps to help you manage your homework and assignments. Take a few minutes to look through your options to pick the best one for you.
Your To-Do list should be a reflection of your goals and priorities and should support your planner Your To-Do List should answer the question, “What do I have to do today, this week, this month?” You can use a paper to-do list or an electronic one. Many online calendars such as Google Calendar or Outlook have a to-do list built in. Use whatever format works best for you to prioritize or highlight the most important activities.
Here are some more tips for effectively using your daily to-do list:
- Be specific: “Read history chapter 2 (30 pages)”—not “History homework.”
- Put important things high on your list where you’ll see them every time you check the list.
- Make your list at the same time every day so that it becomes a habit.
- Don’t make your list overwhelming. If you added everything you eventually need to do, you could end up with so many things on the list that you’d never read through them all. If you worry you might forget something, write it in the margin of your planner’s page a week or two away.
- Use your list. Lists often include little things that may take only a few minutes to do, so check your list anytime during the day you have a moment free.
- Cross out or check off things after you’ve done them—doing this becomes rewarding.
- Don’t use your to-do list to procrastinate. Don’t pull it out to find something else you just “have” to do instead of studying!
Time Management Strategies
Following are some strategies you can begin using immediately to make the most of your time:
- Prepare to be successful. When planning ahead for studying, think yourself into the right mood. Focus on the positive. “When I get these chapters read tonight, I’ll be ahead in studying for the next test, and I’ll also have plenty of time tomorrow to do X.” Visualize yourself studying well!
- Use your best—and most appropriate—time of day. Different tasks require different mental skills. Some kinds of studying you may be able to start first thing in the morning as you wake, while others need your most alert moments at another time.
- Break up large projects into small pieces. Whether it’s writing a paper for class, studying for a final exam, or reading a long assignment or full book, students often feel daunted at the beginning of a large project. It’s easier to get going if you break it up into stages that you schedule at separate times—and then begin with the first section that requires only an hour or two.
- Do the most important studying first. When two or more things require your attention, do the more crucial one first. If something happens and you can’t complete everything, you’ll suffer less if the most crucial work is done.
- If you have trouble getting started, do an easier task first. Like large tasks, complex or difficult ones can be daunting. If you can’t get going, switch to an easier task you can accomplish quickly. That will give you momentum, and often you feel more confident in tackling the difficult task after being successful in the first one.
- If you’re feeling overwhelmed and stressed because you have too much to do, revisit your time planner. Sometimes it’s hard to get started if you keep thinking about other things you need to get done. Review your schedule for the next few days and make sure everything important is scheduled, then relax and concentrate on the task at hand.
- If you’re really floundering, talk to someone. Maybe you just don’t understand what you should be doing. Talk to your instructor or another student in the class to get back on track.
- Take a break. We all need breaks to help us concentrate without becoming fatigued and burned out. As a general rule, a short break every hour or so is effective in helping recharge your study energy. Get up and move around to get your blood flowing, clear your thoughts, and work off stress.
- Use unscheduled times to work ahead. You’ve scheduled that hundred pages of reading for later today, but you have the textbook with you as you’re waiting for the bus. Start reading now, or flip through the chapter to get a sense of what you’ll be reading later. Either way, you’ll save time later. You may be amazed at how much studying you can get done during downtimes throughout the day.
- Keep your momentum. Prevent distractions, such as multitasking, that will only slow you down. Check for messages, for example, only at scheduled break times.
- Reward yourself. It’s not easy to sit still for hours of studying. When you successfully complete the task, you should feel good and deserve a small reward. A healthy snack, a quick video game session, or social activity can help you feel even better about your successful use of time.
- Just say no. Always tell others nearby when you’re studying, to reduce the chances of being interrupted. Still, interruptions happen, and if you are in a situation where you are frequently interrupted by a family member, spouse, roommate, or friend, it helps to have your “no” prepared in advance: “No, I really have to be ready for this test” or “That’s a great idea, but let’s do it tomorrow—I just can’t today.” You shouldn’t feel bad about saying no—especially if you told that person in advance that you needed to study.
- Have a life. Never schedule your day or week so full of work and study that you have no time at all for yourself, your family and friends, and your larger life.
- Use a calendar planner and a daily to-do list.
Watch this supplemental video, College Survival Tips: Time Management for Beginners by MyCollegePalTeam6, for a brief re-cap of effective time management strategies.
Time Management Tips for Students Who Work
If you’re both working and taking classes, you seldom have large blocks of free time. Avoid temptations to stay up very late studying, for losing sleep can lead to a downward spiral in performance at both work and school. Instead, try to follow these guidelines:
- If possible, adjust your work or sleep hours so that you don’t spend your most productive times at work. If your job offers flex time, arrange your schedule to be free to study at times when you perform best.
- Try to arrange your class and work schedules to minimize commuting time. If you are a part-time student taking two classes, taking classes back-to-back two or three days a week uses less time than spreading them out over four or five days. Working four ten-hour days rather than five eight-hour days reduces time lost to travel, getting ready for work, and so on.
- If you can’t arrange an effective schedule for classes and work, consider online courses that allow you to do most of the work on your own time.
- Use your daily and weekly planner conscientiously. Anytime you have thirty minutes or more free, schedule a study activity.
- Consider your “body clock” when you schedule activities. Plan easier tasks for those times when you’re often fatigued and reserve alert times for more demanding tasks.
- Look for any “hidden” time potentials. Maybe you prefer the thirty-minute drive to work over a forty-five-minute train ride. But if you can read on the train, that’s a gain of ninety minutes every day at the cost of thirty minutes longer travel time. An hour a day can make a huge difference in your studies.
- Can you do quick study tasks during slow times at work? Take your class notes with you and use even five minutes of free time wisely.
- Remember your long-term goals. You need to work, but you also want to finish your college program. If you have the opportunity to volunteer for some overtime, consider whether it’s really worth it. Sure, the extra money would help, but could the extra time put you at risk for not doing well in your classes?
- Be as organized on the job as you are academically. Use your planner and to-do list for work matters, too. The better organized you are at work, the less stress you’ll feel—and the more successful you’ll be as a student also.
- If you have a family as well as a job, your time is even more limited. In addition to the previous tips, try some of the strategies that follow.
Time Management Tips for Students with Family
Living with family members often introduces additional time stresses. You may have family obligations that require careful time management. Use all the strategies described earlier, including family time in your daily plans the same as you would hours spent at work. Don’t assume that you’ll be “free” every hour you’re home, because family events or a family member’s need for your assistance may occur at unexpected times. Schedule your important academic work well ahead and in blocks of time you control. See also the earlier suggestions for controlling your space: you may need to use the library or another space to ensure you are not interrupted or distracted during important study times.
Students with their own families are likely to feel time pressures. After all, you can’t just tell your partner or kids that you’ll see them in a couple years when you’re not so busy with job and college! In addition to all the planning and study strategies discussed so far, you also need to manage your family relationships and time spent with family. While there’s no magical solution for making more hours in the day, even with this added time pressure there are ways to balance your life well:
- Talk everything over with your family. If you’re going back to school, your family members may not have realized changes will occur. Don’t let them be shocked by sudden household changes. Keep communication lines open so that your partner and children feel they’re together with you in this new adventure. Eventually, you will need their support.
- Work to enjoy your time together, whatever you’re doing. You may not have as much time together as previously, but cherish the time you do have—even if it’s washing dishes together or cleaning house. If you’ve been studying for two hours and need a break, spend the next ten minutes with family instead of checking e-mail or watching television. Ultimately, the important thing is being together, not going out to movies or dinners or the special things you used to do when you had more time. Look forward to being with family and appreciate every moment you are together, and they will share your attitude.
Identify Your Time Management Style
People’s attitudes toward time vary widely. One person seems to be always rushing around but actually gets less done than another person who seems unconcerned about time and calmly goes about the day. Since there are so many different “time personalities,” it’s important to realize how you approach time. Try the following activity to help you identify your personal time management style.
Activity: Identify your Time Management Style
The following self-assessment survey can help you determine your time-management personality type. Your responses should reflect what you probably would do in a given situation, not what you think is the “right” answer.
Read a text-only version of the activity here.
Assessing Your Responses
Which of the four basic time-management personality types did you select the most? Which did you select the least? Do you feel like these selections match the student you have been in the past? Has your previous way of doing things worked for you, or do you think it’s time for a change? Remember, we can all always improve!
Learn more below about your tendencies. Review traits, strengths, challenges, and tips for success for each of the four time-management personality types.
The Early Bird
- Traits: You like to make checklists and feel great satisfaction when you can cross something off of your to-do list. When it comes to assignments, you want to get started as soon as possible (and maybe start brainstorming before that), because it lets you stay in control.
- Strengths: You know what you want and are driven to figure out how to achieve it. Motivation is never really a problem for you.
- Challenges: Sometimes you can get more caught up in getting things done as quickly as possible and don’t give yourself enough time to really mull over issues in all of their complexity.
- Tips for Success: You’re extremely organized and on top of your schoolwork, so make sure you take the time to really enjoy learning in your classes. Remember, school isn’t all deadlines and checkboxes—you also have the opportunity to think about big-picture intellectual problems that don’t necessarily have clear answers.
The Balancing Act
- Traits: You really know what you’re capable of and are ready to do what it takes to get the most out of your classes. Maybe you’re naturally gifted in this way or maybe it’s a skill that you have developed over time; in any case, you should have the basic organizational skills to succeed in any class, as long as you keep your balance.
- Strengths: Your strength really lies in your ability to be well rounded. You may not always complete assignments perfectly every time, but you are remarkably consistent and usually manage to do very well in classes.
- Challenges: Because you’re so consistent, sometimes you can get in a bit of a rut and begin to coast in class, rather than really challenging yourself.
- Tips for Success: Instead of simply doing what works, use each class as an opportunity for growth by engaging thoughtfully with the material and constantly pushing the boundaries of your own expectations for yourself.
The Pressure Cooker
- Traits: You always get things done and almost always at the last minute. Hey, it takes time to really come up with good ideas!
- Strengths: You work well under pressure, and when you do finally sit down to accomplish a task, you can sit and work for hours. In these times, you can be extremely focused and shut out the rest of the world in order to complete what’s needed.
- Challenges: You sometimes use your ability to work under pressure as an excuse to procrastinate. Sure, you can really focus when the deadline is tomorrow but is it really the best work you could produce if you had a couple of days of cushion?
- Tips for Success: Give yourself small, achievable deadlines, and stick to them. Make sure they’re goals that you really could (and would) achieve in a day. Then don’t allow yourself to make excuses. You’ll find that it’s actually a lot more enjoyable to not be stressed out when completing schoolwork. Who would have known?
The Improviser
- Traits: You frequently wait until the last minute to do assignments, but it’s because you’ve been able to get away with this habit in many classes. Sometimes you miss an assignment or two, or have to pretend to have done reading that you haven’t, but everyone does that sometimes, right?
- Strengths: You think quickly on your feet, and while this is a true strength, it also can be a crutch that prevents you from being really successful in a class.
- Challenges: As the saying goes, old habits die hard. If you find that you lack a foundation of discipline and personal accountability, it can be difficult to change, especially when the course material becomes challenging or you find yourself struggling to keep up with the pace of the class.
- Tips for Success: The good news is you can turn this around! Make a plan to organize your time and materials in a reasonable way, and really stick with it. Also, don’t be afraid to ask your instructor for help, but be sure to do it before, rather than after, you fall behind.
People also differ in how they respond to schedule changes. Some go with the flow and accept changes easily, while others function well only when following a planned schedule and may become upset if that schedule changes. If you do not react well to an unexpected disruption in your schedule, plan extra time for catching up if something throws you off. This is all part of understanding your time personality.
Another aspect of your time personality involves the time of day. If you need to concentrate, such as when writing a class paper, are you more alert and focused in the morning, afternoon, or evening? Do you concentrate best when you look forward to a relaxing activity later on, or do you study better when you’ve finished all other activities? Do you function well if you get up early, or stay up late, to accomplish a task? How does that affect the rest of your day or the next day? Understanding this will help you better plan your study periods.
While you may not be able to change your “time personality,” you can learn to manage your time more successfully. The key is to be realistic. The best way to improve your time management is to take an honest look at how you are currently spending your time.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Your values help shape your goals and your goals help shape your time management.
- Identifying your priorities is an important first step to creating an effective time management system.
- Models like The Eisenhower Method help you prioritize and avoid unnecessarily stressful situations.
- Understand procrastination and the reasons you personally procrastinate. Use this information to incorporate proactive strategies to help you avoid procrastinating.
- Having an accurate snapshot of how you currently spend your time is the first step in creating an effective time management system.
- Once you know how you spend your time, you can make a specific plan for how you want to spend your time.
- There are different types of planners, including hard-copy and electronic. Find a planner that works best for you and your preferences and habits.
- Your planner should reflect your values, goals, and priorities. It should include class time, work time, appointments, due dates, exams, and reminders of special dates.
- For big projects, plan backward to ensure you have enough time planned for each step.
- There are several options for To-Do Lists including paper and electronic choices. Find a system that works with your planner and that you will actively use.
- Implement Time Management Strategies to support your success and ultimately support your goals.
- There are unique Time Management Styles and knowing yours will help you create your own system.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Manage Your Time. Authored by: Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- College Success Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Image. Authored by: Flickr. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/bionicteaching/45191993455. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- The Pomodoro Technique. Authored by: Ryan MacGillivray. Provided by: SKETCHPLANTATIONS Located at: https://www.sketchplanations.com/post/179972023741/the-pomodoro-technique-a-super-simple-method License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- The Pomodoro Technique: Study More Efficiently, Take More Breaks Authored by: Gena Ellett. Provided by: The University of British Colombia Located at: https://learningcommons.ubc.ca/the-pomodoro-technique-study-more-efficiently-take-more-breaks/ License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Time Management. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management. License: CC BY-SA 3.0
- Your Use of Time in EDUC 1300. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/chapter/your-use-of-time/. License: CC BY 4.0
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
- College Survival Tips: Time Management for Beginners. Provided by: MyCollegePalTeam6. Located at: https://youtu.be/lfkAEC0r-x0. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- The Pomodoro Technique Authored by: Cirillo Company. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=VFW3Ld7JO0w License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:34:59.997385
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Chapter 5: Getting and Staying Organized
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 5: Getting and Staying Organized
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Analyze the impact of your surroundings while you study.
- Recognize the importance of organizing your space to your best advantage for studying.
- Understand the dangers of multitasking and strategies for avoiding it.
- Assess the degree to which personal technology may help or hinder your study efforts.
Getting and Staying Organized
The Impact Of Your Study Environment
If a researcher walked up to you right now and asked you to identify your favorite place to study, what would your immediate response be? Would it be your home—perhaps your sunny kitchen? Maybe your dorm room or bedroom—a relaxed space you can call your own? Maybe it would be a busy café in the heart of town or a remote log cabin if you have access to one. What are your preferences for your physical surroundings when you study? What are the attributes of your most conducive study environment?
In the following video, Mark Montgomery, an educational consultant and college admissions expert, reminds students that while their image of college may be much about socializing, they will ideally spend a good portion of their time studying. He shows some accommodating physical spaces at Seattle University.
Organizing Your Space
Now that you’ve worked up an attitude for success and are feeling motivated, it’s time to get organized. In addition to organizing your time, you also need to organize your space.
Space is important for many reasons—some obvious, some less so. People’s moods, attitudes, and levels of work productivity change in different spaces. Learning to use space to your own advantage helps get you off to a good start in your studies. Here are a few of the ways space matters:
- Everyone needs his or her own space. This may seem simple, but everyone needs some physical area, regardless of size, that is really his or her own, even if it’s only a small part of a shared space. Within your own space, you generally feel more secure and in control.
- Physical space reinforces habits. For example, using your bed primarily for sleeping makes it easier to fall asleep there than elsewhere and also makes it not a good place to try to stay awake and alert for studying.
- Different places create different moods. While this may seem obvious, students don’t always use places to their best advantage. One place may be bright and full of energy, with happy students passing through and enjoying themselves, a place that puts you in a good mood. But that may actually make it more difficult to concentrate on your studying. Yet the opposite, a totally quiet, austere place devoid of color and sound and pleasant decorations, can be just as unproductive if it makes you associate studying with something unpleasant. Everyone needs to discover what space works best for himself or herself, and then let that space reinforce good study habits.
Choosing Your Study Place
Begin by analyzing your needs, preferences, and past problems with places for studying. Where do you usually study? What are the best things about that place for studying? What distractions are most likely to occur there?
The goal is to find, or create, the best place for studying, and then to use it regularly so that studying there becomes a good habit.
- Choose a place you can associate with studying. Make sure it’s not a place already associated with other activities (eating, watching television, sleeping, etc.). Over time, the more often you study in this space, the stronger will be its association with studying, so that eventually you’ll be completely focused as soon as you reach that place and begin.
- Your study area should be available whenever you need it. If you want to use your home, apartment, or dorm room but you never know if another person may be there and possibly distract you, then it’s probably better to look for another place, such as a study lounge or an area in the library. Look for locations open at the hours when you may be studying. You may also need two study spaces—one in or near where you live, another on campus. Maybe you study best at home but have an hour free between two classes, and the library is too far away to use for only an hour? Look for a convenient empty classroom. Choose a pleasant, quiet place for studying, such as the college library.
- Your study space should meet your study needs. An open desk or table surface usually works best for writing, and you’ll tire quickly if you try to write notes sitting in an easy chair (which might also make you sleepy). You need good light for reading, to avoid tiring from eyestrain. If you use a laptop for writing notes or reading and researching, you need a power outlet so you don’t have to stop when your battery runs out.
- Your study space should meet your psychological needs. Some students may need total silence with absolutely no visual distractions; they may find a perfect study carrel hidden away on the fifth floor of the library. Other students may be unable to concentrate for long without looking up from reading and momentarily letting their eyes move over a pleasant scene. Some students may find it easier to stay motivated when surrounded by other students also studying; they may find an open space in the library or a study lounge with many tables spread out over an area. Experiment to find the setting that works best for you and remember that the more often you use this same space, the more comfortable and effective your studying will become.
- You may need the support of others to maintain your study space. Students living at home, whether with a spouse and children or with their parents, often need the support of family members to maintain an effective study space. The kitchen table probably isn’t best if others pass by frequently. Be creative, if necessary, and set up a card table in a quiet corner of your bedroom or elsewhere to avoid interruptions. Put a “do not disturb” sign on your door.
- Keep your space organized and free of distractions. You want to prevent sudden impulses to neaten up the area (when you should be studying), do laundry, wash dishes, and so on. Unplug a nearby telephone, turn off your cell phone, and use your computer only as needed for studying. If your e-mail or message program pops up a notice every time an e-mail or message arrives, turn off your Wi-Fi or detach the network cable to prevent those intrusions.
- Plan for breaks. Everyone needs to take a break occasionally when studying. Think about the space you’re in and how to use it when you need a break. If in your home, stop and do a few exercises to get your blood flowing. If in the library, take a walk up a couple flights of stairs and around the stacks before returning to your study area.
- Prepare for human interruptions. Even if you hide in the library to study, there’s a chance a friend may happen by. At home with family members or in a dorm room or common space, the odds increase greatly. Have a plan ready in case someone pops in and asks you to join them in some fun activity. Know when you plan to finish your studying so that you can make a plan for later—or for tomorrow at a set time.
Student Responses
College administrators and professors, like the one in the earlier video, may have their own ideas about what constitutes good study space. But what do students say? Below are comments from several students about their favorite “go-to” study spots:
Jared: I like to take my laptop into the Alley Café and use the wifi while I write papers and work on homework. It’s in a nice spot and there’s always people around. I need my caffeine and some noise around me so I don’t fall asleep. Recently I’ve been using the library. It’s quieter, but I meet other students there and we use the group study rooms. We work on group projects. I like being around other people when I study.
Butch: I like to study on a picnic table in the garden outside my apartment. Sometimes I just park myself on the grass. But I tend to get distracted outside, so my second favorite place to study is the library. I used to hate libraries because I didn’t like how quiet they were, but then I realized I can actually get work done there.
LeeAnne: The library is my go-to. If I need sources for a paper, the staff help me find articles with their online services. There is a wide selection of books, too, but if I can’t find something the staff will order it through a different school or library. Sometimes the space gets crowded, like during exam week, and it can be hard to find an open computer. But it’s comforting to see I’m not the only student doing a paper last-minute.
It’s not surprising to find that there are some recurring student favorites when it comes to good study environments. The following locations are all-time winners:
- Campus Library
- The Tutoring Center
- Campus Lounge
- An empty classroom
- A study partner’s house
- A community center
- A community library
Family and Roommate Issues
Sometimes going to the library or elsewhere is not practical for studying, and you have to find a way to cope in a shared space.
Part of the solution is time management. Agree with others on certain times that will be reserved for studying, agree to keep the place quiet, not to have guests visiting, and to prevent other distractions. These arrangements can be made with a roommate, spouse, and older children. If there are younger children in your household and you have child-care responsibility, it’s usually more complicated. You may have to schedule your studying during their nap time or find quiet activities for them to enjoy while you study. Try to spend some time with your kids before you study, so they don’t feel like you’re ignoring them.
The key is to plan ahead. You don’t want to find yourself, the night before an exam, in a place that offers no space for studying.
Finally, accept that sometimes you’ll just have to say no. If your roommate or a friend often tries to engage you in conversation or suggests doing something else when you need to study, just say no. Learn to be firm but polite as you explain that you just really have to get your work done first. Students who live at home may also have to learn how to say no to parents or family members, just be sure to explain the importance of the studying you need to do! Remember, you can’t be everything to everyone all the time.
Avoid Multitasking
Multitasking is a term commonly used for being engaged in two or more different activities at the same time, usually referring to activities using devices such as cell phones, smartphones, computers, and so on. Many people claim to be able to do as many as four or five things simultaneously, such as writing an e-mail while responding to a text, and reading a tweet, all while watching a video on their computer monitor or talking on the phone. Many people who have grown up with computers consider this kind of multitasking a normal way to get things done, including studying. Even people in business sometimes speak of multitasking as an essential component of today’s fast-paced world.
It is true that some things can be attended to while you’re doing something else, such as checking texts while you watch television news, but only when none of those things demands your full attention. You can concentrate 80 percent on the text, for example, while 20 percent of your attention is listening for something on the news that catches your attention. Then you turn to the television for a minute, watch that segment, and go back to the text. But, you’re not actually watching the television at the same time you’re texting; you’re rapidly going back and forth. In reality, the mind can focus only on one thing at any given moment. Even things that don’t require much thinking are severely impacted by multitasking, such as driving while talking on a cell phone or texting. An astonishing number of people end up in the emergency room from just trying to walk down the sidewalk while texting!
“Okay,” you might be thinking, “why should it matter if I write my paper first and then text or do them back and forth at the same time?” It actually takes you longer to do two or more things at the same time than if you do them separately, at least with anything that you actually have to focus on, such as studying. That’s true because each time you go back to studying after looking away to a message or tweet, it takes time for your mind to shift gears to get back to where you were. Every time your attention shifts, add up some more “downtime” and pretty soon it’s evident that multitasking is costing you a lot more time than you think. And that’s assuming that your mind does fully shift back to where you were every time, without losing your train of thought or forgetting an important detail. It doesn’t always.
The other problem with multitasking is the effect it can have on the attention span and even on how the brain works. Scientists have shown that in people who constantly shift their attention from one thing to another in short bursts, the brain forms patterns that make it more difficult to keep sustained attention on any one thing. So when you really do need to concentrate for a while on one thing, such as when studying for a big test, it becomes more difficult to do even if you’re not multitasking at that time. It’s as if your mind makes a habit of wandering from one thing to another and then can’t stop.
Researchers have found that multitasking increases production of the stress hormone, cortisol, and the fight-or-flight hormone, adrenaline. These hormone level increases can cause the brain to literally overheat, which leads to foggy mental processing. So multitasking while studying for a final exam might not be a good idea.
Multitasking also taxes the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that integrates information. Your capacity for problem-solving decreases with the number of tasks you try to perform at the same time.
The lesson here is to stay away from multitasking whenever you have something important to do, like studying. If it’s already a habit for you, don’t let it become worse and make an effort to concentrate on one thing at a time. Manipulate your study space to prevent the temptations altogether. Turn your computer off, or shut down e-mail and messaging programs if you need the computer for studying. Turn your cell phone off, if you just tell yourself not to answer it but still glance at it each time to see who sent or left a message, you’re still losing your studying momentum and have to start over again. For those who are really addicted to technology (you know who you are!), go to the library and don’t take your laptop or cell phone.
What about listening to music while studying? Some don’t consider that multitasking, and many students say they can listen to music without it affecting their studying. Studies are inconclusive about the positive or negative effects of music on people’s ability to concentrate, probably because so many different factors are involved. But there’s a huge difference between listening to your favorite CD where you can’t help but sing along and enjoying soft background music that enhances your study space the same way as good lighting and pleasant décor. Some people can study better with low-volume instrumental music that relaxes them and does not intrude on their thinking, while others can concentrate only in silence. Some people are so used to being immersed in music and the sounds of life that they find total silence more distracting; such people can often study well in places where people are moving around. The key thing is to be honest with yourself: if you’re actively listening to music while you’re studying, then you’re likely not studying as well as you could be. It will take you longer and lead to less successful results.
What are your thoughts on multitasking? How does it affect your productivity? The following video, from the University of British Columbia, features students talking about multitasking. Does it exist? Is it effective?
Managing Technology
The perceived need to multitask is driven largely by the technology takeover of recent years. Smartphones, email, social networking, Instagram, Twitter . . . all make multitasking seem both necessary and possible. They all require switching in and out of a line of thinking. With these technologies, we face constant information overload and distraction.
Becoming More Productive
How can we become more productive with our time and energy, given our tendency to multitask? Read the tips below:
- Try “batch processing”: Have set times during the day for checking and responding to emails and texts.
- Use checking your phone as a reward for completing an item on your to-do list.
- Use concentrated time: Block off time for working on just one task.
- Leave your phone in your car. Then, take a break and check your phone, getting outside and getting a little exercise while you do it.
- Do what’s most important first: Make goals for the day and accomplish them. The sense of achievement can help you resist anxiety-driven multitasking.
- Turn off your social media alerts on your phone.
- Set your phone to “Do Not Disturb.”
- Set auto-response text messages to respond to people while you are studying.
- Use television, video games, etc. as a reward at the end of the day.
- Set a time when you are surfing the web, so you don’t spend hours going down the internet rabbit hole.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- A well-planned study environment supports an effective study session.
- Choose a study space that is easily available and that you associate with studying and learning.
- Keep your study space and your materials organized.
- Multitasking isn’t as productive as it sounds. It actually takes longer to do two things at once than to do each of them on their own.
- Multitasking often leads to mistakes and poorer quality work while increasing stress.
- You need to have a clear plan in place for managing your technology. Try having set times to check your phone and put your phone on Do Not Disturb during your study sessions.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Getting and Staying Organized. Authored by: Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- College Success Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Your Physical Environment in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/your-physical-environment/. License: CC BY 4.0
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.029654
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Chapter 15: Planning for Your Career
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 15: Planning for Your Career
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Differentiate between “job” and “career”
- Describe the stages of career development and identify the stage you’re currently in
- Explain the five-step process for choosing a career
- List key strategies for selecting a college major
- Identify the relationship between college majors and career paths (both why they matter and why they don’t)
- Identify specific skills and transferable skills that will be valuable for your career path and how to acquire them
Planning for Your Career
Planning for Your Career
The Department of Labor defines 840 occupations in its Standard Occupation Classification system—and new occupations are being created at an ever-faster rate. Just ten years ago, would anyone have imagined the job of a social media marketing specialist? How about the concept of a competitive chef? As new careers develop and old careers morph into almost unrecognizable versions of their original, it’s okay if you aren’t able to pinpoint exactly what occupation or career will be your life passion. However, it is important to define as best you can what field you will want to develop your career in because that will help dictate your major and your course selections.
The process of career exploration can be a lot of fun, as it allows you to discover a world of possibilities. Even those students who have a pretty clear idea of what they want to do should go through this process because they will discover new options as backups and occasionally a new direction even more attractive than their original choice.
In this section, we explore strategies that can help you chart your professional path and also attain ample reward. We begin by comparing and contrasting jobs and careers. We then look at how to match up your personal characteristics with a specific field or fields. We conclude by detailing a process for actually choosing your career. Throughout, you will find resources for learning more about this vast topic of planning for employment.
Job vs. Career
What is the difference between a job and a career? Do you plan to use college to help you seek one or the other? A job: yes, it’s something you would like to have, especially if you want to pay your bills. A job lets you enjoy a minimal level of financial security. A job requires you to show up and do what is required of you; in exchange, you get paid. A career involves holding a series of jobs, but it is more a means of achieving personal fulfillment. In a career, your jobs follow a sequence that leads to increasing mastery, professional development, and personal and financial satisfaction. A career requires planning, knowledge, and skills. If it is to be a fulfilling career, it requires that you bring into play your full set of analytical, critical, and creative thinking skills to make informed decisions that will affect your life in both the short term and the long term.
There is no right or wrong answer because motivations for being in college are so varied and different for each student. But you can take maximum advantage of your time in college if you develop a clear plan for what you want to accomplish. The table below shows some differences between a job and a career.
| JOB | CAREER | |
| Definitions | A job refers to the work a person performs for a living. It can also refer to a specific task done as part of the routine of one’s occupation. A person can begin a job by becoming an employee, by volunteering, by starting a business, or becoming a parent. | A career is an occupation (or series of jobs) that you undertake for a significant period of time in your life—perhaps five or ten years, or more. A career typically provides you with opportunities to advance your skills and positions. |
| Requirements | A job you accept with an employer does not necessarily require special education or training. Sometimes you can get needed learning “on the job.” | A career usually requires special learning—perhaps a certification or a specific degree. |
| Risk-Taking | A job may be considered a safe and stable means to get income. But jobs can also quickly change; security can come and go. | A career can also have risks. In today’s world, employees need to continually learn new skills and adapt to changes in order to stay employed. Starting your own business can have risks. Many people thrive on risk-taking, though, and may achieve higher gains. It all depends on your definition of success. |
| Duration | The duration of a job may range from an hour (in the case of odd jobs, for example,) to a lifetime. Generally, a “job” is shorter-term. | A career is typically a long-term pursuit. |
| Income | Jobs that are not career-oriented may not pay as well as career-oriented positions. Jobs often pay an hourly wage. | Career-oriented jobs generally offer an annual salary versus a wage. Career-oriented jobs may also offer appealing benefits, like health insurance and retirement. |
| Satisfaction and contributing to society | Many jobs are important to society, but some may not bring high levels of personal satisfaction. | Careers allow you to invest time and energy in honing your crafts and experiencing personal satisfaction. Career pursuits may include making contributions to society. |
In the following video, author, speaker, and entrepreneur Shinjini Das discusses the distinction between a job and a career and explains her advice for planning for your career.
Whether you pursue individual jobs or an extended career or both, your time with your employers will always comprise your individual journey. May your journey be as enjoyable and fulfilling as possible!
Stages of Career Development
See if you can remember a time in your childhood when you noticed somebody doing professional work. Maybe a nurse or doctor, dressed in a lab coat, was listening to your heartbeat. Maybe a worker at a construction site, decked in a hard hat, was operating noisy machinery. Maybe a cashier at the checkout line in a grocery store was busily scanning barcodes. Each day in your young life you could have seen a hundred people doing various jobs. Surely some of the experiences drew your interest and appealed to your imagination.
If you can recall any such times, those are moments from the beginning stage of your career development. What exactly is career development? It’s a lifelong process in which we become aware of, interested in, knowledgeable about, and skilled in a career. It’s a key part of human development as our identity forms and our life unfolds.
There are five main stages of career development. Each stage correlates with attitudes, behaviors, and relationships we all tend to have at that point and age. As we progress through each stage and reach the milestones identified, we prepare to move on to the next one. Which stage of career development do you feel you are in currently? Think about each stage. What challenges are you facing now? Where are you headed?
| # | STAGE | DESCRIPTION |
| 1 | GROWING | This is a time in the early years (4–13 years old) when you begin to have a sense of the future. You begin to realize that your participation in the world is related to being able to do certain tasks and accomplish certain goals. |
| 2 | EXPLORING | This period begins when you are a teenager, and it extends into your mid-twenties. In this stage, you find that you have specific interests and aptitudes. You are aware of your inclinations to perform and learn about some subjects more than others. You may try out jobs in your community or at your school. You may begin to explore a specific career. At this stage, you have some detailed “data points” about careers, which will guide you in certain directions. |
| 3 | ESTABLISHING | This period covers your mid-twenties through mid-forties. By now you are selecting or entering a field you consider suitable, and you are exploring job opportunities that will be stable. You are also looking for upward growth, so you may be thinking about an advanced degree. |
| 4 | MAINTAINING | This stage is typical for people in their mid-forties to mid-sixties. You may be in an upward pattern of learning new skills and staying engaged. But you might also be merely “coasting and cruising” or even feeling stagnant. You may be taking stock of what you’ve accomplished and where you still want to go. |
| 5 | REINVENTING | In your mid-sixties, you are likely transitioning into retirement. But retirement in our technologically advanced world can be just the beginning of a new career or pursuit—a time when you can reinvent yourself. There are many new interests to pursue, including teaching others what you’ve learned, volunteering, starting online businesses, consulting, etc. |
Keep in mind that your career-development path is personal to you, and you may not fit neatly into the categories described above. Perhaps your socioeconomic background changes how you fit into the schema. Perhaps your physical and mental abilities affect how you define the idea of a “career.” And for everyone, too, there are factors of chance that can’t be predicted or anticipated. You are unique, and your career path can only be developed by you.
The Five-Step Process for Choosing Your Career
As your thoughts about your career expand, keep in mind that over the course of your life, you will probably spend a lot of time at work—thousands of hours, in fact. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average workday is about 8.7 hours long, and this means that if you work 5 days a week, 50 weeks a year, for 35 years, you will spend a total of 76,125 hours of your life at work. These numbers should convince you that it’s pretty important to enjoy your career!
If you do pursue a career, you’ll find yourself making many decisions about it: Is this the right job for me? Am I feeling fulfilled and challenged? Does this job enable me to have the lifestyle I desire? It’s important to consider these questions now, whether you’re just graduating from high school or college, or you’re returning to school after working for a while.
Choosing a career—any career—is a unique process for everyone, and for many people the task is daunting. There are so many different occupations to choose from. How do you navigate this complex world of work?
The California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office has identified a five-step decision process that will make your career path a little easier to find. Below are the steps:
- Get to know yourself
- Get to know your field
- Prioritize your “deal makers” and rule out your “deal breakers”
- Make a preliminary career decision and create a plan of action
- Go out and achieve your career goal
Step 1: Get to Know Yourself
Get to know yourself and the things you’re truly passionate about.
- Gather information about your career-related interests and values
- Think about what skills and abilities come naturally to you and which ones you want to develop
- Consider your personality type and how you want it to play out in your role at work
While you are encouraged to explore your personality, interests, and passions, you may still feel overwhelmed by the possibilities. The following video discusses how “finding your passion” can be much more complicated than it sounds, and it introduces ways to explore related opportunities and gradually focus your interests and efforts.
You may wish to review the assessments and inventories from Chapter 3 on values and Chapter 8 on multiple intelligences. These can help you align career interests with personal qualities, traits, life values, skills, activities, and ambitions. Ultimately, your knowledge of yourself is the root of all good decision-making and will guide you in productive directions.
The RIASEC Model
You can also take assessments specifically designed to help you find your best career matches. A popular assessment is based on the work by John L. Holland and is referred to as the Holland Code or Holland Occupational Themes (RIASEC). In this model, there are six personality types, using the abbreviation RIASEC: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. You can take an assessment to determine your primary personality types at the O*Net Interest Profiler by the U.S. the Department of Labor. You can also take FOCUS-2, ACC’s online career and education planning system for helping you choose a major, build your career goals, and learn job information.
According to Manish Hatwalne at MyZenPath, Career Interests Inventory shows six major classifications based on occupational interests, which form the acronym RIASEC. They are explained below.
- Realistic (R) – They are doers, hands-on people who prefer to work with objects, machines, tools, plants, or animals, or to be outdoors. They are concrete, practical, and realistic.
- Investigative (I) – They are thinkers, they observe, analyze, learn, assess, and find solutions. They are abstract thinkers, who explore different ideas.
- Artistic (A) – They are creators, they innovate, imagine, express, and prefer to work in an environment that nurtures their creative abilities.
- Social (S) – They are helpers, they often work with other people to inform, teach, inspire, or cure them. They are interactive individuals who manage, lead, or help people.
- Enterprising (E) – They are persuaders, they also work with other people to lead, influence, or manage them.
- Conventional (C) – They are organizers, they like to work with data, structure, and details. They are conformists who carry out tasks methodically.
The diagram below shows the six RIASEC types pictorially.
These six types broadly categorize occupational interests based on who you are, your abilities, and what you like to do. In real life, however, one is often a combination of 2 or 3 of these basic six types called primary interests. The remaining interests are called secondary interests. A career around one’s primary interests is more fulfilling. The initial letters of the primary interests, such as RA, IAR, SAE are called Holland Code and indicate your dominant interests. For example, a person with Holland Code SAI would be Social, Artistic, and Investigative and might enjoy helping professions such as counselor/psychologist or they could be teachers of arts or some kind of therapist. It is not about pigeonholing people but more about finding patterns in interests and figuring out a good match for their combinations. Holland codes are indicative and NOT predictive. If you answer its questionnaire earnestly, the results are immensely insightful and can be used for college admissions, choosing a major/branch, and career counseling at any stage of your career.
The National Career Development Association (NCDA) provides a variety of links to Career Self-Assessments if you are interested in exploring them.
ACC also offers a variety of Career Services, for help with all stages of the career process. Follow the link for an overview of the services available, as well as a list of upcoming workshops, career fairs, and a link to the ACC Job Board.
Step 2: Get to Know Your Field
You’ll want to investigate the career paths available to you. One of the handiest starting points and “filters” is to decide the level of education you want to attain before starting your first or your next job. Do you want to earn an associate’s degree, a bachelor’s degree, a master’s degree, or a doctorate or professional degree? This is a key factor in narrowing down your search to career paths that will be a good fit for your goals and expectations.
Holland studied people who were successful and happy in many occupations and matched their occupations to their occupational type, creating a description of the types of occupations that are best suited to each personality type. Just as many individuals are more than one personality type, many jobs show a strong correlation to more than one occupational type.
| Ideal Environments | Sample Occupations | |
|---|---|---|
| Realistic |
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| Investigative |
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| Artistic |
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| Social |
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| Enterprising |
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| Conventional |
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You can use ACC's FOCUS2 to research careers that are interesting to you. FOCUS2 provides a plethora of useful information about specific careers including the required and desired skills, educational requirements, common majors, projected growth of the occupation, and average starting and lifetime salary. You can also use the Department of Labor’s O*Net to get a deeper understanding of specific occupations. For each occupation, O*Net lists the type of work, the work environment, the skills and education required, and the job outlook for that occupation. This is a truly rich resource that you should get to know.
The National Career Development Association (NCDA) also provides several options to research general occupations and specific fields and industries, including The Occupational Outlook Handbook from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. They also provide information on employment trends and information for specific populations.
Step 3: Prioritize Your Deal Makers
You may now have a list of careers you want to explore. But, there are other factors you will need to take into consideration as well. It is important to use your creative thinking skills to identify your personal "deal-makers" and "deal-breakers." Educational requirements and job responsibilities aren’t the only criteria that you will want to consider. Consider some of the following factors as you explore your career options:
- Do you want to work outside or in an office?
- Do you want to be physically active or do you prefer a desk job?
- Do you want to live in a city or have access to a city?
- How long of a commute is too long?
- Does this career require you to relocate? Travel often?
- Is the location of this career somewhere you would like to live long-term? Is it somewhere your (future) family would like to live?
- What is the cost of living in the area?
- Does this career provide you with the level of social interaction you desire?
- Does this career allow you for the level of decision-making or independence you desire?
- How much time must you invest before you actually start making money in this career?
- Does this career provide financial incentives such as bonuses or performance-based increases?
- Does the career require ongoing education and professional certifications? What time and cost is required?
- Will this career provide you with the kind of income you need in the short term and the security you'll want in the longer term?
- Does this career provide stable and affordable benefits such as health insurance for your family?
- How will this career affect your personal and family life?
- What are the opportunities for growth?
- Does this career align with your personal values (Chapter 3)?
- Will this career still be challenging and engaging in 5 years, 10 years, etc?
Step 4: Make a Preliminary Career Decision
It may seem odd to be thinking about life after school if you are just getting started. But you will soon be making decisions about your future, and regardless of the direction you may choose, there is a lot you can do while still in college. You will need to focus your studies by choosing a major, covered in the next section. You should find opportunities to explore the careers that interest you. You can ensure that you are building the right kind of experience on which to base a successful career. These steps will make your dreams come to life and make them achievable.
Keep in mind that deciding on and pursuing a career is an ongoing process. The more you learn about yourself and the career options that best suit you, the more you will need to fine-tune your career plan. Don’t be afraid to consider new ideas, but don’t make changes without careful consideration. Career planning is exciting: learning about yourself and about career opportunities, and considering the factors that can affect your decision, should be a core part of your thoughts while in college.
Now that you have an idea of who you are and where you might find a satisfying career, how do you start taking action to get there? Some people talk to family, friends, or instructors in their chosen disciplines. Others have mentors in their lives with whom to discuss this decision. ACC has career services, academic advising, and transfer services that can help you with both career decision-making and the educational planning process. But be advised: you’ll get the most from these sessions if you have done some work on your own.
Step 5: Go out and Achieve Your Career Goal
Now it’s time to take concrete steps toward achieving your educational and career goals. You can start by working with your Area of Study Advisor to create a comprehensive educational plan that maps out the degree you are currently working toward. There are detailed Program Maps for all ACC degrees and certificates that outline all required coursework and a suggested timeline. Your desired career may require you to transfer to a four-year university. Consult with Transfer Services or meet with a Transfer Specialist to ensure you are on the right track to transfer and understand the deadlines and requirements.
You may also want to look for volunteer opportunities, internships, or part-time employment that help you test and confirm your preliminary career choice. Relevant experience is not only important as a job qualification; it can also provide you with a means to explore or test out occupational options and build a contact list that will be valuable when networking for your career.
Volunteering is especially good for students looking to work in social and artistic occupations, but students looking for work in other occupation types should not shy away from this option. You can master many transferable skills through volunteering! Certainly, it is easy to understand that if you want to be in an artistic field, volunteering at a museum or performance center can provide you with relevant experience. But what if you want to work in an engineering field? Volunteering for an organization promoting green energy would be helpful. Looking for a career in homeland security? Do volunteer work with the Red Cross or the Coast Guard Auxiliary. With a little brainstorming and an understanding of your career field, you should be able to come up with relevant volunteer experiences for just about any career.
Internships focus on gaining practical experience related to a course or program of study. Interns work for an organization or company for a reduced wage or stipend or volunteer in exchange for practical experience. A successful internship program should create a win-win situation: the intern should add value to the company’s efforts, and the company should provide a structured program in which the student can learn or practice work-related skills. Internships are typically held during summers or school vacation periods, though on occasion they can be scheduled for a set block of time each week during the course of a regular school term.
Once you secure an internship (usually through a normal job application process aided by a faculty member or the career guidance or placement office), it is important to have a written agreement with the employer in which the following is stated:
- The learning objective for the internship
- The time commitment you will invest (including work hours)
- The work the company expects you to do
- The work your supervisor will do for the college and for the student (internship progress reports, evaluations, etc.)
This written agreement may seem like overkill, but it is critical to ensure that the internship experience doesn’t degrade into unsatisfying tasks such as photocopying and filing.
Remember that a key objective of your internship is to develop relationships you can use for mentoring and networking during your career. Befriend people, ask questions, go the extra mile in terms of what is expected of you, and generally participate in the enterprise. The extra effort will pay dividends in the future.
Part-time employment may be an option if your study schedule provides enough free time. If so, be sure to investigate opportunities in your field of study. Ask your instructors and the career guidance or placement office to help you generate job leads, even if they are not specifically in the area you want to be working in. It is valuable and relevant to hold a job designing Web sites for an advertising agency, for example, if your specific job objective is to produce event marketing. The understanding of how an advertising agency works and the contacts you make will make the experience worthwhile.
If you are lucky enough to have a job in your field of study already and are using your college experience to enhance your career opportunities, be sure to link what you are learning to what you do on the job—and what you do on the job to what you are learning. Ask your supervisor and employer about ideas you have picked up in class, and ask your instructors about the practices you apply at work. This cross-linking will make you a much stronger candidate for future opportunities and a much better student in the short term.
Your work experiences and life circumstances will undoubtedly change throughout the course of your professional life, so you may need to go back and reassess where you are on this path in the future. The Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that the average worker currently holds ten different jobs before age forty. This number is projected to grow. A prediction from Forrester Research is that today’s youngest workers will hold twelve to fifteen jobs in their lifetime. But no matter if you feel like you were born knowing what you want to do professionally, or you feel totally unsure about what the future holds for you, remember that with careful consideration, resolve, and strategic thought, you can find a career that feels rewarding.
ACC Career Services offers ACC CareerLink as a resource to connect students with internships and employment. They also offer a variety of Career Events during the year, such as job fairs and opportunities for networking.
College Major Exploration
Your major is the discipline you commit to as an undergraduate student. It’s an area you specialize in, such as accounting, chemistry, nursing, digital arts, welding, or dance. Within each major is a host of core courses and electives. When you successfully complete the required courses in your major, you qualify for a degree.
Your major is important because it’s a defining and organizing feature of your college journey. Ultimately, your major should provide you with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviors you need to fulfill your college and career goals. In this section, we look at how to select your major and how your college major may correlate with a career. Does your major matter to your career? What happens if you change your major? Does changing your major mean you must change your career? Read on to find out!
How to Select Your College Major
Selecting your major is one of the most exciting tasks (and, to some students, perhaps one of the most nerve-wracking tasks) you are asked to perform in college. So many decisions are tied to it. But if you have good guidance, patience, and enthusiasm, the process is easier. ACC's Career Services offers a variety of support and resources as you plan your major and career path. Here are some ideas as you explore different majors.
- Seek inspiration
- Consider everything
- Identify talents and interests
- Explore available resources
- In-depth career exploration
It’s also important to talk about financial considerations in choosing a major.
Any major you choose will likely benefit you because college graduates earn roughly $1 million more than high school graduates, on average, over an entire career.
- STEM jobs, though—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—can lead to the thirty highest paying jobs. So if you major in any of these areas, you may be more likely to earn a higher salary.
- Even though humanities and social sciences students may earn less money right after college, they may earn more by the time they reach their peak salary than students who had STEM majors.
- Students who major in the humanities and social science are also more likely to get advanced degrees, which increases annual salary by nearly $20,000 at peak salary.
The best guidance on choosing a major and connecting it with a career may be to get good academic and career advice and select a major that reflects your greatest interests. If you don’t like law or medicine but you major in it because of a certain salary expectation, you may later find yourself in an unrelated job that brings you greater satisfaction—even if the salary is lower. If this is the case, will it make more sense, looking back, to spend your time and tuition dollars studying a subject you especially enjoy?
Resources
Success doesn’t come to you . . . you go to it. —Dr. Marva Collins, civil rights activist and educator
This quote really sets the stage for the journey you’re on. Your journey may be a straight line that connects the dots between today and your future, or it may resemble a twisted road with curves, bumps, hurdles, and alternate routes.
To help you navigate your pathway to career success, take advantage of all the resources available to you. Your college, your community, and the wider body of higher education institutions and organizations have many tools to help you with career development. Be sure to take advantage of the following resources:
- College course catalog: Course catalogs are typically rich with information that can spark ideas and inspiration for your major and your career.
- Faculty and academic advisors at your college: Many college professors are also practitioners in their fields and can share insights with you about related professions.
- Fellow students: Many of your classmates, especially those who share your major, may have had experiences that can inform and enlighten you—for instance, an internship with an employer or a job interview with someone who could be contacted for more information.
- Students who have graduated: Most colleges and universities have active alumni programs with networking resources that can help you make important decisions.
- Your family and social communities: Contact friends and family members who can weigh in with their thoughts and experience.
- Career Services: Professionals in career centers have a wealth of information to share with you—they’re also very good at listening and can act as a sounding board for you to try out your ideas. They offer career and job fairs, resume reviews, interview help, and a variety of career workshops.
- Transfer Services: Career and Transfer Specialists are available to help you determine the best path to complete your associate degree, transfer successfully and meet your career goals. They can help you select the right courses that transfer and satisfy your ACC and university degree requirements. They can also help with your university transfer application or researching transfer destinations.
Many organizations have free materials that can provide guidance in selecting a college major, such as the ones in the table, below:
| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION |
1 | List of College Majors (MyMajors) | A list of more than 1,800 college majors—major pages include descriptions, courses, careers, salary, related majors, and colleges offering majors. |
2 | Take the College Major Profile Quiz (ThoughtCo,) | This quiz is designed to help you think about college majors, personality traits, and how they may fit within different areas of study. |
3 | Choosing a College Major Worksheet (LiveCareer) | A six-step process to finding a college major. |
4 | CareerFinder (RoadTripNation/The College Board) | You may already have a CollegeBoard account from high school if you took the PSAT, SAT, APs, or SAT Subject Tests. Use your account or create one to use the extensive Career Finder resource. |
Preparing For Your Career
If you lived and worked in colonial times in the United States, what skills would you need to be gainfully employed? And how different would your skills and aptitudes be then, compared to today? Many industries that developed during the 1600–1700s, such as healthcare, publishing, manufacturing, construction, finance, and farming, are still with us today. And the original professional abilities, aptitudes, and values required in those industries are often some of the same ones employers seek today. For example, in the healthcare field then, just like today, employers looked for professionals with scientific acumen, active listening skills, a service orientation, oral comprehension abilities, and teamwork skills.
Why is it that with the passage of time and all the changes in the work world, some skills remain unchanged (or little changed)? The answer might lie in the fact there are two main types of skills that employers look for: hard skills and soft skills.
- Hard skills are concrete or objective abilities that you learn and perhaps have mastered. They are skills you can easily quantify, like using a computer, speaking a foreign language, or operating a machine. You might earn a certificate, a college degree, or other credentials that attest to your hard-skill competencies. Obviously, because of changes in technology, the hard skills required by industries today are vastly different from those required centuries ago.
- Soft skills, on the other hand, are subjective skills that have changed very little over time. Such skills might pertain to the way you relate to people, or the way you think, or the ways in which you behave—for example, listening attentively, working well in groups, and speaking clearly. Soft skills are sometimes also called transferable skills because you can easily transfer them from job to job or profession to profession without much training. Indeed, if you had a time machine, you could probably transfer your soft skills from one time period to another!
What Employers Want in an Employee
Employers want individuals who have the necessary hard and soft skills to do the job well and adapt to changes in the workplace. Soft skills may be especially in demand today because employers are generally equipped to train new employees in a hard skill—by training them to use new computer software, for instance—but it’s much more difficult to teach an employee a soft skill such as developing rapport with coworkers or knowing how to manage conflict. An employer may prefer to hire an inexperienced worker who can pay close attention to details than an experienced worker who may cause problems on a work team. In this section, we look at ways of identifying and building particular hard and soft skills that will be necessary for your career path. We also explain how to use your time and resources wisely to acquire critical skills for your career goals.
Specific Skills Necessary for Your Career Path
A skill is something you can do, say, or think. It’s what an employer expects you to bring to the workplace to improve the overall operations of the organization. The table below lists some resources to help you determine which concrete skills are needed for all kinds of professions. You can even discover where you might gain some of the skills and which courses you might take.
Spend some time reviewing each resource. You will find many interesting and exciting options. When you’re finished, you may decide that there are so many interesting professions in the world that it’s difficult to choose just one. This is a good problem to have!
| RESOURCE | DESCRIPTION | |
| 1 | Career Aptitude Test (Rasmussen College) | This test helps you match your skills to a particular career that’s right for you. Use a sliding scale to indicate your level of skill in the following skill areas: artistic, interpersonal, communication, managerial, mathematics, mechanical, and science. Press the Update Results button and receive a customized list customized of career suggestions tailored to you, based on data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. You can filter by salary, expected growth, and education. |
| 2 | Skills Profiler (Career OneStop from the U.S. Department of Labor) | Use the Skills Profiler to create a list of your skills and match your skills to job types that use those skills. Plan to spend about 20 minutes completing your profile. You can start with a job type to find the skills you need for a current or future job. Or if you are not sure what kind of job is right for you, start by rating your own skills to find a job type match. When your skills profile is complete, you can print it or save it. |
| 3 | O*Net OnLine | This U.S. government website helps job seekers answer two of their toughest questions: “What jobs can I get with my skills and training?” and “What skills and training do I need to get this job?” Browse groups of similar occupations to explore careers. Choose from industry, the field of work, science area, and more. Focus on occupations that use a specific tool or software. Explore occupations that need your skills. Connect to a wealth of O*NET data. Enter a code or title from another classification to find the related O*NET-SOC occupation. |
Transferable Skills for Any Career Path
Transferable (soft) skills may be used in multiple professions. They include, but are by no means limited to, skills listed below:
| Dependable and punctual (showing up on time, ready to work, not being a liability) | Self-motivated | Enthusiastic | Committed |
| Adaptable (willing to change and take on new challenges) | Problem-solving | A team player | Positive attitude |
| Essential work skills (following instructions, possessing critical thinking skills, knowing limits) | Communication skills | Customer service | Willing to learn (lifelong learner) |
| Able to accept constructive criticism | Honest and ethical | Safety-conscious | Strong in time management |
Complete Section #2: ACTIVITY: Transferable Skills Inventory
These skills are transferable because they are positive attributes that are invaluable in practically any kind of work. They also do not require much training from an employer—you have them already and take them with you wherever you go. Soft skills are a big part of your “total me” package. Take the time to identify the soft skills that show you off the best, and identify the ones that prospective employers are looking for. By comparing both sets, you can more directly gear your job search to your strongest professional qualities. The following video further explores what soft skills are and why they are essential to the modern workplace, regardless of your specific career:
Acquiring Necessary Skills for Your Career Goals
“Lifelong learning” is a buzz phrase in the twentieth-first century because we are awash in new technology and information all the time, and those who know how to learn continuously are in the best position to keep up and take advantage of these changes. Think of all the information resources around you: colleges and universities, libraries, the Internet, videos, games, books, films, etc.
With these resources at your disposal, how can you best position yourself for lifelong learning and a strong, viable career? Which hard and soft skills are most important? What are employers really looking for? The following list was inspired by the remarks of Mark Atwood, director of open-source engagement at Hewlett-Packard Enterprise. It contains excellent practical advice.
- Learn how to write clearly. After you’ve written something, have people edit it. Then rewrite it, taking into account the feedback you received. Write all the time.
- Learn how to speak. Speak clearly on the phone and at a table. For public speaking, try Toastmasters. “Meet and speak. Speak and write.”
- Be reachable. Publish your email so that people can contact you. Don’t worry about spam.
- Learn about computers and computing, even if you aren’t gearing for a career in information technology.
- Learn something entirely new every six to twelve months.
- Build relationships within your community. Use tools like Meetup.com and search for clubs at local schools, libraries, and centers. Then, seek out remote people around the country and world. Learn about them and their projects first by searching the Internet.
- Attend conferences and events. This is a great way to network with people and meet them face-to-face.
- Find a project and get involved. Start reading questions and answers, then start answering questions.
- Collaborate with people all over the world.
- Keep your LinkedIn profile and social media profiles up-to-date. Be findable.
- Keep learning. Skills will often beat smarts. Be sure to schedule time for learning and having fun!
Get Involved
After you’ve networked with enough people and built up your reputation, your peers can connect you with job openings that may be a good fit for your skills. The video below, from Stephen F. Austin State University, provides great insight into how being involved while in college can help you develop these critical skills and into determining what level of involvement may be right for you.
As you can see, being deeply involved with at least one organization while in college creates the perfect opportunity to hone some soft skills.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- A job is the work you do for a living, while a career is an occupation that requires specialized professional knowledge and skills and typically provides an opportunity for advancement.
- Follow a systematic process of career development to assess your progress toward your goals, but know that you may need to reevaluate and change course along the way.
- Use a systematic approach to narrow down your career interests and to select a major.
- For your career path, you will need both career-specific hard skills and soft skills that are transferable because they are desirable in any field. Use your college career to help develop both.
- Take advantage of available resources and get involved in college organizations or activities to acquire the necessary skills, both in and out of class, for your career goals.
At the end of this chapter, you will find Supplemental Material in Sections 3-6. These sections contain additional material on Networking, Creating a Resume, Writing a Cover Letter, and Interviewing.
Supplemental Material: Networking
In the context of career development, networking is the process by which people build relationships with one another for the purpose of helping one another achieve professional goals. When you “network,” you exchange information. You may share:
- business cards, résumés, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about a specific field.
- information about meet-up groups, conferences, special events, technology tools, and social media.
- information on job “headhunters,” career counselors, career centers, career coaches, an alumni association, family members, friends, acquaintances, and vendors.
Networking can occur anywhere and at any time. In fact, your network expands with each new relationship you establish. And the networking strategies you can employ are nearly limitless. With imagination and ingenuity, your networking can be highly successful.
Strategies for Networking
We live in a social world, so it stands to reason that finding a new job and advancing your career entails building relationships with people in your field. Truly, the most effective way to find a new job is to network, network, and network some more. Once you acknowledge the value of networking, the challenge is figuring out how to do it. What is your first step? Whom do you contact? What do you say? How long will it take? Where do you concentrate efforts? How do you know if your investments will pay off?
For every question you may ask, a range of strategies can be used. Begin exploring your possibilities by viewing the following energizing video, Networking Tips for College Students and Young People, by Hank Blank. He recommends the following modern and no-nonsense strategies:
- Hope is not a plan. You need a plan of action to achieve your networking goals.
- Keenly focus your activities on getting a job. Use all tools available to you.
- You need business cards. No ifs, ands, or buts.
- Register your own domain name. Find your favorite geek to build you a landing page. Keep building your site for the rest of your life.
- Attend networking events. Most of them offer student rates.
- Master Linkedin because that is what human resource departments use. See the LinkedIn for Students Web site to get started.
- Think of your colleagues and family friends as databases. Leverage their knowledge and their willingness to help you.
- Create the world you want to live in in the future by forming it today through your networking activity. These are the times to live in a world of “this is how I can help.”
International Student Series: Finding Work Using Your Networks
If you are an international student, or perhaps if English is not your native language, this video may especially appeal to you. It focuses on the importance of networking when looking for jobs and keeping an open mind. Simply talking to people can help you move from casual work to full-time employment.
. . . And More Strategies
Strategies at College
- Get to know your professors: Communicating with instructors is a valuable way to learn about a career and also get letters of reference if and when needed for a job. Professors can also give you leads on job openings, internships, and research possibilities. Most instructors will readily share information and insights with you.
- Check with your college’s alumni office: You may find that some alumni are affiliated with your field of interest and can give you the “inside scoop.”
- Check with classmates: Classmates may or may not share your major, but any of them may have leads that could help you. You could be just one conversation away from a good lead.
Strategies at Work
Join professional organizations: You can meet many influential people at local and national meetings and events of professional and volunteer organizations. Learn about these organizations. See if they have membership discounts for students or student chapters. Once you are a member, you may have access to membership lists, which can give you prospective access to many new people to network with.
- Volunteer: Volunteering is an excellent way to meet new people who can help you develop your career, even if the organization you are volunteering with is not in your field. Just by working alongside others and working toward common goals, you build relationships that may later serve you in unforeseen and helpful ways.
- Get an internship: Many organizations offer internship positions to college students. Some of these positions are paid, but often they are not. Paid or not, you gain experience relevant to your career, and you potentially make many new contacts. Check CollegeRecruiter.com for key resources.
- Get a part-time job: Working full-time may be your ultimate goal, but you may want to fill in some cracks by working part-time. Invariably you will meet people who can feasibly help with your networking goals. And you can gain good experience, which can be noted on your résumé.
- Join a job club: Your career interests may be shared by many others who have organized a club, which can be online or in person. If you don’t find an existing club, consider starting one.
- Attend networking events: There are innumerable professional networking events taking place around the world and also online. Find them listed in magazines, community calendars, newspapers, journals, and at the Web sites of companies, organizations, and associations.
- Conduct informational interviews: You may initiate contact with people in your chosen field who can tell you about their experiences of entering the field and thriving in it. Many Web sites have guidance on how to plan and conduct these interviews.
- Participate in online social media: An explosion of career opportunities awaits you with social media, including LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and many more. You will find an extensive list of suggested sites at CareerOneStop. Keep your communication ultra-professional at these sites. Peruse magazine articles, and if you find one that’s relevant to your field and it contains names of professionals, you can reach out to them to learn more and get job leads.
- Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and acquaintances for referrals: Do they know others who might help you? You can start with the question “Who else should I be talking to?”
The bottom line with developing professional networks is to cull information from as many sources as possible and use that information in creative ways to advance your career opportunities.
Supplemental Material: Creating Your Resume
Creating Your Résumé
A résumé is a “selfie” for business purposes. It is a written picture of who you are—it’s a marketing tool, a selling tool, and a promotion of you as an ideal candidate for any job you may be interested in. The word résumé comes from the French word résumé, which means “a summary.” Leonardo da Vinci is credited with writing one of the first known résumés, although it was more of a letter that outlined his credentials for a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza. The résumé got da Vinci the job, though, and Sforza became a longtime patron of da Vinci and later commissioned him to paint The Last Supper.
Résumés and cover letters work together to represent you in the brightest light to prospective employers. With a well-composed résumé and cover letter, you stand out—which may get you an interview and then a good shot at landing a job. In this section, we discuss résumés and cover letters as key components of your career development toolkit. We explore some of the many ways you can design and develop them for the greatest impact in your job search.
Your Résumé: Purpose and Contents
Your résumé is an inventory of your education, work experience, job-related skills, accomplishments, volunteer history, internships, residencies, and more. It’s a professional autobiography in outline form to give the person who reads it a quick, general idea of who you are and how well you might contribute to their workplace. As a college student or recent graduate, though, you may be unsure about what to put in your résumé, especially if you don’t have much employment history. Still, employers don’t expect recent grads to have significant work experience. It’s all in how you present yourself.
Elements of Your Successful Résumé
Perhaps the hardest part of writing a résumé is figuring out what format to use to organize and present your information in the most effective way. There is no one correct format, but most follow one of the four formats below. Which format appeals to you the most?
- Reverse chronological: A reverse chronological résumé (sometimes also simply called a chronological résumé) lists your job experiences in reverse chronological order, starting with the most recent job and working backward toward your first job. It includes start/end dates and a brief description of the duties you performed for each job, as well as details of your formal education. This may be the most common and perhaps the most conservative format. It is most suitable for demonstrating a solid work history and growth and development in your skills. It may not suit you if you are light on skills in the area you are applying to, if you’ve changed employers frequently, or if you are looking for your first job. Reverse Chronological Résumé Examples
- Functional: A functional résumé is organized around your talents, skills, and abilities (more so than work duties and job titles, as with the reverse chronological résumé). It emphasizes specific professional capabilities, like what you have done or what you can do. Specific dates may be included but are not as important. So if you are a new graduate entering your field with little or no actual work experience, the functional résumé may be a good format for you. It can also be useful when you are seeking work in a field that differs from what you have done in the past, or if you have had an unconventional career path. Functional Résumé Examples
- Hybrid: The hybrid, or combination, résumé is a format reflecting both the functional and chronological approaches. It highlights relevant skills, but it still provides information about your work experience. You may list your job skills as most prominent and then follow with a chronological (or reverse chronological) list of employers. This format is most effective when your specific skills and job experience need to be emphasized. Hybrid Résumé Examples
- Video, infographic, or Website: These formats may be most suitable for people in multimedia and creative careers. Certainly, with the expansive use of technology today, a job seeker might at least try to create a media-enhanced résumé. But the paper-based, traditional résumé is by far the most commonly used—in fact, some human resource departments may not permit submission of any format other than paper-based. Video Resume Examples; Infographic Résumé Examples; Website Résumé Examples
Contents and Structure
For many people, the process of writing a résumé is daunting. After all, you are taking a lot of information and condensing it into a very concise form that needs to be both eye-catching and easy to read. Don’t be scared off, though! Developing a good résumé can be fun, rewarding, and easier than you think if you follow a few basic guidelines. Watch this video for tips for writing a resume and making your resume stand out:
Contents and Components To Include
- Your contact information: name, address, phone number, professional email address
- A summary of your skills: 5–10 skills you have gained in your field; you can list hard skills as well as soft skills
- Work experience: include the title of the position, employer’s name, location, employment dates (beginning, ending)
- Volunteer experience
- Education and training: formal and informal experiences matter; include academic degrees, professional development, certificates, internships, etc.
- References statement (optional): “References available upon request” is a standard phrase used on résumés, although it is often implied
- Other sections: may include a job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, a summary statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences
Caution
Although you can benefit from giving yours a stamp of individuality, you will do well to steer clear of personal details that might elicit a negative response. It is advisable to omit any confidential information or details that could make you vulnerable to discrimination. Here are some tips on what not to include:
- Do not mention your age, gender, height, or weight.
- Do not include your social security number.
- Do not mention religious beliefs or political affiliations, unless they are relevant to the position.
- Do not include a photograph of yourself or a physical description.
- Do not mention health issues.
- Do not use first-person references. (I, me).
- Do not include wage/salary expectations.
- Do not use abbreviations.
Top Ten Tips for a Successful Résumé
- Limit it to 1–2 pages long on letter-size paper.
- Make it visually appealing.
- Use action verbs and phrases.
- Proofread carefully to eliminate any spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors.
- Be positive and reflect only the truth.
- Keep refining and reworking your résumé; it’s an ongoing project.
Remember that your résumé is your professional profile. It will hold you in the most professional and positive light, and it’s designed to be a quick and easy way for a prospective employer to evaluate what you might bring to a job. When written and formatted attractively, creatively, and legibly, your résumé is what will get your foot in the door. You can be proud of your accomplishments, even if they don’t seem numerous.
Résumé Writing Resources
| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION |
| The Online Resume Builder (from My Perfect resume) | An easy to use online résumé builder: choose your résumé design from the library of professional designs, insert pre-written examples, then download and print your new résumé. |
| Résumé Builder (from Live Career) | This site offers examples, templates, tips, videos, and services for résumés, cover letters, interviews, and jobs. |
| Résumé Samples for College Students and Graduates (from About Careers) | This site offers a plethora of sample résumés and templates for college students and graduates. Listings are by type of student and by type of job. |
| JobSearch Minute Videos (from College Grad) | This site offers multiple to-the-point one-minute videos on topics such as print résumés, video résumés, cover letters, interviewing, tough interview questions, references, job fairs, and Internet job searching. |
| 42 Résumé Dos and Don’ts Every Job Seeker Should Know (from the muse) | A comprehensive list of résumé dos and don’ts, which includes traditional rules as well as new rules to polish your résumé. |
| How to Write a Resume: A Step-By-Step Guide [+30 Examples] (from Uptowork) | This site describes common résumé tips and offers advice for landing a job. |
Supplemental Material: Writing Your Cover Letter
Writing Your Cover Letter
Cover letters matter. When you have to go through a pile of them, they are probably more important than the résumé itself. —woodleywonderworks
A cover letter is a letter of introduction, usually 3–4 paragraphs in length, that you attach to your résumé. It’s a way of introducing yourself to a potential employer and explaining why you are interested in and suited for a position. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as an initial method of screening out applicants who may lack necessary basic skills, or who may not be sufficiently interested in the position. With each résumé you send out, always include a cover letter specifically addressing your purposes.
Characteristics of an Effective Cover Letter
Cover letters should accomplish the following:
- Get the attention of the prospective employer
- Set you apart from any possible competition
- Identify the position you are interested in
- Specify how you learned about the position or company
- Present highlights of your skills and accomplishments
- Reflect your genuine interest
- Please the eye and ear
The following video features Aimee Bateman, founder of Careercake.com, who explains how you can create an incredible cover letter. You can download a transcript of the video here.
Cover Letter Resources
| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION |
| Student Cover Letter Samples (from About Careers) | This site contains sample student/recent graduate cover letters as well as templates, writing tips, formats, and examples by type of applicant. |
| How to Write Cover Letters (from CollegeGrad) | This site contains resources about the reality of cover letters, using a cover letter, the worst use of the cover letter, the testimonial technique, and a cover letter checklist. |
| Cover Letters (from the Yale Office of Career Strategy) | This site includes specifications for the cover letter framework (introductory paragraph, middle paragraph, concluding paragraph), as well as format and style. |
Supplemental Material: Interviewing
Interviewing
If your résumé and cover letter have served their purposes well, you will be invited to participate in an interview with the company or organization you’re interested in. Congratulations! It’s an exciting time, and your prospects for employment are very strong if you put in the time to be well prepared. In this section, we look at how to get ready for an interview, what types of interviews you might need to engage in, and what kinds of questions you might be asked.
Preparing Effectively for a Job Interview
- Review the Job Description: When you prepare for an interview, your first step will be to carefully read and reread the job posting or job description. This will help you develop a clearer idea of how you meet the skills and attributes the company seeks.
- Research the Company or Organization: Researching the company will give you a wider view of what the company is looking for and how well you might fit in. Your prospective employer may ask you what you know about the company. Being prepared to answer this question shows that you took time and effort to prepare for the interview and that you have a genuine interest in the organization. It shows good care and good planning—soft skills you will surely need on the job.
- Practice Answering Common Questions: Most interviewees find that practicing the interview in advance with a family member, friend, or colleague eases possible nerves during the actual interview. It also creates greater confidence when you walk through the interview door. In the “Interview Questions” section below, you’ll learn more about specific questions you will likely be asked and corresponding strategies for answering them.
- Plan to Dress Appropriately: Interviewees are generally most properly dressed for an interview in business attire, with the goal of looking highly professional in the eyes of the interviewer.
- Come Prepared: Plan to bring your résumé, cover letter, and a list of references to the interview. You may also want to bring a portfolio of representative work. Leave behind coffee, chewing gum, and any other items that could be distractions.
- Be Confident: Above all, interviewees should be confident and “courageous.” By doing so you make a strong first impression. As the saying goes, “There is never a second chance to make a first impression.”
Job Interview Types and Techniques
Every interview you participate in will be unique: The people you meet with, the interview setting, and the questions you’ll be asked will all be different from interview to interview. So how can you plan to “nail the interview” no matter what comes up?
A good strategy for planning is to anticipate the type of interview you may find yourself in. There are common formats for job interviews, described in detail below. By knowing a bit more about each type and being aware of techniques that work for each, you can plan to be on your game no matter what form your interview takes.
Screening Interviews
Screening interviews might best be characterized as “weeding-out” interviews. They ordinarily take place over the phone or in another low-stakes environment in which the interviewer has maximum control over the amount of time the interview takes. Screening interviews are generally short because they glean only basic information about you. If you are scheduled to participate in a screening interview, you might safely assume that you have some competition for the job and that the company is using this strategy to whittle down the applicant pool. With this kind of interview, your goal is to win a face-to-face interview. For this first shot, prepare well and challenge yourself to shine. Try to stand out from the competition and be sure to follow up with a thank-you note.
Phone or Web Conference Interviews
If you are geographically separated from your prospective employer, you may be invited to participate in a phone or online interview instead of meeting face-to-face. Technology, of course, is a good way to bridge distances. The fact that you’re not there in person doesn’t make it any less important to be fully prepared. In fact, you may wish to be all the more “on your toes” to compensate for the distance barrier. Make sure your equipment (phone, computer, Internet connection, etc.) is fully charged and works. If you’re at home for the interview, make sure the environment is quiet and distraction-free. If the meeting is online, make sure your video background is pleasing and neutral, like a wall hanging or even a white wall.
One-on-One Interviews
The majority of job interviews are conducted in this format—just you and a single interviewer, likely the manager you would report to and work with. The one-on-one format gives you both a chance to see how well you connect and how well your talents, skills, and personalities mesh. You can expect to be asked questions like “Why would you be good for this job?” and “Tell me about yourself.” Many interviewees prefer the one-on-one format because it allows them to spend in-depth time with the interviewer. Rapport can be built. As always, be very courteous and professional. Bring a portfolio of your best work.
Panel Interviews
An efficient format for meeting a candidate is a panel interview, in which perhaps four to five coworkers meet at the same time with a single interviewee. The coworkers comprise the “search committee” or “search panel,” which may consist of different company representatives such as human resources, management, and staff. One advantage of this format for the committee is that meeting together gives them a common experience to reflect on afterward. In a panel interview, listen carefully to questions from each panelist, and try to connect fully with each questioner. Be sure to write down names and titles, so you can send individual thank-you notes after the interview.
Serial Interviews
Serial interviews are a combination of one-on-one meetings with a group of interviewers, typically conducted as a series of meetings staggered throughout the day. Ordinarily, this type of interview is for higher-level jobs, when it’s important to meet at length with major stakeholders. If your interview process is designed this way, you will need to be ultra-prepared, as you will be answering many in-depth questions. Stay alert.
Lunch Interviews
In some higher-level positions, candidates are taken to lunch or dinner, especially if this is a second, or “call back” interview. If this is you, count yourself lucky and be on your best behavior, because even if the lunch meeting is unstructured and informal, it’s still an official interview. Do not order an alcoholic beverage, and use your best table manners. You are not expected to pay or even to offer to pay. But, as always, you must send a thank-you note.
Group Interviews
Group interviews are comprised of several interviewees and perhaps only one or two interviewers who may make a presentation to the assembled group. This format allows an organization to quickly prescreen candidates. It also gives candidates a chance to quickly learn about the company. As with all interview formats, you are being observed. How do you behave with your group? Do you assume a leadership role? Are you quiet but attentive? What kind of personality is the company looking for? A group interview may reveal this.
For a summary of the interview formats we’ve just covered (and a few additional ones), take a look at the following video, Job Interview Guide—10 Different Types of Interviews in Today’s Modern World.
Interview Questions
For most job candidates, the burning question is “What will I be asked?” There’s no way to anticipate every single question that may arise during an interview. It’s possible that, no matter how well prepared you are, you may get a question you just didn’t expect. But that’s okay. Do as much preparation as you can—which will build your confidence—and trust that the answers will come.
To help you reach that point of sureness and confidence, take time to review common interview questions. Think about your answers. Make notes, if that helps. And then conduct a practice interview with a friend, family member, or colleague. Speak your answers out loud. Below is a list of resources that contain common interview questions and good explanations/answers you might want to adopt.
| WEBSITE | DESCRIPTION | |
| 1 | 100 top job interview questions—be prepared for the interview (from Monster.com) | This site provides a comprehensive set of interview questions you might expect to be asked, categorized as basic interview questions, behavioral questions, salary questions, career development questions, and other kinds. Some of the listed questions provide comprehensive answers, too. |
| 2 | Interview Questions and Answers (from BigInterview) | This site provides text and video answers to the following questions: Tell me about yourself, describe your current position, why are you looking for a new job, what are your strengths, what is your greatest weakness, why do you want to work here, where do you see yourself in five years, why should we hire you, and do you have any questions for me? |
| 3 | Ten Tough Interview Questions and Ten Great Answers (from CollegeGrad) | This site explores some of the most difficult questions you will face in job interviews. The more open-ended the question, the greater the variation among answers. Once you have become practiced in your interviewing skills, you will find that you can use almost any question as a launching pad for a particular topic or compelling story. |
Why Should We Hire You
From the Ohio State University Fisher College of Business Career Management Office, here is a video featuring representatives from recruiting companies offering advice for answering the question “Why should we hire you?” As you watch, make mental notes about how you would answer the question in an interview for a job you really want.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Planning for Your Career. Authored by: Laura Lucas and Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Career Interests Inventory. Provided by: MyZenPath. Located at: https://myzenpath.com/self-discovery/career-interests-inventory/ License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Career Paths in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/career-paths-2/. License: CC BY 4.0
- College Majors in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/college-majors-2/. License: CC BY 4.0
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- Holland Codes. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes. License: CC BY-SA 3.0
- Interviewing in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/interviewing-2/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Networking in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/networking-2/. License: CC BY 4.0
- O*Net Interest Profiler. Provided by: U.S. Department of Labor. Located at: https://www.mynextmove.org/explore/ip. License: CC BY 4.0
- Professional Skill Building in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/professional-skill-building-2/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Resumes and Cover Letters in College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/resumes-and-cover-letters/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Chapter 12: Taking Control of Your Future in College Success. Authored by: Anonymous. Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
- General Assembly Workshop: Job vs. Career: Align your Vision and Define your Goals. Authored by: Shinjini Das. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aS7NNHXJspU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Stop Trying to Find Your Passion - College Info Geek. Authored by: Thomas Frank. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FlosFuyuPpk. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- What Are Soft Skills?. Authored by: John Whitehead. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tiy2LONr050. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Why Involvement in College Matters. Provided by: Stephen F. Austin State University. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NR7U2lsChgw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Resume Hacks - How to Make a Resume Stand Out. Authored by: Linda Raynier. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bueXJC5Myow. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
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Chapter 16: Managing Your Mental (and Physical) Health
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 16: Managing your Mental (and Physical) Health
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Understand the three key indicators of mental health
- Explore practices for achieving and maintaining mental health in your life
- Differentiate between good stress and bad stress
- Identify sources and symptoms of stress
- Understand the impacts of chronic stress on physical and mental health
- Recognize and explore strategies for managing stress
Managing Your Mental Health
Managing Your Mental Health
DISCLAIMER: This chapter addresses mental health concerns and is intended for educational purposes. It is not intended to diagnose or treat any mental illness. ACC students in need of mental health services can request an appointment with a Mental Health Counselor. If you or someone you know is in crisis or struggling with suicidal thoughts, call 988 (National Suicide and Crisis Lifeline), chat 988lifeline.org, or text "HELLO" to the Crisis Text Line (741741).
Managing Your Mental Health
Knowing how to take care of your mental health when you’re in college is just as important as maintaining your physical health. In fact, there’s a strong link between the two: doctors are finding that positive mental health can actually improve your physical health. Mental health can be defined as “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Having good mental health doesn’t necessarily mean being happy or successful all the time. Most people feel depressed, lonely, or anxious now and then. When such feelings or moods persist and interfere with a person’s ability to function normally, though, it may be a sign of a more serious mental health problem, and time to seek help.
Mental Health Indicators
There are several mental health indicators. Three categories that are useful to frame our mental health include:
- Emotional well-being: life satisfaction, happiness, cheerfulness, peacefulness.
- Psychological well-being: self-acceptance, personal growth including openness to new experiences, optimism, hopefulness, purpose in life, control of one’s environment, spirituality, self-direction, and positive relationships.
- Social well-being: social acceptance, belief in the potential of people and society as a whole, personal self-worth and usefulness to society, and a sense of community.
There are also some common-sense strategies that you can adopt to support and improve your emotional, psychological, and social health:
- Eat a balanced diet (see supplemental material)
- Get enough sleep (see supplemental material)
- Get regular physical activity (see supplemental material)
- Stay socially connected with friends and family
- Make healthy choices about alcohol and drugs
- Get help with persistent feelings of depression, loneliness, or anxiety.
Identifying and Managing Stress
As a student, you’re probably familiar with the experience of stress—a condition characterized by symptoms of physical or emotional tension. It may even feel like stress is a persistent fact of life. What you may not know is that it’s a natural response of the mind and body to a situation in which a person feels challenged, threatened, or anxious. Stress can be positive (the anticipation of preparing for a wedding) or negative (dealing with a natural disaster). While everyone experiences stress at times, a prolonged bout of it can affect your health and ability to cope with life. Your ability to manage stress, maintain healthy relationships, and rise to the demands of school and work all impact your health.
Good Stress? Bad Stress?
Although stress carries a negative connotation, at times it may be of benefit. Stress can motivate us to do things in our best interests, such as study for exams, visit the doctor regularly, exercise, and perform to the best of our ability at work. Indeed, Hans Selye (1974) pointed out that not all stress is harmful. He argued that stress can sometimes be a positive, motivating force that can improve the quality of our lives. This kind of stress, which Selye called eustress (from the Greek eu = “good”), is a good kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance. A moderate amount of stress can be beneficial in challenging situations. For example, athletes may be motivated and energized by pregame stress, and students may experience similar beneficial stress before a major exam. Indeed, research shows that moderate stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of educational material (Hupbach & Fieman, 2012).
Increasing one’s level of stress will cause performance to change predictably. As shown in the Figure below, as stress increases, so do performance and general well-being (eustress); when stress levels reach an optimal level (the highest point of the curve), performance reaches its peak. A person at this stress level is colloquially at the top of their game, meaning they feel fully energized, focused, and can work with minimal effort and maximum efficiency. But when stress exceeds this optimal level, it is no longer a positive force – it becomes excessive and debilitating, or what Selye termed distress (from the Latin dis = “bad”). People who reach this level of stress feel burned out; they are fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline. If the stress remains excessive, health may begin to erode as well (Everly & Lating, 2002).
Good stress is stress in amounts small enough to help you meet daily challenges. It’s also a warning system that produces the fight-or-flight response, which increases blood pressure and heart rate so you can avoid a potentially life-threatening situation. Feeling stressed can be perfectly normal, especially during busy times. It can motivate you to focus on your work, but it can also become so overwhelming you can’t concentrate. It’s when stress is chronic (meaning you always feel stressed) that it starts to damage your body.
What Chronic Stress Does to Your Body?
Do you find it difficult to concentrate or complete your work? Are you frequently sick? Do you have regular headaches? Are you more anxious, angry, or irritable than usual? Do you have trouble falling asleep or staying awake? If you answered yes to any or all of these questions, you may be holding on to too much stress.
Stress that hangs around for weeks or months affects your ability to concentrate, makes you more accident-prone, increases your risk for heart disease, can weaken your immune system, disrupts your sleep, and can cause fatigue, depression, and anxiety (University of Maryland Medical Center.) You will have stress. Stress is inevitable. How you manage it can make all the difference.
Want to learn more about what stress does to your body? Read Stress Effects on the Body by the American Psychological Association.
Managing Stress
There are many ways to manage stress. Take a look at some of the ideas in the Stress Toolkit figure below. Which ones have you tried? Which ones do you want to try? It’s helpful to have different tools for different situations. For example, a calming yoga pose in your bedroom and deep breathing in the classroom.
The most effective strategies for managing stress include taking care of yourself in the following ways:
- Maintain perspective. How do you view stressful situations and events (challenge or threat?) and what do you see as your options for coping (effective or ineffective?) impact your stress levels?
- Practice mindfulness, deep breathing, meditation, and gratitude. These are some of the most effective ways to manage stress and take care of your emotional health.
- Connect socially. When you feel stressed, it’s easy to isolate yourself. Try to resist this impulse and stay connected with others.
- Manage social media. Take a break from your phone, email, and social media.
- Find support. Seek help from a friend, family member, partner, counselor, doctor, or clergyperson. Having a sympathetic listening ear and talking about your problems and stress really can lighten the burden.
- Manage your time. Work on prioritizing and scheduling your commitments. This will help you feel in better control of your life which, in turn, will mean less stress. See Chapter 4 for more on time management.
- Take care of your health. Eat well, exercise regularly, and get plenty of sleep. See the Supplemental Material: Managing Your Physical Health section of this chapter for more information on this.
- Avoid drugs and alcohol. They may seem to be a temporary fix to feel better, but in the long run, they can create more problems and add to your stress instead of taking it away.
Maintain Perspective
One of the most important things you can do is to keep perspective on your stressors. When feeling stressed, ask yourself, on a scale of 1 to 100, how stressful a situation is this? Will you even remember this three years from now? When facing potential stressors, the way you view what you're experiencing can intensify your stress or minimize it.
A useful way to think about stress is to view it as a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that they appraise as overwhelming or threatening to their well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). A critical element of this definition is that it emphasizes the importance of how we appraise—that is, judge—demanding or threatening events (often referred to as stressors); these appraisals, in turn, influence our reactions to such events. Two kinds of appraisals of a stressor are especially important in this regard: primary and secondary appraisals.
Primary appraisal involves judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail. A stressor would likely be appraised as a threat if one anticipates that it could lead to some kind of harm, loss, or other negative consequence; conversely, a stressor would likely be appraised as a challenge if one believes that it carries the potential for gain or personal growth. For example, a college student on the cusp of graduation may face the change as a threat or a challenge.
The perception of a threat triggers a secondary appraisal: judgment of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be (Lyon, 2012). As you may recall from what you learned about self-efficacy in Chapter 2, an individual’s belief in their ability to complete a task is important (Bandura, 1994). A threat tends to be viewed as less catastrophic if one believes something can be done about it (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Review the figure below to help you understand Primary and Secondary Appraisal.
If a person appraises an event as harmful and believes that the demands imposed by the event exceed the available resources to manage or adapt to it, the person will subjectively experience a state of stress. In contrast, if one does not appraise the same event as harmful or threatening, they are unlikely to experience stress. According to this definition, environmental events trigger stress reactions by the way they are interpreted and the meanings they are assigned. In short, stress is largely in the eye of the beholder: it’s not so much what happens to you as it is how you respond (Selye, 1976).
Learn more about developing a healthier perspective on stress, by watching this supplemental video from TED Talk: How to Make Stress Your Friend.
Mindfulness
“We can’t change the world, at least not quickly, but we can change our brains. By practicing mindfulness all of us have the capacity to develop a deeper sense of calm.”
- Rick Hanson, author of Resilient
When people hear mindfulness, they often think of meditation. While meditation is one method of mindfulness, there are others that may be simpler and easier for you to practice. Deep breathing helps lower stress and reduce anxiety, and it is simple yet very powerful. A daily mindful breathing practice has been shown to reduce test anxiety in college students (Levitin, 2018.) A 2-4-6-8 breathing pattern is a very useful tool that can be used to help bring a sense of calm and to help mild to moderate anxiety. It takes almost no time, requires no equipment, and can be done anywhere:
- Start by quickly exhaling any air in your lungs (to the count of 2).
- Breathing through your nose, inhale to the count of 4.
- Hold your breath for a count of 6.
- Slowly exhale through your mouth to the count of 8.
- Start round two at Step 2, with an inhale through your nose to the count of 4, hold for 6, and exhale to 8.
- Repeat for three more rounds to relax your body and mind.
Meditation
Dan Harris, a news reporter at ABC, fell into drug use and suffered a major panic attack on national television. Following this embarrassing period in his life, he learned to meditate and found that it made him calmer and more resilient. He’s now on a mission to make meditation approachable to everyone. Dan used to be a skeptic about meditation but now says that if he learned to meditate, anyone can learn to meditate! Dan reminds us that we ARE going to get lost, and our mind IS going to stray, and that’s ok. Simply notice when you’re lost and start over. Every time your mind strays and you start over, it is like a bicep curl for your brain. Start with 3 minutes and slowly work your way up to 15 or 20. Watch the video Dan Harris' Panic Attack (and Discovery of Meditation) to learn more about his experience. To help you get started with a meditation practice, visit the Mindfulness Meditations from the UCLA Mindful Awareness Research Center for some helpful guides. There are also meditation apps including Insight Timer, CALM, and Headspace.
Gratitude
People often think that external factors bring us joy and happiness when it’s all related to internal work. According to UCLA’s Mindfulness Awareness Research Center, “Having an attitude of gratitude changes the molecular structure of the brain, and makes us healthier and happier. When you feel happiness, the central nervous system is affected. You are more peaceful, less reactive, and less resistant” (Lundstand, Smith, and Layton, 2010).
Numerous studies show that people who count their blessings tend to be happier and less depressed. In a UC Berkeley study, researchers recruited 300 people who were experiencing emotional or mental health challenges and randomly divided them into three groups. All three groups received counseling services. The first group also wrote a letter of gratitude every week for three weeks. The second group wrote about their thoughts and feelings about negative experiences. The third group received only counseling. The people in the group who wrote gratitude letters reported significantly better mental health for up to 12 weeks after the writing exercise ended.
This suggests that a healthy emotional self-care practice is to take note of good experiences or when you see something that makes you smile. Think about why the experience feels so good. According to Rick Hanson, author of Resilient, “Each day is strewn with little jewels. The idea is to see them and pick them up. When you notice something positive, stay with the feeling for 30 seconds. Feel the emotions in your whole body. Maybe your heart feels lighter or you’re smiling. The more you can deepen and lengthen positive experiences the longer those positivity neurons in your brain are firing—and the longer they fire the stronger the underlying neural networks become. Repeat that process a half dozen times a day and you’ll feel stronger, more stable and calmer within a few weeks.”
Connect Socially
Relationships are key to happy and healthy lives. According to Dr. Robert Waldinger, director of the Harvard Study of Adult Development, people with the best health outcomes were people who “leaned into relationships, with family, with friends, with community.”
Research has shown that friends provide a sense of meaning or purpose in our lives and that having a healthy social life is important to staying physically and mentally healthy. In a meta-analysis of the research results from 148 studies of over 300,000 participants, researchers found that social relationships are important in improving our lifespan. Social support has been linked to lower blood pressure and better immune system functioning. The meta-analysis also showed that social support operates on a continuum: the greater the extent of the relationships, the lower the health risks” (Lundstand, Smith, and Layton, 2010).
The quality of relationships is important. What makes a relationship healthy? Relationships come in many forms: romantic partners, family, friends, coworkers, team members, and neighbors. Think of a relationship where you have mutual respect and trust, support each other in tough times, celebrate the good times, and communicate with ease and honesty. This is a healthy relationship. Do you have someone in mind? On the other hand, if communication is often tense or strained, confidences are broken, or you don’t feel listened to, appreciated, or valued, these are signs of an unhealthy relationship. Unhealthy relationships can have both immediate and longer-term health impacts. If you are unhappy in a relationship, try to improve the relationship, or end it.
Take a moment to assess the health of your relationships. Who are the people who make you smile, who boost your confidence, who truly listen when you need to talk, and who want only the best for you? Investing in these relationships is likely to make you happier and healthier.
Self-Care helps you bring your best self to relationships. Healthy relationships start with healthy individuals. Self-care includes taking good care of yourself and prioritizing your own needs. It involves activities that nurture and refuel you, such as taking a walk in the woods, reading a good book, going to a yoga class, attending a sporting event, or spending time with friends. Effective time management can also be a form of self-care as it reduces stress. When you take care of yourself, you will be able to bring your best self to your relationships.
An important dynamic you bring to any relationship is how you feel about yourself. Self-esteem refers to how much you like or “esteem” yourself—to what extent you believe you are a good and worthwhile person. Healthy self-esteem can significantly improve your relationships. While low self-esteem may not keep us from being in relationships, it can act as a barrier to healthy relationships.
Community belonging is important for connection. What communities do you belong to? A group of classmates? A sports team? A spiritual community? A club or people you volunteer with? When you start seeing the social circles you connect to as communities and prioritize your time to develop more closeness with those communities, you will experience many physical, mental, and emotional health benefits.
According to a 2018 report from the American College Health Association, in a 12-month period, 63 percent of college students have felt very lonely. If you are feeling lonely or having a hard time making friends, know that the majority of people around you have also felt this way. Joining a group or a club of people who share your interests and passions is one of the best ways to make great friends and stay connected.
Manage Social Media
Psychological or behavioral dependence on social media platforms can result in significant impairment in an individual's function in various life domains over a prolonged period. This and other relationships between digital media use and mental health have been considerably researched, debated, and discussed among experts in several disciplines, and have generated controversy in medical, scientific, and technological communities. Research suggests that it affects women and girls more than boys and men and that it varies according to the social media platform used. Such disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in online activities at the cost of fulfilling daily responsibilities or pursuing other interests, and without regard for the negative consequences.
Problematic social media use can result in preoccupation and compulsion to excessively engage in social media platforms despite negative consequences. Problematic social media use is associated with mental health symptoms, such as anxiety and depression in children and young people.
Social media allows users to openly share their feelings, values, relationships, and thoughts. With the platform social media provides, users can freely express their emotions. However, not all is great with social media. It can also be used as a platform for discrimination and cyberbullying. Discrimination and cyberbullying are more prevalent online because people have more courage to write something bold rather than to say it in person. There is also a strong positive correlation between social anxiety and social media usage. The defining feature of social anxiety disorder, also called social phobia, is intense anxiety or fear of being judged, negatively evaluated, or rejected in a social or performance situation.
The pros and cons of social media are heavily debated; although using social media can satisfy personal communication needs, those who use them at higher rates are shown to have higher levels of psychological distress.
Watch this supplemental video by Thomas Frank on How to Break Your Social Media Addiction.
Complete Section #2: ACTIVITY: Stress Management Plan
Mental Health Support
DISCLAIMER: This section briefly covers anxiety, depression, and suicidal behaviors. It concludes with information about readily available mental health supports and resources. It is intended for educational purposes. It is not intended to diagnose or treat any mental illness. ACC students in need of mental health services can request an appointment with a Mental Health Counselor. If you or someone you know is in crisis or struggling with suicidal thoughts, call 988 (National Suicide and Crisis Lifeline), chat 988lifeline.org, or text "HELLO" to the Crisis Text Line (741741).
Not surprisingly, many of the stress management approaches above are also recommended for supporting good mental health. If the approaches listed above are not enough and stress or other challenges are interfering with your mental health, reach out to college mental health counselors, therapists in the community, or national resources that are available 24/7.
According to a 2018 report from the American College Health Association, in a 12-month period, 63 percent of college students reported feeling overwhelming anxiety and 42 percent reported that they felt so depressed it was difficult to function.
Anxiety
People with anxiety disorders respond to certain objects or situations with fear and dread. They have physical reactions to those objects, such as rapid heartbeat and sweating. An anxiety disorder is diagnosed if a person has an inappropriate response to a situation, cannot control the response, and/or has an altered way of life due to anxiety.
Depression
Depression is a common but serious mood disorder that’s more than just a feeling of “being down in the dumps” or “blue” for a few days. It causes severe symptoms that affect how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, such as sleeping, eating, or working. Here are some potential signs of depression:
- Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” mood
- Feelings of hopelessness, or pessimism
- Irritability
- Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness
- Loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities
- Decreased energy or fatigue
- Difficulty sleeping, early-morning awakening, or oversleeping
- Appetite and/or weight changes
Suicidal Behaviors
People who contemplate suicide often experience a deep feeling of hopelessness. They often don’t feel they can cope with challenging life events. In the moment, they often cannot identify or access solutions to problems. Most survivors of suicide attempts go on to live wonderful, full lives.
Warning Signs
These are some of the warning signs to help you determine if a friend or loved one is at risk for suicide, if someone you know is showing one or more of the following behaviors get help immediately. If you think someone is in immediate danger, do not leave them alone — stay there and call 988 or 911.
- Talking about wanting to die or to kill themselves
- Looking for a way to kill themselves, like searching online or buying a gun
- Talking about feeling hopeless or having no reason to live
- Talking about feeling trapped or in unbearable pain
- Talking about being a burden to others
- Increasing the use of alcohol or drugs
- Acting anxious or agitated; behaving recklessly
- Sleeping too little or too much
- Withdrawing or isolating themselves
- Showing rage or talking about seeking revenge
- Extreme mood swings
24/7 Support
Help is available all day, every day, for anyone who might be in crisis. Crisis centers provide invaluable support at the most critical times. If you or someone you know has warning signs of suicide, get help as soon as possible. Family and friends are often the first to recognize any warning signs and can help take the first step in finding treatment.
- Call 988 (National Suicide and Crisis Lifeline)
- Chat 988lifeline.org
- Text "HELLO" to the Crisis Text Line (741741)
- OK2TALK is a community for young adults struggling with mental health conditions that offers a safe place to talk
- ACC students in need of mental health services can request an appointment with a Mental Health Counselor
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Emotional well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being are indicators of mental health.
- Stress can be a positive, motivating force that can improve the quality of our lives. This type of good stress is known as eustress and is associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance.
- Distress occurs when stress is excessive and debilitating. People experiencing distress feel burned out; they are fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline.
- Chronic stress affects your ability to concentrate and manage your emotions, makes you more accident-prone, increases your risk for heart disease, can weaken your immune system, disrupt your sleep, and can cause fatigue, depression, and anxiety.
- It’s important to learn and use a variety of healthy stress management strategies to stay mentally and physically healthy.
- Most people feel depressed, lonely, or anxious now and then. If these symptoms persist, engage in practices to restore mental health and emotional balance in your life and seek help if necessary.
Supplemental Material: Managing Your Physical Health
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the six components of the Harvard Healthy Eating Plate
- Differentiate between the health effects of consuming whole foods versus processed and fast foods
- Understand the benefits of staying well hydrated and the signs of dehydration
- Recognize the benefits to physical and mental health from staying physically active
- Distinguish the three main types of exercise and understand how much of each type we need per week for optimal health benefits
- Identify the benefits of getting sufficient quantity and quality of sleep each night and how insufficient sleep can negatively affect our physical and mental health
- Discover steps one can take to improve sleep quality and quantity
Managing Your Physical Health
Healthy Eating
“Healthy eating is a way of life, so it’s important to establish routines that are simple, realistic, and ultimately livable.” – Horace
While it’s not the only thing that contributes to great health, what you eat makes a huge difference. We have 37 trillion cells in our bodies. The only way they function optimally is with good nutrition. As a college student, you may be tempted to stop for fast food on your way to school or work. The downside of fast food is that it is often loaded with sugar, salt, or both. In addition, it is often low in essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
Here at Austin Community College, you and your family can receive groceries at no cost through ACC's partnerships with Central Texas Food Bank's (CTFB) mobile food distributions and other community partner food access opportunities. ACC-hosted food access events will be updated on this schedule. Apply for ongoing federal benefits like Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and Women, Infants & Children (WIC) with the help of ACC's trained Student Advocacy Center specialists or schedule an appointment with CTFB. (Spanish language link: Apoyo con SNAP aplicación por CTFB.) Check ACC’s Food Access Calendar for help finding food when you need it, and where you need it.
Healthy Eating Plate
Nutritionists at Harvard University created The Healthy Eating Plate, which is based on what they consider to be the best available science. Half the plate is vegetables and fruit. Aim for eight servings of veggies or fruits a day, more veggies than fruits. The plate also includes whole grains, healthy protein, healthy plant oils, and water.
Healthy eating also includes choosing organic fruits and vegetables when possible. By choosing organic, you help lower the number of toxins your body encounters (since conventional fruits and vegetables are often sprayed with pesticides). When shopping for groceries, the Dirty Dozen List provided by the Environmental Working Group (EWG) is a good guide on which produce is most important to eat organic, as these are the fruits and vegetables with the most pesticide residue. The EWG also compiles a Clean 15 list of the vegetables and fruits with the least amount of pesticides.
Watch this supplemental video by Foodie on What is a Healthy Eating Plate.
Whole Foods vs. Processed Foods
The average American eats 62 percent of their daily calories from processed foods. (Adams, n.d.) For your body to be as healthy as possible, it’s important to include a lot of whole foods in your diet.
Whole foods supply the needed vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, fats, and fiber that are essential to good health. Commercially prepared and fast foods are often lacking nutrients and often contain inordinate amounts of sugar, salt, and saturated and trans fats, all of which are associated with the development of diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart disease, stroke, cancer, obesity, high cholesterol, diabetes, and other illnesses (Klees, 2022).
Examples of whole foods include the following:
- Vegetables: Carrots, broccoli, kale, avocados, cauliflower, spinach, peppers
- Fruits: Apples, bananas, blueberries, strawberries, grapes, melons, peaches
- Grains: Brown rice, oatmeal, barley, buckwheat, quinoa, millet
- Beans: Black, pinto, kidney, black-eyed peas, chickpeas
Minimize non-whole foods. These are foods that have been processed, such as cookies, hot dogs, chips, pasta, deli meat, and ice cream. Even seemingly healthy foods like yogurt, granola, and protein bars may be highly processed and should be checked for added sugar and other unhealthy ingredients.
What You Drink
What is your go-to drink when you are thirsty? Soda? Juice? Coffee? How about water? Most of your blood and every cell in your body is composed of water. In fact, water makes up 60 to 80 percent of our entire body mass, so when we don’t consume enough water, all kinds of complications can occur. Proper hydration is key to overall health and well-being. By the time you feel thirsty, you are already dehydrated. Dehydration is when your body does not have as much water and fluids as it needs. Researchers at Virginia Polytechnic discovered that mild dehydration (as little as losing 1 to 2 percent of body water) can impair cognitive performance (Riebl, 2013).
Water increases energy and relieves fatigue, promotes weight loss, flushes toxins, improves skin complexion, improves digestion, and is a natural headache remedy (your brain is 76 percent water). Headaches, migraines, and back pains are commonly caused by dehydration. Your body will also let you know it needs water by messaging through muscle cramps, achy joints, constipation, dry skin, and of course a dry mouth.
One of the best habits you can develop is to drink a large glass of water first thing in the morning. Your body becomes a little dehydrated as you sleep. Drinking water first thing in the morning allows your body to rehydrate, which helps with digestion. It also helps to eliminate the toxins your liver processed while you slept.
Watch this supplemental video by ActiveBeat on 8 Benefits of Staying Hydrated.
Staying hydrated is important to keep your body healthy, energized, and running properly. As a general guideline, aim to drink eight glasses of water a day, although a more helpful guide is to drink half your body weight in ounces (for example, if you weigh 150 lb, try to drink 75 oz of water a day). One of the best ways to remind yourself to drink throughout the day is to buy a reusable bottle and bring it everywhere you go. There are two reasons to use a refillable water bottle instead of a plastic bottle:
- Your own health. Most plastic water bottles have a chemical called bisphenol A (BPA), which is added to plastics to make them more durable and pliable. BPA is known to disrupt hormones.
- The health of the planet. Do you know that every time you drink from a plastic water bottle and casually toss it in the trash, it can stay on the planet for approximately 450 years? (Wright et al, 2018) Even when you recycle, the complex nature of recycling doesn’t guarantee your plastic bottle will make it through the process. Americans purchase about 50 billion water bottles per year, averaging 13 bottles a month for each of us. By using a reusable water bottle, you can save an average of 156 plastic bottles annually (Earth Day, 2022).
“But I don’t like the taste of water!” It may take time, but eventually, you will. Add a little more each day, and eventually your body will feel so fantastic fully hydrated that you will have water cravings. In the meantime, you can add lemon, lime, berries, watermelon, cucumbers, or whatever taste you enjoy that will add a little healthy flavor to the water.
While water is undeniably the healthiest beverage you can drink, it is unrealistic to assume that is all you will drink. Be careful to minimize your soda intake, as most sodas are loaded with sugar or artificial sweeteners (which can be even worse than sugar). And unless you are squeezing your own fruit juice, you are also likely drinking a lot of sugar. Many fruit juices sold in supermarkets contain only a small percentage of real fruit juice and have added sugar and other unhealthy sweeteners like high-fructose corn syrup. A 12-oz glass of orange juice can contain up to 9 teaspoons of sugar, about the same as a 12-oz can of Coke! Hot or cold herbal teas are a wonderful addition to your diet.
Exercise and Physical Fitness
Exercise is good for both body and mind. Indeed, physical activity is almost essential for good health and student success.
The physical benefits of regular exercise include the following:
- Improved fitness for the whole body, not just the muscles
- Greater cardiovascular fitness and reduced disease risk
- Increased physical endurance
- Stronger immune system, providing more resistance to disease
- Lower cholesterol levels, reducing the risks of cardiovascular disease
- Lowered risk of developing diabetes
- Weight maintenance or loss
- Lowering the risk of premature death
- Slowing or reversing the decline of muscle mass, bone density, and strength with aging
- Reducing the stiffness and loss of balance that can accompany aging
- Lowering the risk of developing type 2 diabetes
- Increasing sensitivity to insulin for individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes
Perhaps more important to students are the mental and psychological benefits:
- Stress reduction
- Improved mood, with less anxiety and depression
- Improved cognitive functioning and ability to focus mentally
- Better sleep
- Feeling better about oneself
For all of these reasons, it’s important for college students to regularly exercise or engage in physical activity. Like good nutrition and getting enough sleep, exercise is a key habit that contributes to overall wellness that promotes college success. The following supplemental video, Exercise and the Brain by WellCast, explains why and challenges you to give it a try.
As a busy college student, you may be thinking, I know this, but I don’t have time! I have classes and work and a full life! What you may not know is that—precisely because you have such a demanding, possibly stressful schedule—now is the perfect time to make exercise a regular part of your life. Getting into an effective exercise routine now will not only make it easier to build healthy habits that you can take with you into your life after college, but it can help you be a more successful student, too. As you’ll see in the section on brain health, below, exercise is a powerful tool for improving one’s mental health and memory—both of which are especially important when you’re in school.
The good news is that most people can improve their health and quality of life through a modest increase in daily activity. You don’t have to join a gym, spend a lot of money, or even do the same activity every time—just going for a walk or choosing to take the stairs can make a difference.
What Type and How Much Exercise to Do
Physical fitness is a state of well-being that gives you sufficient energy to perform daily physical activities without getting overly tired or winded. It also means being in good enough shape to handle unexpected emergencies involving physical demands—that is, if someone said, “Run for your life!” or you had to rush over and prevent a child from falling, you’d be able to do it. There are many forms of exercise—dancing, rock climbing, walking, jogging, yoga, bike riding, you name it—that can help you become physically fit. The major types are described below.
Aerobic exercise increases your heart rate, works your muscles, and raises your breathing rate. For most people, it’s best to aim for at least 150 minutes per week of low-intensity activities such as walking, or at least 75 minutes per week of high-intensity activities such as running, spread out throughout the week (Office of Disease Prevention, 2021). If you haven’t been very active recently, you can start with five or ten minutes a day and work up to more time each week. Or, split up your activity for the day: try a brisk ten-minute walk after each meal.
Strength training helps build strong bones and muscles and makes everyday chores like carrying heavy backpacks or grocery bags easier. Do muscle-strengthening activities of moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week. (Office of Disease Prevention, 2021) When you have more muscle mass, you burn more calories, even at rest. You could join a strength training class or lift weights at home.
Flexibility exercises, also called stretching, help keep your joints flexible and reduce your risk of injury during other activities. A good time for flexibility exercise is after cardio or strength exercise when your muscles are warm. Do stretching at least 2-3 times a week. You’ll get even more benefits by stretching daily. Hold each stretch for 10-30 seconds, and repeat for a total of 60 seconds for each major muscle group. Check to see if your college offers yoga, stretching, and/or Pilates classes, and give one a try (Garber, et al, 2011).
In addition to formal exercise, there are many opportunities to be active throughout the day. Being active helps burn calories. The more you move around, the more energy you will have. You can increase your activity level by walking or bicycling instead of driving when possible, taking the stairs instead of the elevator, doing some house or yard work every day, or by parking a little farther from your destination.
Watch this supplemental video from the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion for some tips on how to get motivated to exercise.
If you still aren’t persuaded, check out this slightly longer but excellent TEDx Talk, which describes how aerobic exercise can improve your cognitive functioning, memory, and creativity:
Sleep
A great night’s sleep begins the minute you wake up. The choices you make throughout the day impact how quickly you fall asleep, whether you sleep soundly, and whether your body can complete the cycle of critical functions that only happen while you sleep. With sufficient sleep, it is easier to learn, remember what you learned, and have the necessary energy to make the most of your college experience. Without sufficient sleep, it is harder to learn, remember what you learned, and have the energy to make the most of your college experience. It’s that simple.
What Happens When We Sleep?
Sleep is a time when our bodies are quite busy repairing and detoxifying. While we sleep, we fix damaged tissue, toxins are processed and eliminated, hormones essential for growth and appetite control are released and restocked, and energy is restored. Sleep is essential for a healthy immune system. How many colds do you catch a year? How often do you get the flu? If you are often sick, you do not have a healthy immune system, and sleep deprivation may be a key culprit.
A review of hundreds of sleep studies concluded that most adults need around eight hours of sleep to maintain good health. Some people may be able to function quite well on seven, and others may need closer to nine, but as a general rule, most people need a solid eight hours of sleep each night. And when it comes to sleep, both quantity and quality are important. A healthy amount of sleep has the following benefits:
- Improves your mood during the day
- Improves your memory and learning abilities
- Gives you more energy
- Strengthens your immune system
- Promotes wellness of body, mind, and spirit
Sleep helps you think more clearly, have quicker reflexes, and focus better. “The fact is, when we look at well-rested people, they’re operating at a different level than people trying to get by on one or two hours less nightly sleep,” says Dr. Merrill Mitler, a sleep expert and neuroscientist at NIH.
In contrast, not getting enough sleep over time can lead to a wide range of health issues and student problems. Sleep deprivation can have the following consequences:
- Affects mental health and contributes to stress and feelings of anxiety, depression, and general unhappiness
- Causes sleepiness, difficulty paying attention in class, and ineffective studying
- Weakens the immune system, making it more likely to catch colds and other infections
- Increases risk of heart attack and stroke
- Impairs cognitive function. Even one night of sleeping less than six hours can impact your ability to think clearly the next day.
- Increases risk of accidents. Sleep deprivation slows your reaction time, which increases your risk of accidents. You are three times more likely to be in a car crash if you are tired. According to the American Sleep Foundation,
- Increases risk for weight gain and obesity. Sleep helps balance your appetite by regulating hormones that play a role in helping you feel full after a meal.
- Increases risk of cancer.
- Increases emotional intensity. The part of the brain responsible for emotional reactions, your amygdala, can be 60 percent more reactive when you've slept poorly, resulting in increased emotional intensity.
“Loss of sleep impairs your higher levels of reasoning, problem-solving, and attention to detail,” Mitler explains. Tired people tend to be less productive at work and school. They’re at a much higher risk for traffic accidents. Lack of sleep also influences your mood, which can affect how you interact with others. A sleep deficit over time can even put you at greater risk of developing depression.
For more information on the advantages and health risks of sleep watch this supplemental video, a TED Talk called Sleep is Your Superpower by Matt Walker, Ph.D., Director of the Sleep Center at the University of California at Berkeley.
Tips to Improve the Quality of Your Sleep
Set a schedule
Go to bed at a set time each night and get up at the same time each morning. Disrupting this schedule may lead to insomnia. “Sleeping in” on weekends also makes it harder to wake up early on Monday morning because it resets your sleep cycles for a later awakening. If possible, wake up with the sun, or use very bright lights in the morning. Sunlight helps the body’s internal biological clock reset itself each day. Sleep experts recommend exposure to an hour of morning sunlight for people having problems falling asleep.
Sleep in a cool, quiet, dark room.
Create a sleeping environment that is comfortable and conducive to sleep. If you can control the temperature in your room, keep it cool in the evening. Exposure to bright light suppresses our body’s ability to make melatonin, so keep the room as dark as possible. Even the tiniest bit of light in the room (like from a clock radio LCD screen) can disrupt your internal clock and your production of melatonin, which will interfere with your sleep. A sleep mask may help eliminate light, and earplugs can help reduce noise.
Avoid blue light at night, such as from cell phones and computer screens and bluish LED bulbs.
There is growing evidence that short-wavelength (blue spectrum) light affects hormonal secretion, thermoregulation, sleep, and alertness. A recent study found that short-wavelength light before bedtime affects circadian rhythm and evening sleepiness, and has further effects on sleep physiology and alertness in the morning. Using a blue light filter on your electronic devices in the evening partially reduces these negative effects (Hohn et al, 2021).
Avoid eating late, using nicotine, and drinking alcohol or caffeine close to bedtime.
It is best to finish eating at least two hours before bedtime and avoid caffeine after lunch. It’s important to finish eating hours before bedtime so your body can heal and detoxify and it is not spending the first few hours of sleep digesting a heavy meal. While not everyone is affected in the same way, caffeine hangs around for a long time in most bodies. Although alcohol will make you drowsy, the effect is short-lived and you will often wake up several hours later, unable to fall back to sleep. Alcohol can also keep you from entering the deeper stages of sleep, where your body does most of the repair and healing. Smokers tend to sleep very lightly and often wake up in the early morning due to nicotine withdrawal.
Start to wind down an hour before bed.
There are great apps to help with relaxation, stress release, and falling asleep. Or you can simply practice the 2-4-6-8 breathing pattern explained in the first part of the chapter.
Consider the Insight Timer app or any of the free apps listed by the American Sleep Association.
Don’t lie in bed awake.
If you can’t get to sleep, don’t just lie in bed. Do something else, like reading or listening to music, until you feel tired. Avoid screens, though: watching TV, and being on the computer or a smartphone are too stimulating and will make you more wakeful.
Exercise.
One of the biggest benefits of exercise is its effect on sleep. A study from Stanford University found that 16 weeks in a moderate-intensity exercise program allowed people to fall asleep about 15 minutes faster and sleep about 45 minutes longer. Walking, yoga, swimming, strength training, jumping rope—whatever it is, find an exercise you like and make sure to move your body every day.
Improve your diet.
Low fiber and high saturated fat and sugar intake are associated with lighter, less restorative sleep with more wake time during the night. Processed food full of chemicals will make your body work extra hard during the night to remove the toxins and leave less time for healing and repair.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- The Harvard Healthy Eating Plate describes how much we should consume each day of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, healthy proteins, healthy oils, and water.
- Consuming whole foods versus processed and fast foods provides many benefits for our physical health.
- Staying well hydrated is essential for our overall health and well-being.
- Regular physical activity provides many benefits for our physical and mental health.
- Getting adequate sleep provides many benefits for our mental and physical health and there are a variety of steps we can take to improve our sleep quality and quantity.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Managing Your Mental and Physical Health. Authored by: Pamela Askew, Amber Sarker, Paul Smith, Heather Syrett, and Eva Thomsen. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Anxiety 101 Flyer. Authored by: Taylor Weston. Provided by: OERCommons. Located at: https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92428/overview License: CC BY 4.0
- Chapter cover image. Photo by Gabin Vallet. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/J154nEkpzlQ License: CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Exercise in College Success. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/exercise/. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Hydrate Flyer. Authored by: Airman 1st Class Alexi Myrick. Provided by: 442d Fighter Wing Located at: https://www.442fw.afrc.af.mil/News/Photos/igphoto/2002167005/. License: Public Domain.
- Mental Health in College Success. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/mental-health/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Provided by: Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Located at: https://health.gov/our-work/nutrition-physical-activity/physical-activity-guidelines. License: Public Domain
- Problematic Social Media Use. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problematic_social_media_use. License: CC BY 3.0
- What is Nutritional Balance and Moderation? in Nutrition 100: Nutritional Applications for a Healthy Lifestyle. Authored by: Lynn Klees. Provided by: Penn State. Located at: https://psu.pb.unizin.org/nutr100/. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Sleep in College Success. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/sleep/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Stress in College Success. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/stress/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Successful Students Take Control of their Health in A Guide for Successful Students. Authored by: Irene Stewart and Aaron Maisonville. Provided by: Open Library. Located at: https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/studyprocaff/chapter/successful-students-take-control-of-their-health/#chapter-37-section-3. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Taking Care of Your Emotional Health in College Success. Authored by: Amy Baldwin, et al. Provided by: OpenStax. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/college-success/pages/11-3-taking-care-of-your-emotional-health. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Stressors in Psychology. Authored by: Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett. Provided by: OpenStax. Located at: https://openstax.org/books/psychology/pages/14-2-stressors License: CC BY-SA 4.0
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
- 8 benefits of staying hydrated. Provided by: ActiveBeat. Located at: https://youtu.be/XGeygVl3ReY. License: All Rights .Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
- Exercise and the brain. Provided by: WellCast Located at: https://youtu.be/mJW7dYXPZ2o. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube.
- How to make stress your friend. Authored by: Kelly McGonigal. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://youtu.be/RcGyVTAoXEU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
- How to break your social media addiction. Authored by: Thomas Frank. Located at: https://youtu.be/QGe_cG3g6kw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
- Move your way: Tips for getting motivated. Provided by: Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Located at: https://youtu.be/0i1lCNHaxhs. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
- Healthy Sleep-Healthy Life Series - Video 1: Healthy Sleep. Provided by: AASM Sleep Education. Located at: https://youtu.be/P1mVmRxMMak. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
- Healthy Sleep - Healthy Life Series-Video 2: Improving your Sleep Provided by: AASM Sleep Education. Located at: https://youtu.be/uckGbixdXgs. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
REFERENCES
- Adams, M. (n.d.). Joel Fuhrham: The Doctor is out There. Men’s Journal. https://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/joel-fuhrman-the-doctor-is-out-there-20121107/
- Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York, NY: Academic Press.
- Earth Day. (2022). Fact Sheet: Single Use Plastics. https://www.earthday.org/fact-sheet-single-use-plastics/#_ftn5
- Everly, G. S., & Lating, J. M. (2002). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishing.
- Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219–239.
- Garber, C.E., Bilssmer, B., Deschenes, M.R., Franklin, B.A., Lamonte, M.J. Lee, I., Nieman, D.C., & Swain, D.P. (2011). Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory, Musculoskeletal, and Neuromotor Fitness in Apparently Healthy Adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: July 2011 - Volume 43 - Issue 7 - p 1334-1359. https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2011/07000/Quantity_and_Quality_of_Exercise_for_Developing.26.aspx
- Greater Good Science Center (n.d.). Noticing Nature. https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/noticing_nature
- Hupbach, A., & Fieman, R. (2012). Moderate stress enhances immediate and delayed retrieval of educationally relevant material in healthy young men. Behavioral Neuroscience, 126, 819–825.
- Höhn, C., Schmid, S. R., Plamberger, C. P., Bothe, K., Angerer, M., Gruber, G., Pletzer, B., & Hoedlmoser, K. (2021). Preliminary Results: The Impact of Smartphone Use and Short-Wavelength Light during the Evening on Circadian Rhythm, Sleep and Alertness. Clocks & Sleep, 3(1), 66–86. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-5175/3/1/5
- Hold-Lunstand, J., Smith, T., & Layton, B. (2010.) Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review. PLOS Medicine. https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
- Klees, L.. (2022). Nutrition: 100 Nutritional Applications for a Healthy Lifestyle. Penn State University.
- Lyon, B. L. (2012). Stress, coping, and health. In V. H. Rice (Ed.), Handbook of stress, coping, and health: Implications for nursing research, theory, and practice (2nd ed., pp. 2–20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Moran, J. (2013). Pause, reflect and give thanks: the power of gratitude during the holiday. The University of California at Los Angeles. http://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/gratitude-249167
- Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2021). Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. https://health.gov/our-work/nutrition-physical-activity/physical-activity-guidelines
- Riebl S..K., & Davy, B.M. (2017) . The Hydration Equation: Update on Water Balance and Cognitive Performance. ACSMs Health Fit J. 2013 Nov; 17(6):21-28.
- Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. Philadelphia, PA: Lippencott.
- Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.230453
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"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25873/overview",
"title": "Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success, Beyond Academics",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25874/overview
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Chapter 17: Diversity and Cultural Competency
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 17: Diversity and Cultural Competency
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define diversity and identify many aspects of diversity
- Differentiate between surface diversity and deep diversity, and explain the relationship between the two
- Define and apply principles of cultural competency
- Explore the positive effects of diversity in an educational setting
- Define accessibility and identify implications of accessibility on campus and in communities
- Identify strategies for responding to instances of prejudice and hate
Diversity and Cultural Competency
Diversity and Cultural Competency
Introduction
Ours is a very diverse society—and increasingly so. In this chapter, we’ll look first at some of the ways that people differ and explore the benefits of diversity for our society generally and for the college experience. While we should all celebrate diversity, at the same time we need to acknowledge past issues that grew from misunderstandings of such differences and work together to bring change where needed.
What Is Diversity?
There are few words in the English language that have more diverse interpretations than diversity. What does diversity mean? Better yet—what does diversity mean to you? And what does it mean to your best friend, your teacher, your parents, your religious leader, or the person standing behind you in a grocery store?
As we’ll use the term here, diversity refers to the great variety of human characteristics—ways that we are different even though we are all human and share more similarities than differences. These differences are an essential part of what enriches humanity. Aspects of diversity may be cultural, biological, or personal in nature. Diversity generally involves things that may significantly affect some people’s perceptions of others—not just any way people happen to be different. For example, having different tastes in music, movies, or books is not what we usually refer to as diversity.
When discussing diversity, it is often difficult to avoid seeming to generalize about different types of people, and such generalizations can seem similar to dangerous stereotypes. The following descriptions are meant only to suggest that individuals are different from other individuals in many possible ways and that we can all learn things from people whose ideas, beliefs, attitudes, values, backgrounds, experiences, and behaviors are different from our own. This is a primary reason college admissions departments frequently seek diversity in the student body. The following are various aspects of diversity:
- Race: Race refers to what we generally think of as biological differences and is often defined by what some think of as skin color. Such perceptions are often at least as social as they are biological.
- Ethnicity: Ethnicity is a cultural distinction that is different from race. Ethnic groups share a common identity and a perceived cultural heritage that often involves shared ways of speaking and behaving, religion, traditions, and other traits. The term “ethnic” also refers to such a group that is a minority within the larger society. Race and ethnicity are sometimes interrelated but not automatically so.
- Cultural background: Culture, like ethnicity, refers to shared characteristics, language, beliefs, behaviors, and identity. We are all influenced by our culture to some extent. While ethnic groups are typically smaller groups within a larger society, the larger society itself is often called the “dominant culture.” The term is often used rather loosely to refer to any group with identifiable shared characteristics.
- Educational background: Colleges do not use a cookie-cutter approach to admit only students with identical academic skills. A diversity of educational backgrounds helps ensure a free flow of ideas and challenges those who might become set in their ways.
- Geography: People from different places within the United States or the world often have a range of differences in ideas, attitudes, and behaviors.
- Socioeconomic background: People’s identities are influenced by how they grow up, and part of that background involves socioeconomic factors. Socioeconomic diversity can contribute to a wide variety of ideas and attitudes.
- Gender roles: Women hold virtually all professional and social roles, including those once dominated by men, and men have taken on many roles, such as raising a child, that were formerly occupied mostly by women. These changing roles have brought diverse new ideas and attitudes to college campuses.
- Gender identity: Gender identity is each person’s internal and individual experience of gender. It is a person’s sense of being a woman, a man, both, neither, or anywhere along the gender spectrum. A person’s gender identity may be the same as or different from their birth-assigned sex.(Ontario Human Rights Commission.)
- Age: While younger students attending college immediately after high school are generally within the same age range, older students returning to school bring a diversity of ages. Because they often have broader life experiences, many older students bring different ideas and attitudes to the campus.
- Sexual orientation: Sexual orientation is a personal characteristic that forms part of who you are. It covers the range of human sexuality from lesbian and gay, to bisexual and heterosexual. Exposure to this diversity helps others overcome stereotypes and become more accepting of human differences.
- Religion: For many people, religion is not just a Sunday morning practice but a larger spiritual force that infuses their lives. Religion helps shape different ways of thinking and behaving.
- Political views: A diversity of political views helps broaden the level of discourse on campuses concerning current events and the roles of government and leadership at all levels.
- Physical ability: Some students have athletic talents. Some students have physical disabilities. Physical differences among students bring yet another kind of diversity to colleges—a diversity that both widens opportunities for a college education and also helps all students better understand how people relate to the world in physical as well as intellectual ways.
- Neurodiversity: Neurodiversity is a term coined in the 1990s to fight stigma against people with autism, ADHD, and learning differences like dyslexia. It is used to describe the differences in the way people’s brains work. The idea is that there’s no “correct” way for the brain to work. Instead, there is a wide range of ways that people perceive and respond to the world (Child Mind Institute.)
These are just some of the types of diversity you are likely to encounter on college campuses and in our society generally. In the following video, students from Juniata College describe what diversity means to them and explain why it’s an important aspect of their college experience.
Surface Diversity and Deep Diversity
Surface diversity and deep diversity are categories of personal attributes—or differences in attributes—that people perceive to exist between people or groups of people.
Surface-level diversity refers to differences you can generally observe in others, like ethnicity, race, age, culture, language, etc. You can quickly and easily observe these features in a person. And people often do just that, making subtle judgments at the same time, which can lead to bias or discrimination. For example, if a teacher believes that older students perform better than younger students, they may give slightly higher grades to older students than younger students. This bias is based on a perception of the attribute of age, which is surface-level diversity.
Deep-level diversity, on the other hand, reflects differences that are less visible, like personality, attitude, beliefs, and values. These attributes are generally communicated verbally and non-verbally, so they are not easily noticeable or measurable. You may not detect deep-level diversity in a classmate, for example, until you get to know them, at which point you may find that you are either comfortable with these deeper character levels, or perhaps not. But once you gain this deeper level of awareness, you may focus less on surface diversity. For example, at the beginning of a term, a classmate belonging to a minority ethnic group whose native language is not English (surface diversity) may be treated differently by fellow classmates in another ethnic group. But as the term gets underway, classmates begin discovering the person’s values and beliefs (deep-level diversity), which they find they are comfortable with. The surface-level attributes of language and perhaps skin color become more “transparent” (less noticeable) as comfort is gained with deep-level attributes.
Cultural Competency
As a college student, you are likely to find yourself in diverse classrooms, organizations, and – eventually – workplaces. It is important to prepare yourself to be able to adapt to diverse environments. Cultural competency can be defined as the ability to recognize and adapt to cultural differences and similarities. It involves “(a) the cultivation of deep cultural self-awareness and understanding (i.e., how one’s own beliefs, values, perceptions, interpretations, judgments, and behaviors are influenced by one’s cultural community or communities) and (b) increased cultural other-understanding (i.e., comprehension of the different ways people from other cultural groups make sense of and respond to the presence of cultural differences).”1
In other words, cultural competency requires you to be aware of your own cultural practices, values, and experiences, and to be able to read, interpret, and respond to those of others. Such awareness will help you successfully navigate the cultural differences you will encounter in diverse environments. Cultural competency is critical to working and building relationships with people from different cultures; it is so critical, in fact, that it is now one of the most highly desired skills in the modern workforce.2
In the following video, representatives from Rutgers University Behavioral Health Care elaborate on the concept of cultural competency:
We don’t automatically understand differences among people and celebrate the value of those differences. Cultural competency is a skill that you can learn and improve upon over time and with practice. What actions can you take to build your cultural competency skills?
- Acknowledge your own uniqueness, for you are diverse, too. Diversity doesn’t involve just other people. Consider that you may be just as different from other people as they are from you. Don’t think of the other person as being the one who is different, that you are somehow the “norm.” Your religion may seem just as different to them as theirs does to you, and your clothing may seem just as strange-looking to them as theirs is to you—until you accept there is no one “normal” or right way to be. Look at yourself in a mirror and consider why you look as you do. Why do you use the slang you do with your friends? Why did you just have that type of food for breakfast? How is it that you prefer certain types of music? Read certain books? Talk about certain things? Much of this has to do with your cultural background—so it makes sense that someone from another cultural or ethnic background is different in some ways. But both of you are also individuals with your own tastes, preferences, ideas, and attitudes—making you unique. It’s only when you realize your own uniqueness that you can begin to understand and respect the uniqueness of others, too.
- Consider your own (possibly unconscious) stereotypes. A stereotype is a fixed, simplistic view of what people in a certain group are like. It is often the basis for prejudice and discrimination: behaving differently toward someone because you stereotype them in some way. Stereotypes are generally learned and emerge in the dominant culture’s attitudes toward those from outside that dominant group. A stereotype may be explicitly racist and destructive, and it may also be a simplistic generalization applied to any group of people, even if intended to be flattering rather than negative. As you have read this chapter so far, did you find yourself thinking about any group of people, based on any kind of difference, and perhaps thinking in terms of stereotypes? If you walked into a party and saw many different kinds of people standing about, would you naturally avoid some and move toward others? Remember, we learn stereotypes from our cultural background—so it’s not a terrible thing to admit you have inherited some stereotypes. Thinking about them is the first step in breaking out of these irrational thought patterns.
- Do not try to ignore differences among people. Some people try so hard to avoid stereotyping that they go to the other extreme and try to avoid seeing any differences at all among people. But as we have seen throughout this chapter, people are different in many ways, and we should acknowledge that if we are to experience the benefits of diversity.
- Don’t apply any group generalizations to individuals. As an extension of not stereotyping any group, also don’t think of any individual person in terms of group characteristics. People are individuals first, and members of a group second, and any given generalization simply may not apply to an individual. Be open-minded and treat everyone with respect as an individual with their own ideas, attitudes, and preferences.
- Develop cultural sensitivity for communication. Realize that your words may not mean quite the same thing in different cultural contexts or to individuals from different backgrounds. This is particularly true of slang words, which you should generally avoid until you are sure the other person will know what you mean. Never try to use slang or expressions you think are common in the cultural group of the person you are speaking with. Similarly, since body language often varies among different cultures, avoid strong gestures and expressions until the responses of the other person signify they will not misinterpret the messages sent by your body language.
- Take advantage of campus opportunities to increase your cultural awareness. Your college likely has multiculturalism courses or workshops you can sign up for. Special events, cultural fairs and celebrations, concerts, and other programs are held frequently on most campuses. There may also be opportunities to participate in group travel to other countries or regions of cultural diversity.
- Take the initiative in social interactions. Many students naturally hang out with other students they are most like—that almost seems to be part of human nature. Even when we’re open-minded and want to learn about others different from ourselves, it often seems easier and more comfortable to interact with others of the same age, cultural group, and so on. If we don’t make a small effort to meet others, however, we miss a great opportunity to learn and broaden our horizons. Next time you’re looking around the classroom for someone to ask about a class you missed or to study together for a test or group project, choose someone different from you in some way. Making friends with others of different backgrounds is often one of the most fulfilling experiences for college students.
- Work through conflicts as in any other interaction. Conflicts simply occur among people, whether of the same or different backgrounds. If you are afraid of making a mistake when interacting with someone from a different background, you might avoid interaction altogether—and thus miss the benefits of diversity. Nothing risked, nothing gained. If you are sincere and respect the other, there is less risk of a misunderstanding occurring. If a conflict does occur, work to resolve it as you would any other tension with another person.
Developing your cultural competency will help you be more in tune with the cultural nuances and differences present in any situation. It is also the first step in being able to appreciate the benefits diversity can bring to a situation.
Positive Effects of Diversity in an Educational Setting
Why does diversity matter in college? It matters because when you are exposed to new ideas, viewpoints, customs, and perspectives—which invariably happens when you come in contact with diverse groups of people—you expand your frame of reference for understanding the world. If you approach diverse settings with cultural competency, you are able to learn about the experiences of others and your thinking becomes more open and global.
More than half of all U.S. babies today are people of color, and by 2050 the U.S. will have no clear racial or ethnic majority. By 2050, half the workforce will be a person of color.3 These statistics underscore the importance of cultural competency in an increasingly diverse American society and workforce. When approached with an open mind and a willingness to learn, diverse environments can produce the following benefits:
- Experiencing diversity at college prepares students for the diversity they will encounter for the rest of their lives. Learning to understand and accept people different from ourselves is very important in our world. While many high school students may not have met or gotten to know well many people with different backgrounds, this often changes in college. Success in your career and future social life also requires understanding people in new ways and interacting with new skills. Experiencing diversity in college assists in this process.
- Students learn better in a diverse educational setting. Encountering new concepts, values, and behaviors leads to thinking in deeper, more complex, and more creative ways, rather than furthering past ideas and attitudes. Students who experience the most racial and ethnic diversity in their classes are more engaged in active thinking processes and develop more intellectual and academic skills (and have higher grade point averages) than others with limited experience of diversity.
- Attention to diversity leads to a broader range of teaching methods, which benefits the learning process for all students. Just as people are different in diverse ways, people from different backgrounds and experiences learn in different ways. College teaching has expanded to include many new teaching techniques. All students gain when instructors make the effort to address the diverse learning needs of all students.
- Experiencing diversity on campus is beneficial for both minority and majority students. Students have more fulfilling social relationships and report more satisfaction and involvement with their college experience. Studies show all students on campus gain from diversity programs. All the social and intellectual benefits of diversity cited in this list hold true for all students.
- Diversity experiences help break the patterns of segregation and prejudice that have characterized American history. Discrimination against others—whether by race, gender, age, sexual orientation, or anything else—is rooted in ignorance and sometimes fear of people who are different. Getting to know people who are different is the first step to accepting those differences, furthering the goal of a society free of all forms of prejudice and the unfair treatment of people.
- Experiencing diversity makes us all better citizens in our democracy. When people can better understand and consider the ideas and perspectives of others, they are better equipped to participate meaningfully in our society. Democratic government depends on shared values of equality and the public good. An attitude of “us versus them,” in contrast, does not further the public good or advance democratic government. Studies have shown that college graduates with a good experience of diversity generally maintain patterns of openness and inclusivity in their future lives.
- Diversity enhances self-awareness. We gain insights into our own thought processes, life experiences, and values as we learn from people whose backgrounds and experiences are different from our own.
Experiencing Diversity on Campus
The following essay about experiences of diversity in college is by Fatima Rodriguez Johnson (State University of New York). Even though at first the writer felt like an ethnic outsider in college, she grew in understanding of the importance of diversity on campus and of speaking openly and honestly about connecting with diverse cultures.
WHY SO MANY QUESTIONS?
I chose to attend a small liberal arts college. The campus was predominately white and was nestled in a wealthy suburb among beautiful trees and landscaped lawns. My stepfather and I pulled into the parking lot and followed the path to my residence hall. The looks we received from most of the families made me feel like everyone knew we didn’t belong. But, he and I greeted all we encountered, smiling and saying, “Hello.” Once I was unpacked and settled into my residence hall, he gave me a hug and said, “Good luck.” I wasn’t sure if he meant good luck with classes or good luck with meeting new friends, but I heard a weight in his voice. He was worried. Had he and my mother prepared me for what was ahead?
With excitement, I greeted my roommate who I had already met through the summer Higher Educational Opportunity Program (HEOP). She and I were very happy to see each other. After decorating and organizing our room, we set out to meet new people. We went to every room introducing ourselves. We were pretty sure no one would forget us; it would be hard to miss the only Black and Latina girls whose room was next to the pay phone (yes, in my day each floor shared one pay phone).
Everyone on our floor was nice and we often hung out in each other’s rooms. And like some of you, we answered some of those annoying questions:
- Why does your perm make your hair straight when ours makes our hair curly?
- How did your hair grow so long (whenever we had weave braids)?
- Why don’t you wash your hair everyday (the most intriguing question of all)?
We were also asked questions that made us angry:
- Did you grow up with your father?
- Aren’t you scared to take public transportation?
- Have you ever seen anyone get shot (because we both lived in the inner city)?
It was those questions that, depending on the day and what kind of mood we were in, made a fellow student either walk away with a better understanding of who we were as Black and Latina women or made a fellow student walk away red and confused. I guess that’s why my stepfather said, “Good luck.” He knew that I was living in a community where I would stand out—where I would have to explain who I was. Some days I was really good at answering those questions and some days I was not. I learned the questions were not the problem; it was not asking that was troubling.
My roommate and I put forth a lot of effort to fit in with the community—we spent time hanging out with our peers, we ate together almost every evening in the dining hall, and we participated in student organizations. We were invited to join the German Club, and were the only students of color there. In doing all these things we made ourselves approachable. Our peers became comfortable around us and trusted us.
Although my peers and I all had similar college stresses (tests, papers, projects, etc.) my roommate and I also had become a student resource for diversity. Not because we wanted to, but because we had too. There were very few students of color on campus, and I think students really wanted to learn about people different from themselves. It was a responsibility that we had accepted. The director of HEOP would often remind us that for many students, college was the first opportunity they had to ask these types of questions. He said we would learn to discern when people were really interested in learning about our differences or insulting us. If someone was interested in insulting us, there was no need to respond at all.
Although I transferred to another college at the end of my sophomore year, during those two years I learned a great deal about having honest conversations. Taking part in honest conversations challenged my notions of the world and how I viewed people from all walks of life (race, class, sexual orientation, ability, etc.). Those late nights studying or walks to the student center were when many of us listened to each other’s stories.
My advice is to take time to examine your attitudes and perceptions of people different from yourself, put yourself in situations that will challenge your assumptions, and lastly, when you make a mistake do not get discouraged. Keep trying. It’s easy to stay where we are comfortable. College is such a wonderful experience. Take it all in, and I am sure you will enjoy it!
—Fatima Rodriguez Johnson, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom
Accessibility and Diversity on Campus
Accessibility is about making education accessible to all, and it’s particularly focused on providing educational support to a diverse group of students, faculty, and staff with disabilities. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, you can be considered disabled if you meet one of the following criteria:
- You have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, such as seeing, hearing, walking, learning, and others.
- You must have a history of such impairment.
- Others perceive that you have such impairment.
If you meet one of these criteria, you have legal rights to certain accommodations on your campus. At Austin Community College, you can request accommodations from Student Accessibility Services. These accommodations may include, but are not limited to, the following:
- Academic accommodations, like alternate format for print materials, classroom captioning, arranging for priority registration, reducing a course load, substituting one course for another, providing note-takers, recording devices, sign language interpreters, access to a TTY (text telephone), and equipping school computers with screen-reading, voice recognition, or other adaptive software or hardware
- Exam accommodations, like extended time on exams
- Financial support and assistance
- Priority access to housing
- Transportation and access, like Wheelchair-accessible community shuttles
Assistive technologies and Web-accessibility accommodations are critical in today’s technology-driven economy and society. The following are some examples of assistive technologies are the following:
- Software like Dragon Naturally Speaking, Kurzweil, Zoom Text, CCTV Magnifier, or Inspiration
- Computer input devices, like keyboards, electronic pointing devices, sip-and-puff systems, wands, and sticks, joysticks, trackballs, and touch screens
- Other Web-accessibility aids, like screen readers, screen enlargers and magnifiers, speech recognition or voice recognition programs, and Text-to-Speech (TTS) or speech synthesizers
The following video from PBS News Hour shares the history of the ADA and explores some of the challenges experienced by people with disabilities.
Take a Stand Against Prejudice and Hate
Unfortunately, prejudice and hate still exist in America, including on college campuses. Prejudice exists against racial and ethnic minorities, women, people with disabilities, older adults, and LBGTQ —virtually all groups that can be characterized as “different.” All campuses have policies against all forms of prejudice and discriminatory behaviors. But it is not enough for only college administrators to fight prejudice and hate—this is a responsibility for all good citizens who take seriously the shared American value of equality for all people. So what can you as a college student do?
- Decide that it does matter. Prejudice threatens us all, not just the particular group being discriminated against in a specific incident. Don’t stand on the sidelines or think it’s up to the people who may be victimized by prejudice or hate to do something about it. We can all do something.
- Talk with others. Communication has great value on campuses. Let others know how you feel about any acts of prejudice or hatred that you witness. The more everyone openly condemns such behavior, the less likely it is to reappear in the future. This applies even if you hear another student telling a racist joke or putting down the opposite sex—speak up and tell the person you find such statements offensive. You don’t want that person to think you agree with them. Speaking up can be difficult to do, but it can be done tactfully. People can and do learn what is acceptable in a diverse environment.
- Report incidents you observe. If you happen to see someone spray-painting a hateful slogan, for example, be a good citizen and report it to the appropriate campus office or the police.
- Support student groups working for change. Show your support for groups and activities that celebrate diversity and condemn prejudice. Once you become aware of such student activities on campus, you’ll find many ways you can help take a stand.
- Celebrate diversity. In many ways, you can learn more about diversity through campus programs and activities. The more all students participate, the closer the campus will come to being free of prejudice and hate. Be a role model in how you act and what you say in relation to diversity, and you may have more effect on others than you realize.
Dealing with Prejudice
If you yourself experience prejudice or discrimination related to your race or ethnicity, gender, age, disability, sexual orientation, religion, or any other aspect of diversity, don’t ignore it or accept it as something that cannot be changed. As discussed earlier, college students can do much to minimize intolerance on campus. Many overt forms of discrimination are illegal and against college policies. You owe it to yourself, first and foremost, to report it to the appropriate college authority.
You can also attack prejudice in other ways. Join a campus organization that works to reduce prejudice or start a new group and discuss ways you can confront the problem and work for a solution. Seek solidarity with other groups. Organize positive celebrations and events to promote understanding. Write an article for a campus publication explaining the values of diversity and condemning intolerance.
What if you are directly confronted by an individual or group making racist or other discriminatory remarks? In an emotionally charged situation, rational dialogue may be difficult or impossible, and a shouting match or name-calling seldom is productive. If the person may have made an offensive remark inadvertently or because of a misunderstanding, then you may be able to calmly explain the problem with what they said or did. Hopefully, the person will apologize and learn from the experience. But if the person made the remark or acted that way intentionally, confronting this negative person directly may be difficult and not have a positive outcome. Most importantly, take care that the situation does not escalate in the direction of violence. Reporting the incident instead to college authorities may better serve the larger purpose of working toward harmony and tolerance.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Diversity refers to a great variety of human characteristics and ways in which people differ.
- Surface-level diversity refers to characteristics you can easily observe, while deep-level diversity refers to attributes that are not visible and must be communicated in order to understand.
- Cultural competency is the ability to recognize and adapt to cultural differences and similarities.
- Diverse environments expose you to new perspectives and can help deepen your learning.
- Accessibility is about making the necessary accommodations so that education is accessible to all students.
- Although we would hope that all college campuses would be free of hate and discrimination, it can become necessary to take a stand against prejudice.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Diversity and Cultural Competency. Authored by: Laura Lucas and Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Chapter cover image. Authored by: maxlkt. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/hand-united-hands-united-together-1917895/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Diversity and Accessibility in College Success. Authored by: Unknown. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/diversity-and-accessibility/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Gender Identity. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity. License: CC BY-SA 4.0
- Chapter 9.2: Living with Diversity in College Success. Authored by: Anonymous. Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
- Cultural Competency at Rutgers University Behavioral Health Care. Provided by: UBHC Production Studio. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-h1ZuRXBpg. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
REFERENCES
- Bennett, J. M. (2015). "Intercultural Competence Development." The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Bennett, J. M. (2015). "Intercultural Competence Development." The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
- "10 Reasons Why We Need Diversity on College Campuses." Center for American Progress. 2016. Web. 2 Feb 2016.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.272569
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"title": "Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success, Beyond Academics",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/25875/overview
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Chapter 18: Managing Your Money
Overview
Learning Framework: Effective Strategies for College Success
Chapter 18: Managing Your Money
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Establish financial goals
- Identify strategies for creating and maintaining a budget
- Describe available options for paying for college
- Describe the benefits and risks of credit
- Develop financial literacy skills to prepare for your financial future
Managing Your Money
Managing Your Money
Introduction
What is a chapter on personal finances doing in a book on student success? If you’re a new college student you may not yet have money problems or issues—but most college students soon do. It doesn’t matter whether you’re a “traditional” college student enrolled in college just after high school or a “nontraditional” student returning to school. If you are living away from home for the first time, you may have less experience setting and sticking to a budget and handling money in general. If you have been working and/or have started a family, you will likely face the challenges of new expenses and additional demands on your time.
Almost everyone eventually has money issues in college, and they can impact your academic success. Money problems are stressful and can keep you from concentrating on your studies. Unfortunately, money problems cause many students to drop out of college entirely. But it doesn’t have to be this hard. Like other skills, financial skills can be learned, and they have lifelong value.
Austin Community College is fortunate to have the Student Money Management Office available as a resource for students. They offer workshops, Peer Money Mentors, a helpful website with online budgeting tools, and even one-on-one financial coaching. Throughout this chapter, there will be links to resources from the Student Money Management Office.
Financial Goals
Whatever it is you plan to do in your future, whether work or other activities, your financial goals in the present should be realistic to enable you to fulfill your plan. Consider these scenarios:
Destiny entered college planning to major in business. Her family was not able to give her much financial support, but she chose to attend an expensive private college because she thought it would help her get into a good graduate business school. She had to take large loans to pay her tuition, but she wasn’t concerned about a budget because she assumed she’d make a lot later on and be able to easily pay off the loans. Yet when she graduated and had to begin making payments on her private bank loans, she discovered she couldn’t afford to go straight to business school after all. She put her dream on hold for a few years and took a job she didn’t much like.
Jorge had worked a few years after high school but finally decided that he needed a college degree to get the kind of job he wanted. He was happy with his life otherwise and kept his nice apartment and car and enrolled in a couple of night classes while continuing to work full-time during the day. He was surprised at how much he had to study, however, and after a couple of months, he felt he was struggling. He just didn’t have enough time to do it all—so he dropped first one class and then, a couple of weeks later, the other. He told himself that he’d try it again in a year or two, but part of him wondered how anyone could ever get through college while working.
What Destiny and Jorge have in common is a conflict between their financial goals and realities. Both were motivated to succeed in college, and both had a vision for their future. But both were unsuccessful in finding ways to make their dreams come true—because of money issues.
Could they have done things differently? Maybe Destiny could have gone to a less expensive school and still reached her goal, or maybe she could have avoided such heavy student loans by working summers and part-time during the school year. Maybe Jorge could have reduced his living expenses and cut back his work hours to ensure he could balance school and work better. Maybe both were spending thousands of dollars a year on things they could have done without if only they’d thought through their goals and learned to live within a budget.
Taking control of your personal finances begins with thinking about your goals and deciding what really matters to you. Here are some things to think about:
- Is it important for you to graduate from college without debt? Is it acceptable to you, or necessary, to take some student loans?
- What are your priorities for summers and other “free time”? Working to earn money? Taking nonpaying internships or volunteering to gain experience in your field? Enjoying social activities and time with friends?
- How important is it to take a full load of classes so that your college education does not take longer than necessary?
- How important is it to you to live in a nice place, drive a nice car, wear nice clothes, or eat in nice restaurants? How important in comparison to your educational goals?
There are no easy answers to such questions. Since you will have to make choices, it’s important first to think about what really matters to you—and what you’re willing to sacrifice for a while in order to reach your goals.
The following strategies can help you set financial goals for yourself:
- Create SMART goals: SMART stands for specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely. These kinds of goals are more manageable and can help you reach your final target more easily. For example, instead of setting a broad, vague goal of “paying for college,” you might set a goal of paying off your two college loans five years after you graduate. This more specific, measurable goal can help you keep track of your progress and whether you need to make changes to reach it.
- Monitor your spending: Try keeping track of what you spend money on during a one-month period. This can help you see where your money goes and where you may be able to save.
- Create a budget: Based on what you discovered after monitoring your spending, create a monthly budget you can stick to. While some expenses, such as food and transportation, are necessary, you may find that you can save money on both by riding a bike (instead of driving) to school and eating out in restaurants less.
- Consider working: Some students have full-time jobs while attending college, whereas others may not have a lot of time to work if they’re taking a full academic load. You will find information later in this chapter on how to decide if working while in school is right for you.
- Choose loans wisely: Many college students need some sort of financial support through loans. While loans are a good way to pay for tuition upfront if you don’t have the money, remember that they accrue interest until you pay them off. That means that you will end up paying back more—in some cases, thousands of dollars more—than you initially borrowed. Make sure you investigate and apply for as many scholarships and grants as you can since they won’t need to be repaid, and shop around for the loans with the lowest interest rates and best repayment plans. Check with the financial aid office on your college campus—they can provide additional help.
Budgeting
A budget is simply the best way to balance the money that comes in with the money that goes out. In this section, we will review common expenses and sources of income for college students and discuss ways to balance these in a budget that works for you.
Expenses
There are certain financial obligations most college students have to pay for. Common examples include:
- Tuition: This includes the price of attending an institution. Students pay relatively more or less for this based on where they are going to school and how many credits they are taking.
- Room and board: These are essential “food and shelter” costs. Many college students live in a dorm and eat their meals on campus. Students who live off-campus will have to pay for comparable things, like renting an apartment and buying their own groceries.
- Books and supplies: These include books for classes and supplies like notebooks, writing utensils, and calculators. Textbooks are often very expensive, so you may try to find used textbooks for sale.
- Transportation: Students typically have some transportation costs, whether it be car insurance, maintenance, gas, or public transportation expenses.
- Personal needs: Regardless of where you live, you will need money for things like laundry, cell phone, computer, and going out with friends. This expense can vary a lot depending on personal preferences.
Needs Vs. Wants
Before you can make an effective budget, you examine your expenses and consider what’s essential and what’s optional. Essential costs are the big things you need to get by:
- Room and board or rent/mortgage, utilities, and groceries
- College tuition, fees, textbooks, supplies
- Transportation
- Insurance (health insurance, car insurance, etc.)
- Dependent care if needed
- Essential personal items (some clothing, hygiene items, etc.)
In contrast, “optional” expenses are things you want but could easily get by without. You don’t have to spend money on them, and you can spend more or less on them as you choose. Most people spend by habit, not really thinking about where their money goes or how quickly their spending adds up. If you knew you were spending more than a thousand dollars a year on coffee you buy every day between classes, would that make you think twice? Or another thousand on fast food lunches rather than taking a couple of minutes in the morning to make your lunch? When people actually start paying attention to where their money goes, most are shocked to see how the totals grow. If you can save a few thousand dollars a year by cutting back on just the little things, how far would that go to making you feel much better about your finances?
The Price of College
Given what you have read so far, what types of expenses do you think you might face as a college student? The following video will help you review the types of college expenses and examine particular costs that are common for both four-year and two-year institutions.
Sources of Income
Paying for college can be a big challenge. When deciding how to cover the expense, two important sources of income include:
- Jobs: Many students work while taking classes to cover their expenses.
- Financial Aid: This can come in the form of loans, grants, work-study, or scholarships.
Both options can help you finance your education, but both also come with both benefits and potential pitfalls. The next sections look at each of these options in more detail and will help you determine what strategies will be best for you.
Working During College: Pros and Cons
Finding a job as a college student can help you stay on track financially, but it can also be difficult to balance with your other responsibilities, and it’s not for everyone. Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of working during college:
Pros
- Earning extra money: The money you earn can help cover college expenses.
- Enhanced budgeting skills: If you are working, you may learn to budget your money better since you have to earn it yourself.
- Enhanced time-management skills: Juggling classes, work, and possibly other activities such as clubs or sports, may actually help you excel in your classes because you learn how to effectively manage your time.
- Networking: In addition to work experience in a field related to your interests, you may also meet people who can help you later when you’re ready for a career.
Cons
- Lack of time-management skills: Though working during college can help build time-management skills, you may struggle if you aren’t used to balancing activities. For example, a student who heads to college straight from high school without any prior job experience (or with few extracurricular activities during high school) may have trouble meeting multiple academic and job obligations and commitments.
- Lack of free time: If you take on a lot of work hours while in college, you may not have time for other activities or opportunities, such as joining clubs related to your interests or finding volunteer work or internships that might help you discover career opportunities and connections. These “extras” are actually significant résumé items that can make you more employable after college.
Deciding whether or not to work while you’re in college is obviously a personal decision that involves your own comfort level and situation. Some students may prefer to put off looking for a job until after the first semester of college, so they can better gauge their workload and schedule, while others may prefer to avoid working altogether. For some, the question isn’t “Should I or shouldn’t I get a job?” but “How much should I work?” In other words, the challenge is to strike the right balance between schoolwork, social activities, and earning money.
The following video shares one student’s experience with the pros and cons of working her way through college.
Financial Aid
You may already be receiving financial aid or understand what types of financial aid are available. Even if you are not receiving financial aid, however, you should understand the basics because your financial situation may change and you may need help paying for college. You owe it to yourself to learn about potential types of aid you might receive.
There are three main categories of financial aid:
- Scholarships and grants (money or tuition waivers that do not need to be repaid)
- Student loans (money that does need to be repaid, usually starting after graduation)
- Work-study programs (money that is earned for tuition or other expenses)
Scholarships and Grants
Scholarships and grants are “free” money—you do not have to pay them back, unlike student loans. A scholarship is generally based on merit as demonstrated by past grades, test scores, achievements, or experiences, including personal qualifications such as athletic ability, skills in the arts, community or volunteer experiences, and so on. Don’t make the mistake of thinking scholarships go only to students with high grades. Many scholarships, for example, honor those with past leadership or community experience or the promise of future activities. Even the grades and test scores needed for academic scholarships are relative: a grade point average (GPA) that does not qualify for a scholarship from one organization may earn a scholarship from another. Never assume that you’re not qualified for any kind of scholarship or grant.
A grant also does not need to be paid back. Most grants are based on demonstrated financial need. A grant may be offered by the college, a federal or state program, or a private organization or civic group. The largest grant program for college students is the federal government’s Pell Grants program. Learn more about Pell Grants and other scholarship and grant programs from your college’s financial aid office or the online resources listed later.
Student Loans
Many different student loan programs are available for college students. Ideally, one would like to graduate without having loan balances to repay after college. However, almost two-thirds of full-time college students do need student loans to pay for college. With smart choices about the type of loan and a structured repayment program for your working years after graduation, there’s no reason to fear a loan. Just remember that the money eventually has to be repaid—it’s not “free” money even though it may feel that way while you’re in school.
All student loans are not the same. Interest terms vary widely, and with most private loans the interest starts building up immediately. The best loan generally is a subsidized federal Stafford loan. “Subsidized” in this case means the interest does not begin on the loan until after graduation. With unsubsidized loans, by contrast, you are responsible for paying interest on the loan even while you are in school, meaning the terms of an unsubsidized loan are less favorable to you as a student.
Many colleges and universities have also created additional programs – such as textbooks or childcare assistance or an emergency fund – to support their students facing financial needs. Check with your school’s financial aid office to find out if you qualify for any additional assistance.
Work-Study Programs
Work-study programs are the third type of financial aid. They are administered by colleges and are a common part of the financial aid package for students with financial needs. You work for what you earn, but work-study programs often have advantages over outside jobs. The college runs the program, so you don’t have to spend valuable time looking for a job. Work-study students usually work on or near campus, and work hours are controlled to avoid interfering with classes and study time. Work-study students are more engaged with the academic community than students working off-campus. Remember the section above that discussed working while in college and be sure to carefully weigh the pros and cons before deciding about a work-study program.
As the following video shows, regardless of your background, which college you’re attending, or your time commitment, there are numerous financial aid opportunities for you to consider:
Tips for Success: Applying for Financial Aid
- Talk to your college’s financial aid office early and get the appropriate forms.
- Start your applications early to ensure you make the deadline. If you are eligible, be sure to submit the Free Application for Financial Student Aid (FAFSA)(or TAFSA) to see if you qualify for federal or state student aid.
- Do online research to learn about additional private scholarships you may be qualified for.
- Evaluate student loans carefully and do not borrow more than you need or can repay without hardship after graduation.
Budgeting Strategies
Now that we have looked at common college expenses and forms of income, it is time to talk about budgeting. Without a personal budget, most people have a hard time gauging how much money they spend and where their money goes. If you have ever gone to an ATM to withdraw money and been surprised to discover how little you had left in your account, this section is for you. Even if you’re very conscientious about paying your bills on time and generally have frugal spending habits, creating and following a budget can put so much further ahead.
In essence, a budget is a plan for how you want to spend money. It details how much money comes in each month and how much you’ve allocated for spending on each thing. The virtue of a budget is that it puts you in control of financial decisions—so you can avoid surprises at the ATM or at the end of the month. Let’s look at some strategies for creating a budget:
- Be realistic: People are often intimidated by budgets because they’re afraid the plans will be too strict or force them to cut back too much. Though a budget may reveal that you indeed spend a lot of money on clothes, that’s okay—it may just also need to show that you spend very little on restaurants and eating out to make up for it. Again, it’s about making choices and being realistic.
- Choose a timeline: Creating a budget for a fixed period of time will help you monitor whether you’re meeting your financial goals. The timeline you choose is up to you and your goals. For example, you might create a monthly budget to monitor how you spend your paycheck every month.
- Add financial padding: Even if you feel like your list of financial obligations is already long, try to set aside a certain amount each month for a “rainy day” fund to pay for unforeseen expenses and emergencies, like car repair, lost textbooks, etc.
- Make adjustments as needed: While sticking to your budget is important, there’s nothing wrong with revisiting and adjusting your original targets. For example, if you find that you are actually spending $50 more per month on groceries than you intended (even after shopping for sale items), you may decide to save that money elsewhere in your budget next month—on entertainment, for example.
Tracking one’s income and spending is a good exercise for anyone, and if you follow the basic steps, below, it’s easier than you might think:
- Calculate regular expenses: Using your bills, receipts, checkbook, and any other financial records you have, make a list of your regular expenses and record how much you typically pay each month or year. Since some expenses like grocery bills may vary from month to month, you’ll want to examine several months’ worth of receipts to come up with an average.
- Record your income: Identify all income sources and add up how much you receive during a given period of time. This amount should include all sources of money—from regular full- or part-time work and from intermittent sources, such as freelance jobs, babysitting, etc.
- Adjust your expense percentages, and set goals: After you outline your financial obligations and income, you can start by deciding how much money you’d like to allocate for each expense. Start with fixed expenses such as rent, car payments, etc. Next, decide how much you want to devote to each of the remaining categories, such as food and entertainment. At this point, you can also set specific financial goals. For example, you may decide to lower the amount you spend on clothes in order to pay off outstanding credit card debt or save for a trip.
- Identify a method for tracking your budget: Develop a plan for monitoring your budget. You might decide to use an Excel or Google spreadsheet, a budgeting app, or a budget tracking tool provided by your bank. You can also write things down in a notebook. The method doesn’t matter, so long as it’s easy for you to access, use, and interpret.
Still not convinced that making and following a budget is doable? The following video describes a budgeting technique that’s very easy and straightforward to follow: the “Envelope Budget.” Simply placing cash in labeled envelopes (one for each category or purpose) each month can be a very effective means of building healthy spending habits.
PLEASE COMPLETE SECTION #2 BELOW: ACTIVITY: FINANCIAL WELLNESS
Credit
For many college students, who may not have a lot of money or a job, owning a credit card may seem out of reach. Without money in an account and assurance that you can pay your monthly credit bill, the average student may not seem very “credit-worthy.” Still, it can be important to build a credit history for certain opportunities down the road, such as getting a loan to buy a house. You may be surprised to learn that there are plenty of companies that offer special options for younger customers, especially students. Some good offers to look for include error forgiveness (such as waiving penalties the first time you miss a payment), no extra fees, rewards for good grades, and effective customer service.1
Risks and Rewards of Credit
Credit cards can give students new opportunities, but owning them is also a big responsibility. Students should consider the advantages and disadvantages of credit before choosing the best plan.
Pros
- Saving money: Credit cards can be connected to checking accounts so that companies know where their customers’ money is coming from and they have an account to charge interest rates to. The account can help you practice saving money rather than needing to have a lot of cash on hand. This can make it easier for you to make large payments for things like tuition and unexpected expenses like vehicle maintenance or medical bills.
- Receiving benefits: In addition to cashback for good grades, credit card companies may offer other benefits such as store discounts, gas rewards, and points toward air travel.
- Building credit: If you pay off your credit card every month on time, you will start building credit and have a good credit score early on. Your credit score can be an important factor later on if you decide to open another account or take out a loan. Some potential employers may even want to see your credit history.
Cons
- Overspending: If something is out of sight, it may be out of mind, and the same can be true of money. Sometimes people overspend with credit cards because it’s easy to think that you have more money than you really do.
- Interest: Credit card companies with student deals still typically include some level of APR or interest rate. If you don’t pay off the entire balance every month, using a credit card can be expensive. Suppose you decide to use your credit card to pay for $1,000 in school supplies and books. Credit card A has an APR of 10 percent, and credit card B has an APR of 24 percent. If it takes you a year to pay off the $1,000, you’d actually pay a total of $1,055.04 with credit card A and $1,134.72 with credit card B—that’s $55 or $135 on top of the original $1,000 you charged! This example highlights the importance of paying off the balance as soon as possible AND of choosing a credit card with a lower interest rate.
- Debt: Unlike debit cards, credit cards allow users to borrow money that they can pay back at a later date. While this can be useful in emergency situations, you may end up charging more than you can afford to pay back right away, and you may find yourself saddled with debt. Carrying a lot of debt can damage your credit history and score.
Avoiding Debt
As we just learned, the temptation to overspend with a credit card and the interest you are charged on your balance can combine to leave you owing more money than you have. Following are tips that will help you avoid slipping into credit card debt:
- Pay with cash when you can. Use your budget as a guide for how much cash to carry with you – refer back to the video in this chapter on the envelope budget strategy.
- When possible, use a debit card instead of a credit card. A debit card is taken just like a credit card in most places, so you can use it instead of cash, but remember that a purchase is subtracted immediately from your account. Don’t risk overdraft fees by using a debit card when you don’t have the balance to back it up. Record a debit card purchase in your checkbook register as soon as possible.
- Make it a priority to pay your balance in full every month. If you can’t pay it all, pay as much as you can—and then remember that balance will still be there, so try not to use the card at all during the next month.
- Don’t get cash advances on your credit card. With most cards, you begin paying interest from that moment forward—so there will still be an interest charge even if you pay the bill in full at the end of the month. Cash advance interest rates are often considerably higher than purchase rates.
- Don’t use more than one credit card. Multiple cards make it too easy to misuse them and lose track of your total debt.
- Get and keep receipts for all credit card purchases. Don’t throw them away because you’ll see the charges on your monthly statement. Write the amounts down in your spending budget. You also need the receipts in case your monthly statement has an error.
- Stop carrying your credit card. If you don’t have enough willpower to avoid spontaneous purchases, be honest with yourself. Don’t carry the card at all—after all, the chances of having an emergency need for it are likely to be very small. Having to go home to get the card also gives you a chance to consider whether you really need whatever it is that you were about to buy.
Credit History and Credit Reports
You begin to establish a credit history as soon as you get your first credit card or get a loan. Everyone needs to understand what a credit history is and how your monetary habits now can affect your future financial well-being and your future options.
Credit bureaus collect financial data on everyone. The credit report they issue is a detailed history of many years of your financial habits. It includes the following:
- Current and past credit accounts (credit cards and store charge cards)
- History of balances and credit payments
- History of late or missed payments
- Inquiries into your credit status (e.g., if you’ve applied for a number of credit cards, this is recorded even if you did not receive the cards)
- Bankruptcy or mortgage foreclosure proceedings
All this information remains in your credit report for up to seven to ten years. For example, frequent overdrafts on a debit card can prevent you from being approved for a credit card, or late credit card payments can prevent you in the future from obtaining a car loan. What you do today can really come back to haunt you!
By law, you’re entitled to one free credit report each year from Annual Credit Report. Although you have to pay extra for your credit score to be included with your credit report, a lot of people use this as a quick reference to gauge how good or bad someone’s credit is. Different companies use slightly different ratings, but 300 or so is considered to be a low credit score, and 700–850 is considered to be high. The following video shows how your credit score is determined and some rules of the road for improving your current credit rating.
Resources for Credit Issues
Maintaining credit is a big responsibility, and sometimes it can be challenging. Repairing bad credit can take a long time—up to seven years—so it’s important to take action as soon as you’re having trouble paying bills or overspending. Different resources and options are available to help you deal with credit issues, including the following:
- Loan consolidation: Students may consider having multiple loans consolidated with the federal government so they have to make only one loan payment per month. While this may give you more time to pay off student loan debt, it may not be the best option, since the one monthly payment can cost more and accrue a higher interest rate. Students should talk to loan company representatives and financial aid resources at their institution to discuss other payment options, such as income-based payments in which the amount you pay each month is based on your income level.
- Credit counselors: Credit counselors are trained to help people develop personal budgets and to provide classes on savings and debt solutions. They may also offer debt management plans in which they work with your credit card and loan companies to arrange a deal and ask you for monthly deposits so that they can help you pay off your debts. If you are interested in a consultation from a credit counselor, do your research to find a reputable one who does not charge customers too much for their services to avoid additional debt.
- Debt settlement plans: Debt collection companies will offer services to their clients that involve talking to credit card and loan companies and coming up with a plan to pay a lump sum instead of the total debt owed. Similar to finding credit counselors, you should contact local government offices to find reputable debt collection companies so you can avoid overpayments and scams.
- Bankruptcy: Bankruptcy is an official status that is obtained through court procedures, and it means you are unable to pay off your debts. Bankruptcy damages your credit score, and the fees for filing paperwork and hiring an attorney can be costly, so it is important to consider other financial solutions first.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Now is the time to identify and begin working toward your financial goals.
- Budgeting involves assessing your spending habits to ensure your income will cover your expenses.
- Many students work while they are in college; weigh the pros and cons to determine if this is the right decision for you and how you can strike the best balance between working and taking classes.
- Financial aid – in the form of scholarships, grants, loans, and/or work study – is available to help you pay for college.
- Owning a credit card comes with significant benefits and risks. While it is good practice to begin establishing your credit history, be careful to avoid falling into debt.
- Your credit history is tracked by financial institutions and can be used in future determinations about other credit cards, loans, or even in getting a job. Review your credit report regularly to know where you stand and check for errors.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
- Managing Your Money. Authored by: Laura Lucas. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Budgeting in College Success. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/budgeting/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Chapter 11: Taking Control of Your Finances in College Success Authored by: Anonymous. Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY-NC-SA-4.0
- Chapter cover image. Authored by: Jay Castor. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/jZnvn5x08BE. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Credit in College Success. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/credit/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Financial Aid in College Success. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/financial-aid/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Personal Finance in College Success. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/personal-finance-needs-alt-text/. License: CC BY 4.0
- Working in College Success. Authored by: Jolene Carr. Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess-lumen/chapter/working/. License: CC BY 4.0
REFERENCES
1. Gardon, Michael. "Best Credit Cards for Students in 2016." The Simple Dollar. 10 Feb 2016. Web 12 Feb 2016.
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15508/overview
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Introduction
Overview
- Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire
- The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire
- Economic Imperialism in East Asia
- Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Foreign Policy
- Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy”
As he approached the rostrum to speak before historians gathered in Chicago in 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner appeared nervous. He was presenting a conclusion that would alarm all who believed that westward expansion had fostered the nation’s principles of democracy. His conclusion: The frontier—the encounter between European traditions and the native wilderness—had played a fundamental role in shaping American character, but the American frontier no longer existed. Turner’s statement raised questions. How would Americans maintain their unique political culture and innovative spirit in the absence of the frontier? How would the nation expand its economy if it could no longer expand its territory?
Later historians would see Turner’s Frontier Thesis as deeply flawed, a gross mischaracterization of the West. But the young historian’s work greatly influenced politicians and thinkers of the day. Like a muckraker, Turner exposed the problem; others found a solution by seeking out new frontiers in the creation of an American empire. The above advertisement for a theater reenactment of the Spanish-American War (Figure) shows the American appetite for expansion. Many Americans felt that it was time for their nation to offer its own brand of international leadership and dominance as an alternative to the land-grabbing empires of Europe.
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"title": "U.S. History, Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914",
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15509/overview
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Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the evolution of American interest in foreign affairs from the end of the Civil War through the early 1890s
- Identify the contributions of Frederick Jackson Turner and Alfred Thayer Mahan to the conscious creation of an American empire
During the time of Reconstruction, the U.S. government showed no significant initiative in foreign affairs. Western expansion and the goal of Manifest Destiny still held the country’s attention, and American missionaries proselytized as far abroad as China, India, the Korean Peninsula, and Africa, but reconstruction efforts took up most of the nation’s resources. As the century came to a close, however, a variety of factors, from the closing of the American frontier to the country’s increased industrial production, led the United States to look beyond its borders. Countries in Europe were building their empires through global power and trade, and the United States did not want to be left behind.
AMERICA’S LIMITED BUT AGGRESSIVE PUSH OUTWARD
On the eve of the Civil War, the country lacked the means to establish a strong position in international diplomacy. As of 1865, the U.S. State Department had barely sixty employees and no ambassadors representing American interests abroad. Instead, only two dozen American foreign ministers were located in key countries, and those often gained their positions not through diplomatic skills or expertise in foreign affairs but through bribes. Further limiting American potential for foreign impact was the fact that a strong international presence required a strong military—specifically a navy—which the United States, after the Civil War, was in no position to maintain. Additionally, as late as 1890, with the U.S. Navy significantly reduced in size, a majority of vessels were classified as “Old Navy,” meaning a mixture of iron hulled and wholly wooden ships. While the navy had introduced the first all-steel, triple-hulled steam engine vessels seven years earlier, they had only thirteen of them in operation by 1890.
Despite such widespread isolationist impulses and the sheer inability to maintain a strong international position, the United States moved ahead sporadically with a modest foreign policy agenda in the three decades following the Civil War. Secretary of State William Seward, who held that position from 1861 through 1869, sought to extend American political and commercial influence in both Asia and Latin America. He pursued these goals through a variety of actions. A treaty with Nicaragua set the early course for the future construction of a canal across Central America. He also pushed through the annexation of the Midway Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which subsequently opened a more stable route to Asian markets. In frequent conversations with President Lincoln, among others, Seward openly spoke of his desire to obtain British Columbia, the Hawaiian Islands, portions of the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and other territories. He explained his motives to a Boston audience in 1867, when he professed his intention to give the United States “control of the world.”
Most notably, in 1867, Seward obtained the Alaskan Territory from Russia for a purchase price of $7.2 million. Fearing future loss of the territory through military conflict, as well as desiring to create challenges for Great Britain (which they had fought in the Crimean War), Russia had happily accepted the American purchase offer. In the United States, several newspaper editors openly questioned the purchase and labeled it “Seward’s Folly” (Figure). They highlighted the lack of Americans to populate the vast region and lamented the challenges in attempting to govern the native peoples in that territory. Only if gold were to be found, the editors decried, would the secretive purchase be justified. That is exactly what happened. Seward’s purchase added an enormous territory to the country—nearly 600,000 square miles—and also gave the United States access to the rich mineral resources of the region, including the gold that trigged the Klondike Gold Rush at the close of the century. As was the case elsewhere in the American borderlands, Alaska’s industrial development wreaked havoc on the region’s indigenous and Russian cultures.
Seward’s successor as Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish, held the position from 1869 through 1877. Fish spent much of his time settling international disputes involving American interests, including claims that British assistance to the Confederates prolonged the Civil War for about two years. In these so-called Alabama claims, a U.S. senator charged that the Confederacy won a number of crucial battles with the help of one British cruiser and demanded $2 billion in British reparations. Alternatively, the United States would settle for the rights to Canada. A joint commission representing both countries eventually settled on a British payment of $15 million to the United States. In the negotiations, Fish also suggested adding the Dominican Republic as a territorial possession with a path towards statehood, as well as discussing the construction of a transoceanic canal with Columbia. Although neither negotiation ended in the desired result, they both expressed Fish’s intent to cautiously build an American empire without creating any unnecessary military entanglements in the wake of the Civil War.
BUSINESS, RELIGIOUS, AND SOCIAL INTERESTS SET THE STAGE FOR EMPIRE
While the United States slowly pushed outward and sought to absorb the borderlands (and the indigenous cultures that lived there), the country was also changing how it functioned. As a new industrial United States began to emerge in the 1870s, economic interests began to lead the country toward a more expansionist foreign policy. By forging new and stronger ties overseas, the United States would gain access to international markets for export, as well as better deals on the raw materials needed domestically. The concerns raised by the economic depression of the early 1890s further convinced business owners that they needed to tap into new markets, even at the risk of foreign entanglements.
As a result of these growing economic pressures, American exports to other nations skyrocketed in the years following the Civil War, from $234 million in 1865 to $605 million in 1875. By 1898, on the eve of the Spanish-American War, American exports had reached a height of $1.3 billion annually. Imports over the same period also increased substantially, from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. Such an increased investment in overseas markets in turn strengthened Americans’ interest in foreign affairs.
Businesses were not the only ones seeking to expand. Religious leaders and Progressive reformers joined businesses in their growing interest in American expansion, as both sought to increase the democratic and Christian influences of the United States abroad. Imperialism and Progressivism were compatible in the minds of many reformers who thought the Progressive impulses for democracy at home translated overseas as well. Editors of such magazines as Century, Outlook, and Harper’s supported an imperialistic stance as the democratic responsibility of the United States. Several Protestant faiths formed missionary societies in the years after the Civil War, seeking to expand their reach, particularly in Asia. Influenced by such works as Reverend Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885), missionaries sought to spread the gospel throughout the country and abroad. Led by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, among several other organizations, missionaries conflated Christian ethics with American virtues, and began to spread both gospels with zeal. This was particularly true among women missionaries, who composed over 60 percent of the overall missionary force. By 1870, missionaries abroad spent as much time advocating for the American version of a modern civilization as they did teaching the Bible.
Social reformers of the early Progressive Era also performed work abroad that mirrored the missionaries. Many were influenced by recent scholarship on race-based intelligence and embraced the implications of social Darwinist theory that alleged inferior races were destined to poverty on account of their lower evolutionary status. While certainly not all reformers espoused a racist view of intelligence and civilization, many of these reformers believed that the Anglo-Saxon race was mentally superior to others and owed the presumed less evolved populations their stewardship and social uplift—a service the British writer Rudyard Kipling termed “the white man’s burden.”
By trying to help people in less industrialized countries achieve a higher standard of living and a better understanding of the principles of democracy, reformers hoped to contribute to a noble cause, but their approach suffered from the same paternalism that hampered Progressive reforms at home. Whether reformers and missionaries worked with native communities in the borderlands such as New Mexico; in the inner cities, like the Salvation Army; or overseas, their approaches had much in common. Their good intentions and willingness to work in difficult conditions shone through in the letters and articles they wrote from the field. Often in their writing, it was clear that they felt divinely empowered to change the lives of other, less fortunate, and presumably, less enlightened, people. Whether oversees or in the urban slums, they benefitted from the same passions but expressed the same paternalism.
Lottie Moon, Missionary
Lottie Moon was a Southern Baptist missionary who spent more than forty years living and working in China. She began in 1873 when she joined her sister in China as a missionary, teaching in a school for Chinese women. Her true passion, however, was to evangelize and minister, and she undertook a campaign to urge the Southern Baptist missionaries to allow women to work beyond the classroom. Her letter campaign back to the head of the Mission Board provided a vivid picture of life in China and exhorted the Southern Baptist women to give more generously of their money and their time. Her letters appeared frequently in religious publications, and it was her suggestion—that the week before Christmas be established as a time to donate to foreign missions—that led to the annual Christmas giving tradition. Lottie’s rhetoric caught on, and still today, the annual Christmas offering is done in her name.
We had the best possible voyage over the water—good weather, no headwinds, scarcely any rolling or pitching—in short, all that reasonable people could ask. . . . I spent a week here last fall and of course feel very natural to be here again. I do so love the East and eastern life! Japan fascinated my heart and fancy four years ago, but now I honestly believe I love China the best, and actually, which is stranger still, like the Chinese best.
—Charlotte “Lottie” Moon, 1877
Lottie remained in China through famines, the Boxer Rebellion, and other hardships. She fought against foot binding, a cultural tradition where girls’ feet were tightly bound to keep them from growing, and shared her personal food and money when those around her were suffering. But her primary goal was to evangelize her Christian beliefs to the people in China. She won the right to minister and personally converted hundreds of Chinese to Christianity. Lottie’s combination of moral certainty and selfless service was emblematic of the missionary zeal of the early American empire.
TURNER, MAHAN, AND THE PLAN FOR EMPIRE
The initial work of businesses, missionaries, and reformers set the stage by the early 1890s for advocates of an expanded foreign policy and a vision of an American empire. Following decades of an official stance of isolationism combined with relatively weak presidents who lacked the popular mandate or congressional support to undertake substantial overseas commitments, a new cadre of American leaders—many of whom were too young to fully comprehend the damage inflicted by the Civil War—assumed leadership roles. Eager to be tested in international conflict, these new leaders hoped to prove America’s might on a global stage. The Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, was one of these leaders who sought to expand American influence globally, and he advocated for the expansion of the U.S. Navy, which at the turn of the century was the only weapons system suitable for securing overseas expansion.
Turner (Figure) and naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan were instrumental in the country’s move toward foreign expansion, and writer Brooks Adams further dramatized the consequences of the nation’s loss of its frontier in his The Law of Civilization and Decay in 1895. As mentioned in the chapter opening, Turner announced his Frontier Thesis—that American democracy was largely formed by the American frontier—at the Chicago World’s Colombian Exposition. He noted that “for nearly three centuries the dominant fact in American life has been expansion.” He continued: “American energy will continually demand a wider field for its exercise.”
Although there was no more room for these forces to proceed domestically, they would continue to find an outlet on the international stage. Turner concluded that “the demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an interoceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon our seas, and for the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining countries are indications that the forces [of expansion] will continue.” Such policies would permit Americans to find new markets. Also mindful of the mitigating influence of a frontier—in terms of easing pressure from increased immigration and population expansion in the eastern and midwestern United States—he encouraged new outlets for further population growth, whether as lands for further American settlement or to accommodate more immigrants. Turner’s thesis was enormously influential at the time but has subsequently been widely criticized by historians. Specifically, the thesis underscores the pervasive racism and disregard for the indigenous communities, cultures, and individuals in the American borderlands and beyond.
Explore the controversy associated with Turner’s Frontier Thesis at U.S. History Scene.
While Turner provided the idea for an empire, Mahan provided the more practical guide. In his 1890 work, The Influence of Seapower upon History, he suggested three strategies that would assist the United States in both constructing and maintaining an empire. First, noting the sad state of the U.S. Navy, he called for the government to build a stronger, more powerful version. Second, he suggested establishing a network of naval bases to fuel this expanding fleet. Seward’s previous acquisition of the Midway Islands served this purpose by providing an essential naval coaling station, which was vital, as the limited reach of steamships and their dependence on coal made naval coaling stations imperative for increasing the navy’s geographic reach. Future acquisitions in the Pacific and Caribbean increased this naval supply network (Figure). Finally, Mahan urged the future construction of a canal across the isthmus of Central America, which would decrease by two-thirds the time and power required to move the new navy from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans. Heeding Mahan’s advice, the government moved quickly, passing the Naval Act of 1890, which set production levels for a new, modern fleet. By 1898, the government had succeeded in increasing the size of the U.S. Navy to an active fleet of 160 vessels, of which 114 were newly built of steel. In addition, the fleet now included six battleships, compared to zero in the previous decade. As a naval power, the country catapulted to the third strongest in world rankings by military experts, trailing only Spain and Great Britain.
The United States also began to expand its influence to other Pacific Islands, most notably Samoa and Hawaii. With regard to the latter, American businessmen were most interested in the lucrative sugar industry that lay at the heart of the Hawaiian Islands’ economy. By 1890, through a series of reciprocal trade agreements, Hawaiians exported nearly all of their sugar production to the United States, tariff-free. When Queen Liliuokalani tapped into a strong anti-American resentment among native Hawaiians over the economic and political power of exploitative American sugar companies between 1891 and 1893, worried businessmen worked with the American minister to Hawaii, John Stevens, to stage a quick, armed revolt to counter her efforts and seize the islands as an American protectorate (Figure). Following five more years of political wrangling, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, during the Spanish-American War.
The United States had similar strategic interests in the Samoan Islands of the South Pacific, most notably, access to the naval refueling station at Pago Pago where American merchant vessels as well as naval ships could take on food, fuel, and supplies. In 1899, in an effort to mitigate other foreign interests and still protect their own, the United States joined Great Britain and Germany in a three-party protectorate over the islands, which assured American access to the strategic ports located there.
Section Summary
In the last decades of the nineteenth century, after the Civil War, the United States pivoted from a profoundly isolationist approach to a distinct zeal for American expansion. The nation’s earlier isolationism originated from the deep scars left by the Civil War and its need to recover both economically and mentally from that event. But as the industrial revolution changed the way the country worked and the American West reached its farthest point, American attitudes toward foreign expansion shifted. Businesses sought new markets to export their factory-built goods, oil, and tobacco products, as well as generous trade agreements to secure access to raw materials. Early social reformers saw opportunities to spread Christian gospel and the benefits of American life to those in less developed nations. With the rhetoric of Fredrick J. Turner and the strategies of Alfred Mahan underpinning the desire for expansion abroad, the country moved quickly to ready itself for the creation of an American empire.
Review Questions
Why did the United States express limited interest in overseas expansion in the 1860s and 1870s?
- fear of attacks on their borders
- post-Civil War reconstruction
- the Anti-Imperialist League
- Manifest Destiny
Hint:
B
Which of the following did Mahan not believe was needed to build an American empire?
- a navy
- military bases around the world
- the reopening of the American frontier
- a canal through Central America
Hint:
C
Why were the Midway Islands important to American expansion?
Hint:
The Midway Islands provided a more stable path to Asian markets and a vital naval coaling station, which steamships needed in order to travel further afield.
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15510/overview
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The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the origins and events of the Spanish-American War
- Analyze the different American opinions on empire at the conclusion of the Spanish-American War
- Describe how the Spanish-American War intersected with other American expansions to solidify the nation’s new position as an empire
The Spanish-American War was the first significant international military conflict for the United States since its war against Mexico in 1846; it came to represent a critical milestone in the country’s development as an empire. Ostensibly about the rights of Cuban rebels to fight for freedom from Spain, the war had, for the United States at least, a far greater importance in the country’s desire to expand its global reach.
The Spanish-American War was notable not only because the United States succeeded in seizing territory from another empire, but also because it caused the global community to recognize that the United States was a formidable military power. In what Secretary of State John Hay called “a splendid little war,” the United States significantly altered the balance of world power, just as the twentieth century began to unfold (Figure).
THE CHALLENGE OF DECLARING WAR
Despite its name, the Spanish-American War had less to do with the foreign affairs between the United States and Spain than Spanish control over Cuba and its possessions in the Far East. Spain had dominated Central and South America since the late fifteenth century. But, by 1890, the only Spanish colonies that had not yet acquired their independence were Cuba and Puerto Rico. On several occasions prior to the war, Cuban independence fighters in the Cuba Libre movement had attempted unsuccessfully to end Spanish control of their lands. In 1895, a similar revolt for independence erupted in Cuba; again, Spanish forces under the command of General Valeriano Weyler repressed the insurrection. Particularly notorious was their policy of re-concentration in which Spanish troops forced rebels from the countryside into military-controlled camps in the cities, where many died from harsh conditions.
As with previous uprisings, Americans were largely sympathetic to the Cuban rebels’ cause, especially as the Spanish response was notably brutal. Evoking the same rhetoric of independence with which they fought the British during the American Revolution, several people quickly rallied to the Cuban fight for freedom. Shippers and other businessmen, particularly in the sugar industry, supported American intervention to safeguard their own interests in the region. Likewise, the “Cuba Libre” movement founded by José Martí, who quickly established offices in New York and Florida, further stirred American interest in the liberation cause. The difference in this uprising, however, was that supporters saw in the renewed U.S. Navy a force that could be a strong ally for Cuba. Additionally, the late 1890s saw the height of yellow journalism, in which newspapers such as the New York Journal, led by William Randolph Hearst, and the New York World, published by Joseph Pulitzer, competed for readership with sensationalistic stories. These publishers, and many others who printed news stories for maximum drama and effect, knew that war would provide sensational copy.
However, even as sensationalist news stories fanned the public’s desire to try out their new navy while supporting freedom, one key figure remained unmoved. President William McKinley, despite commanding a new, powerful navy, also recognized that the new fleet—and soldiers—were untested. Preparing for a reelection bid in 1900, McKinley did not see a potential war with Spain, acknowledged to be the most powerful naval force in the world, as a good bet. McKinley did publicly admonish Spain for its actions against the rebels, and urged Spain to find a peaceful solution in Cuba, but he remained resistant to public pressure for American military intervention.
McKinley’s reticence to involve the United States changed in February 1898. He had ordered one of the newest navy battleships, the USS Maine, to drop anchor off the coast of Cuba in order to observe the situation, and to prepare to evacuate American citizens from Cuba if necessary. Just days after it arrived, on February 15, an explosion destroyed the Maine, killing over 250 American sailors (Figure). Immediately, yellow journalists jumped on the headline that the explosion was the result of a Spanish attack, and that all Americans should rally to war. The newspaper battle cry quickly emerged, “Remember the Maine!” Recent examinations of the evidence of that time have led many historians to conclude that the explosion was likely an accident due to the storage of gun powder close to the very hot boilers. But in 1898, without ready evidence, the newspapers called for a war that would sell papers, and the American public rallied behind the cry.
Visit U.S. History Scene to understand different perspectives on the role of yellow journalism in the Spanish-American War.
McKinley made one final effort to avoid war, when late in March, he called on Spain to end its policy of concentrating the native population in military camps in Cuba, and to formally declare Cuba’s independence. Spain refused, leaving McKinley little choice but to request a declaration of war from Congress. Congress received McKinley’s war message, and on April 19, 1898, they officially recognized Cuba’s independence and authorized McKinley to use military force to remove Spain from the island. Equally important, Congress passed the Teller Amendment to the resolution, which stated that the United States would not annex Cuba following the war.
WAR: BRIEF AND DECISIVE
The Spanish-American War lasted approximately ten weeks, and the outcome was clear: The United States triumphed in its goal of helping liberate Cuba from Spanish control. Despite the positive result, the conflict did present significant challenges to the United States military. Although the new navy was powerful, the ships were, as McKinley feared, largely untested. Similarly untested were the American soldiers. The country had fewer than thirty thousand soldiers and sailors, many of whom were unprepared to do battle with a formidable opponent. But volunteers sought to make up the difference. Over one million American men—many lacking a uniform and coming equipped with their own guns—quickly answered McKinley’s call for able-bodied men. Nearly ten thousand African American men also volunteered for service, despite the segregated conditions and additional hardships they faced, including violent uprisings at a few American bases before they departed for Cuba. The government, although grateful for the volunteer effort, was still unprepared to feed and supply such a force, and many suffered malnutrition and malaria for their sacrifice.
To the surprise of the Spanish forces who saw the conflict as a clear war over Cuba, American military strategists prepared for it as a war for empire. More so than simply the liberation of Cuba and the protection of American interests in the Caribbean, military strategists sought to further Mahan’s vision of additional naval bases in the Pacific Ocean, reaching as far as mainland Asia. Such a strategy would also benefit American industrialists who sought to expand their markets into China. Just before leaving his post for volunteer service as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. cavalry, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt ordered navy ships to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, another island chain under Spanish control. As a result, the first significant military confrontation took place not in Cuba but halfway around the world in the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Navy in a decisive victory, sinking all of the Spanish ships while taking almost no American losses. Within a month, the U.S. Army landed a force to take the islands from Spain, which it succeeded in doing by mid-August 1899.
The victory in Cuba took a little longer. In June, seventeen thousand American troops landed in Cuba. Although they initially met with little Spanish resistance, by early July, fierce battles ensued near the Spanish stronghold in Santiago. Most famously, Theodore Roosevelt led his Rough Riders, an all-volunteer cavalry unit made up of adventure-seeking college graduates, and veterans and cowboys from the Southwest, in a charge up Kettle Hill, next to San Juan Hill, which resulted in American forces surrounding Santiago. The victories of the Rough Riders are the best known part of the battles, but in fact, several African American regiments, made up of veteran soldiers, were instrumental to their success. The Spanish fleet made a last-ditch effort to escape to the sea but ran into an American naval blockade that resulted in total destruction, with every Spanish vessel sunk. Lacking any naval support, Spain quickly lost control of Puerto Rico as well, offering virtually no resistance to advancing American forces. By the end of July, the fighting had ended and the war was over. Despite its short duration and limited number of casualties—fewer than 350 soldiers died in combat, about 1,600 were wounded, while almost 3,000 men died from disease—the war carried enormous significance for Americans who celebrated the victory as a reconciliation between North and South.
“Smoked Yankees”: Black Soldiers in the Spanish-American War
The most popular image of the Spanish-American War is of Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders, charging up San Juan Hill. But less well known is that the Rough Riders struggled mightily in several battles and would have sustained far more serious casualties, if not for the experienced black veterans—over twenty-five hundred of them—who joined them in battle (Figure). These soldiers, who had been fighting the Indian wars on the American frontier for many years, were instrumental in the U.S. victory in Cuba.
The choice to serve in the Spanish-American War was not a simple one. Within the black community, many spoke out both for and against involvement in the war. Many black Americans felt that because they were not offered the true rights of citizenship it was not their burden to volunteer for war. Others, in contrast, argued that participation in the war offered an opportunity for black Americans to prove themselves to the rest of the country. While their presence was welcomed by the military which desperately needed experienced soldiers, the black regiments suffered racism and harsh treatment while training in the southern states before shipping off to battle.
Once in Cuba, however, the “Smoked Yankees,” as the Cubans called the black American soldiers, fought side-by-side with Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, providing crucial tactical support to some of the most important battles of the war. After the Battle of San Juan, five black soldiers received the Medal of Honor and twenty-five others were awarded a certificate of merit. One reporter wrote that “if it had not been for the Negro cavalry, the Rough Riders would have been exterminated.” He went on to state that, having grown up in the South, he had never been fond of black people before witnessing the battle. For some of the soldiers, their recognition made the sacrifice worthwhile. Others, however, struggled with American oppression of Cubans and Puerto Ricans, feeling kinship with the black residents of these countries now under American rule.
ESTABLISHING PEACE AND CREATING AN EMPIRE
As the war closed, Spanish and American diplomats made arrangements for a peace conference in Paris. They met in October 1898, with the Spanish government committed to regaining control of the Philippines, which they felt were unjustly taken in a war that was solely about Cuban independence. While the Teller Amendment ensured freedom for Cuba, President McKinley was reluctant to relinquish the strategically useful prize of the Philippines. He certainly did not want to give the islands back to Spain, nor did he want another European power to step in to seize them. Neither the Spanish nor the Americans considered giving the islands their independence, since, with the pervasive racism and cultural stereotyping of the day, they believed the Filipino people were not capable of governing themselves. William Howard Taft, the first American governor-general to oversee the administration of the new U.S. possession, accurately captured American sentiments with his frequent reference to Filipinos as “our little brown brothers.”
As the peace negotiations unfolded, Spain agreed to recognize Cuba’s independence, as well as recognize American control of Puerto Rico and Guam. McKinley insisted that the United States maintain control over the Philippines as an annexation, in return for a $20 million payment to Spain. Although Spain was reluctant, they were in no position militarily to deny the American demand. The two sides finalized the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. With it came the international recognition that there was a new American empire that included the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The American press quickly glorified the nation’s new reach, as expressed in the cartoon below, depicting the glory of the American eagle reaching from the Philippines to the Caribbean (Figure).
Domestically, the country was neither unified in their support of the treaty nor in the idea of the United States building an empire at all. Many prominent Americans, including Jane Addams, former President Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain, and Samuel Gompers, felt strongly that the country should not be pursuing an empire, and, in 1898, they formed the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose this expansionism. The reasons for their opposition were varied: Some felt that empire building went against the principles of democracy and freedom upon which the country was founded, some worried about competition from foreign workers, and some held the xenophobic viewpoint that the assimilation of other races would hurt the country. Regardless of their reasons, the group, taken together, presented a formidable challenge. As foreign treaties require a two-thirds majority in the U.S. Senate to pass, the Anti-Imperialist League’s pressure led them to a clear split, with the possibility of defeat of the treaty seeming imminent. Less than a week before the scheduled vote, however, news of a Filipino uprising against American forces reached the United States. Undecided senators were convinced of the need to maintain an American presence in the region and preempt the intervention of another European power, and the Senate formally ratified the treaty on February 6, 1899.
The newly formed American empire was not immediately secure, as Filipino rebels, led by Emilio Aguinaldo (Figure), fought back against American forces stationed there. The Filipinos’ war for independence lasted three years, with over four thousand American and twenty thousand Filipino combatant deaths; the civilian death toll is estimated as high as 250,000. Finally, in 1901, President McKinley appointed William Howard Taft as the civil governor of the Philippines in an effort to disengage the American military from direct confrontations with the Filipino people. Under Taft’s leadership, Americans built a new transportation infrastructure, hospitals, and schools, hoping to win over the local population. The rebels quickly lost influence, and Aguinaldo was captured by American forces and forced to swear allegiance to the United States. The Taft Commission, as it became known, continued to introduce reforms to modernize and improve daily life for the country despite pockets of resistance that continued to fight through the spring of 1902. Much of the commission’s rule centered on legislative reforms to local government structure and national agencies, with the commission offering appointments to resistance leaders in exchange for their support. The Philippines continued under American rule until they became self-governing in 1946.
After the conclusion of the Spanish-American War and the successful passage of the peace treaty with Spain, the United States continued to acquire other territories. Seeking an expanded international presence, as well as control of maritime routes and naval stations, the United States grew to include Hawaii, which was granted territorial status in 1900, and Alaska, which, although purchased from Russia decades earlier, only became a recognized territory in 1912. In both cases, their status as territories granted U.S. citizenship to their residents. The Foraker Act of 1900 established Puerto Rico as an American territory with its own civil government. It was not until 1917 that Puerto Ricans were granted American citizenship. Guam and Samoa, which had been taken as part of the war, remained under the control of the U.S. Navy. Cuba, which after the war was technically a free country, adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. While the Teller Amendment had prohibited the United States from annexing the country, a subsequent amendment, the Platt Amendment, secured the right of the United States to interfere in Cuban affairs if threats to a stable government emerged. The Platt Amendment also guaranteed the United States its own naval and coaling station on the island’s southern Guantanamo Bay and prohibited Cuba from making treaties with other countries that might eventually threaten their independence. While Cuba remained an independent nation on paper, in all practicality the United States governed Cuba’s foreign policy and economic agreements.
Explore the resources at U.S. History Scene to better understand the long and involved history of Hawaii with respect to its intersection with the United States.
Section Summary
In the wake of the Civil War, American economic growth combined with the efforts of Evangelist missionaries to push for greater international influence and overseas presence. By confronting Spain over its imperial rule in Cuba, the United States took control of valuable territories in Central America and the Pacific. For the United States, the first step toward becoming an empire was a decisive military one. By engaging with Spain, the United States was able to gain valuable territories in Latin America and Asia, as well as send a message to other global powers. The untested U.S. Navy proved superior to the Spanish fleet, and the military strategists who planned the war in the broader context of empire caught the Spanish by surprise. The annexation of the former Spanish colonies of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, combined with the acquisition of Hawaii, Samoa, and Wake Island, positioned the United States as the predominant world power in the South Pacific and the Caribbean. While some prominent figures in the United States vehemently disagreed with the idea of American empire building, their concerns were overruled by an American public—and a government—that understood American power overseas as a form of prestige, prosperity, and progress.
Review Questions
Which is not one of the reasons the Anti-Imperial League gave for opposing the creation of an American empire?
- fear of competition from foreign workers
- fear that the United States would suffer a foreign invasion
- concerns about the integration of other races
- concerns that empire building ran counter to American democratic principles
Hint:
B
What was the role of the Taft Commission?
Hint:
The Taft Commission introduced reforms to modernize and improve daily life in the Philippines. Many of these reforms were legislative in nature, impacting the structure and composition of local governments. In exchange for the support of resistance leaders, for example, the commission offered them political appointments.
What challenges did the U.S. military have to overcome in the Spanish-American War? What accounted for the nation’s eventual victory?
Hint:
The Spanish-American War posed a series of challenges to the United States’ military capacities. The new U.S. Navy, while impressive, was still untested, and no one was certain how the new ships would perform. Further, the country had a limited army, with fewer than thirty thousand soldier and sailors. While over one million men ultimately volunteered for service, they were untrained, and the army was ill-prepared to house, arm, and feed them all. Eventually, American naval strength, combined with the proximity of American supplies relative to the distance Spanish forces traveled, made the decisive difference. In a war upon the sea, the U.S. Navy proved superior in both the Philippines and the blockade of Cuba.
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.391697
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15511/overview
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Economic Imperialism in East Asia
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how economic power helped to expand America’s empire in China
- Describe how the foreign partitioning of China in the last decade of the nineteenth century influenced American policy
While American forays into empire building began with military action, the country concurrently grew its scope and influence through other methods as well. In particular, the United States used its economic and industrial capacity to add to its empire, as can be seen in a study of the China market and the “Open Door notes” discussed below.
WHY CHINA?
Since the days of Christopher Columbus’s westward journey to seek a new route to the East Indies (essentially India and China, but loosely defined as all of Southeast Asia), many westerners have dreamt of the elusive “China Market.” With the defeat of the Spanish navy in the Atlantic and Pacific, and specifically with the addition of the Philippines as a base for American ports and coaling stations, the United States was ready to try and make the myth a reality. Although China originally accounted for only a small percentage of American foreign trade, captains of American industry dreamed of a vast market of Asian customers desperate for manufactured goods they could not yet produce in large quantities for themselves.
American businesses were not alone in seeing the opportunities. Other countries—including Japan, Russia, Great Britain, France, and Germany—also hoped to make inroads in China. Previous treaties between Great Britain and China in 1842 and 1844 during the Opium Wars, when the British Empire militarily coerced the Chinese empire to accept the import of Indian opium in exchange for its tea, had forced an “open door” policy on China, in which all foreign nations had free and equal access to Chinese ports. This was at a time when Great Britain maintained the strongest economic relationship with China; however, other western nations used the new arrangement to send Christian missionaries, who began to work across inland China. Following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 over China’s claims to Korea, western countries hoped to exercise even greater influence in the region. By 1897, Germany had obtained exclusive mining rights in northern coastal China as reparations for the murder of two German missionaries. In 1898, Russia obtained permission to build a railroad across northeastern Manchuria. One by one, each country carved out their own sphere of influence, where they could control markets through tariffs and transportation, and thus ensure their share of the Chinese market.
Alarmed by the pace at which foreign powers further divided China into pseudo-territories, and worried that they had no significant piece for themselves, the United States government intervened. In contrast to European nations, however, American businesses wanted the whole market, not just a share of it. They wanted to do business in China with no artificially constructed spheres or boundaries to limit the extent of their trade, but without the territorial entanglements or legislative responsibilities that anti-imperialists opposed. With the blessing and assistance of Secretary of State John Hay, several American businessmen created the American Asiatic Association in 1896 to pursue greater trade opportunities in China.
THE OPEN DOOR NOTES
In 1899, Secretary of State Hay made a bold move to acquire China’s vast markets for American access by introducing Open Door notes, a series of circular notes that Hay himself drafted as an expression of U.S. interests in the region and sent to the other competing powers (Figure). These notes, if agreed to by the other five nations maintaining spheres of influences in China, would erase all spheres and essentially open all doors to free trade, with no special tariffs or transportation controls that would give unfair advantages to one country over another. Specifically, the notes required that all countries agree to maintain free access to all treaty ports in China, to pay railroad charges and harbor fees (with no special access), and that only China would be permitted to collect any taxes on trade within its borders. While on paper, the Open Door notes would offer equal access to all, the reality was that it greatly favored the United States. Free trade in China would give American businesses the ultimate advantage, as American companies were producing higher-quality goods than other countries, and were doing so more efficiently and less expensively. The “open doors” would flood the Chinese market with American goods, virtually squeezing other countries out of the market.
Although the foreign ministers of the other five nations sent half-hearted replies on behalf of their respective governments, with some outright denying the viability of the notes, Hay proclaimed them the new official policy on China, and American goods were unleashed throughout the nation. China was quite welcoming of the notes, as they also stressed the U.S. commitment to preserving the Chinese government and territorial integrity.
The notes were invoked barely a year later, when a group of Chinese insurgents, the Righteous and Harmonious Fists—also known as the Boxer Rebellion—fought to expel all western nations and their influences from China (Figure). The United States, along with Great Britain and Germany, sent over two thousand troops to withstand the rebellion. The troops signified American commitment to the territorial integrity of China, albeit one flooded with American products. Despite subsequent efforts, by Japan in particular, to undermine Chinese authority in 1915 and again during the Manchurian crisis of 1931, the United States remained resolute in defense of the open door principles through World War II. Only when China turned to communism in 1949 following an intense civil war did the principle become relatively meaningless. However, for nearly half a century, U.S. military involvement and a continued relationship with the Chinese government cemented their roles as preferred trading partners, illustrating how the country used economic power, as well as military might, to grow its empire.
Browse the U.S. State Department’s Milestones: 1899—1913 to learn more about Secretary of State John Hay and the strategy and thinking behind the Open Door notes.
Section Summary
The United States shifted from isolationism to empire building with its involvement—and victory—in the Spanish-American War. But at the same time, the country sought to expand its reach through another powerful tool: its economic clout. The Industrial Revolution gave American businesses an edge in delivering high-quality products at lowered costs, and the pursuit of an “open door” policy with China opened new markets to American goods. This trade agreement allowed the United States to continue to build power through economic advantage.
Review Questions
How did Hay’s suggestion of an open door policy in China benefit the United States over other nations?
- The United States produced goods of better quality and lower cost than other countries.
- The United States enjoyed a historically stronger relationship with the Chinese government.
- The United States was the only nation granted permission to collect taxes on the goods it traded within China’s borders.
- The United States controlled more foreign ports than other countries.
Hint:
A
How did the Boxer Rebellion strengthen American ties with China?
- The United States supported the rebels and gained their support.
- The United States provided troops to fight the rebels.
- The United States sent arms and financial support to the Chinese government.
- The United States thwarted attempts by Great Britain and Germany to fortify the rebels.
Hint:
B
How does the “Open Door notes” episode represent a new, nonmilitary tactic in the expansion of the American empire?
Hint:
The Open Door notes and the American foray into China revealed the power of economic clout. Given the unprecedented technological advances of the industrial revolution, American goods were often less expensive and of better quality than those produced in other countries, and they were highly sought after in Asia. Therefore, when Hay derided the spheres of influence model, wherein each country had its own room to maneuver in China, he was able to flood Chinese markets with American trade. Through these maneuvers, the United States was able to augment its global standing considerably without the use of its military forces.
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.416374
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Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Foreign Policy
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the meaning of “big stick” foreign policy
- Describe Theodore Roosevelt’s use of the “big stick” to construct the Panama Canal
- Explain the role of the United States in ending the Russo-Japanese War
While President McKinley ushered in the era of the American empire through military strength and economic coercion, his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, established a new foreign policy approach, allegedly based on a favorite African proverb, “speak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far” (Figure). At the crux of his foreign policy was a thinly veiled threat. Roosevelt believed that in light of the country’s recent military successes, it was unnecessary to use force to achieve foreign policy goals, so long as the military could threaten force. This rationale also rested on the young president’s philosophy, which he termed the “strenuous life,” and that prized challenges overseas as opportunities to instill American men with the resolve and vigor they allegedly had once acquired in the Trans-Mississippi West.
Roosevelt believed that while the coercive power wielded by the United States could be harmful in the wrong hands, the Western Hemisphere’s best interests were also the best interests of the United States. He felt, in short, that the United States had the right and the obligation to be the policeman of the hemisphere. This belief, and his strategy of “speaking softly and carrying a big stick,” shaped much of Roosevelt’s foreign policy.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL
As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the Panama Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including malaria and yellow fever, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers.
Upon becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt was determined to succeed where others had failed. Following the advice that Mahan set forth in his book The Influence of Seapower upon History, he sought to achieve the construction of a canal across Central America, primarily for military reasons associated with empire, but also for international trade considerations. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of Panama, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across Panama in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal.
Undaunted, Roosevelt chose to now wield the “big stick.” In comments to journalists, he made it clear that the United States would strongly support the Panamanian people should they choose to revolt against Colombia and form their own nation. In November 1903, he even sent American battleships to the coast of Colombia, ostensibly for practice maneuvers, as the Panamanian revolution unfolded. The warships effectively blocked Colombia from moving additional troops into the region to quell the growing Panamanian uprising. Within a week, Roosevelt immediately recognized the new country of Panama, welcoming them to the world community and offering them the same terms—$10 million plus the annual $250,000 rental fee—he had previously offered Colombia. Following the successful revolution, Panama became an American protectorate, and remained so until 1939.
Once the Panamanian victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed’s discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored the fledgling morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock-system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels (Figure). Excited by the work, Roosevelt became the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office. He traveled to Panama where he visited the construction site, taking a turn at the steam shovel and removing dirt. The canal opened in 1914, permanently changing world trade and military defense patterns.
This timeline of the Panama Canal illustrates the efforts involved in both the French and U.S. canal projects.
THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY
With the construction of the canal now underway, Roosevelt next wanted to send a clear message to the rest of the world—and in particular to his European counterparts—that the colonization of the Western Hemisphere had now ended, and their interference in the countries there would no longer be tolerated. At the same time, he sent a message to his counterparts in Central and South America, should the United States see problems erupt in the region, that it would intervene in order to maintain peace and stability throughout the hemisphere.
Roosevelt articulated this seeming double standard in a 1904 address before Congress, in a speech that became known as the Roosevelt Corollary. The Roosevelt Corollary was based on the original Monroe Doctrine of the early nineteenth century, which warned European nations of the consequences of their interference in the Caribbean. In this addition, Roosevelt states that the United States would use military force “as an international police power” to correct any “chronic wrongdoing” by any Latin American nation that might threaten stability in the region. Unlike the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed an American policy of noninterference with its neighbors’ affairs, the Roosevelt Corollary loudly proclaimed the right and obligation of the United States to involve itself whenever necessary.
Roosevelt immediately began to put the new corollary to work. He used it to establish protectorates over Cuba and Panama, as well as to direct the United States to manage the Dominican Republic’s custom service revenues. Despite growing resentment from neighboring countries over American intervention in their internal affairs, as well as European concerns from afar, knowledge of Roosevelt’s previous actions in Colombia concerning acquisition of land upon which to build the Panama Canal left many fearful of American reprisals should they resist. Eventually, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt softened American rhetoric regarding U.S. domination of the Western Hemisphere, with the latter proclaiming a new “Good Neighbor Policy” that renounced American intervention in other nations’ affairs. However, subsequent presidents would continue to reference aspects of the Roosevelt Corollary to justify American involvement in Haiti, Nicaragua, and other nations throughout the twentieth century. The map below (Figure) shows the widespread effects of Roosevelt’s policies throughout Latin America.
The Roosevelt Corollary and Its Impact
In 1904, Roosevelt put the United States in the role of the “police power” of the Western Hemisphere and set a course for the U.S. relationship with Central and Latin America that played out over the next several decades. He did so with the Roosevelt Corollary, in which he stated:
It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save as such are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship. . . . Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however, reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.”
In the twenty years after he made this statement, the United States would use military force in Latin America over a dozen times. The Roosevelt Corollary was used as a rationale for American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries, straining relations between Central America and its dominant neighbor to the north throughout the twentieth century.
AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Although he supported the Open Door notes as an excellent economic policy in China, Roosevelt lamented the fact that the United States had no strong military presence in the region to enforce it. Clearly, without a military presence there, he could not as easily use his “big stick” threat credibly to achieve his foreign policy goals. As a result, when conflicts did arise on the other side of the Pacific, Roosevelt adopted a policy of maintaining a balance of power among the nations there. This was particularly evident when the Russo-Japanese War erupted in 1904.
In 1904, angered by the massing of Russian troops along the Manchurian border, and the threat it represented to the region, Japan launched a surprise naval attack upon the Russian fleet. Initially, Roosevelt supported the Japanese position. However, when the Japanese fleet quickly achieved victory after victory, Roosevelt grew concerned over the growth of Japanese influence in the region and the continued threat that it represented to China and American access to those markets (Figure). Wishing to maintain the aforementioned balance of power, in 1905, Roosevelt arranged for diplomats from both nations to attend a secret peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The resultant negotiations secured peace in the region, with Japan gaining control over Korea, several former Russian bases in Manchuria, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. These negotiations also garnered the Nobel Peace Prize for Roosevelt, the first American to receive the award.
When Japan later exercised its authority over its gains by forcing American business interests out of Manchuria in 1906–1907, Roosevelt felt he needed to invoke his “big stick” foreign policy, even though the distance was great. He did so by sending the U.S. Great White Fleet on maneuvers in the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force from December 1907 through February 1909. Publicly described as a goodwill tour, the message to the Japanese government regarding American interests was equally clear. Subsequent negotiations reinforced the Open Door policy throughout China and the rest of Asia. Roosevelt had, by both the judicious use of the “big stick” and his strategy of maintaining a balance of power, kept U.S. interests in Asia well protected.
Browse the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery to follow Theodore Roosevelt from Rough Rider to president and beyond.
Section Summary
When Roosevelt succeeded McKinley as president, he implemented a key strategy for building an American empire: the threat, rather than the outright use, of military force. McKinley had engaged the U.S. military in several successful skirmishes and then used the country’s superior industrial power to negotiate beneficial foreign trade agreements. Roosevelt, with his “big stick” policy, was able to keep the United States out of military conflicts by employing the legitimate threat of force. Nonetheless, as negotiations with Japan illustrated, the maintenance of an empire was fraught with complexity. Changing alliances, shifting economic needs, and power politics all meant that the United States would need to tread carefully to maintain its status as a world power.
Review Questions
How did Colombia react to the United States’ proposal to construct a canal through Central America?
- They preferred to build such a canal themselves.
- They preferred that no canal be built at all.
- They agreed to sell land to the United States to build the canal, but in a less advantageous location than the Panamanians.
- They felt that Roosevelt’s deal offered too little money.
Hint:
D
With the Roosevelt Corollary, Roosevelt sought to establish ________.
- the consequences for any European nation that involved itself in Latin American affairs
- the right of the United States to involve itself in Latin American affairs whenever necessary
- the idea that Latin America was free and independent from foreign intervention
- the need for further colonization efforts in the Western Hemisphere
Hint:
B
Compare Roosevelt’s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia. Why did he employ these different methods?
Hint:
Roosevelt’s strategy of “speaking softly and carrying a big stick” worked well in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly and easily act on any threat of military action. Roosevelt’s threat of force was therefore credible in that region, and he was able to wield it effectively. In Asia, however, the United States had less of a military presence. Instead, Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, wherein the various Asian countries kept each other in check and no single player grew too powerful. When the power balance tipped, Roosevelt acted to broker a peace deal between Russia and Japan as a means of restoring balance.
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Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy”
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how William Howard Taft used American economic power to protect the nation’s interests in its new empire
When William Howard Taft became president in 1909, he chose to adapt Roosevelt’s foreign policy philosophy to one that reflected American economic power at the time. In what became known as “dollar diplomacy,” Taft announced his decision to “substitute dollars for bullets” in an effort to use foreign policy to secure markets and opportunities for American businessmen (Figure). Not unlike Roosevelt’s threat of force, Taft used the threat of American economic clout to coerce countries into agreements to benefit the United States.
Of key interest to Taft was the debt that several Central American nations still owed to various countries in Europe. Fearing that the debt holders might use the monies owed as leverage to use military intervention in the Western Hemisphere, Taft moved quickly to pay off these debts with U.S. dollars. Of course, this move made the Central American countries indebted to the United States, a situation that not all nations wanted. When a Central American nation resisted this arrangement, however, Taft responded with military force to achieve the objective. This occurred in Nicaragua when the country refused to accept American loans to pay off its debt to Great Britain. Taft sent a warship with marines to the region to pressure the government to agree. Similarly, when Mexico considered the idea of allowing a Japanese corporation to gain significant land and economic advantages in its country, Taft urged Congress to pass the Lodge Corollary, an addendum to the Roosevelt Corollary, stating that no foreign corporation—other than American ones—could obtain strategic lands in the Western Hemisphere.
In Asia, Taft’s policies also followed those of Theodore Roosevelt. He attempted to bolster China’s ability to withstand Japanese interference and thereby maintain a balance of power in the region. Initially, he experienced tremendous success in working with the Chinese government to further develop the railroad industry in that country through arranging international financing. However, efforts to expand the Open Door policy deeper into Manchuria met with resistance from Russia and Japan, exposing the limits of the American government’s influence and knowledge about the intricacies of diplomacy. As a result, he reorganized the U.S. State Department to create geographical divisions (such as the Far East Division, the Latin American Division, etc.) in order to develop greater foreign policy expertise in each area.
Taft’s policies, although not as based on military aggression as his predecessors, did create difficulties for the United States, both at the time and in the future. Central America’s indebtedness would create economic concerns for decades to come, as well as foster nationalist movements in countries resentful of American’s interference. In Asia, Taft’s efforts to mediate between China and Japan served only to heighten tensions between Japan and the United States. Furthermore, it did not succeed in creating a balance of power, as Japan’s reaction was to further consolidate its power and reach throughout the region.
As Taft’s presidency came to a close in early 1913, the United States was firmly entrenched on its path towards empire. The world perceived the United States as the predominant power of the Western Hemisphere—a perception that few nations would challenge until the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. Likewise, the United States had clearly marked its interests in Asia, although it was still searching for an adequate approach to guard and foster them. The development of an American empire had introduced with it several new approaches to American foreign policy, from military intervention to economic coercion to the mere threat of force.
The playing field would change one year later in 1914 when the United States witnessed the unfolding of World War I, or “the Great War.” A new president would attempt to adopt a new approach to diplomacy—one that was well-intentioned but at times impractical. Despite Woodrow Wilson’s best efforts to the contrary, the United States would be drawn into the conflict and subsequently attempt to reshape the world order as a result.
Read this brief biography of President Taft to understand his foreign policy in the context of his presidency.
Section Summary
All around the globe, Taft sought to use U.S. economic might as a lever in foreign policy. He relied less on military action, or the threat of such action, than McKinley or Roosevelt before him; however, he both threatened and used military force when economic coercion proved unsuccessful, as it did in his bid to pay off Central America’s debts with U.S. dollars. In Asia, Taft tried to continue to support the balance of power, but his efforts backfired and alienated Japan. Increasing tensions between the United States and Japan would finally explode nearly thirty years later, with the outbreak of World War II.
Review Questions
Why did some Central American nations object to Taft’s paying off their debt to Europe with U.S. dollars?
- because American currency wasn’t worth as much as local currencies
- because they felt it gave the United States too much leverage
- because they were forced to give land grants to the United States in return
- because they wanted Asian countries to pay off their debts instead
Hint:
B
What two countries were engaged in a negotiation that the Lodge Corollary disallowed?
- Mexico and Japan
- Nicaragua and France
- Colombia and Japan
- Mexico and Spain
Hint:
A
What problems did Taft’s foreign policy create for the United States?
Hint:
Taft’s policies created some troubles that were immediate, and others that would not bear fruit until decades later. The tremendous debts in Central America created years of economic instability there and fostered nationalist movements driven by resentment of America’s interference in the region. In Asia, Taft’s efforts at China-Japan mediation heightened tensions between Japan and the United States—tensions that would explode, ultimately, with the outbreak of World War II—and spurred Japan to consolidate its power throughout the region.
Critical Thinking Questions
Describe the United States’ movement from isolationism to expansion-mindedness in the final decades of the nineteenth century. What ideas and philosophies underpinned this transformation?
What specific forces or interests transformed the relationship between the United States and the rest of the world between 1865 and 1890?
How did Taft’s “dollar diplomacy” differ from Roosevelt’s “big stick” policy? Was one approach more or less successful than the other? How so?
What economic and political conditions had to exist for Taft’s “dollar diplomacy” to be effective?
What factors conspired to propel the United States to emerge as a military and economic powerhouse prior to World War II?
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.467599
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15545/overview
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Introduction
Overview
- The Kennedy Promise
- Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society
- The Civil Rights Movement Marches On
- Challenging the Status Quo
The 1960s was a decade of hope, change, and war that witnessed an important shift in American culture. Citizens from all walks of life sought to expand the meaning of the American promise. Their efforts helped unravel the national consensus and laid bare a far more fragmented society. As a result, men and women from all ethnic groups attempted to reform American society to make it more equitable. The United States also began to take unprecedented steps to exert what it believed to be a positive influence on the world. At the same time, the country’s role in Vietnam revealed the limits of military power and the contradictions of U.S. foreign policy. The posthumous portrait of John F. Kennedy (Figure) captures this mix of the era’s promise and defeat. His election encouraged many to work for a better future, for both the middle class and the marginalized. Kennedy’s running mate, Lyndon B. Johnson, also envisioned a country characterized by the social and economic freedoms established during the New Deal years. Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, and the assassinations five years later of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, made it dramatically clear that not all Americans shared this vision of a more inclusive democracy.
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.482947
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15547/overview
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The Kennedy Promise
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Assess Kennedy’s Cold War strategy
- Describe Kennedy’s contribution to the civil rights movement
In the 1950s, President Dwight D. Eisenhower presided over a United States that prized conformity over change. Although change naturally occurred, as it does in every era, it was slow and greeted warily. By the 1960s, however, the pace of change had quickened and its scope broadened, as restive and energetic waves of World War II veterans and baby boomers of both sexes and all ethnicities began to make their influence felt politically, economically, and culturally. No one symbolized the hopes and energies of the new decade more than John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the nation’s new, young, and seemingly healthful, president. Kennedy had emphasized the country’s aspirations and challenges as a “new frontier” when accepting his party’s nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, California.
THE NEW FRONTIER
The son of Joseph P. Kennedy, a wealthy Boston business owner and former ambassador to Great Britain, John F. Kennedy graduated from Harvard University and went on to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1946. Even though he was young and inexperienced, his reputation as a war hero who had saved the crew of his PT boat after it was destroyed by the Japanese helped him to win election over more seasoned candidates, as did his father’s fortune. In 1952, he was elected to the U.S. Senate for the first of two terms. For many, including Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., a historian and member of Kennedy’s administration, Kennedy represented a bright, shining future in which the United States would lead the way in solving the most daunting problems facing the world.
Kennedy’s popular reputation as a great politician undoubtedly owes much to the style and attitude he personified. He and his wife Jacqueline conveyed a sense of optimism and youthfulness. “Jackie” was an elegant first lady who wore designer dresses, served French food in the White House, and invited classical musicians to entertain at state functions. “Jack” Kennedy, or JFK, went sailing off the coast of his family’s Cape Cod estate and socialized with celebrities (Figure). Few knew that behind Kennedy’s healthful and sporty image was a gravely ill man whose wartime injuries caused him daily agony.
Nowhere was Kennedy’s style more evident than in the first televised presidential debate held on September 23, 1960, between him and his Republican opponent Vice President Richard M. Nixon. Seventy million viewers watched the debate on television; millions more heard it on the radio. Radio listeners judged Nixon the winner, whereas those who watched the debate on television believed the more telegenic Kennedy made the better showing.
View television footage of the first Kennedy-Nixon debate at the JFK Presidential Library and Museum.
Kennedy did not appeal to all voters, however. Many feared that because he was Roman Catholic, his decisions would be influenced by the Pope. Even traditional Democratic supporters, like the head of the United Auto Workers, Walter Reuther, feared that a Catholic candidate would lose the support of Protestants. Many southern Democrats also disliked Kennedy because of his liberal position on civil rights. To shore up support for Kennedy in the South, Lyndon B. Johnson, the Protestant Texan who was Senate majority leader, was added to the Democratic ticket as the vice presidential candidate. In the end, Kennedy won the election by the closest margin since 1888, defeating Nixon with only 0.01 percent more of the record sixty-seven million votes cast. His victory in the Electoral College was greater: 303 electoral votes to Nixon’s 219. Kennedy’s win made him both the youngest man elected to the presidency and the first U.S. president born in the twentieth century.
Kennedy dedicated his inaugural address to the theme of a new future for the United States. “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country,” he challenged his fellow Americans. His lofty goals ranged from fighting poverty to winning the space race against the Soviet Union with a moon landing. He assembled an administration of energetic people assured of their ability to shape the future. Dean Rusk was named secretary of state. Robert McNamara, the former president of Ford Motor Company, became secretary of defense. Kennedy appointed his younger brother Robert as attorney general, much to the chagrin of many who viewed the appointment as a blatant example of nepotism.
Kennedy’s domestic reform plans remained hampered, however, by his narrow victory and lack of support from members of his own party, especially southern Democrats. As a result, he remained hesitant to propose new civil rights legislation. His achievements came primarily in poverty relief and care for the disabled. Unemployment benefits were expanded, the food stamps program was piloted, and the school lunch program was extended to more students. In October 1963, the passage of the Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act increased support for public mental health services.
KENNEDY THE COLD WARRIOR
Kennedy focused most of his energies on foreign policy, an arena in which he had been interested since his college years and in which, like all presidents, he was less constrained by the dictates of Congress. Kennedy, who had promised in his inaugural address to protect the interests of the “free world,” engaged in Cold War politics on a variety of fronts. For example, in response to the lead that the Soviets had taken in the space race when Yuri Gagarin became the first human to successfully orbit the earth, Kennedy urged Congress to not only put a man into space (Figure) but also land an American on the moon, a goal finally accomplished in 1969. This investment advanced a variety of military technologies, especially the nation’s long-range missile capability, resulting in numerous profitable spin-offs for the aviation and communication industries. It also funded a growing middle class of government workers, engineers, and defense contractors in states ranging from California to Texas to Florida—a region that would come to be known as the Sun Belt—becoming a symbol of American technological superiority. At the same time, however, the use of massive federal resources for space technologies did not change the economic outlook for low-income communities and underprivileged regions.
To counter Soviet influence in the developing world, Kennedy supported a variety of measures. One of these was the Alliance for Progress, which collaborated with the governments of Latin American countries to promote economic growth and social stability in nations whose populations might find themselves drawn to communism. Kennedy also established the Agency for International Development to oversee the distribution of foreign aid, and he founded the Peace Corps, which recruited idealistic young people to undertake humanitarian projects in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. He hoped that by augmenting the food supply and improving healthcare and education, the U.S. government could encourage developing nations to align themselves with the United States and reject Soviet or Chinese overtures. The first group of Peace Corps volunteers departed for the four corners of the globe in 1961, serving as an instrument of “soft power” in the Cold War.
Kennedy’s various aid projects, like the Peace Corps, fit closely with his administration’s flexible response, which Robert McNamara advocated as a better alternative to the all-or-nothing defensive strategy of mutually assured destruction favored during Eisenhower’s presidency. The plan was to develop different strategies, tactics, and even military capabilities to respond more appropriately to small or medium-sized insurgencies, and political or diplomatic crises. One component of flexible response was the Green Berets, a U.S. Army Special Forces unit trained in counterinsurgency—the military suppression of rebel and nationalist groups in foreign nations. Much of the Kennedy administration’s new approach to defense, however, remained focused on the ability and willingness of the United States to wage both conventional and nuclear warfare, and Kennedy continued to call for increases in the American nuclear arsenal.
Cuba
Kennedy’s multifaceted approach to national defense is exemplified by his careful handling of the Communist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba. In January 1959, following the overthrow of the corrupt and dictatorial regime of Fulgencio Batista, Castro assumed leadership of the new Cuban government. The progressive reforms he began indicated that he favored Communism, and his pro-Soviet foreign policy frightened the Eisenhower administration, which asked the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to find a way to remove him from power. Rather than have the U.S. military invade the small island nation, less than one hundred miles from Florida, and risk the world’s criticism, the CIA instead trained a small force of Cuban exiles for the job. After landing at the Bay of Pigs on the Cuban coast, these insurgents, the CIA believed, would inspire their countrymen to rise up and topple Castro’s regime. The United States also promised air support for the invasion.
Kennedy agreed to support the previous administration’s plans, and on April 17, 1961, approximately fourteen hundred Cuban exiles stormed ashore at the designated spot. However, Kennedy feared domestic criticism and worried about Soviet retaliation elsewhere in the world, such as Berlin. He cancelled the anticipated air support, which enabled the Cuban army to easily defeat the insurgents. The hoped-for uprising of the Cuban people also failed to occur. The surviving members of the exile army were taken into custody.
The Bay of Pigs invasion was a major foreign policy disaster for President Kennedy and highlighted Cuba’s military vulnerability to the Castro administration. The following year, the Soviet Union sent troops and technicians to Cuba to strengthen its new ally against further U.S. military plots. Then, on October 14, U.S. spy planes took aerial photographs that confirmed the presence of long-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The United States was now within easy reach of Soviet nuclear warheads (Figure).
On October 22, Kennedy demanded that Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev remove the missiles. He also ordered a naval quarantine placed around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from approaching. Despite his use of the word “quarantine” instead of “blockade,” for a blockade was considered an act of war, a potential war with the Soviet Union was nevertheless on the president’s mind. As U.S. ships headed for Cuba, the army was told to prepare for war, and Kennedy appeared on national television to declare his intention to defend the Western Hemisphere from Soviet aggression.
The world held its breath awaiting the Soviet reply. Realizing how serious the United States was, Khrushchev sought a peaceful solution to the crisis, overruling those in his government who urged a harder stance. Behind the scenes, Robert Kennedy and Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin worked toward a compromise that would allow both superpowers to back down without either side’s seeming intimidated by the other. On October 26, Khrushchev agreed to remove the Russian missiles in exchange for Kennedy’s promise not to invade Cuba. On October 27, Kennedy’s agreement was made public, and the crisis ended. Not made public, but nevertheless part of the agreement, was Kennedy’s promise to remove U.S. warheads from Turkey, as close to Soviet targets as the Cuban missiles had been to American ones.
The showdown between the United States and the Soviet Union over Cuba’s missiles had put the world on the brink of a nuclear war. Both sides already had long-range bombers with nuclear weapons airborne or ready for launch, and were only hours away from the first strike. In the long run, this nearly catastrophic example of nuclear brinksmanship ended up making the world safer. A telephone “hot line” was installed, linking Washington and Moscow to avert future crises, and in 1963, Kennedy and Khrushchev signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, prohibiting tests of nuclear weapons in Earth’s atmosphere.
Vietnam
Cuba was not the only arena in which the United States sought to contain the advance of Communism. In Indochina, nationalist independence movements, most notably Vietnam’s Viet Minh under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, had strong Communist sympathies. President Harry S. Truman had no love for France’s colonial regime in Southeast Asia but did not want to risk the loyalty of its Western European ally against the Soviet Union. In 1950, the Truman administration sent a small military advisory group to Vietnam and provided financial aid to help France defeat the Viet Minh.
In 1954, Vietnamese forces finally defeated the French, and the country was temporarily divided at the seventeenth parallel. Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh controlled the North. In the South, the last Vietnamese emperor and ally to France, Bao Dai, named the French-educated, anti-Communist Ngo Dinh Diem as his prime minister. But Diem refused to abide by the Geneva Accords, the treaty ending the conflict that called for countrywide national elections in 1956, with the victor to rule a reunified nation. After a fraudulent election in the South in 1955, he ousted Bao Dai and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. He cancelled the 1956 elections in the South and began to round up Communists and supporters of Ho Chi Minh.
Realizing that Diem would never agree to the reunification of the country under Ho Chi Minh’s leadership, the North Vietnamese began efforts to overthrow the government of the South by encouraging insurgents to attack South Vietnamese officials. By 1960, North Vietnam had also created the National Liberation Front (NLF) to resist Diem and carry out an insurgency in the South. The United States, fearing the spread of Communism under Ho Chi Minh, supported Diem, assuming he would create a democratic, pro-Western government in South Vietnam. However, Diem’s oppressive and corrupt government made him a very unpopular ruler, particularly with farmers, students, and Buddhists, and many in the South actively assisted the NLF and North Vietnam in trying to overthrow his government.
When Kennedy took office, Diem’s government was faltering. Continuing the policies of the Eisenhower administration, Kennedy supplied Diem with money and military advisors to prop up his government (Figure). By November 1963, there were sixteen thousand U.S. troops in Vietnam, training members of that country’s special forces and flying air missions that dumped defoliant chemicals on the countryside to expose North Vietnamese and NLF forces and supply routes. A few weeks before Kennedy’s own death, Diem and his brother Nhu were assassinated by South Vietnamese military officers after U.S. officials had indicated their support for a new regime.
TENTATIVE STEPS TOWARD CIVIL RIGHTS
Cold War concerns, which guided U.S. policy in Cuba and Vietnam, also motivated the Kennedy administration’s steps toward racial equality. Realizing that legal segregation and widespread discrimination hurt the country’s chances of gaining allies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the federal government increased efforts to secure the civil rights of African Americans in the 1960s. During his presidential campaign, Kennedy had intimated his support for civil rights, and his efforts to secure the release of civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., who was arrested following a demonstration, won him the African American vote. Lacking widespread backing in Congress, however, and anxious not to offend white southerners, Kennedy was cautious in assisting African Americans in their fight for full citizenship rights.
His strongest focus was on securing the voting rights of African Americans. Kennedy feared the loss of support from southern white Democrats and the impact a struggle over civil rights could have on his foreign policy agenda as well as on his reelection in 1964. But he thought voter registration drives far preferable to the boycotts, sit-ins, and integration marches that had generated such intense global media coverage in previous years. Encouraged by Congress’s passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which permitted federal courts to appoint referees to guarantee that qualified persons would be registered to vote, Kennedy focused on the passage of a constitutional amendment outlawing poll taxes, a tactic that southern states used to disenfranchise African American voters. Originally proposed by President Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights, the idea had been largely forgotten during Eisenhower’s time in office. Kennedy, however, revived it and convinced Spessard Holland, a conservative Florida senator, to introduce the proposed amendment in Congress. It passed both houses of Congress and was sent to the states for ratification in September 1962.
Kennedy also reacted to the demands of the civil rights movement for equality in education. For example, when African American student James Meredith, encouraged by Kennedy’s speeches, attempted to enroll at the segregated University of Mississippi in 1962, riots broke out on campus (Figure). The president responded by sending the U.S. Army and National Guard to Oxford, Mississippi, to support the U.S. Marshals that his brother Robert, the attorney general, had dispatched.
Following similar violence at the University of Alabama when two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, attempted to enroll in 1963, Kennedy responded with a bill that would give the federal government greater power to enforce school desegregation, prohibit segregation in public accommodations, and outlaw discrimination in employment. Kennedy would not live to see his bill enacted; it would become law during Lyndon Johnson’s administration as the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
TRAGEDY IN DALLAS
Although his stance on civil rights had won him support in the African American community and his steely performance during the Cuban Missile Crisis had led his overall popularity to surge, Kennedy understood that he had to solidify his base in the South to secure his reelection. On November 21, 1963, he accompanied Lyndon Johnson to Texas to rally his supporters. The next day, shots rang out as Kennedy’s motorcade made its way through the streets of Dallas. Seriously injured, Kennedy was rushed to Parkland Hospital and pronounced dead.
The gunfire that killed Kennedy appeared to come from the upper stories of the Texas School Book Depository building; later that day, Lee Harvey Oswald, an employee at the depository and a trained sniper, was arrested (Figure). Two days later, while being transferred from Dallas police headquarters to the county jail, Oswald was shot and killed by Jack Ruby, a local nightclub owner who claimed he acted to avenge the president.
Almost immediately, rumors began to circulate regarding the Kennedy assassination, and conspiracy theorists, pointing to the unlikely coincidence of Oswald’s murder a few days after Kennedy’s, began to propose alternate theories about the events. To quiet the rumors and allay fears that the government was hiding evidence, Lyndon Johnson, Kennedy’s successor, appointed a fact-finding commission headed by Earl Warren, chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to examine all the evidence and render a verdict. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone and there had been no conspiracy. The commission’s ruling failed to satisfy many, and multiple theories have sprung up over time. No credible evidence has ever been uncovered, however, to prove either that someone other than Oswald murdered Kennedy or that Oswald acted with co-conspirators.
Section Summary
The arrival of the Kennedys in the White House seemed to signal a new age of youth, optimism, and confidence. Kennedy spoke of a “new frontier” and promoted the expansion of programs to aid the poor, protect African Americans’ right to vote, and improve African Americans’ employment and education opportunities. For the most part, however, Kennedy focused on foreign policy and countering the threat of Communism—especially in Cuba, where he successfully defused the Cuban Missile Crisis, and in Vietnam, to which he sent advisors and troops to support the South Vietnamese government. The tragedy of Kennedy’s assassination in Dallas brought an early end to the era, leaving Americans to wonder whether his vice president and successor, Lyndon Johnson, would bring Kennedy’s vision for the nation to fruition.
Review Questions
The term Kennedy chose to describe his sealing off of Cuba to prevent Soviet shipments of weapons or supplies was ________.
- interdiction
- quarantine
- isolation
- blockade
Hint:
B
Kennedy proposed a constitutional amendment that would ________.
- provide healthcare for all Americans
- outlaw poll taxes
- make English the official language of the United States
- require all American men to register for the draft
Hint:
B
What steps did Kennedy take to combat Communism?
Hint:
Kennedy’s economic development programs, supported by the Peace Corps, were intended to reduce poverty in developing nations so their citizens would be less attracted to Communism. After the Bay of Pigs invasion failed to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro, Kennedy demanded that the Soviet Union remove intermediate-range missiles from Cuba. He also increased support for the anti-Communist government in South Vietnam and sent advisors and troops to train the South Vietnamese army.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.512819
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15548/overview
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Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the major accomplishments of Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society
- Identify the legal advances made in the area of civil rights
- Explain how Lyndon Johnson deepened the American commitment in Vietnam
On November 27, 1963, a few days after taking the oath of office, President Johnson addressed a joint session of Congress and vowed to accomplish the goals that John F. Kennedy had set and to expand the role of the federal government in securing economic opportunity and civil rights for all. Johnson brought to his presidency a vision of a Great Society in which everyone could share in the opportunities for a better life that the United States offered, and in which the words “liberty and justice for all” would have real meaning.
THE GREAT SOCIETY
In May 1964, in a speech at the University of Michigan, Lyndon Johnson described in detail his vision of the Great Society he planned to create (Figure). When the Eighty-Ninth Congress convened the following January, he and his supporters began their effort to turn the promise into reality. By combatting racial discrimination and attempting to eliminate poverty, the reforms of the Johnson administration changed the nation.
One of the chief pieces of legislation that Congress passed in 1965 was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Figure). Johnson, a former teacher, realized that a lack of education was the primary cause of poverty and other social problems. Educational reform was thus an important pillar of the society he hoped to build. This act provided increased federal funding to both elementary and secondary schools, allocating more than $1 billion for the purchase of books and library materials, and the creation of educational programs for disadvantaged children. The Higher Education Act, signed into law the same year, provided scholarships and low-interest loans for the poor, increased federal funding for colleges and universities, and created a corps of teachers to serve schools in impoverished areas.
Education was not the only area toward which Johnson directed his attention. Consumer protection laws were also passed that improved the safety of meat and poultry, placed warning labels on cigarette packages, required “truth in lending” by creditors, and set safety standards for motor vehicles. Funds were provided to improve public transportation and to fund high-speed mass transit. To protect the environment, the Johnson administration created laws protecting air and water quality, regulating the disposal of solid waste, preserving wilderness areas, and protecting endangered species. All of these laws fit within Johnson’s plan to make the United States a better place to live. Perhaps influenced by Kennedy’s commitment to the arts, Johnson also signed legislation creating the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities, which provided funding for artists and scholars. The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 authorized the creation of the private, not-for-profit Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which helped launch the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR) in 1970.
In 1965, the Johnson administration also encouraged Congress to pass the Immigration and Nationality Act, which essentially overturned legislation from the 1920s that had favored immigrants from western and northern Europe over those from eastern and southern Europe. The law lifted severe restrictions on immigration from Asia and gave preference to immigrants with family ties in the United States and immigrants with desirable skills. Although the measure seemed less significant than many of the other legislative victories of the Johnson administration at the time, it opened the door for a new era in immigration and made possible the formation of Asian and Latin American immigrant communities in the following decades.
While these laws touched on important aspects of the Great Society, the centerpiece of Johnson’s plan was the eradication of poverty in the United States. The war on poverty, as he termed it, was fought on many fronts. The 1965 Housing and Urban Development Act offered grants to improve city housing and subsidized rents for the poor. The Model Cities program likewise provided money for urban development projects and the building of public housing.
The Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964 established and funded a variety of programs to assist the poor in finding jobs. The Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), first administered by President Kennedy’s brother-in-law Sargent Shriver, coordinated programs such as the Jobs Corps and the Neighborhood Youth Corps, which provided job training programs and work experience for the disadvantaged. Volunteers in Service to America recruited people to offer educational programs and other community services in poor areas, just as the Peace Corps did abroad. The Community Action Program, also under the OEO, funded local Community Action Agencies, organizations created and managed by residents of disadvantaged communities to improve their own lives and those of their neighbors. The Head Start program, intended to prepare low-income children for elementary school, was also under the OEO until it was transferred to Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1969.
The EOA fought rural poverty by providing low-interest loans to those wishing to improve their farms or start businesses (Figure). EOA funds were also used to provide housing and education for migrant farm workers. Other legislation created jobs in Appalachia, one of the poorest regions in the United States, and brought programs to Indian reservations. One of EOA’s successes was the Rough Rock Demonstration School on the Navajo Reservation that, while respecting Navajo traditions and culture, also trained people for careers and jobs outside the reservation.
The Johnson administration, realizing the nation’s elderly were among its poorest and most disadvantaged citizens, passed the Social Security Act of 1965. The most profound change made by this act was the creation of Medicare, a program to pay the medical expenses of those over sixty-five. Although opposed by the American Medical Association, which feared the creation of a national healthcare system, the new program was supported by most citizens because it would benefit all social classes, not just the poor. The act and subsequent amendments to it also provided coverage for self-employed people in certain occupations and expanded the number of disabled who qualified for benefits. The following year, the Medicaid program allotted federal funds to pay for medical care for the poor.
JOHNSON’S COMMITMENT TO CIVIL RIGHTS
The eradication of poverty was matched in importance by the Great Society’s advancement of civil rights. Indeed, the condition of the poor could not be alleviated if racial discrimination limited their access to jobs, education, and housing. Realizing this, Johnson drove the long-awaited civil rights act, proposed by Kennedy in June 1963 in the wake of riots at the University of Alabama, through Congress. Under Kennedy’s leadership, the bill had passed the House of Representatives but was stalled in the Senate by a filibuster. Johnson, a master politician, marshaled his considerable personal influence and memories of his fallen predecessor to break the filibuster. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, the most far-reaching civil rights act yet passed by Congress, banned discrimination in public accommodations, sought to aid schools in efforts to desegregate, and prohibited federal funding of programs that permitted racial segregation. Further, it barred discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, or gender, and established an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
Protecting African Americans’ right to vote was as important as ending racial inequality in the United States. In January 1964, the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, prohibiting the imposition of poll taxes on voters, was finally ratified. Poverty would no longer serve as an obstacle to voting. Other impediments remained, however. Attempts to register southern African American voters encountered white resistance, and protests against this interference often met with violence. On March 7, 1965, a planned protest march from Selma, Alabama, to the state capitol in Montgomery, turned into “Bloody Sunday” when marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge encountered a cordon of state police, wielding batons and tear gas (Figure). Images of white brutality appeared on television screens throughout the nation and in newspapers around the world.
Deeply disturbed by the violence in Alabama and the refusal of Governor George Wallace to address it, Johnson introduced a bill in Congress that would remove obstacles for African American voters and lend federal support to their cause. His proposal, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, prohibited states and local governments from passing laws that discriminated against voters on the basis of race (Figure). Literacy tests and other barriers to voting that had kept ethnic minorities from the polls were thus outlawed. Following the passage of the act, a quarter of a million African Americans registered to vote, and by 1967, the majority of African Americans had done so. Johnson’s final piece of civil rights legislation was the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which prohibited discrimination in housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, or religion.
INCREASED COMMITMENT IN VIETNAM
Building the Great Society had been Lyndon Johnson’s biggest priority, and he effectively used his decades of experience in building legislative majorities in a style that ranged from diplomacy to quid pro quo deals to bullying. In the summer of 1964, he deployed these political skills to secure congressional approval for a new strategy in Vietnam—with fateful consequences.
President Johnson had never been the cold warrior Kennedy was, but believed that the credibility of the nation and his office depended on maintaining a foreign policy of containment. When, on August 2, the U.S. destroyer USS Maddox conducted an arguably provocative intelligence-gathering mission in the gulf of Tonkin, it reported an attack by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Two days later, the Maddox was supposedly struck again, and a second ship, the USS Turner Joy, reported that it also had been fired upon. The North Vietnamese denied the second attack, and Johnson himself doubted the reliability of the crews’ report. The National Security Agency has since revealed that the August 4 attacks did not occur. Relying on information available at the time, however, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara reported to Congress that U.S. ships had been fired upon in international waters while conducting routine operations. On August 7, with only two dissenting votes, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, and on August 10, the president signed the resolution into law. The resolution gave President Johnson the authority to use military force in Vietnam without asking Congress for a declaration of war. It dramatically increased the power of the U.S. president and transformed the American role in Vietnam from advisor to combatant.
In 1965, large-scale U.S. bombing of North Vietnam began. The intent of the campaign, which lasted three years under various names, was to force the North to end its support for the insurgency in the South. More than 200,000 U.S. military personnel, including combat troops, were sent to South Vietnam. At first, most of the American public supported the president’s actions in Vietnam. Support began to ebb, however, as more troops were deployed. Frustrated by losses suffered by the South’s Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), General William Westmoreland called for the United States to take more responsibility for fighting the war. By April 1966, more Americans were being killed in battle than ARVN troops. Johnson, however, maintained that the war could be won if the United States stayed the course, and in November 1967, Westmoreland proclaimed the end was in sight.
To hear one soldier’s story about his time in Vietnam, listen to Sergeant Charles G. Richardson’s recollections of his experience on the ground and his reflections on his military service.
Westmoreland’s predictions were called into question, however, when in January 1968, the North Vietnamese launched their most aggressive assault on the South, deploying close to eighty-five thousand troops. During the Tet Offensive, as these attacks were known, nearly one hundred cities in the South were attacked, including the capital of Saigon (Figure). In heavy fighting, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces recaptured all the points taken by the enemy.
Although North Vietnamese forces suffered far more casualties than the roughly forty-one hundred U.S. soldiers killed, public opinion in the United States, fueled by graphic images provided in unprecedented media coverage, turned against the war. Disastrous surprise attacks like the Tet Offensive persuaded many that the war would not be over soon and raised doubts about whether Johnson’s administration was telling the truth about the real state of affairs. In May 1968, with over 400,000 U.S. soldiers in Vietnam, Johnson began peace talks with the North.
It was too late to save Johnson himself, however. Many of the most outspoken critics of the war were Democratic politicians whose opposition began to erode unity within the party. Minnesota senator Eugene McCarthy, who had called for an end to the war and the withdrawal of troops from Vietnam, received nearly as many votes in the New Hampshire presidential primary as Johnson did, even though he had been expected to fare very poorly. McCarthy’s success in New Hampshire encouraged Robert Kennedy to announce his candidacy as well. Johnson, suffering health problems and realizing his actions in Vietnam had hurt his public standing, announced that he would not seek reelection and withdrew from the 1968 presidential race.
THE END OF THE GREAT SOCIETY
Perhaps the greatest casualty of the nation’s war in Vietnam was the Great Society. As the war escalated, the money spent to fund it also increased, leaving less to pay for the many social programs Johnson had created to lift Americans out of poverty. Johnson knew he could not achieve his Great Society while spending money to wage the war. He was unwilling to withdraw from Vietnam, however, for fear that the world would perceive this action as evidence of American failure and doubt the ability of the United States to carry out its responsibilities as a superpower.
Vietnam doomed the Great Society in other ways as well. Dreams of racial harmony suffered, as many African Americans, angered by the failure of Johnson’s programs to alleviate severe poverty in the inner cities, rioted in frustration. Their anger was heightened by the fact that a disproportionate number of African Americans were fighting and dying in Vietnam. Nearly two-thirds of eligible African Americans were drafted, whereas draft deferments for college, exemptions for skilled workers in the military industrial complex, and officer training programs allowed white middle-class youth to either avoid the draft or volunteer for a military branch of their choice. As a result, less than one-third of white men were drafted.
Although the Great Society failed to eliminate suffering or increase civil rights to the extent that Johnson wished, it made a significant difference in people’s lives. By the end of Johnson’s administration, the percentage of people living below the poverty line had been cut nearly in half. While more people of color than whites continued to live in poverty, the percentage of poor African Americans had decreased dramatically. The creation of Medicare and Medicaid as well as the expansion of Social Security benefits and welfare payments improved the lives of many, while increased federal funding for education enabled more people to attend college than ever before. Conservative critics argued that, by expanding the responsibilities of the federal government to care for the poor, Johnson had hurt both taxpayers and the poor themselves. Aid to the poor, many maintained, would not only fail to solve the problem of poverty but would also encourage people to become dependent on government “handouts” and lose their desire and ability to care for themselves—an argument that many found intuitively compelling but which lacked conclusive evidence. These same critics also accused Johnson of saddling the United States with a large debt as a result of the deficit spending (funded by borrowing) in which he had engaged.
Section Summary
Lyndon Johnson began his administration with dreams of fulfilling his fallen predecessor’s civil rights initiative and accomplishing his own plans to improve lives by eradicating poverty in the United States. His social programs, investments in education, support for the arts, and commitment to civil rights changed the lives of countless people and transformed society in many ways. However, Johnson’s insistence on maintaining American commitments in Vietnam, a policy begun by his predecessors, hurt both his ability to realize his vision of the Great Society and his support among the American people.
Review Questions
________ was Johnson’s program to provide federal funding for healthcare for the poor.
- Medicare
- Social Security
- Medicaid
- AFDC
Hint:
C
Many Americans began to doubt that the war in Vietnam could be won following ________.
- Khe Sanh
- Dien Bien Phu
- the Tonkin Gulf incident
- the Tet Offensive
Hint:
D
How did the actions of the Johnson administration improve the lives of African Americans?
Hint:
The social programs of the Great Society, such as Medicaid, job training programs, and rent subsidies, helped many poor African Americans. All African American citizens were aided by the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended discrimination in employment and prohibited segregation in public accommodations; the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which prohibited literacy tests and other racially discriminatory restrictions on voting; and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which outlawed discrimination in housing.
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The Civil Rights Movement Marches On
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the strategies of the African American civil rights movement in the 1960s
- Discuss the rise and philosophy of Black Power
- Identify achievements of the Mexican American civil rights movement in the 1960s
During the 1960s, the federal government, encouraged by both genuine concern for the dispossessed and the realities of the Cold War, had increased its efforts to protect civil rights and ensure equal economic and educational opportunities for all. However, most of the credit for progress toward racial equality in the Unites States lies with grassroots activists. Indeed, it was campaigns and demonstrations by ordinary people that spurred the federal government to action. Although the African American civil rights movement was the most prominent of the crusades for racial justice, other ethnic minorities also worked to seize their piece of the American dream during the promising years of the 1960s. Many were influenced by the African American cause and often used similar tactics.
CHANGE FROM THE BOTTOM UP
For many people inspired by the victories of Brown v. Board of Education and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the glacial pace of progress in the segregated South was frustrating if not intolerable. In some places, such as Greensboro, North Carolina, local NAACP chapters had been influenced by whites who provided financing for the organization. This aid, together with the belief that more forceful efforts at reform would only increase white resistance, had persuaded some African American organizations to pursue a “politics of moderation” instead of attempting to radically alter the status quo. Martin Luther King Jr.’s inspirational appeal for peaceful change in the city of Greensboro in 1958, however, planted the seed for a more assertive civil rights movement.
On February 1, 1960, four sophomores at the North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College in Greensboro—Ezell Blair, Jr., Joseph McNeil, David Richmond, and Franklin McCain—entered the local Woolworth’s and sat at the lunch counter. The lunch counter was segregated, and they were refused service as they knew they would be. They had specifically chosen Woolworth’s, because it was a national chain and was thus believed to be especially vulnerable to negative publicity. Over the next few days, more protesters joined the four sophomores. Hostile whites responded with threats and taunted the students by pouring sugar and ketchup on their heads. The successful six-month-long Greensboro sit-in initiated the student phase of the African American civil rights movement and, within two months, the sit-in movement had spread to fifty-four cities in nine states (Figure).
In the words of grassroots civil rights activist Ella Baker, the students at Woolworth’s wanted more than a hamburger; the movement they helped launch was about empowerment. Baker pushed for a “participatory Democracy” that built on the grassroots campaigns of active citizens instead of deferring to the leadership of educated elites and experts. As a result of her actions, in April 1960, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) formed to carry the battle forward. Within a year, more than one hundred cities had desegregated at least some public accommodations in response to student-led demonstrations. The sit-ins inspired other forms of nonviolent protest intended to desegregate public spaces. “Sleep-ins” occupied motel lobbies, “read-ins” filled public libraries, and churches became the sites of “pray-ins.”
Students also took part in the 1961 “freedom rides” sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and SNCC. The intent of the African American and white volunteers who undertook these bus rides south was to test enforcement of a U.S. Supreme Court decision prohibiting segregation on interstate transportation and to protest segregated waiting rooms in southern terminals. Departing Washington, DC, on May 4, the volunteers headed south on buses that challenged the seating order of Jim Crow segregation. Whites would ride in the back, African-Americans would sit in the front, and on other occasions, riders of different races would share the same bench seat. The freedom riders encountered little difficulty until they reached Rock Hill, South Carolina, where a mob severely beat John Lewis, a freedom rider who later became chairman of SNCC (Figure). The danger increased as the riders continued through Georgia into Alabama, where one of the two buses was firebombed outside the town of Anniston. The second group continued to Birmingham, where the riders were attacked by the Ku Klux Klan as they attempted to disembark at the city bus station. The remaining volunteers continued to Mississippi, where they were arrested when they attempted to desegregate the waiting rooms in the Jackson bus terminal.
FREE BY ’63 (OR ’64 OR ’65)
The grassroots efforts of people like the Freedom Riders to change discriminatory laws and longstanding racist traditions grew more widely known in the mid-1960s. The approaching centennial of Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation spawned the slogan “Free by ’63” among civil rights activists. As African Americans increased their calls for full rights for all Americans, many civil rights groups changed their tactics to reflect this new urgency.
Perhaps the most famous of the civil rights-era demonstrations was the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held in August 1963, on the one hundredth anniversary of Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation. Its purpose was to pressure President Kennedy to act on his promises regarding civil rights. The date was the eighth anniversary of the brutal racist murder of fourteen-year-old Emmett Till in Money, Mississippi. As the crowd gathered outside the Lincoln Memorial and spilled across the National Mall (Figure), Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his most famous speech. In “I Have a Dream,” King called for an end to racial injustice in the United States and envisioned a harmonious, integrated society. The speech marked the high point of the civil rights movement and established the legitimacy of its goals. However, it did not prevent white terrorism in the South, nor did it permanently sustain the tactics of nonviolent civil disobedience.
Other gatherings of civil rights activists ended tragically, and some demonstrations were intended to provoke a hostile response from whites and thus reveal the inhumanity of the Jim Crow laws and their supporters. In 1963, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) led by Martin Luther King, Jr. mounted protests in some 186 cities throughout the South. The campaign in Birmingham that began in April and extended into the fall of 1963 attracted the most notice, however, when a peaceful protest was met with violence by police, who attacked demonstrators, including children, with fire hoses and dogs. The world looked on in horror as innocent people were assaulted and thousands arrested. King himself was jailed on Easter Sunday, 1963, and, in response to the pleas of white clergymen for peace and patience, he penned one of the most significant documents of the struggle—“Letter from a Birmingham Jail.” In the letter, King argued that African Americans had waited patiently for more than three hundred years to be given the rights that all human beings deserved; the time for waiting was over.
Letter from a Birmingham Jail
By 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. had become one of the most prominent leaders of the civil rights movement, and he continued to espouse nonviolent civil disobedience as a way of registering African American resistance against unfair, discriminatory, and racist laws and behaviors. While the campaign in Birmingham began with an African American boycott of white businesses to end discrimination in employment practices and public segregation, it became a fight over free speech when King was arrested for violating a local injunction against demonstrations. King wrote his “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” in response to an op-ed by eight white Alabama clergymen who complained about the SCLC’s fiery tactics and argued that social change needed to be pursued gradually. The letter criticizes those who did not support the cause of civil rights:
In spite of my shattered dreams of the past, I came to Birmingham with the hope that the white religious leadership in the community would see the justice of our cause and, with deep moral concern, serve as the channel through which our just grievances could get to the power structure. I had hoped that each of you would understand. But again I have been disappointed. I have heard numerous religious leaders of the South call upon their worshippers to comply with a desegregation decision because it is the law, but I have longed to hear white ministers say follow this decree because integration is morally right and the Negro is your brother. In the midst of blatant injustices inflicted upon the Negro, I have watched white churches stand on the sideline and merely mouth pious irrelevancies and sanctimonious trivialities. In the midst of a mighty struggle to rid our nation of racial and economic injustice, I have heard so many ministers say, “Those are social issues with which the Gospel has no real concern,” and I have watched so many churches commit themselves to a completely other-worldly religion which made a strange distinction between body and soul, the sacred and the secular.
Since its publication, the “Letter” has become one of the most cogent, impassioned, and succinct statements of the aspirations of the civil rights movement and the frustration over the glacial pace of progress in achieving justice and equality for all Americans.
What civil rights tactics raised the objections of the white clergymen King addressed in his letter? Why?
Some of the greatest violence during this era was aimed at those who attempted to register African Americans to vote. In 1964, SNCC, working with other civil rights groups, initiated its Mississippi Summer Project, also known as Freedom Summer. The purpose was to register African American voters in one of the most racist states in the nation. Volunteers also built “freedom schools” and community centers. SNCC invited hundreds of white middle-class students, mostly from the North, to help in the task. Many volunteers were harassed, beaten, and arrested, and African American homes and churches were burned. Three civil rights workers, James Chaney, Michael Schwerner, and Andrew Goodman, were killed by the Ku Klux Klan. That summer, civil rights activists Fannie Lou Hamer, Ella Baker, and Robert Parris Moses formally organized the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) as an alternative to the all-white Mississippi Democratic Party. The Democratic National Convention’s organizers, however, would allow only two MFDP delegates to be seated, and they were confined to the roles of nonvoting observers.
The vision of whites and African Americans working together peacefully to end racial injustice suffered a severe blow with the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee, in April 1968. King had gone there to support sanitation workers trying to unionize. In the city, he found a divided civil rights movement; older activists who supported his policy of nonviolence were being challenged by younger African Americans who advocated a more militant approach. On April 4, King was shot and killed while standing on the balcony of his motel. Within hours, the nation’s cities exploded with violence as angry African Americans, shocked by his murder, burned and looted inner-city neighborhoods across the country (Figure). While whites recoiled from news about the riots in fear and dismay, they also criticized African Americans for destroying their own neighborhoods; they did not realize that most of the violence was directed against businesses that were not owned by blacks and that treated African American customers with suspicion and hostility.
BLACK FRUSTRATION, BLACK POWER
The episodes of violence that accompanied Martin Luther King Jr.’s murder were but the latest in a string of urban riots that had shaken the United States since the mid-1960s. Between 1964 and 1968, there were 329 riots in 257 cities across the nation. In 1964, riots broke out in Harlem and other African American neighborhoods. In 1965, a traffic stop set in motion a chain of events that culminated in riots in Watts, an African American neighborhood in Los Angeles. Thousands of businesses were destroyed, and, by the time the violence ended, thirty-four people were dead, most of them African Americans killed by the Los Angeles police and the National Guard. More riots took place in 1966 and 1967.
Frustration and anger lay at the heart of these disruptions. Despite the programs of the Great Society, good healthcare, job opportunities, and safe housing were abysmally lacking in urban African American neighborhoods in cities throughout the country, including in the North and West, where discrimination was less overt but just as crippling. In the eyes of many rioters, the federal government either could not or would not end their suffering, and most existing civil rights groups and their leaders had been unable to achieve significant results toward racial justice and equality. Disillusioned, many African Americans turned to those with more radical ideas about how best to obtain equality and justice.
Watch “Troops Patrol L.A.” to see how the 1965 Watts Riots were presented in newsreel footage of the day.
Within the chorus of voices calling for integration and legal equality were many that more stridently demanded empowerment and thus supported Black Power. Black Power meant a variety of things. One of the most famous users of the term was Stokely Carmichael, the chairman of SNCC, who later changed his name to Kwame Ture. For Carmichael, Black Power was the power of African Americans to unite as a political force and create their own institutions apart from white-dominated ones, an idea first suggested in the 1920s by political leader and orator Marcus Garvey. Like Garvey, Carmichael became an advocate of black separatism, arguing that African Americans should live apart from whites and solve their problems for themselves. In keeping with this philosophy, Carmichael expelled SNCC’s white members. He left SNCC in 1967 and later joined the Black Panthers (see below).
Long before Carmichael began to call for separatism, the Nation of Islam, founded in 1930, had advocated the same thing. In the 1960s, its most famous member was Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little (Figure). The Nation of Islam advocated the separation of white Americans and African Americans because of a belief that African Americans could not thrive in an atmosphere of white racism. Indeed, in a 1963 interview, Malcolm X, discussing the teachings of the head of the Nation of Islam in America, Elijah Muhammad, referred to white people as “devils” more than a dozen times. Rejecting the nonviolent strategy of other civil rights activists, he maintained that violence in the face of violence was appropriate.
In 1964, after a trip to Africa, Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam to found the Organization of Afro-American Unity with the goal of achieving freedom, justice, and equality “by any means necessary.” His views regarding black-white relations changed somewhat thereafter, but he remained fiercely committed to the cause of African American empowerment. On February 21, 1965, he was killed by members of the Nation of Islam. Stokely Carmichael later recalled that Malcolm X had provided an intellectual basis for Black Nationalism and given legitimacy to the use of violence in achieving the goals of Black Power.
The New Negro
In a roundtable conversation in October 1961, Malcolm X suggested that a “New Negro” was coming to the fore. The term and concept of a “New Negro” arose during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and was revived during the civil rights movements of the 1960s.
“I think there is a new so-called Negro. We don’t recognize the term ‘Negro’ but I really believe that there’s a new so-called Negro here in America. He not only is impatient. Not only is he dissatisfied, not only is he disillusioned, but he’s getting very angry. And whereas the so-called Negro in the past was willing to sit around and wait for someone else to change his condition or correct his condition, there’s a growing tendency on the part of a vast number of so-called Negroes today to take action themselves, not to sit and wait for someone else to correct the situation. This, in my opinion, is primarily what has produced this new Negro. He is not willing to wait. He thinks that what he wants is right, what he wants is just, and since these things are just and right, it’s wrong to sit around and wait for someone else to correct a nasty condition when they get ready.”
In what ways were Martin Luther King, Jr. and the members of SNCC “New Negroes?”
Unlike Stokely Carmichael and the Nation of Islam, most Black Power advocates did not believe African Americans needed to separate themselves from white society. The Black Panther Party, founded in 1966 in Oakland, California, by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton, believed African Americans were as much the victims of capitalism as of white racism. Accordingly, the group espoused Marxist teachings, and called for jobs, housing, and education, as well as protection from police brutality and exemption from military service in their Ten Point Program. The Black Panthers also patrolled the streets of African American neighborhoods to protect residents from police brutality, yet sometimes beat and murdered those who did not agree with their cause and tactics. Their militant attitude and advocacy of armed self-defense attracted many young men but also led to many encounters with the police, which sometimes included arrests and even shootouts, such as those that took place in Los Angeles, Chicago and Carbondale, Illinois.
The self-empowerment philosophy of Black Power influenced mainstream civil rights groups such as the National Economic Growth Reconstruction Organization (NEGRO), which sold bonds and operated a clothing factory and construction company in New York, and the Opportunities Industrialization Center in Philadelphia, which provided job training and placement—by 1969, it had branches in seventy cities. Black Power was also part of a much larger process of cultural change. The 1960s composed a decade not only of Black Power but also of Black Pride. African American abolitionist John S. Rock had coined the phrase “Black Is Beautiful” in 1858, but in the 1960s, it became an important part of efforts within the African American community to raise self-esteem and encourage pride in African ancestry. Black Pride urged African Americans to reclaim their African heritage and, to promote group solidarity, to substitute African and African-inspired cultural practices, such as handshakes, hairstyles, and dress, for white practices. One of the many cultural products of this movement was the popular television music program Soul Train, created by Don Cornelius in 1969, which celebrated black culture and aesthetics (Figure).
THE MEXICAN AMERICAN FIGHT FOR CIVIL RIGHTS
The African American bid for full citizenship was surely the most visible of the battles for civil rights taking place in the United States. However, other minority groups that had been legally discriminated against or otherwise denied access to economic and educational opportunities began to increase efforts to secure their rights in the 1960s. Like the African American movement, the Mexican American civil rights movement won its earliest victories in the federal courts. In 1947, in Mendez v. Westminster, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that segregating children of Hispanic descent was unconstitutional. In 1954, the same year as Brown v. Board of Education, Mexican Americans prevailed in Hernandez v. Texas, when the U.S. Supreme Court extended the protections of the Fourteenth Amendment to all ethnic groups in the United States.
The highest-profile struggle of the Mexican American civil rights movement was the fight that Caesar Chavez (Figure) and Dolores Huerta waged in the fields of California to organize migrant farm workers. In 1962, Chavez and Huerta founded the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA). In 1965, when Filipino grape pickers led by Filipino American Larry Itliong went on strike to call attention to their plight, Chavez lent his support. Workers organized by the NFWA also went on strike, and the two organizations merged to form the United Farm Workers. When Chavez asked American consumers to boycott grapes, politically conscious people around the country heeded his call, and many unionized longshoremen refused to unload grape shipments. In 1966, Chavez led striking workers to the state capitol in Sacramento, further publicizing the cause. Martin Luther King, Jr. telegraphed words of encouragement to Chavez, whom he called a “brother.” The strike ended in 1970 when California farmers recognized the right of farm workers to unionize. However, the farm workers did not gain all they sought, and the larger struggle did not end.
The equivalent of the Black Power movement among Mexican Americans was the Chicano Movement. Proudly adopting a derogatory term for Mexican Americans, Chicano activists demanded increased political power for Mexican Americans, education that recognized their cultural heritage, and the restoration of lands taken from them at the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848. One of the founding members, Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales, launched the Crusade for Justice in Denver in 1965, to provide jobs, legal services, and healthcare for Mexican Americans. From this movement arose La Raza Unida, a political party that attracted many Mexican American college students. Elsewhere, Reies López Tijerina fought for years to reclaim lost and illegally expropriated ancestral lands in New Mexico; he was one of the co-sponsors of the Poor People’s March on Washington in 1967.
Section Summary
The African American civil rights movement made significant progress in the 1960s. While Congress played a role by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, the actions of civil rights groups such as CORE, the SCLC, and SNCC were instrumental in forging new paths, pioneering new techniques and strategies, and achieving breakthrough successes. Civil rights activists engaged in sit-ins, freedom rides, and protest marches, and registered African American voters. Despite the movement’s many achievements, however, many grew frustrated with the slow pace of change, the failure of the Great Society to alleviate poverty, and the persistence of violence against African Americans, particularly the tragic 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Many African Americans in the mid- to late 1960s adopted the ideology of Black Power, which promoted their work within their own communities to redress problems without the aid of whites. The Mexican American civil rights movement, led largely by Cesar Chavez, also made significant progress at this time. The emergence of the Chicano Movement signaled Mexican Americans’ determination to seize their political power, celebrate their cultural heritage, and demand their citizenship rights.
Review Questions
The new protest tactic against segregation used by students in Greensboro, North Carolina, in 1960 was the ________.
- boycott
- guerilla theater
- teach-in
- sit-in
Hint:
D
The African American group that advocated the use of violence and espoused a Marxist ideology was called ________.
- the Black Panthers
- the Nation of Islam
- SNCC
- CORE
Hint:
A
Who founded the Crusade for Justice in Denver, Colorado in 1965?
- Reies Lopez Tijerina
- Dolores Huerta
- Larry Itliong
- Rodolfo Gonzales
Hint:
D
How did the message of Black Power advocates differ from that of more mainstream civil rights activists such as Martin Luther King, Jr.?
Hint:
King and his followers strove for racial integration and the political inclusion of African Americans. They also urged for the use of nonviolent tactics to achieve their goals. Black Power advocates, in contrast, believed that African Americans should seek solutions without the aid of whites. Many also promoted black separatism and accepted the use of violence.
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Challenging the Status Quo
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the goals and activities of SDS, the Free Speech Movement, and the antiwar movement
- Explain the rise, goals, and activities of the women’s movement
By the 1960s, a generation of white Americans raised in prosperity and steeped in the culture of conformity of the 1950s had come of age. However, many of these baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) rejected the conformity and luxuries that their parents had provided. These young, middle-class Americans, especially those fortunate enough to attend college when many of their working-class and African American contemporaries were being sent to Vietnam, began to organize to fight for their own rights and end the war that was claiming the lives of so many.
THE NEW LEFT
By 1960, about one-third of the U.S. population was living in the suburbs; during the 1960s, the average family income rose by 33 percent. Material culture blossomed, and at the end of the decade, 70 percent of American families owned washing machines, 83 percent had refrigerators or freezers, and almost 80 percent had at least one car. Entertainment occupied a larger part of both working- and middle-class leisure hours. By 1960, American consumers were spending $85 billion a year on entertainment, double the spending of the preceding decade; by 1969, about 79 percent of American households had black-and-white televisions, and 31 percent could afford color sets. Movies and sports were regular aspects of the weekly routine, and the family vacation became an annual custom for both the middle and working class.
Meanwhile, baby boomers, many raised in this environment of affluence, streamed into universities across the nation in unprecedented numbers looking to “find” themselves. Instead, they found traditional systems that forced them to take required courses, confined them to rigid programs of study, and surrounded them with rules limiting what they could do in their free time. These young people were only too willing to take up Kennedy’s call to action, and many did so by joining the civil rights movement. To them, it seemed only right for the children of the “greatest generation” to help those less privileged to fight battles for justice and equality. The more radical aligned themselves with the New Left, activists of the 1960s who rejected the staid liberalism of the Democratic Party. New Left organizations sought reform in areas such as civil rights and women’s rights, campaigned for free speech and more liberal policies toward drug use, and condemned the war in Vietnam.
One of the most prominent New Left groups was Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Organized in 1960, SDS held its first meeting at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Its philosophy was expressed in its manifesto, the Port Huron Statement, written by Tom Hayden and adopted in 1962, affirming the group’s dedication to fighting economic inequality and discrimination. It called for greater participation in the democratic process by ordinary people, advocated civil disobedience, and rejected the anti-Communist position held by most other groups committed to social reform in the United States.
Read the full text of the Port Huron Statement by Tom Hayden.
SDS members demanded that universities allow more student participation in university governance and shed their entanglements with the military-industrial complex. They sought to rouse the poor to political action to defeat poverty and racism. In the summer of 1964, a small group of SDS members moved into the uptown district of Chicago and tried to take on racism and poverty through community organization. Under the umbrella of their Economic Research and Action Project, they created JOIN (Jobs or Income Now) to address problems of urban poverty and resisted plans to displace the poor under the guise of urban renewal. They also called for police review boards to end police brutality, organized free breakfast programs, and started social and recreational clubs for neighborhood youth. Eventually, the movement fissured over whether to remain a campus-based student organization or a community-based development organization.
During the same time that SDS became active in Chicago, another student movement emerged on the West Coast, when actions by student activists at the University of California, Berkeley, led to the formation of Berkeley’s Free Speech Movement in 1964. University rules prohibited the solicitation of funds for political causes by anyone other than members of the student Democratic and Republican organizations, and restricted advocacy of political causes on campus. In October 1964, when a student handing out literature for CORE refused to show campus police officers his student ID card, he was promptly arrested. Instantly, the campus police car was surrounded by angry students, who refused to let the vehicle move for thirty-two hours until the student was released. In December, students organized a massive sit-in to resolve the issue of political activities on campus. While unsuccessful in the short term, the movement inspired student activism on campuses throughout the country.
A target of many student groups was the war in Vietnam (Figure). In April 1965, SDS organized a march on Washington for peace; about twenty thousand people attended. That same week, the faculty at the University of Michigan suspended classes and conducted a 24-hour “teach-in” on the war. The idea quickly spread, and on May 15, the first national “teach-in” was held at 122 colleges and universities across the nation. Originally designed to be a debate on the pros and cons of the war, at Berkeley, the teach-ins became massive antiwar rallies. By the end of that year, there had been antiwar rallies in some sixty cities.
Blue Jeans: The Uniform of Nonconformist Radicalism
Overwhelmingly, young cultural warriors and social activists of the 1960s, trying to escape the shackles of what they perceived to be limits on their freedoms, adopted blue jeans as the uniform of their generation. Originally worn by manual laborers because of their near-indestructibility, blue jeans were commonly associated with cowboys, the quintessential icon of American independence. During the 1930s, jeans were adopted by a broader customer base as a result of the popularity of cowboy movies and dude ranch vacations. After World War II, Levi Strauss, their original manufacturer, began to market them east of the Mississippi, and competitors such as Wrangler and Lee fought for a share of the market. In the 1950s, youths testing the limits of middle-class conformity adopted them in imitation of movie stars like James Dean. By the 1960s, jeans became even more closely associated with youthful rebellion against tradition, a symbol available to everyone, rich and poor, black and white, men and women.
What other styles and behaviors of the 1960s expressed nonconformity, and how?
WOMEN’S RIGHTS
On the national scene, the civil rights movement was creating a climate of protest and claiming rights and new roles in society for people of color. Women played significant roles in organizations fighting for civil rights like SNCC and SDS. However, they often found that those organizations, enlightened as they might be about racial issues or the war in Vietnam, could still be influenced by patriarchal ideas of male superiority. Two members of SNCC, Casey Hayden and Mary King, presented some of their concerns about their organization’s treatment of women in a document entitled “On the Position of Women in SNCC.” Stokely Carmichael responded that the appropriate position for women in SNCC was “prone.”
Just as the abolitionist movement made nineteenth-century women more aware of their lack of power and encouraged them to form the first women’s rights movement, the protest movements of the 1960s inspired many white and middle-class women to create their own organized movement for greater rights. Not all were young women engaged in social protest. Many were older, married women who found the traditional roles of housewife and mother unfulfilling. In 1963, writer and feminist Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique in which she contested the post-World War II belief that it was women’s destiny to marry and bear children. Friedan’s book was a best-seller and began to raise the consciousness of many women who agreed that homemaking in the suburbs sapped them of their individualism and left them unsatisfied.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, national origin, and religion, also prohibited, in Title VII, discrimination on the basis of sex. Ironically, protection for women had been included at the suggestion of a Virginia congressman in an attempt to prevent the act’s passage; his reasoning seemed to be that, while a white man might accept that African Americans needed and deserved protection from discrimination, the idea that women deserved equality with men would be far too radical for any of his male colleagues to contemplate. Nevertheless, the act passed, although the struggle to achieve equal pay for equal work continues today.
Medical science also contributed a tool to assist women in their liberation. In 1960, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the birth control pill, freeing women from the restrictions of pregnancy and childbearing. Women who were able to limit, delay, and prevent reproduction were freer to work, attend college, and delay marriage. Within five years of the pill’s approval, some six million women were using it.
The pill was the first medicine ever intended to be taken by people who were not sick. Even conservatives saw it as a possible means of making marriages stronger by removing the fear of an unwanted pregnancy and improving the health of women. Its opponents, however, argued that it would promote sexual promiscuity, undermine the institutions of marriage and the family, and destroy the moral code of the nation. By the early 1960s, thirty states had made it a criminal offense to sell contraceptive devices.
In 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) formed and proceeded to set an agenda for the feminist movement (Figure). Framed by a statement of purpose written by Friedan, the agenda began by proclaiming NOW’s goal to make possible women’s participation in all aspects of American life and to gain for them all the rights enjoyed by men. Among the specific goals was the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (yet to be adopted).
More radical feminists, like their colleagues in other movements, were dissatisfied with merely redressing economic issues and devised their own brand of consciousness-raising events and symbolic attacks on women’s oppression. The most famous of these was an event staged in September 1968 by New York Radical Women. Protesting stereotypical notions of femininity and rejecting traditional gender expectations, the group demonstrated at the Miss America Pageant in Atlantic City, New Jersey, to bring attention to the contest’s—and society’s—exploitation of women. The protestors crowned a sheep Miss America and then tossed instruments of women’s oppression, including high-heeled shoes, curlers, girdles, and bras, into a “freedom trash can.” News accounts famously, and incorrectly, described the protest as a “bra burning.”
Section Summary
During the 1960s, many people rejected traditional roles and expectations. Influenced and inspired by the civil rights movement, college students of the baby boomer generation and women of all ages began to fight to secure a stronger role in American society. As members of groups like SDS and NOW asserted their rights and strove for equality for themselves and others, they upended many accepted norms and set groundbreaking social and legal changes in motion. Many of their successes continue to be felt today, while other goals remain unfulfilled.
Review Questions
What was one of the major student organizations engaged in organizing protests and demonstrations against the Vietnam War?
- Committee for American Democracy
- Freedom Now Party
- Students for a Democratic Society
- Young Americans for Peace
Hint:
C
Which of the following was not a founding goal of NOW?
- to gain for women all the rights enjoyed by men
- to ensure passage of the Equal Rights Amendment
- to de-criminalize the use of birth control
- to allow women to participate in all aspects of American life
Hint:
C
In what ways did the birth control pill help to liberate women?
Hint:
The birth control pill enabled women to prevent or delay pregnancy, and thus marriage, and to limit the number of children they had. The freedom to control their reproduction also allowed women more opportunity to pursue higher education and work for pay outside the home.
Critical Thinking Questions
Describe the changing role of the federal government in the 1960s. What new roles and responsibilities did the government assume? In your opinion, can the government effect permanent social change? Why or why not?
Discuss how and why various groups of people within American society began to challenge and criticize the nation’s way of life in the 1960s. Were their criticisms valid? What were some of the goals of these groups, and how did they go about achieving them?
In your opinion, what is the most effective method for changing society—voting, challenges in the courts, nonviolent civil disobedience, or violence? What evidence can you provide from actual events in the 1960s to support your argument?
Were groups that advocated the use of violence in the 1960s justified in doing so? Why or why not?
Discuss how the United States became engaged in the Vietnam War. What were some of the results of that engagement?
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15534/overview
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Introduction
Overview
- The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States
- The Home Front
- Victory in the European Theater
- The Pacific Theater and the Atomic Bomb
World War II awakened the sleeping giant of the United States from the lingering effects of the Great Depression. Although the country had not entirely disengaged itself from foreign affairs following World War I, it had remained largely divorced from events occurring in Europe until the late 1930s. World War II forced the United States to involve itself once again in European affairs. It also helped to relieve the unemployment of the 1930s and stir industrial growth. The propaganda poster above (Figure) was part of a concerted effort to get Americans to see themselves as citizens of a strong, unified country, dedicated to the protection of freedom and democracy. However, the war that unified many Americans also brought to the fore many of the nation’s racial and ethnic divisions, both on the frontlines—where military units, such as the one depicted in this poster, were segregated by race—and on the home front. Yet, the war also created new opportunities for ethnic minorities and women, which, in postwar America, would contribute to their demand for greater rights.
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The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the factors in Europe that gave rise to Fascism and Nazism
- Discuss the events in Europe and Asia that led to the start of the war
- Identify the early steps taken by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to increase American aid to nations fighting totalitarianism while maintaining neutrality
The years between the First and Second World Wars were politically and economically tumultuous for the United States and especially for the world. The Russian Revolution of 1917, Germany’s defeat in World War I, and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles had broken up the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian empires and significantly redrew the map of Europe. President Woodrow Wilson had wished to make World War I the “war to end all wars” and hoped that his new paradigm of “collective security” in international relations, as actualized through the League of Nations, would limit power struggles among the nations of the world. However, during the next two decades, America’s attention turned away from global politics and toward its own needs. At the same time, much of the world was dealing with economic and political crises, and different types of totalitarian regimes began to take hold in Europe. In Asia, an ascendant Japan began to expand its borders. Although the United States remained focused on the economic challenges of the Great Depression as World War II approached, ultimately it became clear that American involvement in the fight against Nazi Germany and Japan was in the nation’s interest.
ISOLATION
While during the 1920s and 1930s there were Americans who favored active engagement in Europe, most Americans, including many prominent politicians, were leery of getting too involved in European affairs or accepting commitments to other nations that might restrict America’s ability to act independently, keeping with the isolationist tradition. Although the United States continued to intervene in the affairs of countries in the Western Hemisphere during this period, the general mood in America was to avoid becoming involved in any crises that might lead the nation into another global conflict.
Despite its largely noninterventionist foreign policy, the United States did nevertheless take steps to try to lessen the chances of war and cut its defense spending at the same time. President Warren G. Harding’s administration participated in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, which reduced the size of the navies of the nine signatory nations. In addition, the Four Power Treaty, signed by the United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan in 1921, committed the signatories to eschewing any territorial expansion in Asia. In 1928, the United States and fourteen other nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, declaring war an international crime. Despite hopes that such agreements would lead to a more peaceful world—far more nations signed on to the agreement in later years—they failed because none of them committed any of the nations to take action in the event of treaty violations.
THE MARCH TOWARD WAR
While the United States focused on domestic issues, economic depression and political instability were growing in Europe. During the 1920s, the international financial system was propped up largely by American loans to foreign countries. The crash of 1929, when the U.S. stock market plummeted and American capital dried up, set in motion a series of financial chain reactions that contributed significantly to a global downward economic spiral. Around the world, industrialized economies faced significant problems of economic depression and worker unemployment.
Totalitarianism in Europe
Many European countries had been suffering even before the Great Depression began. A postwar recession and the continuation of wartime inflation had hurt many economies, as did a decrease in agricultural prices, which made it harder for farmers to buy manufactured goods or pay off loans to banks. In such an unstable environment, Benito Mussolini capitalized on the frustrations of the Italian people who felt betrayed by the Versailles Treaty. In 1919, Mussolini created the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squadron). The organization’s main tenets of Fascism called for a totalitarian form of government and a heightened focus on national unity, militarism, social Darwinism, and loyalty to the state. With the support of major Italian industrialists and the king, who saw Fascism as a bulwark against growing Socialist and Communist movements, Mussolini became prime minister in 1922. Between 1925 and 1927, Mussolini transformed the nation into a single party state and removed all restraints on his power.
In Germany, a similar pattern led to the rise of the totalitarian National Socialist Party. Political fragmentation through the 1920s accentuated the severe economic problems facing the country. As a result, the German Communist Party began to grow in strength, frightening many wealthy and middle-class Germans. In addition, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had given rise to a deep-seated resentment of the victorious Allies. It was in such an environment that Adolf Hitler’s anti-Communist National Socialist Party—the Nazis—was born.
The Nazis gained numerous followers during the Great Depression, which hurt Germany tremendously, plunging it further into economic crisis. By 1932, nearly 30 percent of the German labor force was unemployed. Not surprisingly, the political mood was angry and sullen. Hitler, a World War I veteran, promised to return Germany to greatness. By the beginning of 1933, the Nazis had become the largest party in the German legislature. Germany’s president, Paul von Hindenburg, at the urging of large industrialists who feared a Communist uprising, appointed Hitler to the position of chancellor in January 1933. In the elections that took place in early March 1933, the Nazis gained the political power to pass the Enabling Act later that same month, which gave Hitler the power to make all laws for the next four years. Hitler thus effectively became the dictator of Germany and remained so long after the four-year term passed. Like Italy, Germany had become a one-party totalitarian state (Figure). Nazi Germany was an anti-Semitic nation, and in 1935, the Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews, whom Hitler blamed for Germany’s downfall, of German citizenship and the rights thereof.
Once in power, Hitler began to rebuild German military might. He commenced his program by withdrawing Germany from the League of Nations in October 1933. In 1936, in accordance with his promise to restore German greatness, Hitler dispatched military units into the Rhineland, on the border with France, which was an act contrary to the provisions of the Versailles Treaty. In March 1938, claiming that he sought only to reunite ethnic Germans within the borders of one country, Hitler invaded Austria. At a conference in Munich later that year, Great Britain’s prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, and France’s prime minister, Édouard Daladier, agreed to the partial dismemberment of Czechoslovakia and the occupation of the Sudetenland (a region with a sizable German population) by German troops (Figure). This Munich Pact offered a policy of appeasement, in the hope that German expansionist appetites could be satisfied without war. But not long after the agreement, Germany occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia as well.
In the Soviet Union, Premier Joseph Stalin, observing Hitler’s actions and listening to his public pronouncements, realized that Poland, part of which had once belonged to Germany and was home to people of German ancestry, was most likely next. Although fiercely opposed to Hitler, Stalin, sobered by the French and British betrayal of Czechoslovakia and unprepared for a major war, decided the best way to protect the Soviet Union, and gain additional territory, was to come to some accommodation with the German dictator. In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union essentially agreed to divide Poland between them and not make war upon one another.
Japan
Militaristic politicians also took control of Japan in the 1930s. The Japanese had worked assiduously for decades to modernize, build their strength, and become a prosperous, respected nation. The sentiment in Japan was decidedly pro-capitalist, and the Japanese militarists were fiercely supportive of a capitalist economy. They viewed with great concern the rise of Communism in the Soviet Union and in particular China, where the issue was fueling a civil war, and feared that the Soviet Union would make inroads in Asia by assisting China’s Communists. The Japanese militarists thus found a common ideological enemy with Fascism and National Socialism, which had based their rise to power on anti-Communist sentiments. In 1936, Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, pledging mutual assistance in defending themselves against the Comintern, the international agency created by the Soviet Union to promote worldwide Communist revolution. In 1937, Italy joined the pact, essentially creating the foundation of what became the military alliance of the Axis powers.
Like its European allies, Japan was intent upon creating an empire for itself. In 1931, it created a new nation, a puppet state called Manchukuo, which had been cobbled together from the three northernmost provinces of China. Although the League of Nations formally protested Japan’s seizure of Chinese territory in 1931 and 1932, it did nothing else. In 1937, a clash between Japanese and Chinese troops, known as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, led to a full-scale invasion of China by the Japanese. By the end of the year, the Chinese had suffered some serious defeats. In Nanjing, then called Nanking by Westerners, Japanese soldiers systematically raped Chinese women and massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians, leading to international outcry. Public sentiment against Japan in the United States reached new heights. Members of Protestant churches that were involved in missionary work in China were particularly outraged, as were Chinese Americans. A troop of Chinese American Boy Scouts in New York City’s Chinatown defied Boy Scout policy and marched in protest against Japanese aggression.
FROM NEUTRALITY TO ENGAGEMENT
President Franklin Roosevelt was aware of the challenges facing the targets of Nazi aggression in Europe and Japanese aggression in Asia. Although he hoped to offer U.S. support, Congress’s commitment to nonintervention was difficult to overcome. Such a policy in regards to Europe was strongly encouraged by Senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota. Nye claimed that the United States had been tricked into participating in World War I by a group of industrialists and bankers who sought to gain from the country’s participation in the war. The United States, Nye urged, should not be drawn again into an international dispute over matters that did not concern it. His sentiments were shared by other noninterventionists in Congress (Figure).
Roosevelt’s willingness to accede to the demands of the noninterventionists led him even to refuse assistance to those fleeing Nazi Germany. Although Roosevelt was aware of Nazi persecution of the Jews, he did little to aid them. In a symbolic act of support, he withdrew the American ambassador to Germany in 1938. He did not press for a relaxation of immigration quotas that would have allowed more refugees to enter the country, however. In 1939, he refused to support a bill that would have admitted twenty thousand Jewish refugee children to the United States. Again in 1939, when German refugees aboard the SS St. Louis, most of them Jews, were refused permission to land in Cuba and turned to the United States for help, the U.S. State Department informed them that immigration quotas for Germany had already been filled. Once again, Roosevelt did not intervene, because he feared that nativists in Congress might smear him as a friend of Jews.
To ensure that the United States did not get drawn into another war, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts in the second half of the 1930s. The Neutrality Act of 1935 banned the sale of armaments to warring nations. The following year, another Neutrality Act prohibited loaning money to belligerent countries. The last piece of legislation, the Neutrality Act of 1937, forbade the transportation of weapons or passengers to belligerent nations on board American ships and also prohibited American citizens from traveling on board the ships of nations at war.
Once all-out war began between Japan and China in 1937, Roosevelt sought ways to help the Chinese that did not violate U.S. law. Since Japan did not formally declare war on China, a state of belligerency did not technically exist. Therefore, under the terms of the Neutrality Acts, America was not prevented from transporting goods to China. In 1940, the president of China, Chiang Kai-shek, was able to prevail upon Roosevelt to ship to China one hundred P-40 fighter planes and to allow American volunteers, who technically became members of the Chinese Air Force, to fly them.
War Begins in Europe
In 1938, the agreement reached at the Munich Conference failed to satisfy Hitler—in fact, the refusal of Britain and France to go to war over the issue infuriated the German dictator. In May of the next year, Germany and Italy formalized their military alliance with the “Pact of Steel.” On September 1, 1939, Hitler unleashed his Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war,” against Poland, using swift, surprise attacks combining infantry, tanks, and aircraft to quickly overwhelm the enemy. Britain and France had already learned from Munich that Hitler could not be trusted and that his territorial demands were insatiable. On September 3, 1939, they declared war on Germany, and the European phase of World War II began. Responding to the German invasion of Poland, Roosevelt worked with Congress to alter the Neutrality Laws to permit a policy of “Cash and Carry” in munitions for Britain and France. The legislation, passed and signed by Roosevelt in November 1939, permitted belligerents to purchase war materiel if they could pay cash for it and arrange for its transportation on board their own ships.
When the Germans commenced their spring offensive in 1940, they defeated France in six weeks with a highly mobile and quick invasion of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. In the Far East, Japan took advantage of France’s surrender to Germany to occupy French Indochina. In response, beginning with the Export Control Act in July 1940, the United States began to embargo the shipment of various materials to Japan, starting first with aviation gasoline and machine tools, and proceeding to scrap iron and steel.
The Atlantic Charter
Following the surrender of France, the Battle of Britain began, as Germany proceeded to try to bomb England into submission. As the battle raged in the skies over Great Britain throughout the summer and autumn of 1940 (Figure), Roosevelt became increasingly concerned over England’s ability to hold out against the German juggernaut. In June 1941, Hitler broke the nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union that had given him the backing to ravage Poland and marched his armies deep into Soviet territory, where they would kill Red Army regulars and civilians by the millions until their advances were stalled and ultimately reversed by the devastating battle of Stalingrad, which took place from August 23, 1942 until February 2, 1943 when, surrounded and out of ammunition, the German 6th army surrendered.
Listen to the BBC’s archived reports of the Battle of Britain, including Winston Churchill’s “Finest Hour” speech.
In August 1941, Roosevelt met with the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. At this meeting, the two leaders drafted the Atlantic Charter, the blueprint of Anglo-American cooperation during World War II. The charter stated that the United States and Britain sought no territory from the conflict. It proclaimed that citizens of all countries should be given the right of self-determination, self-government should be restored in places where it had been eliminated, and trade barriers should be lowered. Further, the charter mandated freedom of the seas, renounced the use of force to settle international disputes, and called for postwar disarmament.
In March 1941, concerns over Britain’s ability to defend itself also influenced Congress to authorize a policy of Lend Lease, a practice by which the United States could sell, lease, or transfer armaments to any nation deemed important to the defense of the United States. Lend Lease effectively ended the policy of nonintervention and dissolved America’s pretense of being a neutral nation. The program ran from 1941 to 1945, and distributed some $45 billion worth of weaponry and supplies to Britain, the Soviet Union, China, and other allies.
A Date Which Will Live in Infamy
By the second half of 1941, Japan was feeling the pressure of the American embargo. As it could no longer buy strategic material from the United States, the Japanese were determined to obtain a sufficient supply of oil by taking control of the Dutch East Indies. However, they realized that such an action might increase the possibility of American intervention, since the Philippines, a U.S. territory, lay on the direct route that oil tankers would have to take to reach Japan from Indonesia. Japanese leaders thus attempted to secure a diplomatic solution by negotiating with the United States while also authorizing the navy to plan for war. The Japanese government also decided that if no peaceful resolution could be reached by the end of November 1941, then the nation would have to go to war against the United States.
The American final counterproposal to various offers by Japan was for the Japanese to completely withdraw, without any conditions, from China and enter into nonaggression pacts with all the Pacific powers. Japan found that proposal unacceptable but delayed its rejection for as long as possible. Then, at 7:48 a.m. on Sunday, December 7, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (Figure). They launched two waves of attacks from six aircraft carriers that had snuck into the central Pacific without being detected. The attacks brought some 353 fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers down on the unprepared fleet. The Japanese hit all eight battleships in the harbor and sank four of them. They also damaged several cruisers and destroyers. On the ground, nearly two hundred aircraft were destroyed, and twenty-four hundred servicemen were killed. Another eleven hundred were wounded. Japanese losses were minimal. The strike was part of a more concerted campaign by the Japanese to gain territory. They subsequently attacked Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Guam, Wake Island, and the Philippines.
Whatever reluctance to engage in conflict the American people had had before December 7, 1941, quickly evaporated. Americans’ incredulity that Japan would take such a radical step quickly turned to a fiery anger, especially as the attack took place while Japanese diplomats in Washington were still negotiating a possible settlement. President Roosevelt, referring to the day of the attack as “a date which will live in infamy,” asked Congress for a declaration of war, which it delivered to Japan on December 8. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States in accordance with their alliance with Japan. Against its wishes, the United States had become part of the European conflict.
You can listen to Franklin Roosevelt’s speech to Congress seeking a Declaration of War at this archive of presidential recordings.
Section Summary
America sought, at the end of the First World War, to create new international relationships that would make such wars impossible in the future. But as the Great Depression hit Europe, several new leaders rose to power under the new political ideologies of Fascism and Nazism. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany were both proponents of Fascism, using dictatorial rule to achieve national unity. Still, the United States remained focused on the economic challenges of its own Great Depression. Hence, there was little interest in getting involved in Europe’s problems or even the China-Japan conflict.
It soon became clear, however, that Germany and Italy’s alliance was putting democratic countries at risk. Roosevelt first sought to support Great Britain and China by providing economic support without intervening directly. However, when Japan, an ally of Germany and Italy, attacked Pearl Harbor, catching the military base unaware and claiming thousands of lives, America’s feelings toward war shifted, and the country was quickly pulled into the global conflict.
Review Questions
The United States Senator who led the noninterventionists in Congress and called for neutrality legislation in the 1930s was ________.
- Gerald P. Nye
- Robert Wagner
- George C. Marshall
- Neville Chamberlain
Hint:
A
Describe Franklin Roosevelt’s efforts on behalf of German Jews in the 1930s. How was he able to help, and in what ways did his actions come up short?
Hint:
Roosevelt recalled the American ambassador from Germany. However, he made no move to relax national immigration quotas, which would have allowed persecuted German Jews to take refuge in the United States. He failed to support legislation that would have enabled Jewish children to enter the country. He also refused to intervene when a ship carrying German refugees, most of whom were Jewish, was turned away from Cuba and looked to the United States for help.
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.649823
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The Home Front
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the steps taken by the United States to prepare for war
- Describe how the war changed employment patterns in the United States
- Discuss the contributions of civilians on the home front, especially women, to the war effort
- Analyze how the war affected race relations in the United States
The impact of the war on the United States was nowhere near as devastating as it was in Europe and the Pacific, where the battles were waged, but it still profoundly changed everyday life for all Americans. On the positive side, the war effort finally and definitively ended the economic depression that had been plaguing the country since 1929. It also called upon Americans to unite behind the war effort and give of their money, their time, and their effort, as they sacrificed at home to assure success abroad. The upheaval caused by white men leaving for war meant that for many disenfranchised groups, such as women and African Americans, there were new opportunities in employment and wage earning. Still, fear and racism drove cracks in the nation’s unified facade.
MOBILIZING A NATION
Although the United States had sought to avoid armed conflict, the country was not entirely unprepared for war. Production of armaments had increased since 1939, when, as a result of Congress’s authorization of the Cash and Carry policy, contracts for weapons had begun to trickle into American factories. War production increased further following the passage of Lend Lease in 1941. However, when the United States entered the war, the majority of American factories were still engaged in civilian production, and many doubted that American businesses would be sufficiently motivated to convert their factories to wartime production.
Just a few years earlier, Roosevelt had been frustrated and impatient with business leaders when they failed to fully support the New Deal, but enlisting industrialists in the nation’s crusade was necessary if the United States was to produce enough armaments to win the war. To encourage cooperation, the government agreed to assume all costs of development and production, and also guarantee a profit on the sale of what was produced. This arrangement resulted in 233 to 350 percent increases in profits over what the same businesses had been able to achieve from 1937 to 1940. In terms of dollars earned, corporate profits rose from $6.4 billion in 1940 to nearly $11 billion in 1944. As the country switched to wartime production, the top one hundred U.S. corporations received approximately 70 percent of government contracts; big businesses prospered.
In addition to gearing up industry to fight the war, the country also needed to build an army. A peacetime draft, the first in American history, had been established in September 1940, but the initial draftees were to serve for only one year, a length of time that was later extended. Furthermore, Congress had specified that no more than 900,000 men could receive military training at any one time. By December 1941, the United States had only one division completely ready to be deployed. Military planners estimated that it might take nine million men to secure victory. A massive draft program was required to expand the nation’s military forces. Over the course of the war, approximately fifty million men registered for the draft; ten million were subsequently inducted into the service.
Approximately 2.5 million African Americans registered for the draft, and 1 million of them subsequently served. Initially, African American soldiers, who served in segregated units, had been used as support troops and not been sent into combat. By the end of the war, however, manpower needs resulted in African American recruits serving in the infantry and flying planes. The Tuskegee Institute in Alabama had instituted a civilian pilot training program for aspiring African American pilots. When the war began, the Department of War absorbed the program and adapted it to train combat pilots. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt demonstrated both her commitment to African Americans and the war effort by visiting Tuskegee in 1941, shortly after the unit had been organized. To encourage the military to give the airmen a chance to serve in actual combat, she insisted on taking a ride in a plane flown by an African American pilot to demonstrate the Tuskegee Airmen’s skill (Figure). When the Tuskegee Airmen did get their opportunity to serve in combat, they did so with distinction.
In addition, forty-four thousand Native Americans served in all theaters of the war. In some of the Pacific campaigns, Native Americans made distinct and unique contributions to Allied victories. Navajo marines served in communications units, exchanging information over radios using codes based on their native language, which the Japanese were unable to comprehend or to crack. They became known as code talkers and participated in the battles of Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, Peleliu, and Tarawa. A smaller number of Comanche code talkers performed a similar function in the European theater.
While millions of Americans heeded the rallying cry for patriotism and service, there were those who, for various reasons, did not accept the call. Before the war began, American Peace Mobilization had campaigned against American involvement in the European conflict as had the noninterventionist America First organization. Both groups ended their opposition, however, at the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, respectively. Nevertheless, during the war, some seventy-two thousand men registered as conscientious objectors (COs), and fifty-two thousand were granted that status. Of that fifty-two thousand, some accepted noncombat roles in the military, whereas others accepted unpaid work in civilian work camps. Many belonged to pacifist religious sects such as the Quakers or Mennonites. They were willing to serve their country, but they refused to kill. COs suffered public condemnation for disloyalty, and family members often turned against them. Strangers assaulted them. A portion of the town of Plymouth, NH, was destroyed by fire because the residents did not want to call upon the services of the COs trained as firemen at a nearby camp. Only a very small number of men evaded the draft completely.
Most Americans, however, were willing to serve, and they required a competent officer corps. The very same day that Germany invaded Poland in 1939, President Roosevelt promoted George C. Marshall, a veteran of World War I and an expert at training officers, from a one-star general to a four-star general, and gave him the responsibility of serving as Army Chief of Staff. The desire to create a command staff that could win the army’s confidence no doubt contributed to the rather meteoric rise of Dwight D. Eisenhower (Figure). During World War I, Eisenhower had been assigned to organize America’s new tank corps, and, although he never saw combat during the war, he demonstrated excellent organizational skills. When the United States entered World War II, Eisenhower was appointed commander of the General European Theater of Operations in June 1942.
General Eisenhower on Winning a War
Promoted to the level of one-star general just before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Dwight D. Eisenhower had never held an active command position above the level of a battalion and was not considered a potential commander of major military operations. However, after he was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, DC, he quickly rose through the ranks and, by late 1942, was appointed commander of the North African campaign.
Excerpts from General Eisenhower’s diary reveal his dedication to the war effort. He continued to work despite suffering a great personal loss.
March 9, 1942
General McNaughton (commanding Canadians in Britain) came to see me. He believes in attacking in Europe (thank God). He’s over here in an effort to speed up landing craft production and cargo ships. Has some d___ good ideas. Sent him to see Somervell and Admiral Land. How I hope he can do something on landing craft.
March 10, 1942
Father dies this morning. Nothing I can do but send a wire.
One thing that might help win this war is to get someone to shoot [Admiral] King. He’s the antithesis of cooperation, a deliberately rude person, which means he’s a mental bully. He became Commander in Chief of the fleet some time ago. Today he takes over, also Stark’s job as chief of naval operations. It’s a good thing to get rid of the double head in the navy, and of course Stark was just a nice old lady, but this fellow is going to cause a blow-up sooner or later, I’ll bet a cookie.
Gradually some of the people with whom I have to deal are coming to agree with me that there are just three “musts” for the Allies this year: hold open the line to England and support her as necessary, keep Russia in the war as an active participant; hold the India-Middle East buttress between Japs and Germans. All this assumes the safety from major attack of North America, Hawaii, and Caribbean area.
We lost eight cargo ships yesterday. That we must stop, because any effort we make depends upon sea communication.
March 11, 1942
I have felt terribly. I should like so much to be with my Mother these few days. But we’re at war. And war is not soft, it has no time to indulge even the deepest and most sacred emotions. I loved my Dad. I think my Mother the finest person I’ve ever known. She has been the inspiration for Dad’s life and a true helpmeet in every sense of the word.
I’m quitting work now, 7:30 p.m. I haven’t the heart to go on tonight.
—Dwight D. Eisenhower, The Eisenhower Diaries
What does Eisenhower identify as the most important steps to take to win the war?
EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION PATTERNS IN THE UNITED STATES
Even before the official beginning of the war, the country started to prepare. In August 1940, Congress created the Defense Plant Corporation, which had built 344 plants in the West by 1945, and had funneled over $1.8 billion into the economies of western states. After Pearl Harbor, as American military strategists began to plan counterattacks and campaigns against the Axis powers, California became a training ground. Troops trained there for tank warfare and amphibious assaults as well as desert campaigns—since the first assault against the Axis powers was planned for North Africa.
As thousands of Americans swarmed to the West Coast to take jobs in defense plants and shipyards, cities like Richmond, California, and nearby Oakland, expanded quickly. Richmond grew from a city of 20,000 people to 100,000 in only three years. Almost overnight, the population of California skyrocketed. African Americans moved out of the rural South into northern or West Coast cities to provide the muscle and skill to build the machines of war. Building on earlier waves of African American migration after the Civil War and during World War I, the demographics of the nation changed with the growing urbanization of the African American population. Women also relocated to either follow their husbands to military bases or take jobs in the defense industry, as the total mobilization of the national economy began to tap into previously underemployed populations.
Roosevelt and his administration already had experience in establishing government controls and taking the initiative in economic matters during the Depression. In April 1941, Roosevelt created the Office of Price Administration (OPA), and, once the United States entered the war, the OPA regulated prices and attempted to combat inflation. The OPA ultimately had the power to set ceiling prices for all goods, except agricultural commodities, and to ration a long list of items. During the war, major labor unions pledged not to strike in order to prevent disruptions in production; in return, the government encouraged businesses to recognize unions and promised to help workers bargain for better wages.
As in World War I, the government turned to bond drives to finance the war. Millions of Americans purchased more than $185 billion worth of war bonds. Children purchased Victory Stamps and exchanged full stamp booklets for bonds. The federal government also instituted the current tax-withholding system to ensure collection of taxes. Finally, the government once again urged Americans to plant victory gardens, using marketing campaigns and celebrities to promote the idea (Figure). Americans responded eagerly, planting gardens in their backyards and vacant lots.
The federal government also instituted rationing to ensure that America’s fighting men were well fed. Civilians were issued ration booklets, books of coupons that enabled them to buy limited amounts of meat, coffee, butter, sugar, and other foods. Wartime cookbooks were produced, such as the Betty Crocker cookbook Your Share, telling housewives how to prepare tasty meals without scarce food items. Other items were rationed as well, including shoes, liquor, cigarettes, and gasoline. With a few exceptions, such as doctors, Americans were allowed to drive their automobiles only on certain days of the week. Most Americans complied with these regulations, but some illegally bought and sold rationed goods on the black market.
View an excerpt from a PBS documentary on rationing during World War II.
Civilians on the home front also recycled, conserved, and participated in scrap drives to collect items needed for the production of war materiel. Housewives saved cooking fats, needed to produce explosives. Children collected scrap metal, paper, rubber, silk, nylon, and old rags. Some children sacrificed beloved metal toys in order to “win the war.” Civilian volunteers, trained to recognize enemy aircraft, watched the skies along the coasts and on the borders.
WOMEN IN THE WAR: ROSIE THE RIVETER AND BEYOND
As in the previous war, the gap in the labor force created by departing soldiers meant opportunities for women. In particular, World War II led many to take jobs in defense plants and factories around the country. For many women, these jobs provided unprecedented opportunities to move into occupations previously thought of as exclusive to men, especially the aircraft industry, where a majority of workers were composed of women by 1943. Most women in the labor force did not work in the defense industry, however. The majority took over other factory jobs that had been held by men. Many took positions in offices as well. As white women, many of whom had been in the workforce before the war, moved into these more highly paid positions, African American women, most of whom had previously been limited to domestic service, took over white women’s lower-paying positions in factories; some were also hired by defense plants, however. Although women often earned more money than ever before, it was still far less than men received for doing the same jobs. Nevertheless, many achieved a degree of financial self-reliance that was enticing. By 1944, as many as 33 percent of the women working in the defense industries were mothers and worked “double-day” shifts—one at the plant and one at home.
Still, there was some resistance to women going to work in such a male-dominated environment. In order to recruit women for factory jobs, the government created a propaganda campaign centered on a now-iconic figure known as Rosie the Riveter (Figure). Rosie, who was a composite based on several real women, was most famously depicted by American illustrator Norman Rockwell. Rosie was tough yet feminine. To reassure men that the demands of war would not make women too masculine, some factories gave female employees lessons in how to apply makeup, and cosmetics were never rationed during the war. Elizabeth Arden even created a special red lipstick for use by women reservists in the Marine Corps.
Although many saw the entry of women into the workforce as a positive thing, they also acknowledged that working women, especially mothers, faced great challenges. To try to address the dual role of women as workers and mothers, Eleanor Roosevelt urged her husband to approve the first U.S. government childcare facilities under the Community Facilities Act of 1942. Eventually, seven centers, servicing 105,000 children, were built. The First Lady also urged industry leaders like Henry Kaiser to build model childcare facilities for their workers. Still, these efforts did not meet the full need for childcare for working mothers.
The lack of childcare facilities meant that many children had to fend for themselves after school, and some had to assume responsibility for housework and the care of younger siblings. Some mothers took younger children to work with them and left them locked in their cars during the workday. Police and social workers also reported an increase in juvenile delinquency during the war. New York City saw its average number of juvenile cases balloon from 9,500 in the prewar years to 11,200 during the war. In San Diego, delinquency rates for girls, including sexual misbehavior, shot up by 355 percent. It is unclear whether more juveniles were actually engaging in delinquent behavior; the police may simply have become more vigilant during wartime and arrested youngsters for activities that would have gone overlooked before the war. In any event, law enforcement and juvenile courts attributed the perceived increase to a lack of supervision by working mothers.
Tens of thousands of women served in the war effort more directly. Approximately 350,000 joined the military. They worked as nurses, drove trucks, repaired airplanes, and performed clerical work to free up men for combat. Those who joined the Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) flew planes from the factories to military bases. Some of these women were killed in combat and captured as prisoners of war. Over sixteen hundred of the women nurses received various decorations for courage under fire. Many women also flocked to work in a variety of civil service jobs. Others worked as chemists and engineers, developing weapons for the war. This included thousands of women who were recruited to work on the Manhattan Project, developing the atomic bomb.
THE CULTURE OF WAR: ENTERTAINERS AND THE WAR EFFORT
During the Great Depression, movies had served as a welcome diversion from the difficulties of everyday life, and during the war, this held still truer. By 1941, there were more movie theaters than banks in the United States. In the 1930s, newsreels, which were shown in movie theaters before feature films, had informed the American public of what was happening elsewhere in the world. This interest grew once American armies began to engage the enemy. Many informational documentaries about the war were also shown in movie theaters. The most famous were those in the Why We Fight series, filmed by Hollywood director Frank Capra. During the war, Americans flocked to the movies not only to learn what was happening to the troops overseas but also to be distracted from the fears and hardships of wartime by cartoons, dramas, and comedies. By 1945, movie attendance had reached an all-time high.
This link shows newsreel footage of a raid on Tarawa Island. This footage was shown in movie theaters around the country.
Many feature films were patriotic stories that showed the day’s biggest stars as soldiers fighting the nefarious German and Japanese enemy. During the war years, there was a consistent supply of patriotic movies, with actors glorifying and inspiring America’s fighting men. John Wayne, who had become a star in the 1930s, appeared in many war-themed movies, including The Fighting Seabees and Back to Bataan.
Besides appearing in patriotic movies, many male entertainers temporarily gave up their careers to serve in the armed forces (Figure). Jimmy Stewart served in the Army Air Force and appeared in a short film entitled Winning Your Wings that encouraged young men to enlist. Tyrone Power joined the U.S. Marines. Female entertainers did their part as well. Rita Hayworth and Marlene Dietrich entertained the troops. African American singer and dancer Josephine Baker entertained Allied troops in North Africa and also carried secret messages for the French Resistance. Actress Carole Lombard was killed in a plane crash while returning home from a rally where she had sold war bonds.
The Meaning of Democracy
E. B. White was one of the most famous writers of the twentieth century. During the 1940s, he was known for the articles that he contributed to The New Yorker and the column that he wrote for Harper’s Magazine. Today, he is remembered for his children’s books Stuart Little and Charlotte’s Web, and for his collaboration with William Strunk, Jr., The Elements of Style, a guide to writing. In 1943, he wrote a definition of democracy as an example of what Americans hoped that they were fighting for.
We received a letter from the Writer’s War Board the other day asking for a statement on ‘The Meaning of Democracy.’ It presumably is our duty to comply with such a request, and it is certainly our pleasure. Surely the Board knows what democracy is. It is the line that forms on the right. It is the ‘don’t’ in don’t shove. It is the hole in the stuffed shirt through which the sawdust slowly trickles; it is the dent in the high hat. Democracy is the recurrent suspicion that more than half of the people are right more than half of the time. It is the feeling of privacy in the voting booths, the feeling of communion in the libraries, the feeling of vitality everywhere. Democracy is a letter to the editor. Democracy is the score at the beginning of the ninth. It is an idea that hasn’t been disproved yet, a song the words of which have not gone bad. It is the mustard on the hot dog and the cream in the rationed coffee. Democracy is a request from a War Board, in the middle of the morning in the middle of a war, wanting to know what democracy is.
Do you agree with this definition of democracy? Would you change anything to make it more contemporary?
SOCIAL TENSIONS ON THE HOME FRONT
The need for Americans to come together, whether in Hollywood, the defense industries, or the military, to support the war effort encouraged feelings of unity among the American population. However, the desire for unity did not always mean that Americans of color were treated as equals or even tolerated, despite their proclamations of patriotism and their willingness to join in the effort to defeat America’s enemies in Europe and Asia. For African Americans, Mexican Americans, and especially for Japanese Americans, feelings of patriotism and willingness to serve one’s country both at home and abroad was not enough to guarantee equal treatment by white Americans or to prevent the U.S. government from regarding them as the enemy.
African Americans and Double V
The African American community had, at the outset of the war, forged some promising relationships with the Roosevelt administration through civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune and Roosevelt’s “Black Cabinet” of African American advisors. Through the intervention of Eleanor Roosevelt, Bethune was appointed to the advisory council set up by the War Department Women’s Interest Section. In this position, Bethune was able to organize the first officer candidate school for women and enable African American women to become officers in the Women’s Auxiliary Corps.
As the U.S. economy revived as a result of government defense contracts, African Americans wanted to ensure that their service to the country earned them better opportunities and more equal treatment. Accordingly, in 1942, after African American labor leader A. Philip Randolph pressured Roosevelt with a threatened “March on Washington,” the president created, by Executive Order 8802, the Fair Employment Practices Committee. The purpose of this committee was to see that there was no discrimination in the defense industries. While they were effective in forcing defense contractors, such as the DuPont Corporation, to hire African Americans, they were not able to force corporations to place African Americans in well-paid positions. For example, at DuPont’s plutonium production plant in Hanford, Washington, African Americans were hired as low-paid construction workers but not as laboratory technicians.
During the war, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), founded by James Farmer in 1942, used peaceful civil disobedience in the form of sit-ins to desegregate certain public spaces in Washington, DC, and elsewhere, as its contribution to the war effort. Members of CORE sought support for their movement by stating that one of their goals was to deprive the enemy of the ability to generate anti-American propaganda by accusing the United States of racism. After all, they argued, if the United States were going to denounce Germany and Japan for abusing human rights, the country should itself be as exemplary as possible. Indeed, CORE’s actions were in keeping with the goals of the Double V campaign that was begun in 1942 by the Pittsburgh Courier, the largest African American newspaper at the time (Figure). The campaign called upon African Americans to accomplish the two “Vs”: victory over America’s foreign enemies and victory over racism in the United States.
Despite the willingness of African Americans to fight for the United States, racial tensions often erupted in violence, as the geographic relocation necessitated by the war brought African Americans into closer contact with whites. There were race riots in Detroit, Harlem, and Beaumont, Texas, in which white residents responded with sometimes deadly violence to their new black coworkers or neighbors. There were also racial incidents at or near several military bases in the South. Incidents of African American soldiers being harassed or assaulted occurred at Fort Benning, Georgia; Fort Jackson, South Carolina; Alexandria, Louisiana; Fayetteville, Arkansas; and Tampa, Florida. African American leaders such as James Farmer and Walter White, the executive secretary of the NAACP since 1931, were asked by General Eisenhower to investigate complaints of the mistreatment of African American servicemen while on active duty. They prepared a fourteen-point memorandum on how to improve conditions for African Americans in the service, sowing some of the seeds of the postwar civil rights movement during the war years.
The Zoot Suit Riots
Mexican Americans also encountered racial prejudice. The Mexican American population in Southern California grew during World War II due to the increased use of Mexican agricultural workers in the fields to replace the white workers who had left for better paying jobs in the defense industries. The United States and Mexican governments instituted the “bracero” program on August 4, 1942, which sought to address the needs of California growers for manual labor to increase food production during wartime. The result was the immigration of thousands of impoverished Mexicans into the United States to work as braceros, or manual laborers.
Forced by racial discrimination to live in the barrios of East Los Angeles, many Mexican American youths sought to create their own identity and began to adopt a distinctive style of dress known as zoot suits, which were also popular among many young African American men. The zoot suits, which required large amounts of cloth to produce, violated wartime regulations that restricted the amount of cloth that could be used in civilian garments. Among the charges leveled at young Mexican Americans was that they were un-American and unpatriotic; wearing zoot suits was seen as evidence of this. Many native-born Americans also denounced Mexican American men for being unwilling to serve in the military, even though some 350,000 Mexican Americans either volunteered to serve or were drafted into the armed services. In the summer of 1943, “zoot-suit riots” occurred in Los Angeles when carloads of white sailors, encouraged by other white civilians, stripped and beat a group of young men wearing the distinctive form of dress. In retaliation, young Mexican American men attacked and beat up sailors. The response was swift and severe, as sailors and civilians went on a spree attacking young Mexican Americans on the streets, in bars, and in movie theaters. More than one hundred people were injured.
Internment
Japanese Americans also suffered from discrimination. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor unleashed a cascade of racist assumptions about Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans in the United States that culminated in the relocation and internment of 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry, 66 percent of whom had been born in the United States. Executive Order 9066, signed by Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, gave the army power to remove people from “military areas” to prevent sabotage or espionage. The army then used this authority to relocate people of Japanese ancestry living along the Pacific coast of Washington, Oregon, and California, as well as in parts of Arizona, to internment camps in the American interior. Although a study commissioned earlier by Roosevelt indicated that there was little danger of disloyalty on the part of West Coast Japanese, fears of sabotage, perhaps spurred by the attempted rescue of a Japanese airman shot down at Pearl Harbor by Japanese living in Hawaii, and racist sentiments led Roosevelt to act. Ironically, Japanese in Hawaii were not interned. Although characterized afterwards as America’s worst wartime mistake by Eugene V. Rostow in the September 1945 edition of Harper’s Magazine, the government’s actions were in keeping with decades of anti-Asian sentiment on the West Coast.
After the order went into effect, Lt. General John L. DeWitt, in charge of the Western Defense command, ordered approximately 127,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans—roughly 90 percent of those of Japanese ethnicity living in the United States—to assembly centers where they were transferred to hastily prepared camps in the interior of California, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Arkansas (Figure). Those who were sent to the camps reported that the experience was deeply traumatic. Families were sometimes separated. People could only bring a few of their belongings and had to abandon the rest of their possessions. The camps themselves were dismal and overcrowded. Despite the hardships, the Japanese attempted to build communities in the camps and resume “normal” life. Adults participated in camp government and worked at a variety of jobs. Children attended school, played basketball against local teams, and organized Boy Scout units. Nevertheless, they were imprisoned, and minor infractions, such as wandering too near the camp gate or barbed wire fences while on an evening stroll, could meet with severe consequences. Some sixteen thousand Germans, including some from Latin America, and German Americans were also placed in internment camps, as were 2,373 persons of Italian ancestry. However, unlike the case with Japanese Americans, they represented only a tiny percentage of the members of these ethnic groups living in the country. Most of these people were innocent of any wrongdoing, but some Germans were members of the Nazi party. No interned Japanese Americans were found guilty of sabotage or espionage.
Despite being singled out for special treatment, many Japanese Americans sought to enlist, but draft boards commonly classified them as 4-C: undesirable aliens. However, as the war ground on, some were reclassified as eligible for service. In total, nearly thirty-three thousand Japanese Americans served in the military during the war. Of particular note was the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, nicknamed the “Go For Broke,” which finished the war as the most decorated unit in U.S. military history given its size and length of service. While their successes, and the successes of the African American pilots, were lauded, the country and the military still struggled to contend with its own racial tensions, even as the soldiers in Europe faced the brutality of Nazi Germany.
This U.S. government propaganda film attempts to explain why the Japanese were interned.
Section Summary
The brunt of the war’s damage occurred far from United States soil, but Americans at home were still greatly affected by the war. Women struggled to care for children with scarce resources at their disposal and sometimes while working full time. Economically, the country surged forward, but strict rationing for the war effort meant that Americans still went without. New employment opportunities opened up for women and ethnic minorities, as white men enlisted or were drafted. These new opportunities were positive for those who benefited from them, but they also created new anxieties among white men about racial and gender equality. Race riots took place across the country, and Americans of Japanese ancestry were relocated to internment camps. Still, there was an overwhelming sense of patriotism in the country, which was reflected in the culture of the day.
Review Questions
During World War II, unionized workers agreed ________.
- to work without pay
- to go without vacations or days off
- to live near the factories to save time commuting
- to keep production going by not striking
Hint:
D
The program to recruit Mexican agricultural workers during World War II was the ________.
- bracero program
- maquiladora program
- brazzos program
- campesino program
Hint:
A
What were American women’s contributions to the war effort?
Hint:
Many American women joined the armed forces, where they served as nurses, repaired and piloted airplanes, drove trucks, and performed clerical duties. Women in civilian life assumed occupations, often in the defense industries, that would have gone to men in times of peace. Women who did not take on wartime employment also contributed by recycling scarce materials, buying war bonds, planning meals using rationed foods, and generally making do with less.
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Victory in the European Theater
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the major battles of the European theater
- Analyze the goals and results of the major wartime summit meetings
Despite the fact that a Japanese attack in the Pacific was the tripwire for America’s entrance into the war, Roosevelt had been concerned about Great Britain since the beginning of the Battle of Britain. Roosevelt viewed Germany as the greater threat to freedom. Hence, he leaned towards a “Europe First” strategy, even before the United States became an active belligerent. That meant that the United States would concentrate the majority of its resources and energies in achieving a victory over Germany first and then focus on defeating Japan. Within Europe, Churchill and Roosevelt were committed to saving Britain and acted with this goal in mind, often ignoring the needs of the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt imagined an “empire-free” postwar world, in keeping with the goals of the Atlantic Charter, he could also envision the United States becoming the preeminent world power economically, politically, and militarily.
WARTIME DIPLOMACY
Franklin Roosevelt entered World War II with an eye toward a new postwar world, one where the United States would succeed Britain as the leader of Western capitalist democracies, replacing the old British imperial system with one based on free trade and decolonization. The goals of the Atlantic Charter had explicitly included self-determination, self-government, and free trade. In 1941, although Roosevelt had yet to meet Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, he had confidence that he could forge a positive relationship with him, a confidence that Churchill believed was born of naiveté. These allied leaders, known as the Big Three, thrown together by the necessity to defeat common enemies, took steps towards working in concert despite their differences.
Through a series of wartime conferences, Roosevelt and the other global leaders sought to come up with a strategy to both defeat the Germans and bolster relationships among allies. In January 1943, at Casablanca, Morocco, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to delay an invasion of France in favor of an invasion of Sicily (Figure). It was also at this conference that Roosevelt enunciated the doctrine of “unconditional surrender.” Roosevelt agreed to demand an unconditional surrender from Germany and Japan to assure the Soviet Union that the United States would not negotiate a separate peace and prepare the former belligerents for a thorough and permanent transformation after the war. Roosevelt thought that announcing this as a specific war aim would discourage any nation or leader from seeking any negotiated armistice that would hinder efforts to reform and transform the defeated nations. Stalin, who was not at the conference, affirmed the concept of unconditional surrender when asked to do so. However, he was dismayed over the delay in establishing a “second front” along which the Americans and British would directly engage German forces in western Europe. A western front, brought about through an invasion across the English Channel, which Stalin had been demanding since 1941, offered the best means of drawing Germany away from the east. At a meeting in Tehran, Iran, also in November 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met to finalize plans for a cross-channel invasion.
THE INVASION OF EUROPE
Preparing to engage the Nazis in Europe, the United States landed in North Africa in 1942. The Axis campaigns in North Africa had begun when Italy declared war on England in June 1940, and British forces had invaded the Italian colony of Libya. The Italians had responded with a counteroffensive that penetrated into Egypt, only to be defeated by the British again. In response, Hitler dispatched the Afrika Korps under General Erwin Rommel, and the outcome of the situation was in doubt until shortly before American forces joined the British.
Although the Allied campaign secured control of the southern Mediterranean and preserved Egypt and the Suez Canal for the British, Stalin and the Soviets were still engaging hundreds of German divisions in bitter struggles at Stalingrad and Leningrad. The invasion of North Africa did nothing to draw German troops away from the Soviet Union. An invasion of Europe by way of Italy, which is what the British and American campaign in North Africa laid the ground for, pulled a few German divisions away from their Russian targets. But while Stalin urged his allies to invade France, British and American troops pursued the defeat of Mussolini’s Italy. This choice greatly frustrated Stalin, who felt that British interests were taking precedence over the agony that the Soviet Union was enduring at the hands of the invading German army. However, Churchill saw Italy as the vulnerable underbelly of Europe and believed that Italian support for Mussolini was waning, suggesting that victory there might be relatively easy. Moreover, Churchill pointed out that if Italy were taken out of the war, then the Allies would control the Mediterranean, offering the Allies easier shipping access to both the Soviet Union and the British Far Eastern colonies.
D-Day
A direct assault on Nazi Germany’s “Fortress Europe” was still necessary for final victory. On June 6, 1944, the second front became a reality when Allied forces stormed the beaches of northern France on D-day. Beginning at 6:30 a.m., some twenty-four thousand British, Canadian, and American troops waded ashore along a fifty-mile piece of the Normandy coast (Figure). Well over a million troops would follow their lead. German forces on the hills and cliffs above shot at them, and once they reached the beach, they encountered barbed wire and land mines. More than ten thousand Allied soldiers were wounded or killed during the assault. Following the establishment of beachheads at Normandy, it took months of difficult fighting before Paris was liberated on August 20, 1944. The invasion did succeed in diverting German forces from the eastern front to the western front, relieving some of the pressure on Stalin’s troops. By that time, however, Russian forces had already defeated the German army at Stalingrad, an event that many consider the turning point of the war in Europe, and begun to push the Germans out of the Soviet Union.
Nazi Germany was not ready to surrender, however. On December 16, in a surprise move, the Germans threw nearly a quarter-million men at the Western Allies in an attempt to divide their armies and encircle major elements of the American forces. The struggle, known as the Battle of the Bulge, raged until the end of January. Some ninety thousand Americans were killed, wounded, or lost in action. Nevertheless, the Germans were turned back, and Hitler’s forces were so spent that they could never again mount offensive operations.
Confronting the Holocaust
The Holocaust, Hitler’s plan to kill the Jews of Europe, had begun as early as 1933, with the construction of Dachau, the first of more than forty thousand camps for incarcerating Jews, submitting them to forced labor, or exterminating them. Eventually, six extermination camps were established between 1941 and 1945 in Polish territory. Jewish men, women, and children from throughout Europe were transported to these camps in Germany and other areas under Nazi control. Although the majority of the people in the camps were Jews, the Nazis sent Roma (gypsies), gays and lesbians, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and political opponents to the camps as well. Some prisoners were put to work at hard labor; many of them subsequently died of disease or starvation. Most of those sent to the extermination camps were killed upon arrival with poisoned gas. Ultimately, some eleven million people died in the camps. As Soviet troops began to advance from the east and U.S. forces from the west, camp guards attempted to hide the evidence of their crimes by destroying records and camp buildings, and marching surviving prisoners away from the sites (Figure).
Felix L. Sparks on the Liberation of Dachau
The horrors of the concentration camps remained with the soldiers who liberated them long after the war had ended. Below is an excerpt of the recollection of one soldier.
Our first experience with the camp came as a traumatic shock. The first evidence of the horrors to come was a string of forty railway cars on a railway spur leading into the camp. Each car was filled with emaciated human corpses, both men and women. A hasty search by the stunned infantry soldiers revealed no signs of life among the hundreds of still bodies, over two thousand in all.
It was in this atmosphere of human depravity, degradation and death that the soldiers of my battalion then entered the camp itself. Almost all of the SS command guarding the camp had fled before our arrival, leaving behind about two hundred lower ranking members of the command. There was some sporadic firing of weapons. As we approached the confinement area, the scene numbed my senses. Dante’s Inferno seemed pale compared to the real hell of Dachau. A row of small cement structures near the prison entrance contained a coal-fired crematorium, a gas chamber, and rooms piled high with naked and emaciated corpses. As I turned to look over the prison yard with un-believing eyes, I saw a large number of dead inmates lying where they has fallen in the last few hours or days before our arrival. Since all of the bodies were in various stages of decomposition, the stench of death was overpowering. The men of the 45th Infantry Division were hardened combat veterans. We had been in combat almost two years at that point. While we were accustomed to death, we were not able to comprehend the type of death that we encountered at Dachau.
—Felix L. Sparks, remarks at the U.S. Holocaust Museum, May 8, 1995
Listen to the accounts of Holocaust survivors by clicking on “Listen Now” below the name of the person whose story you wish to hear.
YALTA AND PREPARING FOR VICTORY
The last time the Big Three met was in early February 1945 at Yalta in the Soviet Union. Roosevelt was sick, and Stalin’s armies were pushing the German army back towards Berlin from the east. Churchill and Roosevelt thus had to accept a number of compromises that strengthened Stalin’s position in eastern Europe. In particular, they agreed to allow the Communist government installed by the Soviet Union in Poland to remain in power until free elections took place. For his part, Stalin reaffirmed his commitment, first voiced at Tehran, to enter the war against Japan following the surrender of Germany (Figure). He also agreed that the Soviet Union would participate in the United Nations, a new peacekeeping body intended to replace the League of Nations. The Big Three left Yalta with many details remaining unclear, planning to finalize plans for the treatment of Germany and the shape of postwar Europe at a later conference. However, Roosevelt did not live to attend the next meeting. He died on April 12, 1945, and Harry S. Truman became president.
By April 1945, Soviet forces had reached Berlin, and both the U.S. and British Allies were pushing up against Germany’s last defenses in the western part of the nation. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. On May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered. The war in Europe was over, and the Allies and liberated regions celebrated the end of the long ordeal. Germany was thoroughly defeated; its industries and cities were badly damaged.
The victorious Allies set about determining what to do to rebuild Europe at the Potsdam Summit Conference in July 1945. Attending the conference were Stalin, Truman, and Churchill, now the outgoing prime minister, as well as the new British prime minister, Clement Atlee. Plans to divide Germany and Austria, and their capital cities, into four zones—to be occupied by the British, French, Americans, and Soviets—a subject discussed at Yalta, were finalized. In addition, the Allies agreed to dismantle Germany’s heavy industry in order to make it impossible for the country to produce more armaments.
Section Summary
Upon entering the war, President Roosevelt believed that the greatest threat to the long-term survival of democracy and freedom would be a German victory. Hence, he entered into an alliance with British prime minister Winston Churchill and Soviet premier Joseph Stalin to defeat the common enemy while also seeking to lay the foundation for a peaceful postwar world in which the United States would play a major and permanent role. Appeasement and nonintervention had been proven to be shortsighted and tragic policies that failed to provide security and peace either for the United States or for the world.
With the aid of the British, the United States invaded North Africa and from there invaded Europe by way of Italy. However, the cross-channel invasion of Europe through France that Stalin had long called for did not come until 1944, by which time the Soviets had turned the tide of battle in eastern Europe. The liberation of Hitler’s concentration camps forced Allied nations to confront the grisly horrors that had been taking place as the war unfolded. The Big Three met for one last time in February 1945, at Yalta, where Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to several conditions that strengthened Stalin’s position. They planned to finalize their plans at a later conference, but Roosevelt died two months later.
Review Questions
Which of the following demands did the Soviet Union make of Britain and the United States?
- the right to try all Nazi war criminals in the Soviet Union
- the invasion of North Africa to help the Soviet Union’s ally Iraq
- the invasion of western Europe to draw German forces away from the Soviet Union
- the right to place Communist Party leaders in charge of the German government
Hint:
C
What did Roosevelt mean to achieve with his demand for Germany and Japan’s unconditional surrender?
Hint:
Roosevelt believed that his demand for an unconditional surrender from Germany and Japan would serve several purposes: It would provide reassurance to the Soviet Union of the nation’s loyalty, prepare the Axis nations for a complete postwar transformation, and prevent any other nations from engaging in negotiations that would undermine the Big Three’s plans for the defeated belligerents.
What were the phases of the Holocaust?
Hint:
The first prison camps for Jews and other “enemies” of the Nazis were built in Germany in 1933. Following the invasion of eastern Europe, more camps, including extermination camps, were built in areas conquered by the Nazis. People, primarily Jews, were shipped to these camps from throughout Nazi-controlled Europe.
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.716369
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15538/overview
|
The Pacific Theater and the Atomic Bomb
Overview
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the strategy employed against the Japanese and some of the significant battles of the Pacific campaign
- Describe the effects of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Analyze the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan
Japanese forces won a series of early victories against Allied forces from December 1941 to May 1942. They seized Guam and Wake Island from the United States, and streamed through Malaysia and Thailand into the Philippines and through the Dutch East Indies. By February 1942, they were threatening Australia. The Allies turned the tide in May and June 1942, at the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The Battle of Midway witnessed the first Japanese naval defeat since the nineteenth century. Shortly after the American victory, U.S. forces invaded Guadalcanal and New Guinea. Slowly, throughout 1943, the United States engaged in a campaign of “island hopping,” gradually moving across the Pacific to Japan. In 1944, the United States, seized Saipan and won the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Progressively, American forces drew closer to the strategically important targets of Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
THE PACIFIC CAMPAIGN
During the 1930s, Americans had caught glimpses of Japanese armies in action and grew increasingly sympathetic towards war-torn China. Stories of Japanese atrocities bordering on genocide and the shock of the attack on Pearl Harbor intensified racial animosity toward the Japanese. Wartime propaganda portrayed Japanese soldiers as uncivilized and barbaric, sometimes even inhuman (Figure), unlike America’s German foes. Admiral William Halsey spoke for many Americans when he urged them to “Kill Japs! Kill Japs! Kill more Japs!” Stories of the dispiriting defeats at Bataan and the Japanese capture of the Philippines at Corregidor in 1942 revealed the Japanese cruelty and mistreatment of Americans. The “Bataan Death March,” during which as many as 650 American and 10,000 Filipino prisoners of war died, intensified anti-Japanese feelings. Kamikaze attacks that took place towards the end of the war were regarded as proof of the irrationality of Japanese martial values and mindless loyalty to Emperor Hirohito.
Despite the Allies’ Europe First strategy, American forces took the resources that they could assemble and swung into action as quickly as they could to blunt the Japanese advance. Infuriated by stories of defeat at the hands of the allegedly racially inferior Japanese, many high-ranking American military leaders demanded that greater attention be paid to the Pacific campaign. Rather than simply wait for the invasion of France to begin, naval and army officers such as General Douglas MacArthur argued that American resources should be deployed in the Pacific to reclaim territory seized by Japan.
In the Pacific, MacArthur and the Allied forces pursued an island hopping strategy that bypassed certain island strongholds held by the Japanese that were of little or no strategic value. By seizing locations from which Japanese communications and transportation routes could be disrupted or destroyed, the Allies advanced towards Japan without engaging the thousands of Japanese stationed on garrisoned islands. The goal was to advance American air strength close enough to Japan proper to achieve air superiority over the home islands; the nation could then be bombed into submission or at least weakened in preparation for an amphibious assault. By February 1945, American forces had reached the island of Iwo Jima (Figure). Iwo Jima was originally meant to serve as a forward air base for fighter planes, providing cover for long-distance bombing raids on Japan. Two months later, an even larger engagement, the hardest fought and bloodiest battle of the Pacific theater, took place as American forces invaded Okinawa. The battle raged from April 1945 well into July 1945; the island was finally secured at the cost of seventeen thousand American soldiers killed and thirty-six thousand wounded. Japanese forces lost over 100,000 troops. Perhaps as many as 150,000 civilians perished as well.
DROPPING THE ATOMIC BOMB
All belligerents in World War II sought to develop powerful and devastating weaponry. As early as 1939, German scientists had discovered how to split uranium atoms, the technology that would ultimately allow for the creation of the atomic bomb. Albert Einstein, who had emigrated to the United States in 1933 to escape the Nazis, urged President Roosevelt to launch an American atomic research project, and Roosevelt agreed to do so, with reservations. In late 1941, the program received its code name: the Manhattan Project. Located at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the Manhattan Project ultimately employed 150,000 people and cost some $2 billion. In July 1945, the project’s scientists successfully tested the first atomic bomb.
In the spring of 1945, the military began to prepare for the possible use of an atomic bomb by choosing appropriate targets. Suspecting that the immediate bomb blast would extend over one mile and secondary effects would include fire damage, a compact city of significant military value with densely built frame buildings seemed to be the best target. Eventually, the city of Hiroshima, the headquarters of the Japanese Second Army, and the communications and supply hub for all of southern Japan, was chosen. The city of Kokura was chosen as the primary target of the second bomb, and Nagasaki, an industrial center producing war materiel and the largest seaport in southern Japan, was selected as a secondary target.
The Enola Gay, a B-29 bomber named after its pilot’s mother, dropped an atomic bomb known as “Little Boy” on Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. Monday morning, August 6, 1945. A huge mushroom cloud rose above the city. Survivors sitting down for breakfast or preparing to go to school recalled seeing a bright light and then being blown across the room. The immense heat of the blast melted stone and metal, and ignited fires throughout the city. One man later recalled watching his mother and brother burn to death as fire consumed their home. A female survivor, a child at the time of the attack, remembered finding the body of her mother, which had been reduced to ashes and fell apart as she touched it. Two-thirds of the buildings in Hiroshima were destroyed. Within an hour after the bombing, radioactive “black rain” began to fall. Approximately seventy thousand people died in the original blast. The same number would later die of radiation poisoning. When Japan refused to surrender, a second atomic bomb, named Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. At least sixty thousand people were killed at Nagasaki. Kokura, the primary target, had been shrouded in clouds on that morning and thus had escaped destruction. It is impossible to say with certainty how many died in the two attacks; the heat of the bomb blasts incinerated or vaporized many of the victims (Figure).
Visit the Atomic Bomb Museum site to read the accounts of survivors Hiroshi Morishita and Shizuko Nishimoto.
The decision to use nuclear weapons is widely debated. Why exactly did the United States deploy an atomic bomb? The fierce resistance that the Japanese forces mounted during their early campaigns led American planners to believe that any invasion of the Japanese home islands would be exceedingly bloody. According to some estimates, as many as 250,000 Americans might die in securing a final victory. Such considerations undoubtedly influenced President Truman’s decision. Truman, who had not known about the Manhattan Project until Roosevelt’s death, also may not have realized how truly destructive it was. Indeed, some of the scientists who had built the bomb were surprised by its power. One question that has not been fully answered is why the United States dropped the second bomb on Nagasaki. As some scholars have noted, if Truman’s intention was to eliminate the need for a home island invasion, he could have given Japan more time to respond after bombing Hiroshima. He did not, however. The second bombing may have been intended to send a message to Stalin, who was becoming intransigent regarding postwar Europe. If it is indeed true that Truman had political motivations for using the bombs, then the destruction of Nagasaki might have been the first salvo of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. And yet, other historians have pointed out that the war had unleashed such massive atrocities against civilians by all belligerents—the United States included—that by the summer of 1945, the president no longer needed any particular reason to use his entire nuclear arsenal.
THE WAR ENDS
Whatever the true reasons for their use, the bombs had the desired effect of getting Japan to surrender. Even before the atomic attacks, the conventional bombings of Japan, the defeat of its forces in the field, and the entry of the Soviet Union into the war had convinced the Imperial Council that they had to end the war. They had hoped to negotiate the terms of the peace, but Emperor Hirohito intervened after the destruction of Nagasaki and accepted unconditional surrender. Although many Japanese shuddered at the humiliation of defeat, most were relieved that the war was over. Japan’s industries and cities had been thoroughly destroyed, and the immediate future looked bleak as they awaited their fate at the hands of the American occupation forces.
The victors had yet another nation to rebuild and reform, but the war was finally over. Following the surrender, the Japanese colony of Korea was divided along the thirty-eighth parallel; the Soviet Union was given control of the northern half and the United States was given control of the southern portion. In Europe, as had been agreed upon at a meeting of the Allies in Potsdam in the summer of 1945, Germany was divided into four occupation zones that would be controlled by Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States, respectively. The city of Berlin was similarly split into four. Plans were made to prosecute war criminals in both Japan and Germany. In October 1945, the United Nations was created. People around the world celebrated the end of the conflict, but America’s use of atomic bombs and disagreements between the United States and the Soviet Union at Yalta and Potsdam would contribute to ongoing instability in the postwar world.
Section Summary
The way in which the United States fought the war in the Pacific was fueled by fear of Japanese imperialistic aggression, as well as anger over Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and its mistreatment of its enemies. It was also influenced by a long history of American racism towards Asians that dated back to the nineteenth century. From hostile anti-Japanese propaganda to the use of two atomic bombs on Japanese cities, America’s actions during the Pacific campaign were far more aggressive than they were in the European theater. Using the strategy of island hopping, the United States was able to get within striking distance of Japan. Only once they adopted this strategy were the Allied troops able to turn the tide against what had been a series of challenging Japanese victories. The war ended with Japan’s surrender.
The combined Allied forces had successfully waged a crusade against Nazi Germany, Italy, and Japan. The United States, forced to abandon a policy of nonintervention outside the Western Hemisphere, had been able to mobilize itself and produce the weapons and the warriors necessary to defeat its enemies. Following World War II, America would never again retreat from the global stage, and its early mastery of nuclear weapons would make it the dominant force in the postwar world.
Review Questions
Which of the following islands had to be captured in order to provide a staging area for U.S. bombing raids against Japan?
- Sakhalin
- Iwo Jima
- Molokai
- Reunion
Hint:
B
What purpose did the Allied strategy of island hopping serve?
Hint:
Allied forces intentionally avoided Japanese-held island strongholds that did not serve them strategically, instead securing locations that allowed them to interfere with Japanese communications and transportation routes. In this way, the Allies made their way towards Japan with limited military engagement. The goal was to get close enough to the Japanese home islands to achieve air superiority, paving the way for Allied assaults by air or water.
Why might President Truman have made the decision to drop the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki?
Hint:
Truman wanted to end the war quickly and save lives by avoiding an invasion of the Japanese home islands. However, he might have achieved this by waiting for a definitive response from Japan following the bombing of Hiroshima. Truman may also have wanted to demonstrate America’s power to the Soviet Union and hoped that the unleashing of his nuclear arsenal would send a strong message to Stalin.
Critical Thinking Questions
Given that the Japanese war against China began in 1937 and German aggression began in Europe in 1936, why was it not until 1941 that the United States joined the war against the Axis powers? Was the decision to stay out of the war until 1941 a wise one on the part of the United States?
Should the United States have done more to help European Jews during the 1930s? What could it have done?
In what ways did World War II improve the status of women and African Americans in the United States?
Should the U.S. government have ordered the internment of Japanese Americans? Does the fear of espionage or sabotage justify depriving American citizens of their rights?
Did the United States make the right decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan?
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oercommons
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2025-03-18T00:35:00.745442
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15572/overview
|
United States Population Chart
| Census Year | Population | Census Year | Population | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1610 | 350 | 1820 | 9,638,453 | |
| 1620 | 2,302 | 1830 | 12,866,020 | |
| 1630 | 4,646 | 1840 | 17,069,453 | |
| 1640 | 26,634 | 1850 | 23,191,876 | |
| 1650 | 50,368 | 1860 | 31,443,321 | |
| 1660 | 75,058 | 1870 | 38,558,371 | |
| 1670 | 111,935 | 1880 | 50,189,209 | |
| 1680 | 151,507 | 1890 | 62,979,766 | |
| 1690 | 210,372 | 1900 | 76,212,168 | |
| 1700 | 250,888 | 1910 | 92,228,496 | |
| 1710 | 331,711 | 1920 | 106,021,537 | |
| 1720 | 466,185 | 1930 | 123,202,624 | |
| 1730 | 629,445 | 1940 | 132,164,569 | |
| 1740 | 905,563 | 1950 | 151,325,798 | |
| 1750 | 1,170,760 | 1960 | 179,323,175 | |
| 1760 | 1,593,625 | 1970 | 203,211,926 | |
| 1770 | 2,148,076 | 1980 | 226,656,805 | |
| 1780 | 2,780,369 | 1990 | 248,709,873 | |
| 1790 | 3,929,214 | 2000 | 281,421,906 | |
| 1800 | 5,308,483 | 2010 | 308,745,538 | |
| 1810 | 7,239,881 |
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:35:00.764479
| null |
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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98340/overview
|
29428436431_170dc675d7_o
Pedagogy
Overview
Pedagogy is a simple concept that makes a big impact on the world of education. How does this study evole the education system and itself as a medium? Find out here!
What is Pedagogy?
What is Pedagogy?
Pedagogy is defined as the study of the various methods teachers use to teach students.
Pedagogy is further defined as an educational discipline studying how knowledge and skills are imparted to students in a classroom setting.
Basics of Pedagogy
Various methods by various people have evolved and shaped future methods across the ages.
Researchers set up many experiments meant for studying cause and effect with the various methods of teachers. This is to improve the methods of teachers for the future.
Sources:
"Educational Resource: 'Reminder of a Differentiated Instruction'" by Ken Whytock is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.
Distance Learning
Distance Learning is becoming more and more relevant to the discussion and study of Pedagogy in the modern day.
As more and more classroom become virtual classrooms through long distance communication technology long distance learning is becomming more and more viable.
The unique challenges of long distance learning can be aided with the methods of brick and mortar classrooms.On the other hand, they will also need to be quickly adapted to the unique space of virtual classrooms.
Student Centered Learning
Student centered learning is an integral part of developing methods that are effective in teaching students. The students' perspectives are thouroughly studied by experts who hope to help future students learn even more.
A common approach to breaking down the students' perspectives on course work is Bloom's Taxonomy. This model breaks down the cognitive processes that teachers should try to instill in students. This modle labels the cognitive processes as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. This helps students retain information and leads them to make creative use of the knowledge they learn.
Source:
"Bloom's Taxonomy" by Vandy CFT is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
The Future of Pedagogy
What the future holds for schools across the world is uncertain, but that's all the more reason pedagogy is an important field for the future of education.
Pedagogy will continue to evolve alsongside new technologies, new discoveries, and new perspectives from a whole new generation.
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oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:35:00.786532
|
10/30/2022
|
{
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98340/overview",
"title": "Pedagogy",
"author": "Katherine Gallagher"
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|
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63319/overview
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Communication Skills
Overview
Flickrcommons,
oercommons.
Levels of Communication Skills
Good Communication
Good communication skills are essential in your online course. There are many different ways you’ll communicate with your instructor and other students in your class, so we’ve created this module to introduce you to common terms you’ll need to know and familiarize you with some concepts that we hope will lead you to success in your class.
Our job in this module is to teach you:
- the vocabulary that may be used to describe communication in your online class,
- how communication is different for you as a student when you’re learning online,
- some of the advantages and disadvantages of academic online communication, and
- how to become an effective communicator in your online course.
Definitions
Let’s begin with a few definitions.
First let’s talk about the two types of communication that can be used in an online class:
- Asynchronous communication is when you, your classmates, and your instructor participate in online discussions at different times, rather than in real time. So if you send your instructor a question via email, participate in an online discussion forum, or post to a blog for your class, you are communicating asynchronously.
- Synchronous communication happens in real time, like having a class discussion in a traditional setting or talking to a teacher after class. But you can communicate synchronously in an online environment too, through the use of tools like online chat; Internet voice of video calling systems like Skype or Google Hang-outs; or through the use of web-based video conferencing software like WebEx, Zoom, or Collaborate.
Discussion Boards
The discussion board (also known as a discussion forum, or message board) is one of the most popular features in a Course Management System, and it’s one place where your asynchronous classroom discussions can occur. Your instructor may post the first message (or prompt) and ask students to reply to their initial post, or they may choose to allow students to post a topic (or thread) and engage the class in the online conversation that way. Both methods are equally effective, and discussions in your online courses are likely to vary, just like your discussions in a traditional class can differ depending on your instructor and their personal teaching style
Blogs
Think of a blog as a website journal or diary. Blogs are usually run by an individual or a small group. Entries are made periodically and typically displayed in reverse chronological order (so, the most recent post will appear first). Most blogs are set up to allow readers to post comments below each entry, and it is often just as informative to read the comments and criticisms of fellow readers as it is to read the initial blog post. Some instructors may require you to post or review blogs during your online course, and they can be a useful source of information. Keep in mind, though, that blogs are typically personal communication platforms, so be sure to double-check facts or information you might find on a blog with a verified source before using it in your research.
Now that we’ve talked a little bit about different kinds of asynchronous communication, let’s talk about some forms of synchronous communication.
Chat
Many Course Management Systems have a text-based chat feature that will allow you to exchange messages with others who are online at the same time as you. Sometimes instructors will use the chat feature as a way to hold office hours or a study session. Because chat happens in real time, there is a sense of immediate gratification—you don’t have to wait several hours (or more) for a response like you might have to with email.
Video Calls
Skype is a free software application that will enable you to make voice and video phone calls over the internet. Once you download, register, and install the software for Skype, you’ll probably want to plug in a headset or a microphone and speakers so that you can hear others and they can hear you more clearly. If you are using video, you’ll need a web cam, but many newer computers and laptops now include this as part of their standard equipment.
Video Conferencing
Video Conferencing software applications like Zoom, Collaborate, or WebEx are designed to support larger groups than Skype. They can provide a virtual experience that closely replicates an on-campus classroom. Many videoconferencing applications include useful features like:
- the ability to share desktops,
- the ability to share files
- online chat windows
- break-out rooms for small group work
So your computer can truly become a window into a live classroom where students and instructors can interact and collaborate at the same time.
Netiquette
Finally, “netiquette”, which is the correct or acceptable way to communicate online—it’s the code of online etiquette you should abide by, especially when in an academic or professional setting. This goes for both synchronous and asynchronous communication. Netiquette includes respectful behavior, appropriate language, and an acknowledgement of other people’s privacy interests. Remember, your classroom discussions should be much more formal than the type of discussions you may have with your friends on Facebook or Twitter.
Student Q&A
Now that we’ve covered some of the basic terminology, let’s start digging a little deeper into these topics. Here are some typical questions that students have about communicating online
Student 1: Ok, so you’ve told us about the differences between synchronous and asynchronous communication. But what does this mean for me?
Online class communication often takes place asynchronously rather than in real time, giving you a chance to research, write, and edit your answers, instead of being put “on the spot” during class. Think of this as an opportunity for you to really reflect and compose your thoughts carefully before you make a response.
Synchronous sessions are similar to what you experience in your traditional classes. Discussions can often be more lively this way, because interactions are immediate since everyone is in the virtual room at the same time. They can also help an online class bond more quickly, if used early in the semester.
Student 2: Will my online communications be permanent?
Yes–when you communicate asynchronously online, you create a permanent record of your words. All of your electronic communication will be dated, and because of this it can be easily organized, stored and reviewed (usually for grading purposes) at a later date. Because your words are enduring, it is a good idea to compose your electronic communications carefully before posting.
Student 3: I generally feel more comfortable talking online than in person. Is online communication easier than face-to-face communication in a classroom, too?
It can be. When you communicate through email, private messages, a discussion board, or a blog, you’re somewhat anonymous. Your instructor and classmates may not know your age, gender, race, ethnicity, or other physical characteristics. Some students find that this environment gives them extra confidence if they are normally shy or tongue-tied in front of instructors or other students.
Student 4: This isn’t really a question, but more of a concern. I’m worried that there will be more potential for misunderstanding when I’m communicating online than when I’m communicating face-to-face.
This is a valid concern, because the teacher and your classmates cannot see your body language or hear your voice, written words can sometimes be misinterpreted. Review your written communications in an online course carefully before posting and try to remove any language that could be interpreted as offensive or inappropriate.
Student 5: Can I make friends in an online course?
Absolutely! If you’re normally reserved in front of other people, an online environment can make it feel like you can express your ideas more freely. Discussion boards and blogs often create a real sense of community as you respond to your instructor’s and other students’ posts, and they respond to yours. In an online course everyone has a chance (and is expected) to speak.
Student 6: I get that email and discussion boards will be important, but will any of my online course communication be synchronous? I thought that I would be able to do all of my online work on my own schedule…
It depends on the course, but it is likely! Many online instructors use online chat, Skype and videoconferencing tools like Zoom, Collaborate/CCCConfer, or WebEx. It will also provide a nice contrast to the asynchronous communication you’ll be doing in your course, because it presents an opportunity to be more interactive. You’ll want to check your syllabus early on to see if your instructor has scheduled any synchronous sessions for your online course, and make note of those dates and times—as we already pointed out, these will take place in real time, and you don’t want to miss class!
Student 7: Can you give me some tips for writing effectively in an online educational environment? I don’t want to get started on the wrong foot.
If you can write well, you’ll already have an advantage in an online course: effective writing is essential to your success. But we do have some more suggestions that you should find helpful:
- Always proof your writing for spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors.
- Keep your posts concise.
- Avoid slang and offensive language.
- Look for opportunities to collaborate with other students in the course.
- If you find you’ve written a negative comment, try reframing it in a way that is more conducive for creating discussion. It’s ok to disagree with someone, but being disagreeable or making personal attacks is not.
Student 8: Ok, so how do I go about writing a respectful and respectable discussion post?
First, make sure that you read your instructor’s directions and follow them carefully. This is the most basic way of showing respect for your instructor and the others in the classroom. Second, take your time before you respond, when your online instructor posts topical questions to a discussion board, and he or she is requesting your informed response.
Email Netiquette
In this last section we’ll review a term we introduced earlier in the module, “netiquette” and extend this to include email etiquette, a particularly important part of taking almost any class today (whether it’s online or face-to-face). Just as a reminder, “netiquette” is the correct or acceptable code of conduct for communicating online.
Here’s your challenge: based on the tips we’ve talked about today, help Brittany compose an email to her history professor asking when the midterm will take place. At each step you’ll be presented with two choices of sentences or phrases—simply select the choice you think is best.
- The salutation.
- “Dear Professor Kennedy,”
- “Hi,”
Correct answer: a. When addressing your teacher, include a title such as “Professor” or “Instructor,” unless they ask you to address them otherwise. If you’re unsure of your instructor’s title, you can simply ask your teacher in a preliminary email.
- The question/concern.
- “do u kno when the midterm will b? thx”
- “I hope you’re well. I was wondering: do we have a date set for the midterm?”
Correct answer: b. Even though it might be a convenient shortcut for texting or Instant Messaging with your friends, don’t write email or a private message to your instructor or others in “text speak.” Punctuate your message correctly, check your spelling carefully, and begin the first word of each sentence with a capital letter. Showcase your brilliance!
- The wrap-up and sign-off.
- “Thank you so much for your help! Sincerely, Brittany.”
- “THANKS SO MUCH!!!!!!!!!”
Correct answer: a. Don’t use all capital letters for certain words or phrases in emails or private messages. Readers often interpret emails written in all caps as if the writer is yelling at them.
Great job, and thanks for getting Brittany off on the right track with her instructor! Before you leave we want to leave you with one final, feline acronym that will help you remember 3 important aspects of email etiquette: RAR!
R: Respond. Respond to email and private messages in a timely manner; don’t let more than two days elapse before replying to your instructor or another student.
A: Attach. If you’ve included an attachment with your email, mention it in the body of the email. Then double-check that you actually included the attachment before you hit “send.”
R: Re-read. This goes for emails, as well as any other written text you submit in your course. One of the biggest advantages of taking an online class is that you can really take your time to think about and formulate your responses before you deliver them.
Conclusion
You’re now ready to take on any online communication challenges you may encounter in your course. Congratulations on finishing the Online Communication Skills module, and don’t forget to RAR!
|
oercommons
|
2025-03-18T00:35:00.815606
|
02/25/2020
|
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"url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/63319/overview",
"title": "Communication Skills",
"author": "Dayanand Hattiambire"
}
|
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