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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107477/overview	Ellen Siem 2015 Notes for Thermal Physics (PH 354 at Southern Oregon University) Overview Ellen Siem 2015 Notes for Thermal Physics (PH 354 at Southern Oregon University) Ellen Siem 2015 Notes for Thermal Physics (PH 354 at Southern Oregon University) Ellen Siem 2015 Notes for Thermal Physics (PH 354 at Southern Oregon University)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.833445	08/05/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107477/overview", "title": "Ellen Siem 2015 Notes for Thermal Physics (PH 354 at Southern Oregon University)", "author": "Ellen Siem" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105016/overview	BIOREACTOR Overview Types of bioreactors. INTRODUCTION This pdf will give you an knowledge on bioreacter.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.849151	06/09/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105016/overview", "title": "BIOREACTOR", "author": "geetha isaiah" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114501/overview	"Triple H: History & Hip-Hop" Overview Demonstrating the connection between historical events and the Hip-Hop genre. This lesson is to introduce the Hip-Hop genre as well as identify its connection with events within history. This lesson is to give insight on the genre and how music was used to communicate and inform. "Triple H: History & Hip-Hop" Lesson Focus: Demonstrating the reflection of hip-hop music and historical events within the 70s/80s/90s Overview: Music is best known for providing art to the ears, but it can also be used as a form of communication as well as storytelling. We will spotlight how the rise of hip-hop within the 70s and 80s was to not only have people moving, shaking, and having a good time, but to also inform and enlighten them of what was going on within that time period. Within this lesson the students will explore the creation and development of hip-hop as well as the historical relations happening during the beginning of hip-hop. Students will learn about the usage of hip-hop and how it correlated with numerous factors within the time of its creation. Objectives: Once completed, the students will: - Be able to identify the foundation of what is known as the genre of hip-hop - Be able to identify the style/time period of hip-hop music - Be able to explain what makes a song qualified for hip-hop Activities: - “Prior Knowledge Icebreaker”: The students will be asked to identify which hip hop artist they know from memory, and then give a song that the artist has sung or is best known for (i.e. MC Hammer, 2 Legit 2 Quit). From there they will say a lyric they remember from that song and give their explanation on what they think the lyric means. - Watch the video clip “The Birth of Hip- Hop” ( The Birth of Hip-Hop ) from PBS. After watching the video clip, students will begin to point out the “factors” of hip hop. They will also describe some of the styles and locations that they saw within the video and how it may or may not have had an impact on the genre. - “Triple H: History & Hip-Hop”: The students will watch a clip “Hip- Hop and History Blend” (Hip-Hop & History Blend for Broadway Play). After watching the clip, the class will point out the usage of hip hop influences the reflection on history. The students will identify how the hit Broadway Musical “Hamilton” has used the art of hip-hop and rap lyrics to draw attention to US History. Assessment: Creating a digital timeline of hip hop music and events going on within society. Students will select a time period (70s, 80s, 90s), and label the timeline with events that impacted history. On the other side of the timeline, students will attach a song that was created that references that incident that happened during that time. Students will research both historical events as well as hip hop song history to present how each point correlates.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.865634	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114501/overview", "title": "\"Triple H: History & Hip-Hop\"", "author": "History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81338/overview	Introduction Email Assignment Overview This is an introductory assignment for the first week of a new semester. This assignment involves students sending a properly formatted introduction email to the professor of the class, answering several questions within the body of the email (e.g., which topic from the course schedule are they most excited to learn about). I use this Introduction Email assignment with almost all my classes. This achieves many goals at once: 1) it's a great way to open the lines of communication and help students feel more comfortable reaching out via email, 2) it helps me get to know my students better (and they get to know me better as well, because I respond to every intro email), and 3) it offers a way for students to practice good email etiquette (and to know that email etiquette is a thing that matters). Please feel free to adapt any part of this assignment for your own classes!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.881176	06/01/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81338/overview", "title": "Introduction Email Assignment", "author": "Ashley Hansen-Brown" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66744/overview	C Programming - Prof.R.Sandhiya Overview C Programming is the fundamental course in the ear of programming . C Programming - Prof.R.Sandhiya Introduction: Computer programming is the process of writing instructions that get executed by computers. The instructions, also known as code, are written in a programming language which the computer can understand and use to perform a task or solve a problem. Check my youtube channel and its videos! You tube - Sandhiya.R: Main Channel link - https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC69mGbg5IMZp1VLljb7L-tw/videos?view_as=subscriber	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.894455	05/14/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66744/overview", "title": "C Programming - Prof.R.Sandhiya", "author": "Sandhiya R" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82557/overview	Appropriate pain assessment is the foundation of effective pain treatment. Because pain is recognized as a subjective experience, the patient’s self-report is considered the most valid measure for pain and should be obtained as often as possible. Unfortunately in critical care, many factors such as the administration of sedative agents, the use of mechanical ventilation, and altered levels of consciousness may impact communication with patients. When the patient is unable to communicate in any way, observable behavioral and physiologic indicators become unique indices for pain assessment as recommended by clinical guidelines. Pain is frequently encountered in critical care, and there is increased emphasis on the professional responsibility to manage the patient’s pain effectively. The critical care nurse must understand the mechanisms, assessment process, and appropriate therapeutic measures for managing pain. DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF PAIN Pain - is as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage. Specifically, the subjective characteristic implies that pain is whatever the person experiencing it says it is and that it exists whenever the patient says it does. This definition also suggests that the patient is able to self-report. However, in the critical care context, many patients are unable to self-report their pain. Components of Pain The experience of pain includes sensory, affective, cognitive, behavioral, and physiologic components: · Sensory component: Perception of many characteristics of pain, such as intensity, location, and quality · Affective component: Negative emotions such as unpleasantness, anxiety, fear, and anticipation that may be associated with the experience of pain. · Cognitive component: Interpretation or the meaning of pain by the person who is experiencing it. · Behavioral component: Strategies used by the person to express, avoid, or control pain. · Physiologic component: Nociception and the stress response Types of Pain Pain can be acute or chronic, with different sensations related to the origin of the pain. Acute Pain: Acute pain has a short duration, and it usually corresponds to the healing process (30 days) but should not exceed 6 months. It implies tissue damage that is usually from an identifiable cause. Chronic Pain: Chronic pain persists for more than 6 months after the healing process from the original injury, and it may or may not be associated with an illness. It develops when the healing process is incomplete or when acute pain is poorly managed. Both acute and chronic pain can have a nociceptive or neuropathic origin. Nociceptive Pain: · Nociceptive pain arises from activation of nociceptors, and it can be somatic or visceral. · Somatic pain - involves superficial tissues, such as the skin, muscles, joints, and bones. Its location is well-defined. · Visceral pain - involves organs such as the heart, stomach, and liver. Its location is diffuse, and it can be referred to a different location in the body. Neuropathic Pain: · Neuropathic pain arises from a lesion or disease affecting the somatosensory system. · The origin of neuropathic pain may be peripheral or central. · Neuralgia and neuropathy are examples related to peripheral neuropathic pain, which implies a damage of the peripheral somatosensory system. · Central neuropathic pain involves the central somatosensory cortex and can be experienced by patients after a cerebral stroke. · Difficult to manage and frequently requires a multimodal approach that combines several pharmacological and/or nonpharmacological treatments. Physiology of Pain Nociception Nociception represents the neural processes of encoding and processing noxious stimuli but are not sufficient for pain. Pain results from the integration of the pain-related signal into specific cortical areas of the brain associated with higher mental processes and consciousness. In other words, pain is the conscious experience that may emerge from nociception. Four processes are involved in nociception: 1. Transduction: · refers to mechanical (e.g., surgical incision), thermal (e.g., burn), or chemical (e.g., toxic substance) stimuli that damage tissues. · These stimuli, also called stressors, stimulate the liberation of chemical substances, such as prostaglandins, bradykinin, serotonin, histamine, glutamate, and substance P. · These neurotransmitters stimulate peripheral nociceptive receptors and initiate nociceptive transmission. 2. Transmission: · An action potential is produced and is transmitted by nociceptive nerve fibers in the spinal cord that reach higher centers of the brain. · It represents the second process of nociception. The principal nociceptive fibers are the A-delta and C fibers. · Large-diameter, myelinated Aδ fibers transmit welllocalized, sharp pain, are involved in “first pain,” and lead to reflex withdrawal. · Small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers transmit diffuse, dull, aching pain, often referred to as“second pain.” These fibers transmit the noxious sensation from the periphery through the dorsal root of the spinal cord. · With the liberation of substance P, these fibers then synapse with ascending spinothalamic fibers to the central nervous system (CNS). These spinothalamic fibers are clustered into two specific pathways: neospinothalamic (NS) and paleospinothalamic (PS) pathways. Generally, the Ad fibers transmit the pain sensation to the brain within the NS pathway, and the C fibers use the PS pathway. · Through synapsing of nociceptive fibers with motor fibers in the spinal cord, muscle rigidity can appear because of a reflex activity. · Muscle rigidity can be a behavioral indicator associated with pain. It can contribute to immobility and decrease diaphragmatic excursion. · This can lead to hypoventilation and hypoxemia. Hypoxemia can be detected by a pulse oximeter (SpO2) and by oxygen arterial pressure (PaO2) monitoring. An intubated patient’s activation of alarms or fighting the ventilator may indicate the presence of pain. 3. Perception: · The pain message is transmitted by the spinothalamic pathways to centers in the brain, where it is perceived. · Pain sensation transmitted by the NS pathway reaches the thalamus, and the pain sensation transmitted by the PS pathway reaches brainstem, hypothalamus, and thalamus. · Pain sensation transmitted by the NS pathway reaches the thalamus, and the pain sensation transmitted by the PS pathway reaches brainstem, hypothalamus, and thalamus - contribute to the initial perception of pain. · Projections to the limbic system and the frontal cortex - allow expression of the affective component of pain. · Projections to the sensory cortex located in the parietal lobe - allow the patient to describe the sensory characteristics of pain, such as location, intensity, and quality. 4. Modulation: · Modulation is a process by which painful messages that travel from the nociceptive receptors to the CNS may be enhanced or inhibited. · A typical example of ascending pain modulation is rubbing an injury site, thus activating large A-beta fibers in the periphery. · In the descending pain modulation mechanism, the efferent spinothalamic nerve fibers that descend from the brain can inhibit the propagation of the pain signal by triggering the release of endogenous opioids in the brainstem and in the spinal cord. · Serotonin and norepinephrine are important inhibitory neurotransmitters that act in the CNS. · These substances are also released by the descending fibers of the descending spinothalamic pathway. · The use of distraction, relaxation, and imagery techniques facilitate the release of endogenous opioids and have been shown to reduce the overall pain experience. PAIN ASSESSMENT Pain assessment is an integral part of nursing care. It is a prerequisite for adequate pain control and relief. Pain assessment has two major components: 1) non observable or subjective 2) observable or objective. The complexity of pain assessment requires the use of multiple strategies. Pain Assessment: The Subjective Component Pain is a subjective experience.it refers to the patient’s self-report of pain, and this must be obtained whenever possible. A simple yes or no (presence versus absence of pain) is considered a valid self-report. Mechanical ventilation should not be a barrier for nurses to document patients’ self-reports of pain. Many mechanically ventilated patients can communicate that they have pain or can use pain scales by pointing to numbers or symbols on the scale. Sufficient time should be allowed for the patient to respond to the questions. If sedation and cognition levels allow the patient to give more information about pain, a multidimensional assessment can be documented. Multidimensional pain assessment tools, including the sensorial, emotional, and cognitive components, are available such as: · the Brief Pain Inventory, · the Initial Pain Assessment Tool · the McGill Pain Questionnaire–Short Form. The patient’s self-report of pain can also be obtained by questioning the patient using the mnemonic PQRSTU: P: provocative and palliative or aggravating factors - indicates what provokes or causes the patient’s pain, what he or she was doing when the pain appeared, and what makes the pain worse or better. Q: quality - the quality of the pain or the pain sensation that the patient is experiencing. R: region or location, radiation - ask that the patient point to the location on himself or herself or on a simple anatomic drawing. S: severity - denotes pain severity or intensity. T: timing - to documenting the onset, duration, and frequency of pain U: understanding - the patient’s perception of the problem or cognitive experience of pain. Pain Assessment: The Observable or Objective Component When the patient’s self-report is impossible to obtain, nurses can rely on the observation of behavioral indicators, which are strongly emphasized in clinical recommendations and guidelines for pain management in nonverbal patients. Similarly, fluctuations in physiologic indicators (i.e., vital signs) can be used as a cue to begin further assessment for pain. Pain-related behaviors have been described in critically ill patients and were studied in the AACN Thunder Project II. Patients who experienced pain during nociceptive procedures were three times more likely to have tense facial expressions, muscle rigidity, and vocalization than patients without pain. Patients who experienced pain during turning showed significantly more intense facial expressions (e.g., grimacing), muscle rigidity, and less compliance with the ventilator (e.g., fighting the ventilator) compared with patients without pain. Behavioral indicators are strongly recommended for pain assessment in nonverbal patients, and several tools are recommended in guidelines for critically ill adults, including the Behavioral Pain Scale (BPS) and the Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool (CPOT). Implementation of the BPS and the CPOT in the critical care unit has improved pain practices and patient outcomes, with shorter duration of mechanical ventilation and shorter length of stay. Behavioral Pain Scale The validity of its use was supported with significantly higher BPS scores during nociceptive procedures (e.g., turning, endotracheal suctioning, peripheral veinous cannulation) compared with rest or non-nociceptive procedures (e.g., arterial catheter dressing change, compression stocking applications, eye care). The authors of the BPS determined a cut-off score >5 for the presence of pain. Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool Validity of the CPOT use was supported with significantly higher CPOT scores during a nociceptive procedure (e.g., turning with or without other care) compared with rest or a nonnociceptive procedure (e.g., taking blood pressure). Positive associations were found between the CPOT scores and the patient’s self-report of pain. A cut-off score >2 was established with the CPOT in postoperative adults in critical care unit. Similarly, to the BPS, good interrater reliability of CPOT scores was achieved with critical care nurses. Feasibility and satisfaction of the CPOT were positively evaluated by nurses at 12-month postimplementation of its use in the critical care unit. Use of Cutoff Scores A cutoff score refers to the score on a specific scale associated with the best probability of correctly ruling in or ruling out a patient with a specific condition in this case, pain. The use of a cutoff score with behavioral pain scales can help to identify when pain is highly likely to be present and guide nurses in determining whether an intervention to alleviate pain is required or not. Also, a cutoff score can help to evaluate the effectiveness of pain management interventions. It is important to highlight that cutoff scores are established using a criterion (i.e., a gold standard in the field). Physiologic Indicators When patients cannot react behaviorally to pain, the only possible clues left for the detection of pain are physiologic indicators (i.e., vital signs). Although vital sign values generally increase during painful procedures, they are not consistently related to the patient’s self-report of pain, nor are they predictive of pain. For example, none of the monitored vital signs (heart rate, mean arterial pressure [MAP], respiratory rate, transcutaneous oxygen saturation [SpO2], and end-tidal CO2 capnography) predicted the presence of pain in critical care patients. The American Society for Pain Management Nursing (ASPMN) recommendations emphasize that vital signs should not be considered as primary indicators of pain because they can be attributed to other distress conditions, homeostatic changes, and medications. Changes in vital signs offer a cue to begin further assessment of pain or other stressors. Fifth Vital Sign Because pain is considered the fifth vital sign, including pain assessment with other routinely documented vital signs may help ensure that pain is assessed and controlled for in all patients on a regular basis. This approach can ensure that pain is detected and treatment implemented before the patient develops complications associated with unrelieved pain. The use of a pain flow sheet in critical care settings allows for a visible and on-going pain assessment before and after an intervention for pain. This communication tool may be in the electronic health record, or on paper, and should be accessible to all clinicians involved in the assessment and management of pain. Patient Barriers to Pain and Assessment Management Communication The most obvious patient barrier to the assessment of pain in the critical care population is an alteration in the ability to communicate. The patient who is mechanically ventilated cannot verbalize a description of the pain. If the patient can communicate in any way, such as by head nodding or pointing, pain can be reported in that manner. If writing is possible, the patient may be able to describe the pain thoroughly. With patients unable to self-report, the nurse relies on behavioral indicators to assess the presence of pain. The patient’s family can contribute significantly in pain assessment. The family is intimately familiar with the patient’s normal responses to pain and can assist in identifying clues. A family member’s impression of a patient’s pain should be considered in the pain assessment process of the critically ill patient. Altered Level of Consciousness The patient who is unconscious or has an altered level of consciousness presents a dilemma for all clinicians. Because pain relies on cortical response to provide recognition, the belief that the patient with a brain injury altering higher cortical function has no perception of pain may persist. Conversely, the inability to interpret the nociceptive transmission does not negate the transmission. Experts recommend assuming that patients who are unconscious or with an altered level of consciousness have pain and that they be treated the same way as conscious patients are treated when they are exposed to sources of pain. It has been demonstrated that behavioral indicators of pain can be observed in reaction to a painful procedure in critically ill patients, no matter what their level of consciousness. Moreover, it has been shown that some cortical activation related to pain perception is still present in unconscious patients in a neurovegetative state. Knowing this, the critical care nurse can initiate a discussion with the other members of the health care team to formulate a plan of care for the patient’s comfort. Older Patients Many elderly patients do not complain much about pain. Some misconceptions, such as believing that pain is a normal consequence of aging or being afraid to disturb the health care team, are barriers to pain expression for the elderly. Cognitive deficits or delirium present additional pain assessment barriers. Many elderly patients with mild-to-moderate cognitive impairments and even some with severe impairment are able to use pain intensity scales. Elderly patients with cognitive deficits should receive repeated instructions and be given sufficient time to respond. More than 24 behavioral tools have been developed for elderly patients with cognitive deficits and some of it are: · The Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate (PACSLAC), · Doloplus-2, · Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia (PAINAD). Cultural Influences · Another barrier to accurate pain assessment is cultural influences on pain and pain reporting. · Cultural influences are compounded when the patient speaks a language other than that of the health team members. · To facilitate communication, the use of a pain intensity scale to facilitate the communication. Lack of Knowledge · A relatively overlooked patient barrier to accurate pain assessment is the public knowledge deficit regarding pain and pain management. · Many patients and their families are frightened by the risk of addiction to pain medication. They fear that addiction will occur if the patient is medicated frequently or with sufficient amounts of opioids necessary to relieve the pain. · It is important to teach the family and the patient about the importance of pain control and the use of opioids in treating pain in critical illness. Health Professional Barriers to Pain Assessment and Management The health professional’s beliefs and attitudes about pain and pain management are frequently a barrier to accurate and adequate pain assessment. This can lead to poor management practices. Addiction rates for patients in acute pain who receive opioid analgesics are less than 1%. Some of the false beliefs that surround addiction result from a lack of knowledge about addiction and tolerance, and other concerns are related to the possible side effects of opioids. Addiction and Tolerance Addiction - is defined by a pattern of compulsive drug use that is characterized by an incessant longing for an opioid and the need to use it for effects other than pain relief. Tolerance - is defined as a diminution of opioid effects over time. Physical dependence and tolerance to opioids may develop if the opioid is given over a long period. If this is an anticipated problem, withdrawal may be avoided by weaning the patient from the opioid slowly to allow the brain to re-establish neurochemical balance in the absence of the opioid. Respiratory Depression Another concern of the health care professional is the fear that aggressive management of pain with opioids will cause critical respiratory depression. Opioids can cause respiratory depression, but when used safely, this is a rare phenomenon. The incidence of respiratory depression is less than 2%. PAIN MANAGEMENT The management of pain in the critically ill patient is as multidimensional as the assessment. It is a multidisciplinary task. The control of pain can be pharmacologic, nonpharmacologic, or a combination of the two therapies. Pharmacologic pain management is predominantly used in critical care. Pharmacologic Control of Pain Pain pharmacology is divided into three categories of action: opioid agonists, non-opioids, and adjuvants. Elements of the Pain Agitation Delirium guidelines of the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) for pharmacologic interventions in the critically ill adult are presented for each medication. How pain is approached and managed is a progression or combination of the available agents, the type of pain, and the patient response to the therapy. Opioid Analgesics The opioids most commonly used and recommended as first line analgesics are the agonists. These opioids bind to mu (µ) receptors (transmission process) responsible for pain relief. 1. Morphine 2. Fentanyl. 3. Hydromorphone. 4. Meperidine. 5. Codeine. 6. Methadone Preventing and Treating Respiratory Depression Respiratory depression is the most life-threatening opioid side effect. The risk of respiratory depression increases when other medications with CNS depressant effects (e.g., benzodiazepines, antiemetics, neuroleptics, antihistamines) are concomitantly administered to the patient. While no universal definition of respiratory depression exists, it is usually described in terms of decreased respiratory rate (fewer than 8 or 10 breaths/minute), decreased SpO2 levels or elevated end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2 levels). A change in the patient’s level of consciousness or an increase in sedation normally precedes respiratory depression. Monitoring. Recent ASPMN monitoring guidelines for patients receiving opioid analgesia recommend evaluation of respirations over 1 minute and assessed according to rate, rhythm, and depth of chest excursion. The use of technology supported monitoring (e.g., continuous pulse oximetry and capnography) are recommended in high-risk patients. Opioid reversal. Critical respiratory depression can be readily reversed with the administration of the opioid antagonist naloxone. The usual dose is 0.4 mg, which is mixed with 10 mL of normal saline (for a concentration of 0.04 mg/mL). Naloxone is administered intravenously very slowly (0.5 Ml over 2 minutes) while the patient is carefully monitored. Naloxone administration is discontinued as soon as the patient is responsive to physical stimulation and able to take deep breaths. However, the medication should be kept nearby. Because the duration of naloxone isshorterthan most opioids, another dose of naloxone may be needed as early as 30 minutes after the first dose. Sedative with Analgesic Properties: Dexmedetomidine Dexmedetomidine (Precedex) is a short-acting alpha-2 agonist that is indicated for the short-term sedation (<24 hours) of mechanically ventilated patients in the critical care unit. Dexmedetomidine acts in the locus ceruleus section of the brainstem. Nonopioid Analgesics In the SCCM guidelines, the use of nonopioids in combination with an opioid is recommended in selected critical care patients. This may reduce the opioid requirement. Acetaminophen An analgesic used to treat mild-to-moderate pain. It inhibits the synthesis of neurotransmitter prostaglandins in the CNS. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents The use of NSAIDs in combination with opioids is indicated in the patient with acute musculoskeletal and soft tissue inflammation. The mechanism of action of NSAIDs is to block the action of cyclooxygenase (COX, which has two forms: COX-1 and COX-2), the enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. This inhibits the production of prostaglandins. Ketamine Anesthetics may be used to treat pain in the critical care setting. Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic agent that has analgesic properties. Compared with opioids, ketamine has the benefit of sparing the respiratory drive, but it has many side effects related to the release of catecholamines and the emergence of delirium. Not recommended for routine therapy in critically ill patients. Lidocaine An anesthetic that can be used for procedural pain, neuropathic or non-neuropathic pain conditions. Because lidocaine is metabolized in the liver, it should be used with caution in patients with hepatic dysfunction. Delivery Methods The most common routes for medication administration are continuous intravenous infusion, bolus administration, or patient-controlled analgesia (PCA). The benefits of this method are the rapid onset of action and the ease of titration. This promotes a consistent level of comfort. Patient-Controlled Analgesia PCA is an effective method using intravenous route and an infusion pump for medication delivery. It allows the patient to self-administer small doses of analgesics. Intraspinal Pain Control Intraspinal anesthesia uses the concept that the spinal cord is the primary link in nociceptive transmission. The goal is to mimic the body’s endogenous opioid pain modification system by interfering with the transmission of pain and providing an opioid receptor binding agent directly into the spinal cord. Intrathecal Analgesia Intrathecal (subarachnoid) opioids are placed directly into the cerebral spinal fluid and attach to spinal cord receptor sites. Opioids introduced at this site act quickly at the dorsal horn. Epidural Analgesia Epidural analgesia is commonly used in the critical care unit after major abdominal surgery, nephrectomy, thoracotomy, and major orthopedic procedures. Equianalgesia When a modification of opioid is considered, the goal is to provide equal analgesic effects with the new agents. This concept is referred to as equianalgesia. Prescribed dosages must take into account the patient’s age and health status. Because of the variety of agents and routes, the professional pain organizations have developed equianalgesia charts for use by health care professionals. Nonpharmacologic Methods of Pain Management Nonpharmacologic methods can be used to supplement analgesic treatment, but they are not intended to replace analgesics. In most instances, these therapies may enhance the pharmacologic management of the patient’s pain. It is crucial that critical care nurses be provided with the appropriate training and equipment required to apply nonpharmacologic methods for pain management in the critically ill. Physical Techniques Stimulating other non–pain sensory fibers (Aβ) in the periphery modifies pain transmission. These fibers are stimulated by thermal changes as in the application of heat or cold and simple massage. Cold Application Ice therapy was found to be helpful to reduce procedural pain in critically ill patients. Massage The effect of massage on pain relief was explored and the result is a significant decrease in pain intensity scores was obtained in patients who received a 20-minute massage intervention between postoperative day 2 and day 5 compared to a control group who received standard care and a 20-minute quiet time during the same period. Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques Using the cortical interpretation of pain as the foundation, several interventions can reduce the patient’s pain report. Relaxation Relaxation is a well-documented method for reducing the distress associated with pain. Although not a substitute for pharmacology, relaxation decreases oxygen consumption and muscle tone, and it can decrease heart rate and blood pressure. Guided Imagery Guided imagery is a technique that uses the imagination to provide control over pain. It can be used to distract or relax. Music Therapy Music therapy is a commonly used intervention for relaxation. Music that is pleasing to the patient may have soothing effects, but its effects on reducing pain are controversial.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:00.989286	06/19/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82557/overview", "title": "Ez-ICN: Intensive Care Nursing Made Easy", "author": "Suzana Yusof" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104572/overview	Power Point Presentation "Russian War against Ukraine" Overview Power Point presentation "Russian War against Ukraine" for HIST 242 Soviet Union, undergraduate online course. HIST 242 Soviet Union course Power Point Presentation "Russian War against Ukraine" for the undergraduate online course HIST 242 Soviet Union	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.007834	06/02/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104572/overview", "title": "Power Point Presentation \"Russian War against Ukraine\"", "author": "Victoria Khiterer" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99449/overview	Dignity, Partnership and Justice Goals Overview Dignity, Partnership and Jusitce Goal From an anthroplogical perspective OER ESSAY Dignity, Partnership and Justice Goals Alexie S. Flowers, Kamilah Poot Department of Anthropology ANTH- 200: Global Problems Dr. Deneia Y. Fairweather December 15, 2022 The four United Nations sustainable development goals which fall under Dignity, Partnership and Justice are; no poverty, gender equality, peace, justice and strong institutions, and partnership for the goals. For the research question “Would the change of current gender roles have an impact on the development of Belize?” The results from observations and interviews that were conducted, concluded that the gender inequality goal has made progress in Belize where more women are in corporate; however, a number of men has negatively impacted the development of this goal. The gender inequality goal still needs improvement especially with the higher authorities. This is seen in an observation where a police man gazed at a woman passing him in an inappropriate way, which alludes to those in power using their title to take advantage of situations that may hinder the progress of women rights and voices. How will authorities keep women safe if their gaze makes them feel unsafe? For the research question “In what way would potential collaborations with other countries benefit the development of Belize?” The research concluded that Belize would benefit from more collaborations from other countries. In our observation, it was documented that there is a need for more school partnerships where Belizeans can further their education in Belize to avoid brain drain. There is also a need for recreational/sports centers for adults and children to connect and have potential meetings regarding their contributions to these goals. This also correlates to the research question ‘What constructive actions people in our community can implement to enhance the quality of the Belizean government?’ and the information gathered that Belizeans need to contribute to the development of the country without fully relying on the government and politics. As much as the government needs to put in more work for the development of the country, the community can contribute in many ways which would not only contribute to the development of the country but also give citizens some form of power that allows them to be a part of the solution. Regarding the progress of the ‘no poverty’ goal, some are seen with programs for women where they aid with either money or food and housing to new mothers with infants and children, training programs for women for job readiness and resume for finding work. Food pantries in the Belize and Cayo districts were also brought up in an interview with a social worker. Moreover, from an anthropological perspective the main component is the contribution from the community. The one thing that stays stagnant for the most part in any area in Belize is the community. Every four to five years the government may change and new policies may change but the heart of development will always be centered around the people. In Belize, the country is blessed with an array of cultures that contributes to development and how each area chooses to move forward. With the observations and interviews conducted, it can be concluded that the focus of development should come from the voices of the community. In many areas of Belize it is currently underdeveloped, so the goal moving forward is to get information from these residents to see what needs to be done. Overtime people may change and there may be a need for more important things but inclusion is what can aid in accomplishing these goals. Furthermore, with the goals of gender inequality and partnership, justice and institution, having community input can really spark a movement to have people involved in development which can be alluded to more job opportunities for all and investing in recreation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.032297	12/15/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99449/overview", "title": "Dignity, Partnership and Justice Goals", "author": "Alexie Flowers" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116960/overview	FAD Syllabus: NCCU HIST2220 Overview Syllabus shared by a UNC System faculty member. Sample Syllabus North Carolina Central University—TRUTH AND SERVICE Spring 2024 Course Syllabus/ HIST 2220 (The instructor reserves the right to adjust the syllabus for the benefit of students.) The United States History Since 1865 College of Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities Department of History Class location: [FACULTY MEMBER NAME] Contact Information: [FACULTY MEMBER OFFICE LOCATION] Office Phone: Home/Cell Phone: Email: Office hours: M, W, F: 8 AM-9 AM, 11 AM-2 PM and by special appointment Required Textbook: Boyer et. al., The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, Volume 1, Since 1865, 9th edition Student Registration Instructions This course requires access to MindTap. There are options in the bookstore for purchasing course materials. Please read below to determine the best option for you. When registering your access code, please be sure to watch the registration video first and follow the step-by-step instructions. Our digital course is integrated with Blackboard, so you will need to register through the link in Blackboard. The most affordable option to access your course material is the MindTap History (1 term) Access Code for Boyer/Clark/Halttunen/Kett/Salisbury/Sitkoff/Woloch/Rieser’s The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, Volume 1, Since 1865, 9th edition. This access code provides you with access to your e-book, online homework, study tools, and much more! MindTap can be bought at the bookstore or from Cengage when you register through the link in Blackboard. If you are taking more than one course that uses Cengage material, you may want to buy Cengage Unlimited. You may need to go to the counter at the bookstore to request this code. This is a subscription code for all Cengage content. For one semester it costs $119.99 and will provide you with access to your online MindTap course. In addition, you can get a print rental for $7.99 or purchase a loose-leaf print book through your Cengage account once you’ve accessed the digital course. If you are taking additional Cengage courses, you will only need to purchase ONE access code for the semester – you do NOT need one per course. Cengage Unlimited is the BEST option if you are taking multiple Cengage courses. Course Description and Goals: A dramatic shift in the teaching of history has taken place over the last 20 years. No longer is the subject of history a course about the “victorious” or just the “boys.” In this course, you will gain perspectives, analytical tools, and practice to determine the significance of the people, places, eras, and events that we explore together in this course. The late historian Ronald Takaki states that by the year 2056, “most Americans will trace their descent to Africa, Asia, the Hispanic world, the Pacific Islands, Arabia— almost anywhere but white Europe.” The teaching of history consequently must not involve a theme of Eurocentric dominance. In this course, you the participant students will actively participate in exploring the following themes: - How did Native Americans in North and South America exist before the arrival of the Europeans and Africans? - How did the geography and economics impact the existence of the different groups that helped develop the modern United States? - What roles did women and a multitude of ethnic cultures play in the development of the modern United States? - What themes come out of the topics we explored in class that should serve as bases for further inquiry and conversations beyond the classroom? Students of history must never place discipline in a lens of just facts to engage in rote memory for some assessment. This class will involve examining a series of time periods prior to the beginning of the Reconstruction era, major themes will surface that will serve as topics of discussion and assessment. Course Procedures: The course consists of lecture, discussion, simulations, writing assignments, and class participation. Consequently, your success in this course depends on your attention, attendance, punctuality, and careful notetaking as I believe firmly in emphasizing key statements during lecture or review of assignments or for formal assessments for students to jot down. Student Learner Outcomes: By the end of this course, students will - Examine the political impact of the aftermath of the Civil War - Identify key governmental policies that passed during the Reconstruction Era - Examine the impact of Jim Crow laws on persons-of-color with regards to education and suffrage rights - Describe the consequences of post-Civil War Western Expansion on the Native American civilizations - Identify key aspects of the Progressive Era - Compare and contrast the U.S. Presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. - Identify the factors leading to the United States’ entry into World War I - Identify the factors leading to the failures of both the League of Nations and the U.S. lack of involvement in that organization - Identify the problems associated with the Treaty of Versailles document that ended World War I - Identify the factors that led to the United States experiencing the Great Depression. - Identify the factors leading to the United States’ entry into World War II. - Highlight the global impacts of the aftermath of World War II - Identify key figures and documents associated with the Civil Rights Movement such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. And Letters from the Birmingham Bases for Final Course Grade: First Exam = 30% Midterm Exam = 30% Final Exam = 30% Select Class Assignments (Must be in attendance or excused absent in advance) = 10% There will be 3 exams (First, Midterm, and Final). Barring an emergency, I will not give a makeup exam without a note from the department chair of the history department. If the department chair supports your request for a makeup exam, you will receive the makeup exam with no questions asked. Failure to complete any of the three exams results in an automatic F for your course final grade. COVID-19 Health and Safety Requirement for Wearing a Face Mask or Other Face Covering in the Classroom or Other Instructional Setting: To create and preserve a classroom atmosphere, whether in-person or online, that optimizes teaching and learning, all participants share a responsibility in creating a civil and non-disruptive forum. At all times, students are expected to continuously conduct themselves in a manner that does not disrupt teaching or learning. Your responsibilities as a member of the North Carolina Central University community are outlined in the NCCU Student Code of Conduct (Code). The Code outlines disciplinary procedures, behaviors that are subject to disciplinary action, hearing procedures and the consequences that result from violating the Code. In addition to community standards to which all students are accountable, the Code outlines the requirement to abide by all other rules, regulations, policies, procedures and guidelines issued by the institution. In consideration of the University’s commitment to maintain healthy and safe learning environments during the COVID-19 pandemic, the University has issued the Operations, Recovery and Continuity plan. The plan highlights and details the University’s preparations to safely open for the Fall 2020 semester and includes behavioral standards for in-class instruction, such as physical distancing, use of face coverings, and hand hygiene. However, in light of the ever-changing nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, the plan is subject to change. Please be advised that face coverings are required while on campus and during in-person instruction as per NCCU’s guidelines, and the State of North Carolina’s Executive Order 147. The few exceptions to this requirement can be found in the Operations, Recovery and Continuity plan. Any action by a student that interferes with the education of another student or interferes with the operations of the University in carrying out its responsibility to provide a safe and conducive educational environment will be considered a violation of the NCCU Student Code of Conduct. Statement of Inclusion/Non-Discrimination North Carolina Central University is committed to the principles of affirmative action and nondiscrimination. The University welcomes diversity in its student body, its staff, its faculty, and its administration. The University admits, hires, evaluates, promotes, and rewards on the basis of the needs and relevant performance criteria without regard to race, color, national origin, ethnicity, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, age, disability, genetic information, veteran's status, or religion. It actively promotes diversity and respectfulness of each individual. Student Accessibility Services Students with disabilities (physical, learning, psychological, chronic or temporary medical conditions, etc.) who would like to request reasonable accommodations and services under the Americans with Disabilities Act must register with the Office of Student Accessibility Services (SAS) in Suite 120 in the Student Services Building. Students who are new to SAS or who are requesting new accommodations should contact SAS at (919) 530-6325 or sas@nccu.edu to discuss the programs and services offered by SAS. Students who are already registered with SAS and who would like to maintain their accommodations {2021 08 13 Memo to Faculty and Staff Fall 2021 w Syllabus Statement.1} must renew previously granted accommodations by visiting the NCCU Accommodate Website at https://nccu- accommodate.symplicity/students/index.php and logging into their Eagle Accommodate Student Portal. Students are expected to renew previously granted accommodations at the beginning of each semester (Fall, Spring & Summer sessions). Reasonable accommodations may be requested at any time during the semester for all students; however, accommodations are not retroactive. Returning semester requests for returning students are expected to be done within the first two weeks of the semester. Students are advised to contact their professors to discuss the testing and academic accommodations that they anticipate needing for each class. Students identifying as pregnant or other pregnancy-related conditions who would like to request reasonable accommodations and services must register with SAS. Confidentiality and Mandatory Reporting All forms of discrimination based on sex, including sexual harassment, sexual assault, dating violence, domestic violence, and stalking offenses, are prohibited under NCCU’s Sexual Harassment Policy (NCCU POL 01.04.4). NCCU faculty and instructors are considered to be mandatory reporters and are required to promptly report information regarding sexual harassment to the University’s Title IX Coordinator. The Sexual Harassment Policy can be accessed through NCCU’s Policies, Regulations and Rules website at www.nccu.edu/policies. Any individual may report a violation of the Sexual Harassment Policy (including a third-party or anonymous report) by contacting the Title IX Coordinator at (919) 530- 7944 or TitleIX@nccu.edu, or submitting the online form through the Title IX Reporting Form, located at www.nccu.edu/titleix. Other Campus Programs, Services, Activities, and Resources Other campus resources to support NCCU students include: Student Advocacy Coordinator. The Student Advocacy Coordinator is available to assist students in navigating unexpected life events that impact their academic progression (e.g., homelessness, food insecurity, personal hardship) and guide them to the appropriate University or community resources. Contact Information: Student Services Building, Room G19, (919) 530-7492, studentadvocacy@nccu.edu. Counseling Center. The NCCU Counseling Center is staffed by licensed psychologists and mental health professionals who provide individual and group counseling, crisis intervention, substance abuse prevention and intervention, anger management, and other services. The Counseling Center also provides confidential resources for students reporting a violation of NCCU’s Sexual Misconduct Policy. Contact Information: Student Health Building, 2nd Floor, (919) 530-7646, counseling@nccu.edu. University Police Department. The University Police Department ensures that students, faculty and staff have a safe and secure environment in which they can live, learn, and work. The Department provides a full range of police services, including investigating all crimes committed in and around its jurisdiction, making arrests, providing crime prevention/community programs, enforcing parking regulations and traffic laws, and maintaining crowd control for campus special events. Contact Information: 2010 Fayetteville Street, (919) 530-6106, nccupdinfo@nccu.edu. Faculty members are encouraged to contact SAS at (919) 530-6325 with questions about compliance with Section 504 and the ADA, or the Title IX Coordinator at (919) 530-7944 with questions about the Sexual Misconduct Policy and compliance with Title IX. Thank you for your cooperation and assistance in addressing these important issues. University Police Department. The University Police Department ensures that students, faculty and staff have a safe and secure environment in which they can live, learn, and work. The Department provides a full range of police services, including investigating all crimes committed in and around its jurisdiction, making arrests, providing crime prevention/community programs, enforcing parking regulations and traffic laws, and maintaining crowd control for campus special events. Contact Information: 2010 Fayetteville Street, (919) 530-6106, nccupdinfo@nccu.edu. For students who are Veterans: Please feel free to contact the Veteran Affairs Office (Room 102 Hoey Administration Building) regarding any special needs or concerns at the phone number (919) 530-5000 or by email veteransaffairs@nccu.edu Special note for Expectant Students: Federal law (Both Title IX and the Americans with Disability Act) dictates that PREGNANCY is considered a legitimate medical disability. If you have concern that your pregnancy may cause some difficulty in your education, please contact me. Class Schedule: You should finish all reading assignments by the end of the week. January 8, 2024 \| Course Introduction Read Chapters 16 Chapter 16 Book Test are due January 15 (MLK Holiday) = No classes \| January 16, 2024 \| Read Chapter 17 Chapter 17 Book Test due \| January 22, 2024 \| Read Chapter 18 Chapter 18 Book Test e due \| January 29, 2024 \| Read Chapters 19 Chapter 19 Book Test due \| February 5, 2024 \| Read Chapter 20 Chapter 20 Book Test due \| February 12, 2024 \| Read Chapter 21 Chapters 21 Book Test due \| February 19, 2024 \| Read Chapter 22 Chapter 22 Book Test due \| February 26, 2024 \| Read Chapter 23: Chapter 23 Book Tests due \| March 4, 2024 \| Spring Break March 2-9, 2024 (NO CLASSES) \| March 11, 2024 \| Read Chapter 24 Chapters 24 Book Test due \| March 18, 2024 \| Read Chapter 25 Chapter 25 Book Test due \| March 25, 2024 \| Read Chapter 26 Chapter 26 Book Test are due March 29: NO CLASSES at NCCU \| April 1, 2024 \| Read Chapter 27 Chapter 27 Book Test Due \| April 8, 2024 \| Read Chapter 28 Chapter 28 Book Test Due \| April 15, 2024 \| Read Chapter 29 Chapter 29 Book Test Due \| April, 22, 2024 \| Read Chapter 30 Chapter 30 Book Test Due \| GRADE SCALE 59% and below = F 69-60% = D 79-70% = C 89-80% = B 90% and above = A Academic Policy: You will also receive an automatic F for your final grade for the course based on the following situations: - Failing to complete the First Examination and submitting it on time.... - Failing to complete the Mid-term Examination and submitting it on time… - Failing to complete Final Examination and turning it in on time... NOTE: The instructors reserve the right to adjust the syllabus whenever necessary. Any syllabus adjustment will always BENEFIT the students. Selected Bibliography—United States History to 1865 Anderson, Claud. Dirty Little Secrets. Bethesda, MD: PowerNomics, 1997. Ayers, Edward L. In the Presence of Mine Enemies. New York: Norton. 2003. Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. New York: Vintage Books/Random House. 1968. Ball, Edward. Slaves in the Family. New York: Ballantine. 1999. Blanton, DeAnne and Lauren M. Cook. They Fought Like Demons. New York: Vintage Books. 2002. Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. Collins, Gail. America’s Women. New York: William Morrow/HarperCollins. 2003 Cott, Nancy F. ed. No Small Courage. New York: Oxford. 2000 Dunn, Richard S. Sugar and Slaves. New York: Norton. 1972 Ekirch, A. Roger. Bound for America. New York: Oxford. 1987. Franklin, John Hope and Alfred Moss. From Slavery To Freedom. New York: McGraw Hill. Jordan, Winthrop D. White Over Black. New York: Norton. 1968. Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom. New York: Norton. 1975 McCurry, Stephanie. Masters of Small Worlds. New York: Oxford. 1995. Morgenthau, Hans J. and Kenneth Thompson. Politics Among Nations. New York: McGraw- Hill. 1993. Rowland, Debran. The Boundaries of Her Body. Naperville, IL: Sphinxville Publishing Co. 2004 Takaki, Ronald. A Different Mirror. Boston. Little, Brown & Company. 1993. Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. The Age of Homespun. New York: Random House/Vintage Books. 2001. Wiener, Marli F. Mistresses & Slaves. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. 1998. REG - 10.01.5 - Class Attendance Regulation Number: REG - 10.01.5 - Class Attendance Regulation History: Effective August 14, 2017, Last revised August 11, 2017 Related Policies/Sources: NCCU Faculty Handbook - Section 4.3.1 (Syllabus Requirements) , Undergraduate Catalog (Class Attendance), Contact Info: Office of the Provost, provost@nccu.edu, 919-530-6230 - Purpose Class attendance is expected of students at North Carolina Central University and represents a foundational component of the learning process in both on-campus and online courses. Students should attend all sessions of courses for which they are registered for the entire scheduled period and are responsible for completing all class assignments. The purpose of this regulation is to describe the class attendance regulation and the procedures associated with its implementation. It replaces the policy that instructed faculty to assign either the NW grade (assigned when a student is withdrawn from a course before the last day to withdraw from a course) or the NF grade (assigned when a student is withdrawn from a course after the last day to withdraw from a course) when a student stopped attending class. - Scope This regulation applies to all faculty teaching undergraduate courses for credit at North Carolina Central University and the students who are enrolled in those courses on the effective date and who register and enroll in those courses after the effective date. This regulation cannot be applied retroactively. - Attendance Grades Beginning with the Fall 2017 semester, faculty are no longer permitted to assign students NW and NF attendance grades. - Syllabus Requirements - A statement regarding the class attendance regulation must be included on all course syllabi. - Faculty must include a written statement of the attendance guidelines in their course syllabi. In addition, faculty are required to review the guidelines for class attendance during the first class session of each semester (i.e., fall, spring, summer). - A student’s final grade must be based on the student’s performance, notwithstanding a student’s lack of attendance. - Recording Class Attendance - Faculty are required to keep attendance records in all classes. - If a student misses three consecutive class meetings, or misses more classes than the faculty member deems advisable, the faculty member is required to enter the information into Grades First, and to also report the information regarding the student’s attendance record to the student’s academic dean for appropriate follow-up. - Students who miss class to participate in university-authorized activities shall be provided with excused absences for the missed class time. It is the student's responsibility to inform the faculty member of such activities at least one week before the authorized absence, and to make up all work as determined by the faculty member.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.138000	06/18/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116960/overview", "title": "FAD Syllabus: NCCU HIST2220", "author": "UNC System" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92562/overview	OER on Don Marquis's Essay Overview This is an OER about the Don Marquis essay. Introduction To begin, I will introduce some resources that helped me when reading philosophy texts. Then I will get into the essay I will be discussing. I will provide some annotations I took and a summary of the whole text.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.156490	05/08/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92562/overview", "title": "OER on Don Marquis's Essay", "author": "Emily P" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61007/overview	Adolescent Work Overview This video covers the topic of adolescent work and how to effectively teach this topic. This video includes Learning Objectives, a lesson plan, and ideas for learning activities. Teaching Adolescent Work- Trey Dickson & Daisy Harris This video covers the topic of adolescent work and how to effectively teach this topic. This video includes Learning Objectives, a lesson plan, and ideas for learning activities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.172369	Trey Dickson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61007/overview", "title": "Adolescent Work", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66292/overview	Assessment Overview This is a quiz for Chapter Five. Texas Government Chapter Five Quiz Check your knowledge of Chapter Five by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab. This is a quiz for Chapter Five. Check your knowledge of Chapter Five by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.189202	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66292/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Court System of Texas, Assessment", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66316/overview	Political Parties: Background and Structure Overview Political Parties: Background and Structure Learning Objective By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the evolution of political parties in Texas and the state's current party system Introduction: Political Parties as Unique Organizations in Texas You can read the full platform of the Republican Party and the Democratic Party at their respective websites. Political Parties: A History Lesson In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public oﬃce. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political diﬀerences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it diﬃcult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. The Party-in-the-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the- electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self- identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self- proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties. Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other. Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party aﬃliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public oﬃce. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public oﬃce, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as oﬃcials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal eﬀorts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city oﬃces. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide oﬃce or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level oﬃces may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their eﬀorts focus on electing high-ranking oﬃcials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide oﬃces (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level oﬃces requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national oﬃce have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million. While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staﬃng expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the all-important general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public oﬃce at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public oﬃce. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little about the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics: “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection— which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international aﬀairs.” Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012. People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country. National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the oﬃces of president and vice president, and they mark the oﬃcial beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half. National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have becoming increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004. With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours.10 One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence. The Party-in-Government One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate, because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures. Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win oﬃce. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an oﬃce holder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it. A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished, because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. References and Resources Texas Secretary of State. Candidate Information. Accessed October 19, 2019. “Party Affiliation,” Gallup Poll. (March 1, 2016). Jeffrey L. Jones, “Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows,” Gallup Poll. (March 14, 2016). Russ Choma, “Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed,” 5 November 2014. (March 1, 2016). Elizabeth Lehman, “Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues.” March 15, 2016). “Voter Turnout,” ElectProject.Org (March 14, 2016). Abdullah Halimah, “Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About,” 31 August 2012, (March 14, 2016). “Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates.” (March 14, 2016). Timothy Zick, “Speech and Spatial Tactics,” Texas Law Review February (2006): 581. Thomas E. Patterson, “Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?” (March 14, 2016). Todd Leopold, “The Day America Met Barack Obama.” (March 14, 2016). Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27. Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo (2014, April 10). “What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act.” Licensing and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY American Government. Authored by: OpenStax. Provided by: OpenStax; Rice University. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/5bcc0e59-7345- 421d-8507-a1e4608685e8@18.11. License: : CC BY: Attribution License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/5bcc0e59-7345-421d-8507-a1e4608685e8@18.11	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.229564	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66316/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Political Parties in Texas, Political Parties: Background and Structure", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66319/overview	Third-Party Movements in Texas Overview Third-Party Movements in Texas Learning Objective By the end of this section, you should be able to: Discuss electoral trends in Texas, specifically dealigned parties and third- party movements Introduction: Third-Party Movements in Texas At various points in the past 170 years, elites and voters have sought to create alternatives to the existing party system. Political parties that are formed as alternatives to the Republican and Democratic parties are known as third parties, or minor parties. As with many other states, the two-party system in Texas has made it very diﬃcult for third parties to get on the ballot. Many voters believe that their votes would be wasted if they vote for a third-party candidate. Because the history of elections shows that a Republican or Democrat will almost always win, most voters decide that it is more rational to vote for the major-party candidate whose ideology most closely aligns with their own. La Raza Unida La Raza Unida, meaning "united race," was created in the early 1970s to combat growing inequality and dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party that was typically supported by Mexican-American voters. José Ángel Gutiérrez led the party at its inception, which was concentrated in Zavala County. After its establishment in Texas, the party launched electoral campaigns in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and California, though it only secured oﬃcial party status for statewide races in Texas. La Raza Unida was able to win races in Crystal City, Cotulla, and Carrizo Springs in Texas by taking advantage of nonpartisan elections. The party did so well in Zavala County and other surrounding counties that at one point the party won two city council majorities, two school board majorities, and two mayoralties. Although the party did poorly in the 1978 Texas elections and leaders and members dropped away, it signified the growing influence of Latinos in the state. Green Party of Texas The Green Party of Texas is the state party organization for Texas of the Green Party of the United States. The party was founded as the electoral arm of the political movements for grassroots democracy, social justice, ecological wisdom, peace, and nonviolence. The Green Party of Texas began to organize a statewide grassroots eﬀort in the late 1990s. Small, active Green groups existed in large cities throughout the state (particularly Houston, Dallas, and Austin) before this time, but Ralph Nader's 1996 campaign spurred the growth of the Green Party of Texas. The Texas Green Party has retroactively gained ballot access through 2026 via the passage and signing of HB-2504 in 2019 after having obtained 2% of the statewide vote for Railroad Commissioner in 2016. Libertarian Party of Texas In recent years, the Libertarian Party of Texas has emerged as a third-party alternative to the two major political parties. Libertarians believe in limited government and are typically considered fiscal conservatives and social liberals. Although the Libertarian Party has been unsuccessful at the polls and has had little impact on Election Day, they can influence politics in other ways. For example, the major parties may adopt some of the positions promoted by Libertarians (or members of other minor parties) in order to win their support in run-oﬀ elections. The Occupy and Tea Party Movements in Texas The new voices of the Occupy and Tea Party movements have become prominent both nationwide as well as in Texas. Created following government bailouts in 2008, the Occupy movement has held demonstrations in Austin and other major Texas cities, protesting the influence of big corporations and Wall Street on American politics. Born in part from an older third-party movement known as the Libertarian Party, the Tea Party movement has allied itself with the Republican Party and has had greater influence in Texas due to its antitax messaging. The Tea Party movement was launched following a February 19, 2009 call by CNBC reporter Rick Santelli on the floor of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange for a "tea party," when several conservative activists agreed by conference call to coalesce against Obama's agenda and scheduled a series of protests. Supporters of the movement subsequently have had a major impact on the internal politics of the Republican Party. The Tea Party is more hostile to government and views government intervention in all forms, and especially taxation and the regulation of business, as a threat to capitalism and democracy. It is less willing to tolerate interventions in the market place, even when they are designed to protect the markets themselves. Although an anti-tax faction within the Republican Party has existed for some time, some factions of the Tea Party movement are also active at the intersection of religious liberty and social issues, especially in opposing such initiatives as same-sex marriage and abortion rights. The Tea Party has argued that government, both directly and by neglect, is threatening the ability of evangelicals to observe their moral obligations, including practices some perceive as endorsing social exclusion. Although the Tea Party is a movement and not a political party, 86 percent of Tea Party members who voted in 2012 cast their votes for Republicans. Additionally, research has shown that members of the Tea Party Caucus vote like a third party in Congress. Some members of the Republican Party are closely aﬃliated with the movement, and before the 2012 elections, Tea Party activist Grover Norquist exacted promises from many Republicans in Congress that they would oppose any bill that sought to raise taxes. The inflexibility of Tea Party members has led to tense floor debates and was ultimately responsible for the 2014 primary defeat of Republican majority leader Eric Cantor and the 2015 resignation of the sitting Speaker of the House John Boehner. In 2015, Chris Christie, John Kasich, Ben Carson, Marco Rubio, and Ted Cruz, all of whom were Republican presidential candidates, signed Norquist’s pledge as well. References and Further Reading Ballotpedia. Minor Political Party. Accessed October 18, 2019. Acosta, T. P. (2019, May 7). "RAZA UNIDA PARTY.” Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved October 16, 2019. Juarez, A. (1972). The Emergence of El Partido De La Raza Unida: California's New Political Party. Aztl√°n. M. Garcia, I. M. (1989). United we win: The rise and fall of La Raza Unida Party. University of Arizona Press. José Ángel Gutiérrez Papers, Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas at Austin. Raza Unida Party Collection, Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas at Austin. Byrne, E. (2019, May 20). Critics say bill moving through Texas Legislature designed to aid GOP reelection bids. The Texas Tribune. Retrieved October 20, 2019. Etheridge, E. (2009, Feb 20). "Rick Santelli: Tea Party Time.” New York Times: Opinionator. Pallasch, A. M. (2010, September 19). 'Best 5 minutes of my life'; His '09 CNBC rant against mortgage bailouts for 'losers' ignited the Tea Party movement. Chicago Sun-Times. p. A4. Pew Research Center (2011, Feb 23). The Tea Party and Religion. Accessed October 16, 2019. Ragusa, J. & Gaspar, A. (2016). Where's the Tea Party? An Examination of the Tea Party's Voting Behavior in the House of Representatives. Political Research Quarterly. 69 (2): 361-372. doi:10.1177/1065912916640901. Waldman, P. (2015, Aug 13). Nearly All the GOP Candidates Bow Down to Grover Norquist, The Washington Post. Accessed October 16, 2019. Licensing and Attribution CC-LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation: The Occupy and Tea Party Movements in Texas. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Green Party of Texas. Authored by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_Texas License: CC BY: Attribution La Raza Unida. Authored by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raza_Unida_Party License: CC BY: Attribution Tea Party Caucus. Authored by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea_Party_Caucus License: CC BY: Attribution Tea Party Movement. Authored by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea_Party_movement License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.259450	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66319/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Political Parties in Texas, Third-Party Movements in Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66314/overview	Assessment Overview This is a quiz for Chapter 8. Texas Government Chapter Eight Quiz Check your knowledge of Chapter Eight by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab. This is a quiz for Chapter 8. Check your knowledge of Chapter Eight by taking the quiz linked below. The quiz will open in a new browser window or tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.276976	05/05/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66314/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, Elections and Campaigns in Texas, Assessment", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87752/overview	Stages of Plant Growth Overview Title: A plant root cut to show growth rings, wood cells in longitudinal and transverse section, and a root tip. Chromolithograph, c. 1850. Work Type: Chromolithographs. Date: [c. 1850] Material: chromolithograph. Description: 1 print : Pflanzenrich A. I. wurzelstock eines kieferstammes ... II. holzzellen im quer & la?ngsschnitte III. spitze, eines saugwurzel-chens ... Repository: Wellcome Collection Open Artstor: Wellcome Collection ID Number:V0044550 Source: Image and original data from Wellcome Collection License: Creative Commons: Attribution Use of this image is in accordance with the applicable Terms & Conditions File Name: V0044550.jpg SSID: 24897875 Introduction Learning Objectives - Identify factors that influence transition of a plant from vegetative to reproductive phase. - List and describe primary and secondary meristem. - Differentiate between annual, biennial, and perennial plants. Key terms Annual - plants that finish their life cycle in one growing season and flower only once. biennial - plants that finish their life cycle in two growing seasons but they flower only once meristematic tissue - tissue containing cells that constantly divide; contribute to plant growth perennial - plants that finish their life cycle in more than two growing seasons and flower more than once primary meristem - (also, apical meristem) meristematic tissues that cause primary growth or growth in length of a plant; shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem reproductive phase - a time period in plant growth where reproductive structures are dominant secondary meristem - (also, lateral meristem) meristematic tissue that enables a plant to increase in thickness or girth simple tissue - tissue made of one type of cells vegetative phase - a time period in plant growth where vegetative growth is dominant Introduction The lives of plants may be as short as a few weeks or months or as long as many years. All plants go through changes as they grow. We can identify these changes as stages of plant growth. These stages are more distinct in some plants compared to others. These stages can be roughly identified as germination or sprouting, seedling, vegetative growth, budding, flowering, fruiting, and ripening. The first three stages are vegetative and the last four stages are reproductive. The transition from vegetative stages to reproductive stages is called phase transition. It depends on internal genetic pathways that are regulated by environmental cues (temperature, day length) and many internal factors such as hormones, and sugar accumulation. Meristems Meristematic cells are responsible for plant growth. Plant meristems are centers of mitotic cell division and are composed of a group of undifferentiated self-renewing cells from which most plant structures arise. The Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM) gives rise to organs like the leaves and flowers, while the Root Apical Meristem (RAM) provides the meristematic cells for future root growth. The cells of the shoot and root apical meristems divide rapidly and are indeterminate, which means that they do not possess any defined end fate. In that sense, the meristematic cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals, which have an analogous behavior and function. Meristem tissue and plant development Meristematic tissues are cells or groups of cells that divide perpetually. These tissues in a plant consist of small, densely packed cells that can keep dividing to form new cells. Meristematic tissue is characterized by small cells, thin cell walls, large cell nuclei, absent or small vacuoles, and no intercellular spaces. Meristematic tissues are found in many locations, including 1) near the tips of roots and stems (apical meristems), 2) in the buds and nodes of stems, 3) in the cambium between the xylem and phloem (vascular cambium) in dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, 4) under the epidermis of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs (cork cambium), and 5) in the pericycle layer of roots, producing lateral branches. The two types of meristems are primary meristems and secondary meristems. Primary meristem (apical meristems) initiates in the developing embryo and gives rise to three primary meristematic tissues: protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem. Primary meristem is responsible for the growth in length of a plant. All tissues that arise from the primary meristem are identified as primary tissue. The secondary meristem (lateral meristem) is responsible for the growth in the girth of a plant. This growth in width of a plant is mainly due to the meristematic action of the vascular cambium and to certain extent cork cambium. Any new cells arising from vascular cambium and cork cambium are collectively called secondary tissues. Meristem Zones The apical meristem, also known as the “growing tip,” is an undifferentiated meristematic tissue found in the growing shoot tips or axillary buds and growing tips of roots (figure 1.3.1). Shoot apical meristems are organized into four zones: (1) the central zone, (2) the peripheral zone, (3) the medullary meristem, and (4) the medullary tissue (figure 1.3.2). The central zone is located at the meristem summit, where a small group of slowly dividing cells can be found. Cells of this zone have a stem cell function and are essential for meristem maintenance. The proliferation and growth rates at the meristem summit usually differ considerably from those at the periphery. Surrounding the central zone is the peripheral zone. The rate of cell division in the peripheral zone is higher than that of the central zone. Peripheral zone cells give rise to cells that contribute to the organs of the plant, including leaves (figure 1.3.4), inflorescence meristems, and floral meristems. The outermost layer is called the tunica, while the innermost layers are cumulatively called the corpus. An active root apical meristem consists of cells that divide slowly and are centrally located in the region called the quiescent center, a mass of loosed packed cells in the region of the root cap, and the three primary meristems that may or may not be identifiable at low magnifications (figure 1.3.3). An active apical meristem lays down a growing root or shoots behind itself, pushing itself forward. Figure 1.3.1. Shoot apical meristem: The apical meristem, pictured in the center of the leaves of this image, is also termed the “growing tip”. Its main function is to produce new cells in growing twigs and branches. Plant Development - Meristems is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Boundless. Figure 1.3.2. Meristematic zones: Each zone of the shoot apical meristem has a particular function. Pictured here are the (1) central zone, (2) peripheral zone, (3) medullary meristem, and (4) medullary tissue. Plant Development - Meristems is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Boundless. Figure 1.3.3. Root tip Longitudinal section. By Dutra, Elliott is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 via Flickr. Modified to include labels. A derivative of the original work of "Apical Meristem in Allium Root Tip" is licensed under Public Domain via Wikicommons. Figure 1.3.4. Shoot apical meristem in Crassula ovata. Left: day 1, development of new leaves, Right: day 14. Credit: Daniel, Levine. CC-BY-SA 3.0. Primary & secondary growth Life span and flowering can help identify plants as annual, biennial, or perennial. Annuals finish their life cycle from germination to flowering and seed formation within one growing season or year. Many flowers that you plant in your yard at the start of spring are annuals. Perennials take three or more years to start flowering, growing vegetatively for the first one or two years, and then flowering. Although many biennials continue to flower once they are mature, true biennials only flower once. Many biennials are cultivated and harvested for edible stems, petioles, roots, and leaves such as carrots. Foxglove and hollyhock are common biennial flowers. Growth in plants occurs as the stems and roots lengthen. Some plants, especially those that are woody, also increase in thickness during their life span. The increase in length of the shoot and the root is referred to as primary growth and is the result of cell division in the apical meristems. Secondary growth is characterized by an increase in the thickness or girth of the plant and is caused by cell division in the lateral meristem. Figure 1.3.5 shows the areas of primary and secondary growth in a plant. Herbaceous plants mostly undergo primary growth, with hardly any secondary growth or increase in thickness. Secondary growth or “wood” is noticeable in woody plants; it occurs in some dicots but occurs very rarely in monocots. Some plant parts, such as stems and roots, continue to grow throughout a plant’s life: a phenomenon called indeterminate growth. Other plant parts, such as leaves and flowers, exhibit determinate growth, which ceases when a plant part reaches a particular size. Primary Growth Most primary growth occurs at the apices, or tips, of stems and roots. Primary growth is a result of rapidly dividing cells in the apical meristems at the shoot tip and root tip. Subsequent cell elongation also contributes to primary growth. The growth of shoots and roots during primary growth enables plants to continuously seek water (roots) or sunlight (shoots). The influence of the apical bud on overall plant growth is known as apical dominance, which diminishes the growth of axillary buds that form along the sides of branches and stems. Most coniferous trees (ex., pine) exhibit strong apical dominance, thus producing the typical conical Christmas tree shape. If the apical bud is removed, then the axillary buds will start forming lateral branches. Gardeners make use of this fact when they prune plants by cutting off the tops of branches, thus encouraging the axillary buds to grow out, giving the plant a bushy shape. Figure 1.3.5. In woody plants, primary growth is followed by secondary growth, which allows the plant stem to increase in thickness or girth. Secondary vascular tissue is added as the plant grows, as well as a cork layer. The bark of a tree extends from the vascular cambium to the epidermis. Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 Intercalary Meristem The intercalary meristem is located away from the growing shoot tip, usually between mature tissues. Have you ever wondered how lawn grasses regrow rapidly after mowing? Grasses regenerate their leaves rapidly after mowing because of the actions of the intercalary meristem located right above the base of the leaf. Grasses evolved in prairie habitats with many types of grazing animals. The ability to regrow quickly is critical to survival. Intercalary meristem is also present in other plants such as horsetails and welwitschia. Secondary Growth The increase in stem thickness that results from secondary growth is due to the activity of the lateral meristems, which are lacking in herbaceous plants. Lateral meristems include the vascular cambium and, in woody plants, the cork cambium (Figure 1.3.5.) The vascular cambium is located just outside the primary xylem and to the interior of the primary phloem. The cells of the vascular cambium divide and form secondary xylem (tracheids and vessel elements) to the inside and secondary phloem (sieve elements and companion cells) to the outside. The thickening of the stem that occurs in secondary growth is due to the formation of the secondary phloem and secondary xylem by the vascular cambium, as well as the cork cambium. The cell wall of the secondary xylem contains lignin, which provides hardiness and strength. In woody plants, cork cambium is the outermost lateral meristem. It produces cork cells (bark) containing a waxy substance known as suberin that can repel water. The bark protects the plant against physical damage and helps reduce water loss. The cork cambium also produces a layer of cells known as phelloderm, which grows inward from the location of the cork cambium. The cork cambium, cork, and phelloderm are collectively called the periderm. The periderm substitutes for the epidermis in mature plants. In some plants, the periderm has many openings, known as lenticels, which allow the interior cells to exchange gases with the outside atmosphere (Figure 1.3.6). This supplies oxygen to the living and metabolically active cells of the cortex, xylem, and phloem. Figure 1.3.6. Lenticels on the bark of this cherry tree enable the woody stem to exchange gases with the surrounding atmosphere. (credit: Roger Griffith). Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 Annual Rings The activity of the vascular cambium gives rise to annual growth rings. During the spring growing season, cells of the secondary xylem have a large internal diameter and their primary cell walls are not extensively thickened. This is known as earlywood or springwood. During the fall season, the secondary xylem develops thickened cell walls, forming latewood, or autumn wood, which is denser than earlywood. This alternation of early and late wood is largely due to a seasonal decrease in the number of vessel elements and a seasonal increase in the number of tracheids. It results in the formation of an annual ring, which can be seen as a circular ring in the cross-section of the stem (Figure 1.3.7). An examination of the number of annual rings and their nature (such as their size and cell wall thickness) can reveal the age of the tree and the prevailing climatic conditions during each season. Figure 1.3.7. The rate of wood growth increases in summer and decreases in winter, producing a characteristic ring for each year of growth. Seasonal changes in weather patterns can also affect the growth rate—note how the rings vary in thickness. (credit: Adrian Pingstone). Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 Growth in Roots Root growth begins with seed germination. When the plant embryo emerges from the seed, the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. The tip of the root is protected by the root cap, a structure exclusive to roots and unlike any other plant structure. The root cap is continuously replaced because it gets damaged easily as the root pushes through the soil. The root tip can be divided into three zones: a zone of cell division, a zone of elongation, and a zone of maturation & differentiation (Figure 1.3.8). The zone of cell division is closest to the root tip; it is made up of the actively dividing cells of the root meristem and quiescent center. The zone of elongation is where the newly formed cells increase in length, thereby lengthening the root. Beginning at the first root hair is the zone of cell maturation where the root cells begin to differentiate into specialized cell types. All three zones are in the first centimeter or so of the root tip. Figure 1.3.8. A longitudinal view of the root reveals the zones of cell division, elongation, and maturation. Cell division occurs in the apical meristem. Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 The root has an outer layer of cells called the epidermis, which surrounds areas of ground tissue and vascular tissue. The epidermis provides protection and helps in absorption. Root hairs, which are extensions of root epidermal cells, increase the surface area of the root, greatly contributing to the absorption of water and minerals. Inside the root, the ground tissue forms two regions: the cortex and the pith (Figure 1.3.9). Compared to stems, roots have lots of cortex and little pith. Both regions include cells that store photosynthetic products. The cortex is between the epidermis and the vascular tissue, whereas the pith lies between the vascular tissue and the center of the root. Figure 1.3.9. Staining reveals different cell types in this light micrograph of wheat (Triticum) root cross-section. Sclerenchyma cells of the exodermis and xylem cells stain red, and phloem cells stain blue and all other cells stain black. The stele, or vascular tissue, is the area inside the endodermis (indicated by a green ring). Root hairs are visible outside the epidermis. (credit: scale-bar data from Matt Russell). Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 The vascular tissue in the root is arranged in the inner portion of the root, which is called the stele (Figure 1.3.10). A layer of cells known as the endodermis separates the stele from the ground tissue in the outer portion of the root. The endodermis is exclusive to roots and serves as a checkpoint for materials entering the root’s vascular system. A waxy substance called suberin is present on the walls of the endodermal cells. This waxy region, known as the Casparian strip, forces water and solutes to cross the plasma membranes of endodermal cells instead of slipping between the cells. This ensures that only materials required by the root pass through the endodermis, while toxic substances and pathogens are generally excluded. The outermost cell layer of the root’s vascular tissue is the pericycle, an area that can give rise to lateral roots. In dicot roots, the xylem and phloem of the stele are arranged alternately in an X shape, whereas in monocot roots, the vascular tissue is arranged in a ring around the pith. Figure 1.3.10 In (left) typical dicots, the vascular tissue forms an X shape in the center of the root. In (right) typical monocots, the phloem cells and the larger xylem cells form a characteristic ring around the central pith. Biology 2e By Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, Jung Choi. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 Attributes Biology 2e by Clark Mary Ann, Douglas Matthew, Choi Jung. OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License V 4.0	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.324961	11/14/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87752/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Plant Form, Stages of Plant Growth", "author": "ALka Sharma" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91152/overview	How Organizations Use Marketing Overview How Organizations Use Marketing Outcome: How Organizations Use Marketing What you’ll learn to do: describe how different types of organizations, such as nonprofits, consumer product (B2C) firms, and business-to-business (B2B) organizations, use marketing Although marketing activities come in many different forms, the fundamental principles of marketing apply, regardless of what you’re trying to sell, advocate, or promote. Grounding your marketing efforts in a customer-oriented mindset and staying focused on the relationships you build with those customers will always steer you in the right direction. At the same time, different organizations use marketing in different ways to achieve their goals. The next reading will give you more insight into how marketing supports the success of several common types of organizations. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain the difference between a customer and a consumer - Define different types of organizations including B2C, B2B, and nonprofit organizations - Provide examples of how each type of organization uses marketing Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: How Organizations Use Marketing LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: How Organizations Use Marketing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: How Organizations Use Marketing Although we often think of marketing in the context of for-profit businesses and product sales, a wide variety of organizations use marketing to achieve their goals. For-Profit Marketing Versus Nonprofit Marketing For-profit organizations are typically privately owned or publicly traded companies with a primary purpose of earning money for their owners. Nonprofit organizations also earn money, but their primary purpose is to use these funds for a specific charitable purpose. Types of nonprofit organizations that may engage in marketing include schools and colleges, hospitals, museums, charitable organizations, and churches, among others. As the terms denote, the difference between for-profit and nonprofit marketing is in the organization’s primary objective. For-profit marketers measure success in terms of profitability and their ability to pay dividends or pay back loans. Continued existence depends on the level of profits they can generate. The primary focus of marketing is usually to sell products, services, experiences or ideas to target customers and to make these customer relationships as profitable as possible. Nonprofit institutions exist to benefit a stated mission or purpose, regardless of whether profits are achieved. Owing to their socially beneficial purpose, nonprofit organizations are subject to an entirely different set of laws—notably tax laws. While they are allowed to generate profits, they must use these funds in specific, philanthropic ways in order to maintain their nonprofit status. Marketing efforts focus on activities that promote the organization’s mission. A school, college, or university might use marketing to attract students, improve academic reputation, and solicit donations from alumni. A museum or nonprofit theater company uses marketing to attract visitors, ticket sales, event sponsors, and philanthropic donations. Marketing for nonprofit hospitals usually focuses on attracting patients and strengthening reputation as a high quality health care provider. Business-to-Consumer and Business-to-Business Marketing An important distinction in how organizations use marketing is whether their efforts target business-to-consumer (B2C) transactions or business-to-business (B2B) transactions. In business and marketing, the consumer is the individual who actually uses the product. The customer is the individual who buys the product from a business. In some transactions, these are the same person, but in other transactions they are different entities. Suppose you take a break from studying and walk to a corner store to buy a snack bar that’s made by a local health-food company. From the perspective of the corner store owner, you are both the customer and the consumer in this transaction. However, from the perspective of the health-food company that made the bar, you are only the consumer, because although you consumed the product, you didn’t buy it from them. The health-food company’s customer is the corner store owner who decides whether or not to stock their snack bars in her store. In marketing, this distinction is important because it helps marketers better understand where to focus their attention. Business-to-business (B2B) marketers sell to other businesses or institutions that consume the product as part of operating the business, or use the product in the assembly of the final product they sell to consumers. Business-to-consumer (B2C) marketers focus their efforts on consumers, the individuals who consume a finished product. A B2B Emphasis The tools of marketing are available to both B2B and B2C organizations, but some tactics tend to be more effective than others in each type of marketing. Business-to-business marketers use more personal selling, in which a sales force builds personal relationships with individuals in decision-making roles to facilitate sales within the organizations they target. Professional conferences and trade shows provide opportunities for meeting and networking with a B2B marketer’s target customers. Company Web sites are a primary way for B2B organizations to share information and promote their offerings. Since they usually target a narrow, specialized sliver of the population, B2B marketers have little need for mass advertising. Because B2B sales tend to be higher-priced, larger-ticket items, marketing tactics often include extensive adjustments in factors such as the selling price, product features, terms of delivery, and so forth. A B2C Emphasis For B2C marketers, such as consumer goods manufacturers, there is a dual focus. B2C marketers typically invest a lot in generating demand for their products among the general population. Mass marketing tactics designed to reach a large audience nearly always have a B2C focus: think Superbowl ads, Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade, and anything hailing the return of McRib at McDonalds. At the same time, B2C marketers face a constant battle getting their products into retail outlets anywhere they don’t sell directly to consumers. A Dual Emphasis: B2B and B2C Organizations may conduct both B2B and B2C marketing, targeting different types of customers. The Swedish home-furnishing company IKEA, for example, markets its ready-to-assemble, eco-friendly furniture and furnishings all over the world. IKEA’s B2C marketing targets families, young professionals, and penny-pinching college students. Meanwhile, its B2B marketing focuses on small-business owners and start-up companies. Whether to have a B2B or a B2C focus depends on whose perceptions you want shape, what behaviors you want to influence, and where the most promising opportunities are for making the impact your organization wants to achieve. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Chapter 1: Introducing Marketing, from Introducing Marketing . Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Chimpanzee Natural Energy Bar. Authored by: Health Gauge. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/healthgauge/13898724851/. License: CC BY: Attribution - IKEA, Bejing. Authored by: Peter Morgan. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/pmorgan/5517848/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Global Race for the Cure. Authored by: Elvert Barnes. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/perspective/13987275038/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Flugtag (22). Authored by: Helen Crook. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/lalalen/2565923132/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.353260	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91152/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, What is Marketing?, How Organizations Use Marketing", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91155/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 2 can be found on the next page. Why identify the primary marketing activities of an organization? Resources for Unit 2: Marketing Function Slide Deck - PrinciplesofMarketing_02_MarketingFunction.pptx Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Analyzing Marketing Efforts Simulation Unit 2: “Simulation: Ice Cream Magnate” Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes - Explain why the customer is the cornerstone of marketing - Briefly explain the concepts of segmentation and targeting - Describe the marketing mix - Explain how organizations use the marketing mix (often called the four Ps) to market to their target customers - Explain the role of a marketing plan as a guiding document for marketing activities It’s springtime. You’ve just graduated from college, and the Instagram photos of you wearing your cap, gown, and huge smile are still fresh. But your mind has quickly turned to other things, or rather, to one major thing: a job. You have a newly minted degree and a new skill set you’re fired up to use (and possibly a few unpaid loans on your back). Now you just need to get an employer to notice you, pick you out of the crowd, and invite you onto the team. In other words, you need to market yourself. What does that mean? You Are the Product What is the unique combination of skills and capabilities you provide to prospective employers? What can you offer that’s different and better than other candidates? It might be a language you speak, a depth of prior experience you bring, a course of training you completed, a familiarity with the industry, great communication skills, or some combination of characteristics that make you an attractive employee. Who Is Your Customer? Who do you want to work for? What type of work do you want to do? Prospective employers are the customers you want to appeal to. Get to know them by researching who they are, who’s hiring, what hiring process they use and what they look for, how they get information about job candidates, and what makes them take a closer look. How Do You Reach These Customers? How can you connect with employers? Reaching prospective employers usually involves packaging and promoting yourself through a common set of job-search tools and activities—like job fairs, résumés, cover letters, LinkedIn profiles, networking lunches, meet-ups and other ways to get an “in.” As you find pathways to an employer, how do you make a strong positive impression? Packaging and presentation are essential. You show you’re a good fit by dressing for success, sharing sample work products, showcasing your expertise, and demonstrating interpersonal skills. What’s Your Price? When it comes to salary and benefits, what is your negotiating strategy? When discussions get serious—when you get a job offer, say—you’ll want to get as much compensation as you can without pricing yourself out of the opportunity. After all, you’re probably not the only candidate they are considering. Marketing: A Life Skill Marketing happens virtually everywhere. Job candidates like yourself have to figure out how to market themselves to employers. Companies market their products and services to customers. Nonprofit organizations market their altruistic missions and impacts to donors. Government agencies market their policies and programs to the general public. Candidates market their ideas to voters. Parents market vegetables to their finicky youngsters. As you gain a greater understanding of marketing and its primary activities, you will see it at work all around you. You will become more adept at knowing how marketing works, and why. You will learn about marketing tools and techniques you can apply to your advantage personally and professionally. You’ll appreciate the value of good marketing principles in helping you get ahead. Of course you want to develop a skill that’s so important in modern life! LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Why It Matters: Marketing Function. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - graduation-3010.jpg. Authored by: Penn State Beaver. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/pennstatebeaver/8705574019/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.383795	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91155/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Function, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91168/overview	Common Segmentation Approaches Overview The Principles of Marketing textbook contains fifteen modules—roughly one module per week for a 16-week semester. Outcome: Common Segmentation Approaches What you’ll learn to do: describe common segmentation approaches The next section of this module walks through several common approaches to market segmentation. Some approaches will probably seem familiar, or even obvious—like segmenting by gender or income level—but others, like “psychographic” segmentation, may not. These methods are common because they provide useful guidance to marketers about how to identify and reach prospective buyers. It’s important to remember that there may be more than one “right” way to segment a market. Certainly, there are more-effective and less-effective approaches for different products or services. Sometimes a segmentation strategy is effective for a while, but then something shifts and a new approach is needed. In that way, segmentation is like a compass for marketers: when your position or direction changes, you revisit market segmentation to fine-tune where you’re heading and how to get there. Different segmentation approaches applied individually or together help refine a marketer’s understanding of the target market. Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Segmentation Criteria and Approaches LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: Common Segmentation Approaches. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Segmentation Criteria and Approaches Common Approaches to Market Segmentation Segmentation starts by identifying all the potential buyers for your product: individuals with the need and the means to buy what you offer. In most cases, this represents a large universe of people or organizations that are similar in some ways but different in many other ways. Segmentation is a process that helps marketers narrow their focus on the most promising groups within that universe. There is no single correct way to segment a market. Defining a target consumer base can be performed using a variety of segmentation methods. Several common methods are discussed below. Marketers may apply a combination of these methods to provide greater insight into their target market and the customers they want to serve. In fact, good marketers generally try out different methods and combinations to figure out what approach is most successful to help them achieve their goals. Because people and their needs change, effective approaches for segmenting a market can also evolve over time. The following is a list of common market segmentation approaches: - Geographic: nations, states, regions, cities, neighborhoods, zip codes, etc. - Demographic: age, gender, family size, income, occupation, education, religion, ethnicity, and nationality. - Psychographic: lifestyle, personality, attitudes, and social class. - Behavioral: user status, purchase occasion, loyalty, readiness to buy. - Decision maker: decision-making role (purchaser, influencer, etc.) Geographic Segmentation You’re much more likely to sell surfboard in a location with a beach than in a landlocked location. Geographic criteria—nations, states, regions, countries, cities, neighborhoods, or zip codes–define geographic market segments. Geography represents the oldest basis for segmentation. Regional differences in consumer tastes for products are well known, such as the affinity for barbecue in the southern U.S. or preferences for health-conscious menus in coastal California. Geographic segmentation suggests that in areas prone to rain, for instance, you can sell things like raincoats, umbrellas, and rubber boots. In hot regions, you can sell summer wear; in cold regions, you can sell warm clothes. Geographic markets are easily identified, and large amounts of data are usually available. Many companies simply do not have the resources to expand beyond local or regional areas, so they must focus on one geographic segment only. There is very little waste in the marketing effort, in that the product and supporting activities such as advertising, physical distribution, and repair can all be directed at the customer. Further, geography provides a convenient organizational framework. Products, salespeople, and distribution networks can all be organized around a central, specific location. The drawbacks of using a geographic basis for segmentation are also worth noting. There is always the possibility that consumer preferences aren’t dictated by location—other factors, such as ethnic origin or income, may be more important. The stereotypical Texan, for example, is hard to find in Houston, where one-third of the population has immigrated from other states. Another problem is that geographic areas can be defined as very large, regional locations. Members of a geographic segment may be too heterogeneous to qualify as a meaningful target market. Demographic Segmentation Demographics are statistical data that describe various characteristics of a population. Demographic segmentation consists of dividing the market into groups based on demographic variables such as age, gender, family size, income, occupation, education, religion, political opinions, ethnicity, and nationality. Demographic segmentation variables are among the most popular bases for segmenting customer groups because demographic data are plentiful and customer wants and needs often link closely to these variables. For example, the youth market (roughly ages five to thirteen) not only influences how their parents spend money, but also how they make purchases of their own. Manufacturers of products such as toys, records, snack foods, and video games have designed promotional efforts directed at this group. “Tweens” are children between the ages of eight and twelve who are discovering what it means to be a consumer and are shaping the attitudes and brand perceptions they will carry with them as they grow up and gain more purchasing power. The elderly market (age sixty-five and over) has grown in importance for producers of products such as low-cost housing, cruises, hobbies, and health care. DOVE SHAMPOO The following advertisement illustrates how the advertising and marketing promotion of Dove’s Men+Care product line focuses on the unique needs and interests of the young to middle-aged male segment. Life stage is another demographic trait associated with age, gender, marital, and family status. There is evidence that individuals and families go through predictable behavioral patterns associated with buying behaviors. For example, a young couple with one young child has far different purchasing needs than empty-nesters in their late fifties or single, middle-aged professionals.1 Income is perhaps the most common demographic basis for segmenting a market because it indicates who can or cannot afford a particular product. It is quite reasonable, for example, to assume that individuals earning minimum wage could not easily purchase a $80,000 sports car. Income is particularly useful as a segmentation input as the price tag for a product increases. It can also be helpful in understanding certain types of buying behavior, such which income groups are most prone to use coupons. Similarly, other demographic characteristics can influence other types of consumer activities. Despite the apparent advantages of demographic segmentation (i.e., low cost and ease of implementation), uncertainty exists about its effectiveness. The method can be misused. For example, it might be said that the typical consumer of Thai food is under thirty-five years of age, has a college education, earns more than $10,000 a year, lives in a suburban fringe of a moderate-size urban community, and resides in the West. While these characteristics may describe a typical consumer of Thai food, they also describe many other consumers and may paint an overly broad or inaccurate portrait of a supposed “segment.” When a segment is too broad, it loses its defining characteristics and there isn’t much to differentiate the target segment from the general population. In this situation, the segmentation approach does not provide much useful guidance to help marketers make effective marketing choices. Psychographic Segmentation In psychographic segmentation, consumers are divided according to common characteristics in their lifestyle, personality, attitudes, and social class. Evidence suggests that attitudes of prospective buyers toward certain products influence their subsequent purchase or nonpurchase of them. If persons with similar attitudes can be isolated, they represent an important psychological segment. Attitudes can be defined as predispositions to behave in certain ways in response to given stimulus.2 For market segmentation purposes, personality is defined as long-lasting characteristics and behaviors of a person that shape how they cope and respond to their environment. Consumption of particular products or brands relates to consumer personality. For example, risk-seeking individuals are attracted to extreme sports and travel, and extroverts tend to dress conspicuously. Social class segmentation identifies individuals based on a combination of socioeconomic factors such as education, occupation, income, family background, and attitudes related to these factors. Lifestyle segmentation refers to the orientation that an individual or a group has toward consuming products, work, and play and can be defined as a pattern of attitudes, interests, and opinions held by a person. Lifestyle segmentation has become very popular with marketers, because of the availability of consumer data, measurement devices and instruments, and the intuitive categories that result from this process.3 As a result, producers target versions of their products and their promotions to various lifestyle segments. For example, U.S. companies like All State Insurance are designing special programs for the good driver, who has been extensively characterized through a lifestyle segmentation approach.4 Lifestyle analysis generally begins by asking questions about the consumer’s activities, interests, and opinions. If a woman earns $100,000–$150,000 per year as an executive, is married and has two children, what does she think of her roles as a professional, a wife, and a mother? How does she spend her spare time? To what groups does she belong? What does she read? How does she use electronic devices? What brands does she prefer, and why? AIO (activities, interests, opinions) inventories, as they are called, reveal vast amounts of information concerning attitudes toward product categories, brands within product categories, and user and non-user characteristics. Overall, psychographic segmentation tends to focus on how people spend their money; their patterns of work and leisure; their major interests; and their opinions of social and political issues, institutions, and themselves. While it can create intuitive groupings and useful insights into consumer behavior, it can also take significant research and effort to inform a more complex and nuanced approach to defining market segments. Behavioral Segmentation Consumers are divided into groups according to common behaviors they share. Typically these behaviors link to their knowledge of, attitude toward, use of, or response to a product. The most common type of behavioral segmentation is around user segments. In 1964, the market researcher Twedt made one of the earliest departures from demographic segmentation when he suggested that the heavy user, or frequent consumer, was an important basis for segmentation. He proposed that consumption of a product should be measured directly to determine usage levels, and that promotion should be aimed directly at the heavy user. This approach has since become very popular. Considerable research has been conducted on “heavy users” of a variety of products. The results suggest that finding other characteristics that correlate with usage rate often greatly enhances marketing efforts.5 Other behavioral bases for market segmentation include the following: - User status: Looking beyond “heavy users,” it can also be helpful to identify segments based on a broader set of use patterns, such as non-users versus ex-users, or one-time users versus regular users. Mobile phone service providers examine usage patterns to create optimal plans and targeting based on specific sets of user needs: family plans, individual plans, no contract plans, unlimited talk and data plans, and so forth. New car producers have become very sensitive to the need to provide new car buyers with a great deal of supportive information after the sale in order to minimize unhappiness after the purchase. - Purchase occasion: This approach tries to determine the reason or occasion for purchasing a product and how it will be used. For example, airlines typically segment customers based on the reason for a passenger’s trip: business versus personal travel. Someone traveling for business generally has different needs and wants from someone traveling for pleasure. A business traveler tends to be less sensitive about price and more focused on timing, location, and convenience. - Loyalty: This approach places consumers in loyalty categories based on their purchase patterns of particular brands. A key category is the brand-loyal consumer. Companies have assumed that if they can identify individuals who are brand loyal to their brand, and then delineate other characteristics these people have in common, they will locate the ideal target market. There is still a great deal of uncertainty about the most reliable way of measuring brand loyalty. - Readiness: Readiness segmentation proposes that potential customers can be segmented according to how ready they are to purchase a product: unaware, aware, informed, interested, desirous, and intend to buy. Using this approach, a marketing manager can design the appropriate market strategy to move them through the various stages of readiness. These stages of readiness are rather vague and difficult to measure accurately, but readiness may be a useful lens for understanding the customer’s mindset and how to nudge them toward buying, particularly when an education process is required prior to purchase. Decision-Maker Segmentation This segmentation approach groups people according to who makes the purchasing decision in an organization or household. Typically there is a “primary buyer”: the individual who makes the final decision about what to buy and allocates the budget for the purchase. Many purchasing decisions also involve “influencers.” These are people who do not make the final purchasing decision, but they can influence the final choice about what to buy. In families, for example, young children may be influencers in whether a parent buys Cheerios, Chex, or Fruit Loops. In companies, a department manager may be the primary buyer for a software product, but that manager’s work team may influence product selection by helping evaluate options to determine which choice best fits their needs. Segmentation by decision-making role helps marketers understand who truly matters in the purchase process and home in on the individuals who matter most. Segmenting Business-to-Business Markets All of the segmentation approaches above apply to consumer markets. There are many similarities between consumer and business behavior, and therefore similar segmentation bases and variables apply. Common business segmentation approaches include: - Organization size: segmentation according to large, medium, and small customers by revenue, by number of employees, by geographic reach, etc. - Geography: organizing segments based on geographic location - Industry: segmenting by the industrial sector an organization operates within—for example manufacturing, retail, hospitality, education, technology, health care, government, professional services, and so forth - User status: usage frequency, volume used, loyalty, longevity, products already in use, readiness to buy, etc. For example, longtime loyal customers with “strategic” relationships are often handled differently and receive preferable terms compared to newer customers. - Benefits sought: grouping customers by common elements they look for in a product or purchasing experience - End use: identifying segments based on how they plan to use the product and where it fits into their operations and supply chain. For example, an electric motor manufacturer learned that customers operated motors at different speeds. After making field visits and confirming these uses, he thought to divide the market into slow-speed and high speed segments. In the slow-speed segment, the manufacturer emphasized a competitively priced product with a maintenance advantage, while in the high-speed market product, superiority was stressed. - Purchasing approaches: organizing the market according to the way in which organizations prefer to make purchases; those preferences, in turn, determine how the seller builds the relationship with the customer and works the deal. Combining Multiple Bases for Segmentation Marketers may find it most useful to combine different bases for segmentation in order to create a richer picture of their target market. For example, a “geo-cluster” approach combines demographic data with geographic data to create a more accurate profile of a specific consumer. Geographic data combined with behavioral data can point companies toward locations where customers are clustered who demonstrate behaviors that make them a good target for a company’s product. Overlaying demographic data onto lifestyle or behavioral segments helps marketers understand more about their target customers and how to reach them effectively with the marketing mix. Any of these approaches may be the “right” approach for a given company and product set. It is also important for marketers to continually evaluate what’s happening in their target market and to adjust their segmentation approach as customer attitudes, behaviors, and other market dynamics evolve. - William R. Darden, W.A. French, and R.D. Howell, "Mapping Market Mobility: Psychographic Profiles and Media Exposure," Journal of Business Research, Vol. 7, No.8, 1979, pp. 51-74. - Martha Farnsworth, "Psychographies for the 1990s," American Demographics, July 1989, pp. 25, 28-30. - William D. Wells, "Psychographies: A Critical Review," Journal 0f Marketing Research, May 1975, pp. 196-213. - Joseph T. Plummer, "The Concept and Application of LifeStyle Segmentation," Journal of Marketing, January 1974, p. 33. David J. Reibstein, Christopher H. Lovelock, and Ricardo de P. Dobson, "The Direction of Causality Between Perceptions, Affect, and Behavior: An Application to Travel Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 6., March 1980, pp. 370-376. - Ronald J. Frank, William Massey, and Yoram Wind, Market Segmentation, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1972. II. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Criteria for Segmentation. From Marketing 2014. Provided by: Boundless. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Introducing Marketing, Chapter 2: Understanding and Approaching the Market. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Windsurfing at Gislu00f6vshammar. Authored by: Matthias Weinberger. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/infomastern/10271441954/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Business Travel Panama. Provided by: thinkpanama. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/23065375@N05/2247355466/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial - Sophie shopping. Authored by: David Veksler. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/heroiclife/15316262230/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Dove Men+Care Asks: Is your hair ready for anything?. Provided by: DoveMenCare Philippines. Located at: https://youtu.be/MnbXAGk0QpQ. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - What's today's choice. Authored by: Moshen Ben Cheikh. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/3B3CRKnJBMo. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved. License Terms: Unsplash License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.421381	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91168/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Segmentation and Targeting, Common Segmentation Approaches", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91166/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Mindset THE HACK Research shows that the way you approach a challenge actually has a real impact on how successful you are. It’s not about how good you are; it’s about how good you want to be. The Story Many of us tend to think of intelligence as something that we can’t really change. It turns out that this is incorrect. Furthermore, this line of thinking can actually prevent you from learning! Researchers call this a “fixed” mindset – it’s “fixed” because people that think this way don’t really believe they can learn new things. On the other hand, some of us have what researchers call a “growth” mindset. They think of talent as something that is developed through effort. They understand that any of us can be good at anything as long as we’re willing to put in the time to build our skillset in that area. So the hack here is simply to understand that the “fixed” mindset view is incorrect. You may have heard someone say “I’m just not a math person.” It turns out that there’s no such thing as “not a math person.” Anyone can learn math (or any other topic) – you just have to put in the time to practice. The Research Research by a professor at Stanford named Carol Dweck has shown that you can change your mindset. You may be handicapping yourself by your beliefs and attitudes about learning, telling yourself things like “I just don’t have the talent for this” or “I can’t learn this”. Dweck’s research demonstrates that you can change those beliefs and attitudes. That change in mindset can be the difference between doing well at challenges (like learning math!) or avoiding those challenges. Keep in mind that your beliefs and attitudes are the result of many years of experience, so you won’t change your mindset overnight by simply deciding to be different. You may have to work at it. In particular, when you encounter difficulty—a poor grade on a test, a paper that has some negative comments from your professor, or a reading assignment that leaves you confused—that is the time that your mindset can have a huge impact on what you do next. Don’t let your mindset prevent you from realizing your abilities or reaching your potential! The Source Dweck, Carol S.. (2008) Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Learning Hacks: Mindset. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Image - Retrain Your Mind. Authored by: John Hain with modifications by Lumen Learning. Located at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/mindset-mindfulness-meditation-743166/. License: Other. License Terms: Pixabay License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.444035	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91166/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Segmentation and Targeting, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91172/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 4 can be found on the next page. Why It Matters: Marketing Strategy Resources for Unit 4 Marketing Strategy Slide Deck - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy Unit 4 Assignment: Marketing Plan, Part I Marketing Plan Resources SWOT Analysis with Interactive Template Market Analysis with SWOT Template 15 New Products You Need to Know About Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Why explain how a marketing strategy supports an organization’s corporate strategy? Learning Outcomes - Evaluate how marketing strategies align with corporate strategies - Explain the inputs and components of a marketing strategy - Show how common analytic tools are used to inform the organization’s strategy - Give examples of corporate strategies - Explain how the development and maintenance of customer relationships are an essential part of an organization’s marketing strategy In this module you’ll learn about the important role that marketing strategy plays in supporting corporate strategy. When a company has a mission and a set of corporate-level objectives, the marketing strategy must support those goals, which is perhaps the most important lesson that the following companies—and many others like them—failed to learn: 10 Lessons I Learned From Burning Through $50,000 on a Hardware Project That Bombed With Kolos, we did a lot of things right, but it was useless because we ignored the single most important aspect every startup should focus on first: the right product. We didn’t spend enough time talking with customers and were rolling out features that I thought were great, but we didn’t gather enough input from clients. We didn’t realize it until it was too late. It’s easy to get tricked into thinking your thing is cool. You have to pay attention to your customers and adapt to their needs. My Startup’s Dead! 5 Things I Learned What I didn’t understand was, you charge not for how much work it is for you. You charge how much the service is worth. As these companies attest, a lot of things can go wrong in the startup world, and learning the hard way can mean going out of business. Take a look at the following list, which reveals the major reasons startups fail: TOP 20 REASONS STARTUPS FAIL1 Note: You may notice that the percentages in this equal far greater than 100%. This is because there are often multiple reasons a startup failed. - No Market Need (42%) - Ran Out of Cash (29%) - Not the Right Team (23%) - Get Outcompeted (19%) - Pricing/Cost Issues (18%) - Poor Product (17%) - Need/Lack Business Model (17%) - Poor Marketing (14%) - Ignore Customers (14%) - Product Mis-Timed (13%) - Lose Focus (13%) - Disharmony on Team/Investors (13%) - Pivot gone bad (10%) - Lack Passion (9%) - Bad Location (9%) - No Financing/Investor Interest (8%) - Legal Challenges (8%) - Don’t Use Network/Advisors (8%) - Burn Out (8%) - Failure to Pivot (7%) Many businesses go under because their products are inferior or don’t match a need, because of poor pricing strategy, poor marketing, or because of other issues related to product, price, promotion, or distribution. In essence, they fail to have a good plan that supports the goals of the company. It is exceptionally difficult to get marketing strategy right. It is easy to get busy doing the work of the company, rather than planning the work that will ensure the company’s survival and success. Successful companies have a good corporate strategy that is supported by an effective marketing strategy. In this module you’ll begin to understand why that’s so important. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Why It Matters: Marketing Strategy. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Marketing Strategy image. Authored by: rawpixel. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/FmuMAvt4Ym8. License: Other. License Terms: Unsplash LIcense	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.477039	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91172/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Strategy, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95102/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Learning Hacks: How Often Should I Study? THE HACK Studying every day for a quiz or exam is more effective than cramming. The Story Have you ever wondered how to best cram for a test the night before? What about how to cram for a test in less than 60 minutes? Or maybe how to cram in the least amount of time? Cramming is learning, or storing and retrieving things from long-term memory, as quickly and efficiently as possible at the last minute. Unfortunately for the procrastinators and crammers out there, cramming for less than 60 minutes the night before an exam is a very inefficient and ineffective study method. Instead, space your study out over time to learn more in less time. The Research Nicholas Cepeda and colleagues published a meta analysis in 2006 that aggregated hundreds of research articles which investigated the effect of spaced practice on learning. They found that spaced practice is more effective than mass practice (cramming!) regardless of how much time you have to study or how long you need to remember what you are studying. So what is the best way to implement spaced practice? The main finding in the Nicholas study was that studying every day was the most effective way to space your study. This is especially true if you still have a few days to study for an exam or quiz. In the event that you only have one day to study, research suggests that taking 1 hour breaks between study sessions will maximize your learning. The Source Nicholas, C., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3rr6q10c LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Learning Hacks: How Often Should I Study?. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Image of student studying. Authored by: Appreciating Beauty. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worker_studying.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.497561	07/12/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95102/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Ethics and Social Responsibility, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91189/overview	The Marketing Research Process Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: The Marketing Research Process What you’ll learn to do: outline a standard process for using marketing information and research to address an organization’s strategic questions Marketers can glean powerful insights from marketing information, but these insights generally don’t come from nowhere. Instead, it takes a well-structured research process to identify what you are trying to understand better and then take the appropriate steps, using the right information, to get your questions answered. The next part of this module explains a standard process organizations use to conduct marketing research and generate insights from marketing information of all types. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Identify the steps of conducting a marketing research project Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: The Marketing Research Process Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: The Marketing Research Process. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: The Marketing Research Process A Standard Approach to Research Inquiries Marketing research is a useful and necessary tool for helping marketers and an organization’s executive leadership make wise decisions. Carrying out marketing research can involve highly specialized skills that go deeper than the information outlined in this module. However, it is important for any marketer to be familiar with the basic procedures and techniques of marketing research. It is very likely that at some point a marketing professional will need to supervise an internal marketing research activity or to work with an outside marketing research firm to conduct a research project. Managers who understand the research function can do a better job of framing the problem and critically appraising the proposals made by research specialists. They are also in a better position to evaluate their findings and recommendations. Periodically marketers themselves need to find solutions to marketing problems without the assistance of marketing research specialists inside or outside the company. If you are familiar with the basic procedures of marketing research, you can supervise and even conduct a reasonably satisfactory search for the information needed. Step 1: Identify the Problem The first step for any marketing research activity is to clearly identify and define the problem you are trying to solve. You start by stating the marketing or business problem you need to address and for which you need additional information to figure out a solution. Next, articulate the objectives for the research: What do you want to understand by the time the research project is completed? What specific information, guidance, or recommendations need to come out of the research in order to make it a worthwhile investment of the organization’s time and money? It’s important to share the problem definition and research objectives with other team members to get their input and further refine your understanding of the problem and what is needed to solve it. At times, the problem you really need to solve is not the same problem that appears on the surface. Collaborating with other stakeholders helps refine your understanding of the problem, focus your thinking, and prioritize what you hope to learn from the research. Prioritizing your objectives is particularly helpful if you don’t have the time or resources to investigate everything you want. To flesh out your understanding of the problem, it’s useful to begin brainstorming actual research questions you want to explore. What are the questions you need to answer in order to get to the research outcomes? What is the missing information that marketing research will help you find? The goal at this stage is to generate a set of preliminary, big-picture questions that will frame your research inquiry. You will revisit these research questions later in the process, but when you’re getting started, this exercise helps clarify the scope of the project, whom you need to talk to, what information may already be available, and where to look for the information you don’t yet have. Applied Example: Marketing Research for Bookends To illustrate the marketing research process, let’s return to Uncle Dan and his ailing bookstore, Bookends. You need a lot of information if you’re going to help Dan turn things around, so marketing research is a good idea. You begin by identifying the problem and then work to set down your research objectives and initial research questions: Identifying Problems, Objectives, and Questions Core business problem Dan needs to solve How to get more people to spend more money at Bookends. Research Objectives Identify promising target audiences for Bookends Identify strategies for rapidly increasing revenue from these target audiences Initial research questions Who are Bookends’ current customers? How much money do they spend? Why do they come to Bookends? What do they wish Bookends offered? Who isn’t coming to Bookends, and why? Step 2: Develop a Research Plan Once you have a problem definition, research objectives, and a preliminary set of research questions, the next step is to develop a research plan. Essential to this plan is identifying precisely what information you need to answer your questions and achieve your objectives. Do you need to understand customer opinions about something? Are you looking for a clearer picture of customer needs and related behaviors? Do you need sales, spending, or revenue data? Do you need information about competitors’ products, or insight about what will make prospective customers notice you? When do you need the information, and what’s the time frame for getting it? What budget and resources are available? Once you have clarified what kind of information you need and the timing and budget for your project, you can develop the research design. This details how you plan to collect and analyze the information you’re after. Some types of information are readily available through secondary research and secondary data sources. Secondary research analyzes information that has already been collected for another purpose by a third party, such as a government agency, an industry association, or another company. Other types of information need to come from talking directly to customers about your research questions. This is known as primary research, which collects primary data captured expressly for your research inquiry. Marketing research projects may include secondary research, primary research, or both. Depending on your objectives and budget, sometimes a small-scale project will be enough to get the insight and direction you need. At other times, in order to reach the level of certainty or detail required, you may need larger-scale research involving participation from hundreds or even thousands of individual consumers. The research plan lays out the information your project will capture—both primary and secondary data—and describes what you will do with it to get the answers you need. (Note: You’ll learn more about data collection methods and when to use them later in this module.) Your data collection plan goes hand in hand with your analysis plan. Different types of analysis yield different types of results. The analysis plan should match the type of data you are collecting, as well as the outcomes your project is seeking and the resources at your disposal. Simpler research designs tend to require simpler analysis techniques. More complex research designs can yield powerful results, such as understanding causality and trade-offs in customer perceptions. However, these more sophisticated designs can require more time and money to execute effectively, both in terms of data collection and analytical expertise. The research plan also specifies who will conduct the research activities, including data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting on results. At times a singlehanded marketing manager or research specialist runs the entire research project. At other times, a company may contract with a marketing research analyst or consulting firm to conduct the research. In this situation, the marketing manager provides supervisory oversight to ensure the research delivers on expectations. Finally, the research plan indicates who will interpret the research findings and how the findings will be reported. This part of the research plan should consider the internal audience(s) for the research and what reporting format will be most helpful. Often, senior executives are primary stakeholders, and they’re anxious for marketing research to inform and validate their choices. When this is the case, getting their buy-in on the research plan is recommended to make sure that they are comfortable with the approach and receptive to the potential findings. Applied Example: A Bookends Research Plan You talk over the results of your problem identification work with Dan. He thinks you’re on the right track and wants to know what’s next. You explain that the next step is to put together a detailed plan for getting answers to the research questions. Dan is enthusiastic, but he’s also short on money. You realize that such a financial constraint will limit what’s possible, but with Dan’s help you can do something worthwhile. Below is the research plan you sketch out: Identifying Data Types, Timing, Budget, Data Collection Methods, Analysis, and Interpretation Types of data needed Demographics and attitudes of current Bookends customers Current customers’ spending patterns Metro area demographics (to determine types of people who aren’t coming to the store) Timing and budget Complete project within 1 month No out-of-pocket spending Data collection methods Current customer survey using free online survey tool Store sales data mapped to customer survey results Free U.S. census data on metro-area demographics 8 to 10 intercept (“man on the street”) interviews with non-customers Analysis plan Use Excel or Google Sheets to tabulate data Marina (statistician cousin) to assist in identifying data patterns that could become market segments Interpretation and Reporting You and Dan will work together to comb through the data and see what insights it produces. You’ll use PowerPoint to create a report that lays out significant results, key findings, and recommendations. Step 3: Conduct the Research Conducting research can be a fun and exciting part of the marketing research process. After struggling with the gaps in your knowledge of market dynamics—which led you to embark on a marketing research project in the first place—now things are about to change. Conducting research begins to generate information that helps answer your urgent marketing questions. There are two types of research: primary and secondary. Primary research is research that you conduct yourself (i.e., you go out into the field and find data and complete experiments). Secondary research is research conducted or synthesized by someone else (i.e., someone else has gone out into the field or someone else has compiled multiple sources of research). Though it may seem counterintuitive based on their names, typically data collection begins by reviewing any existing secondary research. After getting everything you can from secondary research, it’s time to shift attention to primary research. After all, it’s much easier (and smarter!) to review existing research before potentially redoing experiments or recapturing known information. Secondary Research With secondary research, it’s important to narrow your scope to existing research and data that provide some information or insight about the problem. Prior research projects, internal data analyses, industry reports, customer-satisfaction survey results, and other information sources may be worthwhile to review. Even though these resources may not answer your research questions fully, they may further illuminate the problem you are trying to solve. Secondary research and data sources are nearly always cheaper than capturing new information on your own. Your marketing research project should benefit from prior work wherever possible. Primary Research You may not always complete primary research, but it is often part of research plans. Primary research involves asking questions and then listening to and/or observing the behavior of the target audience you are studying. In order to generate reliable, accurate results, it is important to use proper scientific methods for primary research data collection and analysis. This includes identifying the right individuals and number of people to talk to, using carefully worded surveys or interview scripts, and capturing data accurately. Without proper techniques, you may inadvertently get bad data or discover bias in the responses that distorts the results and points you in the wrong direction. The module on Marketing Research Techniques discusses these issues in further detail, since the procedures for getting reliable data vary by research method. Applied Example: Getting the Data on Bookends Dan is on board with the research plan, and he’s excited to dig into the project. You start with secondary data, getting a dump of Dan’s sales data from the past two years, along with related information: customer name, zip code, frequency of purchase, gender, date of purchase, and discounts/promotions (if any). You visit the U.S. Census Bureau Web site to download demographic data about your metro area. The data show all zip codes in the area, along with population size, gender breakdown, age ranges, income, and education levels. The next part of the project is customer-survey data. You work with Dan to put together a short survey about customer attitudes toward Bookends, how often and why they come, where else they spend money on books and entertainment, and why they go other places besides Bookends. Dan comes up with the great idea of offering a 5 percent discount coupon to anyone who completes the survey. Although it eats into his profits, this scheme gets more people to complete the survey and buy books, so it’s worth it. For a couple of days, you and Dan take turns doing “man on the street” interviews (you interview the guy in the red hat, for instance). You find people who say they’ve never been to Bookends and ask them a few questions about why they haven’t visited the store, where else they buy books and other entertainment, and what might get them interested in visiting Bookends sometime. This is all a lot of work, but for a zero-budget project, it’s coming together pretty well. Step 4: Analyze and Report Findings Analyzing the data obtained in a market survey involves transforming the primary and/or secondary data into useful information and insights that answer the research questions. This information is condensed into a format to be used by managers—usually a presentation or detailed report. Analysis starts with formatting, cleaning, and editing the data to make sure that it’s suitable for whatever analytical techniques are being used. Next, data are tabulated to show what’s happening: What do customers actually think? What’s happening with purchasing or other behaviors? How do revenue figures actually add up? Whatever the research questions, the analysis takes source data and applies analytical techniques to provide a clearer picture of what’s going on. This process may involve simple or sophisticated techniques, depending on the research outcomes required. Common analytical techniques include regression analysis to determine correlations between factors; conjoint analysis to determine trade-offs and priorities; predictive modeling to anticipate patterns and causality; and analysis of unstructured data such as Internet search terms or social media posts to provide context and meaning around what people say and do. Good analysis is important because the interpretation of research data—the “so what?” factor—depends on it. The analysis combs through data to paint a picture of what’s going on. The interpretation goes further to explain what the research data mean and make recommendations about what managers need to know and do based on the research results. For example, what is the short list of key findings and takeaways that managers should remember from the research? What are the market segments you’ve identified, and which ones should you target? What are the primary reasons your customers choose your competitor’s product over yours, and what does this mean for future improvements to your product? Individuals with a good working knowledge of the business should be involved in interpreting the data because they are in the best position to identify significant insights and make recommendations from the research findings. Marketing research reports incorporate both analysis and interpretation of data to address the project objectives. The final report for a marketing research project may be in written form or slide-presentation format, depending on organizational culture and management preferences. Often a slide presentation is the preferred format for initially sharing research results with internal stakeholders. Particularly for large, complex projects, a written report may be a better format for discussing detailed findings and nuances in the data, which managers can study and reference in the future. Applied Example: Analysis and Insights for Bookends Getting the data was a bit of a hassle, but now you’ve got it, and you’re excited to see what it reveals. Your statistician cousin, Marina, turns out to be a whiz with both the sales data and the census data. She identified several demographic profiles in the metro area that looked a lot like lifestyle segments. Then she mapped Bookends’ sales data into those segments to show who is and isn’t visiting Bookends. After matching customer-survey data to the sales data, she broke down the segments further based on their spending levels and reasons they visit Bookends. Gradually a clearer picture of Bookends’ customers is beginning to emerge: who they are, why they come, why they don’t come, and what role Bookends plays in their lives. Right away, a couple of higher-priority segments—based on their spending levels, proximity, and loyalty to Bookends—stand out. You and your uncle are definitely seeing some possibilities for making the bookstore a more prominent part of their lives. You capture these insights as “recommendations to be considered” while you evaluate the right marketing mix for each of the new segments you’d like to focus on. Step 5: Take Action Once the report is complete, the presentation is delivered, and the recommendations are made, the marketing research project is over, right? Wrong. What comes next is arguably the most important step of all: taking action based on your research results. If your project has done a good job interpreting the findings and translating them into recommendations for the marketing team and other areas of the business, this step may seem relatively straightforward. When the research results validate a path the organization is already on, the “take action” step can galvanize the team to move further and faster in that same direction. Things are not so simple when the research results indicate a new direction or a significant shift is advisable. In these cases, it’s worthwhile to spend time helping managers understand the research, explain why it is wise to shift course, and explain how the business will benefit from the new path. As with any important business decision, managers must think deeply about the new approach and carefully map strategies, tactics, and available resources to plan effectively. By making the results available and accessible to managers and their execution teams, the marketing research project can serve as an ongoing guide and touchstone to help the organization plan, execute, and adjust course as it works toward desired goals and outcomes. It is worth mentioning that many marketing research projects are never translated into management action. Sometimes this is because the report is too technical and difficult to understand. In other cases, the research conclusions fail to provide useful insights or solutions to the problem, or the report writer fails to offer specific suggestions for translating the research findings into management strategy. These pitfalls can be avoided by paying due attention to the research objectives throughout the project and allocating sufficient time and resources to do a good job interpreting research results for those who will need to act on them. Applied Example: Bookends’ New Customer Campaign Your research findings and recommendations identified three segments for Bookends to focus on. Based on the demographics, lifestyle, and spending patterns found during your marketing research, you’re able to name them: 1) Bored Empty-Nesters, 2) Busy Families, and 3) Hipster Wannabes. Dan has a decent-sized clientele across all three groups, and they are pretty good spenders when they come in. But until now he hasn’t done much to purposely attract any of them. With newly identified segments in focus, you and Dan begin brainstorming about a marketing mix to target each group. What types of books and other products would appeal to each one? What activities or events would bring them into the store? Are there promotions or particular messages that would induce them to buy at Bookends instead of Amazon or another bookseller? How will Dan reach and communicate with each group? And what can you do to bring more new customers into the store within these target groups? Even though Bookends is a real-life project with serious consequences for your uncle Dan, it’s also a fun laboratory where you can test out some of the principles you’re learning in your marketing class. You’re figuring out quickly what it’s like to be a marketer. Well done, rookie! Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 3: Marketing Research: An Aid to Decision Making, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Urban life (Version 2.0). Authored by: Ian D. Keating. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ian-arlett/19313315520/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.538153	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91189/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Information and Research, The Marketing Research Process", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91185/overview	Putting it Together Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Title Image Street crowd reflecting in the polyhedral mirrors of Tokyu Plaza Omotesando, Harajuku station, Tokyo, Japan, a sunny Sunday afternoon. Basile Morin. Commons Wikimedia. CC BY-SA 4.0 Putting It Together: Ethics and Social Responsibility In this module we’ve covered a range of different corporate ethical challenges, legal requirements, and opportunities to contribute to social good. Every year, a company called Ethisphere provides a thorough review of businesses seeking to gain recognition for being upstanding corporate citizens. (See the full list of the World’s Most Ethical Companies honorees.) The review process captures company performance in five areas, but in order to be honored, the companies must demonstrate that they are addressing ethics and social responsibility holistically. The five factors, which are nicely aligned with the topics of this module, are described below, each with a brief description of how the companies show compliance. Ethics and Compliance Program We discussed this topic in our focus on company policy, along with the important role of executive leadership in supporting and following the policy. This category reviews the ethics program structure, responsibility, and resources, and evaluates the program oversight and tone among top management in the company. In the following video, Walmart’s chief ethics officer, Cindy Moehring, explains how the compliance and ethics team makes this sophisticated program simple: Corporate Citizenship and Responsibility We’ve looked at a number of ways in which companies can be good corporate citizens and “give back” to society and stakeholders. In this category, Ethisphere evaluates a wide range of a company’s performance indicators associated with sustainability, citizenship, and social responsibility, with special attention to areas such as environmental stewardship, community involvement, corporate philanthropy, workplace impact and well-being, and supply chain engagement and oversight. In the video below, Executive Vice President of Government Affairs, General Counsel, and Corporate Secretary of PepsiCo Tony West discusses the responsibility to society that businesses have: You can view the transcript for “Sustainable and Responsible: Social License to Operate” here (opens in new window). Culture of Ethics We also discussed the importance of building a culture of accountability within an organization. In this area the Ethisphere evaluation measures an organization’s efforts and success at establishing an ethical tone throughout every level of the company. In the following video, Tony West of PepsiCo shares insight on sustainable ethical cultures, employee values, and their persistence over time: You can view the transcript for “Sustaining Longterm Growth Through Culture” here (opens in new window). Governance We discussed the importance of executive leadership when it comes to monitoring and promoting a quality company culture. This category of the Ethisphere review examines the availability and quality of systems designed to ensure strong corporate governance, which not only includes executive managers, but also the company’s board of directors. CH2M Hill board member Georgia Nelson discusses the positive effects of board diversity on corporate governance and innovation in the video below: You can view the transcript for “Importance of Board Diversity on Corporate Governance and Innovation” here (opens in new window). Leadership, Innovation, and Reputation The companies that make Ethisphere’s list of honorees are visibly presenting themselves in an ethical context, which supports their reputation among all stakeholders. This category evaluates the company’s ethical reputation in the marketplace and among key stakeholders such as employees and customers. In the video below, the corporate communications manager of Aflac International, John Sullivan, explains how ethical practices reflect on the business: You can view the transcript for “Aflac Incorporated on How Ethical Practices Reflect on the Business” here (opens in new window). Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Ethical and Social Responsibility. Provided by: Lumen Learning . License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.563614	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91185/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Ethics and Social Responsibility, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88063/overview	War in China, Burma, India Overview War in the China/Burma/India Theater, 1942-43 One of the major theaters in the Second World War was the China-Burma-India Theater, a designation given to the areas of fighting in Burma and India between Japanese and Allied forces. The fighting in this theater was related to the fighting between Japanese and Chinese forces in China and Japanese and Allied forces in the Pacific. Two of the key factors in the defeat of the Axis Powers as a whole and Japan in particular were the greater resources of and cooperation among the Allies, on display in the China Burma India Theater. The British dispatched a field army and the U.S. other forces to assist Burmese and Indian forces in their efforts against the Japanese, and to augment Chinese efforts against the Japanese in the CBI Theater. The Germans and the Italians, on the other hand, could not provide aid to the Japanese. The course of the war in this theater also illustrated a number of the complexities in the Second World War, particularly resentment felt by people in Burma and India toward the Allies, feelings that the Japanese tried to exploit, as illustrated by the creation of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Allied victory in the China-Burma-India Theater finally represented the existential nature of World War II, with the ultimate disintegration of the Japanese war effort. Learning Objectives - Identify key features of Japanese politics and territorial expansion prior to the outbreak of World War II, including the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. - Outline the course of World War II from 1941 through 1945 in the China-Burma-India Theater. - Assess the historic significance and impact of World War II in the China-Burma-India Theater. Key Terms / Key Concepts China-Burma-India Theater: name for the Asian theater in World War, with most of the fighting in these three countries In March and April 1942, a powerful IJN carrier force launched a raid against British bases in the Indian Ocean. IJN carrier aircraft struck British Royal Navy bases in Ceylon and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes, along with other Allied ships. The attack forced the Royal Navy to withdraw to the western part of the Indian Ocean, and this paved the way for a Japanese assault on Burma and India. In Burma, the British, under intense pressure, made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo-Burmese border. This cut the Burma Road, which was the western Allies' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists. In March 1942, the Chinese Expeditionary Force started to attack Japanese forces in northern Burma. On 16 April, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division, led by Sun Li-jen. As the Chinese war effort progress against Japan through the alliance of Chinese Nationalists and Communists, cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists, waned, particularly from its zenith in the June-October 1938 Battle of Wuhan, and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their areas of operation in occupied territories. The Japanese exploited this lack of unity to press ahead in their offensives. On 2 November 1943, Isamu Yokoyama, commander of the Imperial Japanese 11th Army, deployed the 39th, 58th, 13th, 3rd, 116th and 68th Divisions, a total of around 100,000 troops, to attack Changde. During the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly campaign of attrition. Although the Imperial Japanese Army initially successfully captured the city, the Chinese 57th Division was able to pin them down long enough for reinforcements to arrive and encircle the Japanese. The Chinese then cut Japanese supply lines, provoking a retreat and Chinese pursuit. During the battle, Japan used chemical weapons. Although Japan, Germany, and Italy were nominally allies, there was little cooperation between the three, particularly between Japan and either Germany or Italy because of the distance of the Asian theaters from the European and North African theaters. In practice, there was little coordination between Japan and Germany until 1944, by which time the Allies had the Axis Powers on the defensive.. Cairo Conference On 22 November 1943 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and ROC Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, met in Cairo, Egypt to discuss a strategy to defeat Japan. The meeting was known as the Cairo Conference and concluded with the Cairo Declaration. This conference was one of a succession of wartime conferences among the Allied leaders toward the end of adjusting their strategies and cooperation as their war efforts progress against the Axis Powers. Burma 1942–1943 In the aftermath of the Japanese conquest of Burma, there was widespread disorder and pro-Independence agitation in eastern India, as well as a disastrous famine in Bengal that ultimately caused up to 3 million deaths. In spite of these uprisings and issues, as well as inadequate lines of communication, British and Indian forces attempted limited counter-attacks in Burma in early 1943. An offensive in Arakan failed, shamefully in the view of some senior officers, while a long-distance raid mounted by the Chindits under Brigadier Orde Wingate suffered heavy losses. This was publicized to bolster Allied morale, and it provoked the Japanese to mount major offensives themselves the following year. In August 1943 the Allies formed a new South East Asia Command (SEAC) to take over strategic responsibilities for Burma and India from the British India Command, under Wavell. In October 1943 Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten as the Supreme Commander of the SEAC, and the British and Indian Fourteenth Army was formed to face the Japanese in Burma. Under Lieutenant General William Slim, its training, morale, and health greatly improved. The American General Joseph Stilwell, who also was deputy commander to Mountbatten and commanded US forces in the China Burma India Theater, directed aid to China and prepared to construct the Ledo Road to link India and China by land. In 1943, the Thai Phayap Army invasion headed to Xishuangbanna at China, but they were driven back by the Chinese Expeditionary Force. War in the China/Burma/India Theater, 1944-45 The war in the China-Burma-India Theater continued into 1944 with both sides taking the offensive. Utlimately, Allied cooperation and logistical superiority would triumph over the Japanese war effort. Learning Objectives - Identify key features of Japanese politics and territorial expansion prior to the outbreak of World War II, including the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. - Outline the course of World War II from 1941 through 1945 in the China-Burma-India Theater. - Assess the historic significance and impact of World War II in the China-Burma-India Theater. Key Terms / Key Concepts China-Burma-India Theater: name for the Asian theater in World War, with most of the fighting in these three countries Japanese Counteroffensives in China, 1944 In mid-1944 Japan mobilized over 500,000 men and launched a massive operation across China, which was their largest offensive of World War II. The goal of Ichi-Go was connecting Japanese-controlled territory in China and French Indochina and capturing airbases in southeastern China where American bombers were based. During this time, about 250,000 newly American-trained Chinese troops under Joseph Stilwell and Chinese expeditionary force were forcibly locked in the Burmese theater by the terms of the Lend-Lease Agreement. Though Japan suffered about 100,000 casualties, these attacks—the biggest in several years—gained much ground for Japan before Chinese forces stopped the incursions in Guangxi. Despite major tactical victories, the operation overall failed to provide Japan with any significant strategic gains. A great majority of the Chinese forces were able to retreat out of the area and later come back to attack Japanese positions at the Battle of West Hunan. Japan was not any closer to defeating China after this operation, and the constant defeats the Japanese suffered in the Pacific meant that Japan never got the time and resources needed to achieve final victory over China. This unsuccessful Japanese offensive also created a great sense of social confusion in the areas of China that it affected. Chinese Communist guerrillas were able to exploit this confusion to gain influence and control of greater areas of the countryside in the aftermath of Ichi-go. Japanese Offensive in India, 1944 After the Allied setbacks in 1943, the South East Asia command prepared to launch offensives into Burma on several fronts. In the first months of 1944, while the Chinese and American troops of the Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC) were extending the Ledo Road from India into northern Burma, the XV Corps began an advance along the coast in Arakan Province. In February 1944 the Japanese mounted a local counterattack in Arakan. After early Japanese success, this counterattack was defeated when the Indian divisions of XV Corps stood firm, relying on aircraft to drop supplies to isolated forward units until reserve divisions could relieve them. The Japanese responded to the Allied attacks by launching an offensive of their own into India in the middle of March, across the mountainous and densely forested frontier. This attack, codenamed Operation U-Go, was advocated by Lieutenant General Renya Mutaguchi—the recently promoted commander of the Japanese Fifteenth Army. Imperial General Headquarters permitted it to proceed, despite misgivings at several intervening headquarters. Although several units of the British Fourteenth Army had to fight their way out of encirclement, by early April they had concentrated around Imphal in the Manipur state of India. A Japanese division which had advanced to Kohima in Nagaland cut the main road to Imphal, but they failed to capture the whole of the defenses at Kohima. During April, the Japanese attacks against Imphal failed, while fresh Allied formations drove the Japanese from the positions they had captured at Kohima. As many Japanese had feared, Japan's supply arrangements could not maintain its forces. Once Mutaguchi's hopes for an early victory were thwarted, his troops, particularly those at Kohima, starved. During May, while Mutaguchi continued to order attacks, the Allies advanced southwards from Kohima and northwards from Imphal. The two Allied attacks met on 22 June, breaking the Japanese siege of Imphal. The Japanese finally broke off the operation on 3 July. They had lost over 50,000 troops, mainly to starvation and disease. This represented the worst defeat suffered by the Imperial Japanese Army to that date. Although the advance in Arakan had been halted to release troops and aircraft for the Battle of Imphal, the Americans and Chinese had continued to advance in northern Burma, aided by the Chindits operating against the Japanese lines of communication. In the middle of 1944 the Chinese Expeditionary Force invaded northern Burma from Yunnan. They captured a fortified position at Mount Song] By the time campaigning ceased during the monsoon rains, the Northern Combat Area Command had secured a vital airfield at Myitkyina (August 1944), which eased the problems of air resupply from India to China over "The Hump". Allied Offensives in Burma, 1944–1945 In late 1944 and early 1945, the Allied South East Asia Command launched offensives into Burma, intending to recover most of the country, including the capital Rangoon, before the onset of the monsoon in May. The offensives were fought primarily by British Commonwealth, Chinese, and United States forces against the forces of Imperial Japan, who were assisted to some degree by Thailand, the Burma National Army and the Indian National Army. The British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from the United Kingdom, British India, and Africa. The Indian XV Corps advanced along the coast in Arakan Province, at last capturing Akyab Island after failures to do so in the two previous years. They then landed troops behind the retreating Japanese, inflicting heavy casualties; this led to the capture of Ramree Island and Cheduba Island off the coast, where they established airfields that were used to support the offensive into Central Burma. The Chinese Expeditionary Force captured Mong-Yu and Lashio, while the Chinese and American Northern Combat Area Command resumed its advance in northern Burma. In late January 1945, these two forces linked up with each other at Hsipaw. The Ledo Road was completed, linking India and China, but it was too late in the war to have any significant effect. The Japanese Burma Area Army attempted to forestall the main Allied attack on the central part of the front by withdrawing their troops behind the Irrawaddy River. Lieutenant General Heitarō Kimura—the new Japanese commander in Burma—, hoped that the Allies' lines of communications would be overstretched trying to cross this obstacle. However, the advancing British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim switched its axis of advance to outflank the main Japanese armies. During February, the Fourteenth Army secured bridgeheads across the Irrawaddy on a broad front. On 1 March, these units captured the supply center of Meiktila, throwing the Japanese into disarray. While the Japanese attempted to recapture Meiktila, XXXIII Corps captured Mandalay. The Japanese armies were heavily defeated, and, with the capture of Mandalay, the Burmese population and the Burma National Army (which the Japanese had raised) turned against the Japanese. During April, the Fourteenth Army advanced 300 miles (480 km) south towards Rangoon—the capital and principal port of Burma, but it was delayed by Japanese rearguards 40 miles (64 km) north of Rangoon at the end of the month. In May the Fourteenth Army occupied Rangoon, already abandoned by Japanese forces, and linked up with Fourteenth Army five days later, securing the Allies' lines of communication. The Japanese forces which had been bypassed by the Allied advances attempted to break out across the Sittaung River during June and July to rejoin the Burma Area Army, which had regrouped in Tenasserim in southern Burma. They suffered 14,000 casualties, half their strength. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 Japanese soldiers surrendered and were taken prisoner. The Allies were preparing to make amphibious landings in Malaya when word of the Japanese surrender arrived. Concurrently, that spring the Chinese managed to repel a Japanese offensive in Henan and Hubei. Afterwards, Chinese forces retook Hunan and Hubei provinces in South China. In August 1945, Chinese forces successfully retook Guangxi. Ironically, in light of Japan’s stated goal of claiming to free Asian peoples from European imperialism, the defeat of Japan in World War II in Asia paved the way for decolonization across Asia, with the appearance of a number of new nations, such as India and Pakistan. In a related development Japan’s defeat ended the truce between Chinese communists and nationalists, culminating in the emergence of the latest incarnation of Chinese civilization in 1949: the People’s Republic of China. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Title Image - photo M4A4 Sherman tank in east Burma, taken 1943 or 1944. Attribution: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Sherman.jpg. License: Creative Commons CC0 License. Wikipedia "China Burma India Theater" Adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Wikipedia.com. License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0 CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Rossi, J.R. (1998). "The Flying Tigers – American Volunteer Group – Chinese Air Force". AVG. - ^ Bliss K. Thorne, The Hump: The Great Military Airlift of World War II (1965) - ^ Michael Schaller, The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938–1945 (1982) - ^ Barbara W. Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45 (1971) ch 10 - ^ Jump up to:a b Donovan Webster, The Burma Road: The Epic Story of the China–Burma–India Theater in World War II (2003) - ^ Tuchman, Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45 (1971) ch. 12–14 - ^ Bernstein, Richard (2014). China 1945 : Mao's revolution and America's fateful choice (First ed.). New York. pp. 39–44. ISBN 9780307595881. - ^ Central Intelligence Agency. Behind Japanese Lines in Burma: The Stuff of Intelligence Legend (2001). Retrieved 30 May 2012. - ^ Peers, William R. and Dean Brelis. Behind the Burma Road: The Story of America’s Most Successful Guerrilla Force. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1963, back cover. - ^ Jump up to:a b Chapter XIX: The Second Front and the Secondary War The CBI: January–May 1944. The Mounting of the B-29 Offensive in Maurice Matloff References Page 442 - ^ Jump up to:a b c Slim 1956, pp. 205–207. - ^ L, Klemen (1999–2000). "Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Edmund Charles Peirse". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. - ^ Jump up to:a b Roll of Honour, Britain at War, The Air Forces in Burma http://www.roll-of-honour.org.uk/Cemeteries/Rangoon_Memorial/html/air_forces_in_burma.htm - ^ Masters, John. The Road Past Mandalay, Bantam Press (1979), pp. 146–148 and 308–309 - ^ Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation: Overseas Commands – Iraq, India and the Far East Archived 6 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Jump up to:a b Mountbatten, Admiral Lord Louis, Address to the Press, August 1944 http://www.burmastar.org.uk/aug44mountbatten.htm Archived 29 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Adrian Fort, Archibald Wavell: The Life and Death of the Imperial Servant (2009) - ^ Edward Young, Merrill's Marauders (2009) - ^ assault on Myitkyina town Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine - ^ Wedemeyer, Albert C. (1958). Wedemeyer Reports! Autobiography.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.594441	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88063/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, War in China, Burma, India", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91156/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Introduction to Learning Hacks THE HACK Knowing just a little about how you learn can save you time The Story We know that you’re not always interested in learning for the sake of learning. While you probably find many of your classes interesting, there may be some that you’re just trying to get through because you have to take them. We also know that many of you are trying to balance your class work with a job (or jobs!), childcare, and other responsibilities. We get it. We want to help you learn what you need to learn to achieve your goals in the most efficient manner possible. Understanding a little about how you learn can save you time. We’re not going to make you dig into the research; rather, we’ve done that and are going to summarize the research for you in a way that hopefully enables you to put it into action. Remember, we’re trying to save you time, not cost you more time! You’ll see these learning hacks sprinkled throughout the course – no more than one per module. If you are curious to see what’s coming, we’ve provided the complete list of them below. Hopefully these hacks help you not just in this class, but in all of your coursework. Good luck! - What’s the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time? - What is Mindset and Why Does It Matter? - How Often Should I Study? - Should I Ask for Help? - How Should I Study Across Topics? - The Myth of Multitasking - Learning Styles - Don’t Bother Highlighting LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Introduction to Learning Hacks. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Learning Hacks Image. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution What’s the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time? THE HACK The most efficient way to learn something is by practicing. This turns out to be a much better use of time than other study techniques like rereading or highlighting. The Story It turns out that human beings learn by doing. You’ve probably experienced this yourself – you might feel like you understand something when you’re sitting in lecture or reading about it in your textbook, but then you start doing the homework and realize that you haven’t quite gotten it yet. It’s not until you actually practice the concept that you’re learning that it really starts to stick in your brain. Your experience is backed up by tons of research on learning. Over and over again, learning science research has shown that people learn by doing. While reading or watching a video about a concept may make you feel like you understand, it’s the act of practicing the concept that actually creates the connections between neurons in your brain. Practice can take many forms. For example: answering the practice or self-check questions in an online course like this one, or answering homework questions or working problems at the end of a chapter in your textbook. Even making up practice questions for yourself after you read a page of content is effective practice! The Research When researchers compared practice with other study techniques like rereading and highlighting, here’s what they found: \| Study Technique \| Usefulness \| \| Doing practice questions \| High \| \| Spacing out your practice over time \| High \| \| Rereading \| Low \| \| Highlighting \| Low \| \| Summarization \| Low \| We talked about practice in this learning hack. We’ll tell you about how to space out your practice over time in an upcoming one. We’ll also talk a little bit about why techniques like highlighting are not as useful. The Source Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 Hattie, J. A.C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge. Ambrose, Susan A.. (Eds.) (2010) How learning works :seven research-based principles for smart teaching San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass, LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Learning Hacks: What's the Best Use of My (Limited!) Time?. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Image of a student answering a test. Authored by: Pokefan95. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_student_answering_a_test.jpg. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.621322	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91156/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Function, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91164/overview	Putting it Together Overview Putting it Together Putting It Together: Marketing Function The Four Ps of Marketing Yourself Now that you have a deeper understanding of the marketing function, let’s return to where we began in this module: marketing yourself as a new college graduate in the job market. How can the concepts of the four Ps and the marketing mix help you market yourself to prospective employers? Product Product is the set of goods and services you offer. As a job candidate, you possess a unique set of experiences, interests, skills, and capabilities that make you a great match for certain kinds of jobs. These are your “product features.” Your “product strategy” is to align your features with the jobs, employers, and industries you’re going after. Competing effectively might mean drawing attention to the particular capabilities or features they want. Or it could mean adding a new skill set to make you a more compelling candidate. Promotion Promotion is how you communicate and provide information about your product. When you’re job hunting, your promotional strategy is usually to show that you’re the best candidate for the position. You should communicate this in all the forms that employers might be seeking information: your résumé, references, interviews, job sites, and so forth. Since each employer may be looking for something slightly different, you’ll want to tailor your résumé and other tools to fit the opportunity. Communicating the right things to the right audiences is an essential part of effective promotion. Place (Distribution) Place means delivering your product into settings where your target audience will see and buy. For job candidates today, this generally means using all available networks to connect with prospective employers. Personal networking among friends, family, and associates can help you find out who’s hiring and meet people working in your chosen field. Attending job fairs, professional meet-ups, and networking lunches is another good way to meet potential employers and people who can recommend you for professional opportunities. The “place” game is about being where your buyer is likely to find you. Price Price focuses on the exchange of value and making sure the exchange is worthwhile for both the buyer and the seller. In a hiring transaction, price is the compensation you receive in exchange for the labor and expertise you provide to your employer. As a job candidate, you should research benchmark salaries for recent graduates working in the position you’re seeking. Such information can help you set realistic requirements around salary and benefits and know when it makes sense to ask for more. When you understand market dynamics around price, you can avoid pricing yourself out of the market and leaving value on the table. Executing a Marketing Plan With your marketing mix defined, you have defined strategies to help you find job opportunities that fit your goals. You have also identified essential tactics to help you take advantage of the opportunities you find. This is how the marketing function comes together. As you work through these tactics and make progress in your job search, you can evaluate what is effective and focus on the most promising activities. In this case, your marketing success is easy to gauge: you’ll know you’ve succeeded when you land the job you wanted! Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Putting It Together: Marketing Function. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Revised Graphic: Marketing Mix for a Job Candidate. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Marketing Mix Graphic. Authored by: Ryan Van Etten. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ryanvanetten/5928662611/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Provided by: The Daily English Show. Located at: http://www.thedailyenglishshow.com/friday-joke/112-responsible/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.643616	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91164/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Marketing Function, Putting it Together", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100021/overview	1.1.1 Economics and Agricultural Economics 1.1.2 Basic Economies and Economic Freedom 1.1.3 Macroeconomics and Microeconomics 1.1.4 What is Agribusiness 1.1.5 History of Agribusiness 1.1.6 Commodities 1.1.7 Normative and Positive Statements 1.1.8 Agribusiness Sectors 1.1.9 Production Agriculture and Efficiency Economies of Scale Explained Modern Marvels: How Corn Fuels America (S13, E39) Perfect Competition Video - Jacob Clifford Why Chicken Sandwiches Don't Cost $1500 Agribusiness in the U.S. Overview Economics and Agricultural Economics Learning Objectives 2a Define economics, agricultural economics, macroeconomics, and microeconomics. 5a Understand basic concepts of economics and explain their significance. Economics and Scarcity Economics is the study of how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity. These decisions can be individual, familial, business, or societal. If you look around carefully, you will see that scarcity is a fact of life. Scarcity means that human want/need for goods, services, and resources exceeds what is available. Resources, such as labor, tools, land, and raw materials are necessary to produce the goods and services we want, but those resources exist in limited supply. Of course, the ultimate scarce resource is time; everyone—rich or poor—has just 24 expendable hours in the day to earn income to acquire goods and services, as well as for leisure time and sleep. At any point in time, there is only a finite number of resources available. Think about it this way: In 2015 the labor force in the United States contained over 158 million workers, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The total land area was 3,794,101 square miles. While these are certainly large numbers, they are not infinite. Because these resources are limited, so are the numbers of goods and services we produce with them. Combine this with the fact that human wants seem to be virtually infinite, and you can see why scarcity is a problem. Agriculture and Economics Agricultural Economics is an applied field of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food and fiber products. Agricultural economics began as a branch of economics that specifically dealt with land usage. It focused on maximizing the crop yield, while maintaining a good soil ecosystem. Throughout the 20th century the discipline expanded; consequently, the current scope of the discipline is much broader. Agricultural economics influences food policy, agricultural policy, and environmental policy. Attributions Title Image: "Cornfield in South Dakota" by Lars Plougmann, Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 "Agricultural Economics" by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 "Principles of Microeconomics for AP® Courses 2e" by Steven A. Greenlaw, David Shapiro, OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/principles-microeconomics-ap-courses-2e/pages/1-1-what-is-economics-and-why-is-it-important Basic Economies and Economic Freedom Learning Objectives 5p Explain different types of economic systems. Types of Economies Think about what a complex system a modern economy is. It includes all production of goods and services, all buying and selling, all employment. The economic life of every individual is interrelated, at least to a small extent, with the economic lives of thousands or even millions of other individuals. Who organizes and coordinates this system? Who ensures that, for example, the number of televisions a society provides is the same as the amount it needs and wants? Who ensures that the right number of employees work in the electronics industry? Who ensures that televisions are produced in the best way possible? How does it all get done? Traditional Economy There are at least three ways that societies organize an economy. The first is the traditional economy, which is the oldest economic system and is used in parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. Traditional economies organize their economic affairs the way they have always done (i.e., tradition). Occupations stay in the family. Most families are farmers who grow the crops using traditional methods. What you produce is what you consume. Because tradition drives the way of life, there is little economic progress or development. Command Economy Command economies are very different. In a command economy, economic effort is devoted to goals passed down from a ruler or ruling class. Ancient Egypt was a good example: a large part of economic life was devoted to building pyramids—like those in Figure 1.1.2a—for the pharaohs. Medieval manor life is another example: the lord provided the land for growing crops and protection in the event of war, and, in return, vassals provided labor and soldiers to do the lord’s bidding. In the last century, communism emphasized command economies. In a modern command economy, the government decides what goods and services will be produced and what prices it will charge for them. The government decides what methods of production to use and sets wages for workers. The government provides many necessities like healthcare and education for free. Currently, Cuba and North Korea have command economies. Market Economy While command economies have a very centralized structure for economic decisions, market economies have a very decentralized structure. A market is an institution that brings together buyers and sellers of goods or services, who may be either individuals or businesses. The New York Stock Exchange (Figure 1.1.2b) is a prime example of a market that brings buyers and sellers together. In a market economy, decision-making is decentralized. Market economies are based on private enterprise: the private individuals or groups of private individuals own and operate the means of production (resources and businesses). Businesses supply goods and services based on demand. Supply of goods and services depends on what the demands are. A person’s income is based on their ability to convert resources (especially labor) into something that society values. The more society values the person’s output, the higher the income (think Taylor Swift or Kylian Mbappé). In this scenario, market forces (such as the desires of the people) determine economic decisions. Mixed Economy Most economies in the real world are mixed. They combine elements of command and market (and even traditional) systems. The U.S. economy is positioned toward the market-oriented end of the spectrum. Many countries in Europe and Latin America, while primarily market-oriented, have a greater degree of government involvement in economic decisions than the U.S. economy. China and Russia, over the past several decades, have moved more in the direction of having a market-oriented system, but they both remain closer to the command economy end of the spectrum. Economic Freedom What countries are considered economically free? Who is in control of economic decisions? Are people free to do what they want and to work where they want? Are businesses free to produce when they want and what they choose, and to hire and fire as they wish? Are banks free to choose who will receive loans, or does the government control these kinds of choices? Each year, researchers at the Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal look at 50 different categories of economic freedom for countries around the world. They give each nation a score based on the extent of economic freedom in each category. (Note that while the Heritage Foundation/WSJ index is widely cited by an array of scholars and publications, it should be regarded as only one viewpoint. Some experts indicate that the index’s category choices and scores are politically biased. However, the index and others like it provide a useful resource for critical discussion of economic freedom.) The 2016 Heritage Foundation’s Index of Economic Freedom report ranked 178 countries around the world; Table 1.1.2a lists some examples of the most free and the least free countries. Although technically not a separate country, Hong Kong has been granted a degree of autonomy such that, for purposes of measuring economic statistics, it is often treated as a separate country. Several additional countries were not ranked on the included chart because at the time of ranking they were considered to be experiencing extreme instability that made judgments about economic freedom impossible. These countries include Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Somalia, and Yemen. Countries with the Most Economic Freedom \| Countries with the Least Economic Freedom \| \| 1. Hong Kong \| 167. Timor-Leste \| \| 2. Singapore \| 168. Democratic Republic of Congo \| \| 3. New Zealand \| 169. Argentina \| \| 4. Switzerland \| 170. Equitorial Guinea \| \| 5. Australia \| 171. Iran \| \| 6. Canada \| 172. Republic of Congo \| \| 7. Chile \| 173. Eritrea \| \| 8. Ireland \| 174. Turkmenistan \| \| 9. Estonia \| 175. Zimbabwe \| \| 10. United Kingdom \| 176. Venezuela \| \| 11. United States \| 177. Cuba \| \| 12. Denmark \| 178. North Korea \| The assigned rankings in Table 1.1.2a are based on estimates, yet even these rough measures can be useful for discerning trends. In 2015, 101 of the 178 included countries shifted toward greater economic freedom, although 77 of the countries shifted toward less economic freedom. In recent decades, the overall trend has been a higher level of economic freedom around the world. Regulations: The Rules of the Game Markets and government regulations are always entangled. There is no such thing as an absolutely free market. Regulations always define the “rules of the game” in the economy. Economies that are primarily market-oriented have fewer regulations—ideally just enough to maintain an even playing field for participants. At a minimum, these laws govern matters like safeguarding private property against theft, protecting people from violence, enforcing legal contracts, preventing fraud, and collecting taxes. Conversely, even the most command-oriented economies operate using markets. How else would buying and selling occur? The government heavily regulates decisions of what to produce and prices to charge. Heavily regulated economies often have underground economies (or black markets), which are markets where the buyers and sellers make transactions without the government’s approval. The question of how to organize economic institutions is typically not a straightforward choice between all market or all government, but instead involves a balancing act over the appropriate combination of market freedom and government rules. Attributions "Principles of Economics 3e" by Steven A. Greenlaw, David Shapiro, Daniel MacDonald, OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/principles-economics-3e/pages/1-4-how-to-organize-economies-an-overview-of-economic-systems Macroeconomics and Microeconomics Learning Objective 2a What is the difference between Macroeconomics and Microeconomics? Microeconomics and Macroeconomics Economics is concerned with the well-being of all people, including those with jobs and those without jobs, as well as those with high incomes and those with low incomes. Economics acknowledges that production of useful goods and services can create problems of environmental pollution. It explores the question of how investing in education helps to develop workers’ skills. It probes questions like how to tell when big businesses or big labor unions are operating in a way that benefits society as a whole, as well as when they are operating in a way that benefits their owners or members at the expense of others. It looks at how government spending, taxes, and regulations affect decisions about production and consumption. It should be clear by now that economics covers considerable ground. We can divide that ground into two parts: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics and macroeconomics are not separate subjects, but rather complementary perspectives on the overall subject of the economy. Microeconomics focuses on the actions of individual agents within the economy, like households, workers, and businesses. Macroeconomics looks at the economy as a whole. It focuses on broad issues such as growth of production, the number of unemployed people, the inflationary increase in prices, government deficits, and levels of exports and imports. To understand why both microeconomic and macroeconomic perspectives are useful, consider the problem of studying a biological ecosystem, like a lake. One person who sets out to study the lake might focus on specific topics: certain kinds of algae or plant life, the characteristics of particular fish or snails, or the trees surrounding the lake. Another person might take an overall view and instead consider the lake's ecosystem from top to bottom: what eats what, how the system stays in a rough balance, and what environmental stresses affect this balance. Both approaches are useful, and both examine the same lake, but the viewpoints are different. In a similar way, both microeconomics and macroeconomics study the same economy, but each has a different viewpoint. Whether you are scrutinizing lakes or economics, the micro and the macro insights should blend with each other. In studying a lake, the micro insights about particular plants and animals help to provide information about the overall food chain, while the macro insights about the overall food chain help to explain the environment in which individual plants and animals live. In economics, the micro decisions of individual businesses are influenced by whether the macroeconomy is healthy. For example, firms will be more likely to hire workers if the overall economy is growing. In turn, macroeconomy's performance ultimately depends on the microeconomic decisions that individual households and businesses make. Microeconomics With microeconomics, we can learn about the theory of consumer behavior, the theory of the firm, how markets for labor and other resources work, and how markets sometimes fail to work properly. The following are some questions that microeconomics can help us answer: - What determines how households and individuals spend their budgets? - What combination of goods and services will best fit their needs and wants, given the budget they have to spend? - How do people decide whether to work, and if so, whether to work full time or part time? - How do people decide how much to save for the future, or whether they should borrow to spend beyond their current means? - What determines the products, and how many of each, a firm will produce and sell? - What determines the prices a firm will charge? - What determines how a firm will produce its products? - What determines how many workers it will hire? - How will a firm finance its business? - When will a firm decide to expand, downsize, or even close? Macroeconomics A nation's central bank conducts monetary policy, which involves policies that affect bank lending, interest rates, and financial capital markets. For the United States, this is the Federal Reserve. A nation's legislative body determines fiscal policy, which involves government spending and taxes. For the United States, this is the Congress and the executive branch, which originates the federal budget. These are the government's main tools. Americans tend to expect that government can fix whatever economic problems we encounter, but to what extent is that expectation realistic? With macroeconomics, we can determine an economy's overall health by examining a number of goals, such as growth in the standard of living, low unemployment, and low inflation. The following are some questions that macroeconomics can help us answer: - What determines the level of economic activity in a society? - In other words, what determines how many goods and services a nation actually produces? - What determines how many jobs are available in an economy? What determines a nation’s standard of living? - What causes the economy to speed up or slow down? - What causes firms to hire more workers or to lay them off? - What causes the economy to grow over the long term? Attributions "Principles of Microeconomics for AP® Courses 2e" by Steven A. Greenlaw, David Shapiro, OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Access for free at: https://openstax.org/books/principles-microeconomics-ap-courses-2e/pages/1-2-microeconomics-and-macroeconomics What is Agribusiness? Additional Resources For more information about U.S. food prices and spending, Click on this link to access USDA "Food Prices and Spending" on the web. For more information about world food prices, Click on this link to access Our World in Data "Food Prices" on the web. For information about the future of farming, Click on this link to access TDC's "The Future of Farming" on YouTube. Learning Objectives 1a Explain the meaning of Agribusiness. What is Agribusiness? Agribusiness encompasses all aspects of the business of agricultural production. The agribusiness industry includes food, forest, and fiber producing operations, the manufacture and distribution of farm equipment and supplies, and the processing, storage and distribution of commodities. All the activities in the production of food and fiber are treated as an integrated system, and this system reaches well beyond the farm. Each subset of this industry focuses on efficient operations to keep prices reasonable. Agribusiness is a dominant economic force in many countries around the world; however, political unrest, war, reduction in usable land, and a changing climate make it difficult to plan production. These challenges demand that agribusinesses find ways to operate more efficiently, such as investing in new technology, introducing crop fertilization and watering methods that reduce waste and remove harmful side effects, and finding new methods to connect to the global market. The agribusiness industry contains a wide variety of companies and operations which can range in size from a small, organic family farm all the way to large multinational conglomerates. Some examples include agricultural machinery manufacturers—such as John Deere, multinational food processing and commodities trading corporations—such as The Archer-Daniels-Midland Company (ADM), seed and agrichemical manufacturers—like Monsanto, along with local farmers' cooperatives, agritourism and recreation companies, biofuel producers, and livestock feed manufacturers. Like all businesses, market forces affect the agribusiness industry. Changes in consumer demand can cause prices to increase or decrease and force businesses to change their production. For example, if consumers shift away from eating red meat, the demand and prices for beef will fall. If consumers increase the demand for avocados, the prices for avocados will rise. Agribusinesses need to be nimble to react to changes in demand. The beef producer may have to look abroad to export to new markets or risk failing. The avocado producer will have to find ways to operate more efficiently and increase production to remain competitive in the market. Overall, every sector of agribusiness seeks efficiency. Today, technology plays a prominent role in agribusiness, helping to make operations more efficient. Technology such as GPS, drones, robotics, and self-driving vehicles are used to raise, harvest, and process animals and plants for use. In the United States, efficiencies in production have led to U.S. households spending a lower share of their disposable income on food over time. For the past 15 years, U.S. consumers have spent around 10% of their income on food (see Figure 1.1.4b). In contrast, many people in developing countries have to spend over 30% of their disposable income on household food (see Figure 1.1.4c). Attributions Basil Hans, V. (2008, September 21). Agri-business and Rural Management in India: Issues and Challenges. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1271622 Chen, J. (2021, March 15). Agribusiness explained: What it is, Challenges, and Examples. Investopedia. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/agribusiness.asp History of Agribusiness Learning Objectives 1b Discuss the events that led to Agribusiness as a profession. Agricultural Revolution For much of the world until the mid-1800s, most people were involved in agriculture. For example, in the United States, 90% of the population were farmers in 1790. Essentially, people produced the food they consumed. Around the mid-1800s, the advancement of agricultural techniques were improved—such as crop rotation, the invention of new tools, and the improvement of old tools, the efficiency of various agricultural operations. This era, called the Agricultural Revolution, contributed to unprecedented population growth and new agricultural practices, triggering such phenomena as the development of a coherent and loosely regulated agricultural market, and the emergence of capitalist farmers. Industrial Revolution Shortly after the advent of the Agricultural Revolution, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing. Soon people were seeking non-farm, higher income, employment opportunities in urban areas. These consumers were no longer producing their own food; they instead relied on being able to purchase food from someone else. By 1890, farmers were 43% of the labor force. The Term Agribusiness The word agribusiness was coined in 1957 by two Harvard Business School professors: John Davis and Ray Goldberg—the authors of A Concept of Agribusiness. They gave the definition for the term as: "the sum total of all operations involved in the manufacture and distribution of farm supplies; production operations on the farm; and the storage, processing, and distribution of farm commodities and items made from them" (Davis, John H.; Goldberg, Ray A. (1957). A Concept of Agribusiness. Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University.) Davis and Goldberg sought to revolutionize the agriculture sector favoring corporate-driven agriculture or large-scale farming to revolutionize the agriculture sector. With this system-based approach, they ushered in a new understanding of farming as a business with interconnected components. Industry Concentration New approaches were needed to weather economic problems. The need for management and governance became important as farms shifted to resemble more typical business. Two economic solutions are value chains and the vertical integration of different systems within farm production. These business approaches made it more difficult for smaller farms to remain competitive, eventually being absorbed into more prosperous farms. Industry concentration continues to this day and puts the economic power of the agriculture sector into the hands of fewer and fewer business, which in turn increases their ability to influence governance of industry standards to provide outcomes beneficial to themselves. History of Agriculture Timeline Attributions Thesunshineisours. (2020, February 5). What is agribusiness? how did agribusiness evolve? ECOSYSTEMS UNITED. Retrieved from https://ecosystemsunited.com/2020/02/02/what-is-agribusiness-how-did-agribusiness-evolve/ "Trends in Agriculture" by North Dakota State University is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 Commodities Learning Objectives 1c Discuss commodity types. Agricultural Commodities A commodity is a raw product. Examples of commodities include grains—like corn, wheat and soybeans; livestock—like cattle and hogs; metals—like gold and silver, and energy sources—like crude oil and natural gas. The raw product is typically sold, and then processed and/or packaged in some way. For instance, corn may be sold to a processor who makes ethanol; gold may be sold to a processor making jewelry; and crude oil may be sold to a processor who makes plastic. These processed goods are then shipped to retailers, who then sell a finished product to consumers. To make it easier to buy and sell these raw goods, the quality of the commodity must be uniform from all producers. This means all the bushels of corn, all the bales of cotton, and all the barrels of crude oil are essentially the same, regardless of who produced them. Attributions "Understanding Commodity Markets" by Tyler Schau, OER Commons is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Normative and Positive Statements Learning Objectives 2b Define normative and positive statements. Positive and Normative Statements The economics approach generally portrays people as self-interested. For some critics of this approach, even if self-interest is an accurate description of how people behave, these behaviors are not moral. Instead, the critics argue that people should be taught to care more deeply about others. However, the assumption that individuals are purely self-interested is a simplification about human nature. In fact, we need to look no further than to Adam Smith—the “father of modern economics”—to find evidence of this. The opening sentence of Smith’s book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, puts it very clearly: “How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it.” Clearly, individuals are both self-interested and altruistic, and Economists recognize this fact. In light of moral theories surrounding economics, it is important to remember that economics is not moral philosophy and that it involves the consideration of individual freedoms. First, economics is not a form of moral instruction. Rather, it seeks to describe economic behavior as it actually exists. Philosophers draw a distinction between positive statements, which describe the world as it is, and normative statements, which describe how the world should be. Positive statements are factual. They may be true or false, but we can test them, at least in principle. Normative statements are subjective questions of opinion. We cannot test them since we cannot prove opinions to be true or false. They are just opinions based on one's values. For example, an economist could analyze a proposed subway system in a certain city. If the expected benefits exceed the costs, he concludes that the project is worthy—an example of positive (fact) analysis. Another economist argues for extended unemployment compensation during the Great Depression because a rich country like the United States should take care of its less fortunate citizens—an example of normative (opinion) analysis. The line between positive and normative statements may not always be crystal clear, but economic analysis does try to remain rooted in the study of the actual people who inhabit the actual economy. Second, we can label self-interested behavior and profit-seeking with other names, such as personal choice and freedom. The ability to make personal choices about buying, working, and saving is an important personal freedom. Some people may choose high-pressure, high-paying jobs so that they can earn and spend considerable amounts of money on themselves. Others may allocate large portions of their earnings to charity or spend it on their friends and family. Others may devote themselves to a career that can require much time, energy, and expertise but does not offer high financial rewards, like being an elementary school teacher or a social worker. Still others may choose a job that does consume much of their time or provide a high level of income, but still leaves time for family, friends, and contemplation. Some people may prefer to work for a large company; others might want to start their own business. People’s freedom to make their own economic choices has a moral value worth respecting. Attributions "Principles of Microeconomics for AP® Courses 2e" by Steven A. Greenlaw, David Shapiro, OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Access for free at: https://openstax.org/books/principles-microeconomics-ap-courses-2e/pages/2-3-confronting-objections-to-the-economic-approach Agribusiness Sectors - Instructor Idea: - If time allows, the History video that is linked, shows how the sectors work together in the cotton industry. Many students are familiar with the idea of how their food is grown but the process that many food items take from field to table can be unclear. Learning Objectives 1d Discuss the sectors of the agribusiness industry, including the service sector. 5 Economic Sectors Agribusiness can be divided into 5 different economic sectors: - Input Sector - Production Sector - Processing Sector - Marketing and Sales Sector - Service Sector Sustainable practices can be included in every sector. Input Sector Inputs are the foundation for the entire production process and influence all other sectors of agribusiness. The agribusiness input sector includes all resources that provide safe, secure, and profitable agricultural production. Businesses must invest in quality inputs to get quality results (outputs). Inputs are the foundation for the entire production process and influence all other sectors of agribusiness. Some of these input investments are seed, fertilizer, machinery, fuel, and credit. There is a lot of innovation in this sector. Seeds have been developed for disease and pest resistance, higher crop yields, and increased tolerance to environmental stress. Machines are consistently upgraded with more advanced computer systems to improve the speed of production. And animal feeds are produced to improve the quality of the livestock. Production Sector The agribusiness production sector deals with crop cultivation, raising animals, and harvesting fish; this production is either for human and animal consumption or to use as raw materials for secondary products. Efficiency in this sector depends on improvements in the agricultural input sector. Independent farm owners and ranchers, commercial farms, farm workers, fisheries, and loggers are working in the production sector of agribusiness. People who grow and harvest crops for immediate use are also members of this sector. Processing Sector Today, most agricultural products do not reach consumers in their original harvested state. The agribusiness processing sector is where products are refined for human consumption or other uses. Any activity that maintains or improves the quality of the agricultural product, alters the products’ physical or chemical characteristics, or adds value in any way to the product falls in the processing sector. This sector also packages and brands agricultural products. Value-added agriculture refers most generally to manufacturing processes that increase the value of primary agricultural commodities. Value-added agriculture may also refer to increasing the economic value of a commodity through particular production processes—such as organic produce—or through regionally branded products, whicht increase consumer appeal and willingness to pay a premium over similar but undifferentiated products. Value-added agriculture increases a product’s customer base and, as a result, producers expand their revenue sources. Marketing and Sales Sector The marketing and sales sector of agribusiness is involved with getting the right goods and services to the right people at the right time, place, and price. People working in this sector find out what potential buyers need and want and then work to provide the goods and services to meet or exceed those needs and wants. This sector is not only concerned with getting agricultural products to consumers, but also with the buying and selling of all resources among the other sectors. There are conflicts of interest between buyers and sellers in every exchange. Purchasers want to get the best quality items at the lowest prices, while sellers want to get the highest return possible for those same items. For example, farmers want to purchase high quality, high yield seeds for a low price; however, seed producers want to make the best profit possible for the same seeds. In turn, when farmers sell the soybeans harvested from those seeds, they look for ways to increase their profitability; on the other hand, the soybean processing company will be searching for the highest quality they can find for the lowest price. Balance between these conflicting interests must be achieved to produce a quality product at a price that the end consumer will purchase. Service Sector In agriculture business, the service sector encompasses the support for all the activities within and among the other sectors. The service sector includes technology and training to increase efficiencies in production, research universities and companies developing better resources and process to improve future production and processing of agricultural commodities, the loan and governmental subsidies officers, specialty organizations that represent agricultural needs locally and national and much more. A recent addition to the agriculture business service sector is agritourism. This is a way for farms, ranches, aquaculture, and forestry operations to add revenue, while also educating the public about their operations and importance in the community. Some common examples of agritourism activities include: - living history farms - winery tours and wine tasting - rural bed & breakfasts - corn mazes - petting farms - fishing trips - horseback riding - agricultural fairs - harvest-your-own-operations What are Agrifood Systems? "What are agrifood systems?" by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Attributions "Introduction to Business" by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Olabisi, S. (2021, February 28). What are the sectors of agribusiness? Open Education Online. Retrieved from https://openeducationonline.com/magazine/sectors-of-agribusiness/ Strengthening farming program - product processing. BC Ministry of Agriculture and Food. (2014, March). Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/agriculture-seafood/agricultural-land-and-environment/strengthening-farming University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture Research and Extension. (2022, March 14). Agritourism - An overview. National Agricultural Law Center. Retrieved November 25, 2022, from https://nationalaglawcenter.org/overview/agritourism/ "Value-added agriculture" by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 Production Agriculture and Efficiency Learning Objectives 5b Discuss the interactions of agribusiness sectors and how they are interconnected. 5c Analyze the efficiency of production agriculture. Agricultural Productivity Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to inputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight—which is known as crop yield, varying products make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, agricultural productivity is usually measured as the market value of the final output. This productivity can be compared to many different types of inputs, such as labour or land. Such comparisons are called partial measures of productivity. Agricultural productivity may also be measured by what is termed total factor productivity (TFP)—a method of calculating agricultural productivity that compares an index of agricultural inputs to an index of outputs. This measure of agricultural productivity was established to remedy the shortcomings of the partial measures of productivity; notably it is often hard to identify the factors cause them to change. Changes in TFP are usually attributed to technological improvements. History of Agricultural Labor and Innovation Before the Industrial Revolution, agriculture workers labored six days a week, from sun up to sun down, just to keep their crops growing. Certain seasons were more demanding than others, specifically the plowing and harvest seasons. Because of the intensity and necessity of agricultural labor, it was the largest employment source in Europe. Men, women, and children worked side by side to feed the country. Often, if the father was a farm owner and worker, his entire family labored alongside him. Working in agriculture was not just a job but often a lifestyle for families. Though the labor was difficult, agricultural work became the largest source of employment because of the ‘self-supply’ benefit, which is the ability to stock their own food stores through their own work. Another attractive aspect was the constant high demand for their products. The ever-rising demand for food provided farming families with a fairly steady income, although there were exceptions because of the uncertainty of crop success. Because of the difficulty of agricultural work, it became necessary to innovate the agricultural industry, and this led to the Agricultural Revolution, which arguably started in the mid-18th century. The Agricultural Revolution helped bring about the Industrial Revolution through innovations and inventions that altered how the farming process worked. These new processes, in turn, created a decline in both the intensity of the work and the number of agricultural laborers needed. Because of the decline in need for agricultural workers, many worked industrial jobs, further fueling the Industrial Revolution. At the beginning of the Agricultural Revolution farm hands chose to migrate to the city to work industrial jobs; however, as the decline in need for agricultural workers grew, many were also forced to look for work in the industries. Agricultural Technology Agriculture became increasingly mechanized in the 1920s with widespread use of the tractor, combine harvester, and other heavy equipment. Information about superior techniques was disseminated through county agents employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the federal government. The new technologies meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and more business-oriented firms, hurting the profits of small, family farms that had long been the model in rural America. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises. Crop Specialization Since before the 1970s, the composition of total acres planted per crop across the U.S. has become increasingly specialized. By 2019, total crop acreage of major crops was nearly dominated by corn, soy, and wheat (winter, spring, and durum). In 1925, corn and wheat comprised a majority of the acreage planted, with cotton and oats following closely behind; however, the difference in acreage planted for these crops was comparatively small. From the mid-1920s to the 1970s, acreage for cotton, oats, barley, and peanuts gradually decreased; meanwhile, acreage for soybeans rapidly increased, and wheat and corn acreage remained consistently dominant. Therefore, the 1970s era onward was characterized by observable specialization toward certain crops. From the 1970s through 2019, acres planted for corn, soy, and wheat (particularly soy) increased at the same time that other major commodities decreased. Steady declines of the planted acreage of sorghum, cotton, barley, and oats became evident, as corn and wheat remained consistent, and soy continued to expand. As of 2019 corn, soy, and wheat comprise a total of 210,958,000 planted acres; corn and soy alone cover nearly 166 million. According to the 2017 Census estimates of total cropland in the U.S., corn, soy, and wheat cover 64.7% of harvested cropland acres; corn and soy alone cover 56.6%. Attributions "Agricultural Productivity" by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 "Foundations of Western Culture II" by foundations.uwgb.org, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 "Past and Current Dynamics of U.S. Agricultural Land Use and Policy" by Kaitlyn Spangler, Emily K. Burchfield, Britta Schumacher, Frontiers is licensed under CC BY 4.0 "Boundless U.S. History" by , Boundless is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Citations For Wikipedia Preckel, Paul V.; Hertel, Thomas W.; Arndt, Channing; Nin, Alejandro (2003). "Bridging the Gap between Partial and Total Factor Productivity Measures Using Directional Distance Functions". American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 85 (4): 928–942. doi:10.1111/1467-8276.00498. ISSN 0002-9092. S2CID 154456202. Zepeda, Lydia (2001) Agricultural Investment and Productivity in Developing Countries, FAO Economic And Social Development Paper No. 148, ed., FAO Corporate Document Repository, 12 July 2007, http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X9447E/x9447e00.HTM. Citation For Past and Current Dynamics of U.S. Agricultural Land Use and Policy Spangler K, Burchfield EK and Schumacher B (2020) Past and Current Dynamics of U.S. Agricultural Land Use and Policy. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 4:98. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.00098 Efficiency and Specialization Instructor Ideas: - The YouTube videos can be watched by the class together to bring home the concepts discussed in this section. - After watching the 'Why Chicken Sandwiches Don't Cost $1500' the instructor can use this information as a spring board for a class discussion over how important these concepts are in the everyday lives of people. Learning Objectives 5d Explain how specialization is related to efficiency. The Problem of Scarcity Think about all the things you consume: food, shelter, clothing, transportation, healthcare, and entertainment. How do you acquire those items? Most likely, you do not produce them yourself; you buy them instead. How do you afford the things you buy? You work for pay. If you do not, someone else does so on your behalf. Yet, most of us never have enough income to buy all the things we want. This is because of scarcity. Every society, at every level, must make choices about how to use its resources. Families must decide whether to spend their money on a new car or a fancy vacation. Towns must choose whether to put more of the budget into police and fire protection or into the school system. Nations must decide whether to devote more funds to updating infrastructure or to protecting the environment. In most cases, there just isn’t enough money in the budget to do everything. How do we use our limited resources the best way possible—to obtain the most goods and services we can? There are a couple of options. First, we could each produce everything we each consume. Alternatively, we could each produce some of what we want to consume, and “trade” for the rest of what we want. Let’s explore these options. Why do we not each just produce all of the things we consume? Think back to pioneer days, when individuals knew how to subsist off their own labor—from building their homes, to growing their crops, to hunting for food, to repairing their equipment. Most of us do not know how to do all—or any—of those things, but it is not because we could not learn. Rather, we do not have to. And that is because of something called the division and specialization of labor, a production innovation discussed by Adam Smith (see Figure 1.1.10a) in his book, The Wealth of Nations. The Division of and Specialization of Labor The formal study of economics began when Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) published his famous book The Wealth of Nations in 1776. Many authors had written on economics in the centuries before Smith, but he was the first to address the subject in a comprehensive way. In the first chapter, Smith introduces the concept of division of labor, which means that the way one produces a good or service is divided into a number of tasks that different workers perform, instead of all the tasks being done by the same person. To illustrate division of labor, Smith counted how many tasks went into making a pin: drawing out a piece of wire, cutting it to the right length, straightening it, putting a head on one end and a point on the other, and packaging pins for sale, to name just a few. Smith counted 18 distinct tasks that different people performed—all for a pin! Modern businesses divide tasks as well. Even a relatively simple business like a restaurant divides the task of serving meals into a range of jobs like top chef, sous chefs, kitchen help, servers to wait on the tables, a greeter at the door, janitors to clean up, and a business manager to handle paychecks and bills—not to mention the economic connections a restaurant has with suppliers of food, furniture, kitchen equipment, and the building where it is located. A complex business like a large manufacturing factory—such as the shoe factory (see Figure 1.1.10b) or a hospital—can have hundreds of job classifications. Why the Division of Labor Increases Production The division and specialization of labor has been a force against the problem of scarcity. When we divide and subdivide the tasks involved with producing a good or service, workers and businesses can produce a greater quantity of output. In his observations of pin factories, Smith noticed that one worker alone might make 20 pins in a day, but that a small business of 10 workers (some of whom would need to complete two or three of the 18 tasks involved with pin-making) could make 48,000 pins in a day. How can a group of workers, each specializing in certain tasks, produce so much more than the same number of workers who try to produce the entire good or service by themselves? Smith offered three reasons. First, specialization in a particular small job allows workers to focus on the parts of the production process where they have an advantage. People have different skills, talents, and interests, so they will be better at some jobs than at others. The particular advantages may be based on educational choices, which are in turn shaped by interests and talents. Only those with medical degrees qualify to become doctors, for instance. For some goods, geography affects specialization. For example, it is easier to be a wheat farmer in North Dakota than in Florida, but easier to run a tourist hotel in Florida than in North Dakota. If you live in or near a big city, it is easier to attract enough customers to operate a successful dry-cleaning business or movie theater than if you live in a sparsely populated rural area. Whatever the reason, if people specialize in the production of what they do best, they will be more effective than if they produce a combination of things, some of which they are good at and some of which they are not. Second, workers who specialize in certain tasks often learn to produce more quickly and with higher quality. This pattern holds true for many workers, including assembly line laborers who build cars, stylists who cut hair, and doctors who perform heart surgery. In fact, specialized workers often know their jobs well enough to suggest innovative ways to do their work faster and better. A similar pattern often operates within businesses. In many cases, a business that focuses on one or a few products (sometimes called its “core competency”) is more successful than firms that try to make a wide range of products. Third, specialization allows businesses to take advantage of economies of scale, which means that for many goods, as the level of production increases, the average cost of producing each individual unit declines. For example, if a factory produces only 100 cars per year, each car will be quite expensive to make on average. However, if a factory produces 50,000 cars each year, it can set up an assembly line with huge machines and workers performing specialized tasks, which will result in a lower average cost of production per car. The ultimate result of workers who can focus on their preferences and talents, learn to do their specialized jobs better, and work in larger organizations is that society as a whole can produce and consume far more than if each person tried to produce all of his or her own goods and services. Trade and Markets Specialization only makes sense if workers can use the pay they receive for doing their jobs to purchase the other goods and services that they need. In short, specialization requires trade. And trade is how our modern society has evolved into a relatively strong economy. Instead of trying to acquire all the knowledge and skills involved in producing all of the goods and services that you wish to consume, the market allows you to learn a specialized set of skills; then, you use the pay you receive from employing your skills to buy the goods and services you need or want. Think about it. You do not have to know anything about electronics or sound systems to play music—you just buy a cellular device or computer, download the music, and listen. You do not have to know anything about artificial fibers or the construction of sewing machines if you need a jacket—you just buy the jacket and wear it. You do not need to know anything about internal combustion engines to operate a car—you just get in and drive. Attributions "Principles of Microeconomics for AP® Courses 2e" by Steven A. Greenlaw, David Shapiro, OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Access for free: https://openstax.org/books/principles-microeconomics-ap-courses-2e/pages/1-1-what-is-economics-and-why-is-it-important	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.773577	Anna McCollum	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100021/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Agriculture Business Collection, Agribusiness and Economic Concepts, Agribusiness in the U.S.", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88785/overview	Grammar Lessons and Assignments - ESL Level 1 Overview This file contains grammar lessons and assignments for a Level 1 academic ESL class with an emphasis on applying grammar lessons in writing. It can be combined with the other files in this folder to create an entire OER based class. Simple Present Verbs - For this grammar unit we will begin with simple present verbs. After watching the YouTube video, you can see the same information in the open resource textbook ESL for Beginning Students: The Way You Like It by Don Bissonnette from the bottom of page 81 to page 84. Then read the lecture notes that summarize before completing the Assignment. Let me know if you have any questions. - Extra English Practice. “Basic Grammar: Introduction to Simple Present.” YouTube: 5 June 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AnrvGwUNdHA - Subject/Verb Agreement in Simple Present - Simple present verbs must agree with their subjects in English. - Singular subjects require the singular verb form which has an –s added to the base form of the verb. EXAMPLE: boy walks - Plural subjects require the plural verb form which does NOT have the -s added to the base form. EXAMPLE: boys walk - The Single -s Rule - If the subject has an –s or implied (not actually there, but the word is still plural) –s, then the verb cannot have an –s. Again, boys walk. Boys has an –s, so the verb will not take an –s. - If the subject does NOT have an-s, then the verb will need the –s. Again, boy walks. Boy does NOT have an –s, so the verb must have the –s. - You can only have an –s on either the subject or verb, NOT on both. - Note: The reason I said implied –s in the first point is that some words in English are plural, but they do not have an actual -s. These words still require the verb without the –s because they are still plural. EXAMPLE: Children (no –s but still plural) walk. - Spelling Note: -s Only - Most verbs add – s only. travel becomes travels talk becomes talks 2. Many verbs have a base form that ends in –e. These verbs simply add –s to the base form. write becomes writes bathe becomes bathes - Spelling Note: Add -es - Final –es is added to words that end in –ch, -sh, -s, -x, and –z. This final –es also has a pronunciation difference. Pronounce it as - əz (- ə is called a schwa and is pronounced like –u). watch becomes watches wash becomes washes kiss becomes kisses mix becomes mixes fizz becomes fizzes - Why is this variation necessary? These final sounds are too close to –s, so the final sound must change. - Spelling Note: Change the y to i 1. If a word ends in a consonant + -y, change the –y to –i and add –es. cry becomes cries 2. However, if a word ends in a vowel + -y, add –s with no other changes. say becomes says (pronounced sez) - Spelling Note: Common Irregular Forms The singular simple present forms of go, do and have are irregular. goes does has - OER Textbook - ESL for Beginning Students: The Way You Like It by Don Bissonnette - Bissonnette, Don. “1. Book One.Doc.” Docs.Google.Com. - https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=c291dGhzZWF0dGxlLmVkdXxlc2wtZ3JhbW1hci10aGUtd2F5LXlvdS1saWtlLWl0LWxldmVscy0xLTV8Z3g6M2ZmZTg4NjE3OTZkODI1Yw - Simple Present Exercise and Sentences - Complete 1-10 of the exercise on page 85 of the Bissonnette book. You only need to type the verb, not the entire sentence. - Write 2 sentences using simple present verbs with a first person (I) subject and 2 using a second person (you) subject. Then write 2 sentences using third person, singular subjects and 2 using third person, plural subjects. - Writing Assignment: Where Am I? - We all know that we humans use our five senses, sight, hearing, feel, touch, and taste, to interact with our world. When we write, we use these sensory observations to describe experiences and locations. These sensory observations are always expressed using the simple present. - For this writing assignment use all five senses to describe a place you would like to be in. Make five sentences or more describing that place. Remember that they will use simple present verbs. Next week your classmates will guess the place. Since you will be describing a place, it is also a great opportunity to practice using prepositions like at, on, and in. Present Progressive Verbs - What Does Progressive Mean? - When you see the word progressive, think the –ing form of the verb. - The –ing forms can exist in English, but they are NOT verbs! They become something else which we will discuss later. - To have the present progressive tense, you must have two things: 1. A present tense form of be conjugated to match the subject. 2. The –ing form of the verb. Note that the –ing form does not vary (change) for conjugation or tense. - Difference Between Simple Present and Present Progressive - The present progressive deals with something happening right now or around now. - The simple present expresses habitual or usual activities that you do over and over. - Watch the short video linked below for more discussion of this point. - Video Explanation Shepherd, Nick. “Learn English - Present Simple and Present Progressive.” YouTube, 16 Jan. 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dToboUPXdxE - Exercise Assignment and Sentences - Complete the present progressive/simple present exercise on page 93 of ESL for Beginners: The Way You Like It. You only need to type the verbs into this assignment, NOT the entire sentence. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=c291dGhzZWF0dGxlLmVkdXxlc2wtZ3JhbW1hci10aGUtd2F5LXlvdS1saWtlLWl0LWxldmVscy0xLTV8Z3g6M2ZmZTg4NjE3OTZkODI1Yw - Then, write 6 sentences, 3 using simple present and 3 using present progressive. Make them about the same topic. Examples below. EXAMPLES: Simple Present: I teach English to a variety of students. Present Progressive: I am teaching English to new students today. Subject/Verb Agreement - Video Explanation Schmoop. “Subject Verb Agreement.” YouTube: 4 August 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEVhUEq6P1w - Subject Verb Agreement Exercise Complete Exercise III on page 9 in Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL. - Online Source Peterson, Patricia Wilcox. Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL Beginning/Intermediate Level, United States Department of State: Office of English Language Programs, 1982. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/developing_writing.pdf Grammar Review and Quiz - Instructions for Review: Because we are in a writing class, writing is the most important skill. So, the grammar quiz will NOT have grammar exercises. Instead, you will be asked to apply the grammar we have learned to your writing. Review simple and compound sentences, introductory adverbs, and introductory prepositional phrases. - Quiz Questions – (Lessons for introductory adverbs and prepositional phrases are in the Sentence Variety file in this folder) - Write a simple sentence using present progressive verb tense. - Write a compound sentence using simple present verb tense. - Write a sentence with an introductory adverb. - Write a sentence with an introductory prepositional phrase. - Write a sentence with an action verb. Recognizing Run-On/Fused Sentences and Comma Splices - What Are Run-on/Fused Sentences? - A run-on or fused sentence is actually two or more sentences that are put together without proper punctuation. - The length of the sentence is not always a clue about whether a sentences is a run-on/fused one. You can have a short sentence that is a run-on, and a long sentence that is not. - This issue is a punctuation/writing problem. - EXAMPLES: I was hungry I ate breakfast. Emily was an only child for five years now she has a baby sister. When I was little, I played with my cousins they were my best friends. - The First Step to Correcting Run-On/Fused Sentences - For now I want you to recognize this error and correct them by adding periods because this method is the easiest way to correct them. - We are focusing on recognizing these sentences. - However, I want you to know there are many ways to correct run-on/fused sentences. We will learn about all of the other options (choices) later in the course. - What are Comma Splices? - A comma splice is similar to a run-on/fused sentence except that there is a comma between the sentences. - This error is NOT an error in Spanish and some other languages, but it IS an error in English. - EXAMPLES: I am hungry, I want to eat lunch. When my mother gets home from work, she wants to rest, she needs help with dinner. Running is my favorite way to get exercise, I run every day. - The First Step to Correcting Comma Splices - First, I want you to recognize these errors in your writing. If you can spot them in your writing, you can correct them. - The easiest way to correct a comma splice is to replace the comma with a period. - Again, we have many options for how to correct a comma splice. We will learn about the other options later in the semester. - Web Source “Recognizing Comma Splices and Fused Sentences.” Chompchomp.com. https://chompchomp.com/csfs01/ - Homework Assignment - Complete the exercise at the link below by writing the sentences correctly in a Word document and uploading it to the Assignments folder. The first one is NOT a run-on. The exercise has an error in it. So, please complete sentences 2-10 for homework. Although we have many ways we can correct a run-on error, please just use periods to correct them in this exercise. - “Run-On Sentences Worksheet.” Englishforeveryone.org. https://englishforeveryone.org/viewpdf.html?pdf=/PDFs/Run%20on%20sentences.pdf&title=Run-on%20Sentences%20Worksheet Simple Past Verbs - Simple Past Homework Assignment - Please complete the first 15 sentences in the exercise on page 105 of ESL for Beginning Learners: The Way You Like It. The instructions ask you to change the sentence from present tense to past tense. - Bissonnette, Don. “1. Book One.Doc.” Docs.Google.Com. - https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=c291dGhzZWF0dGxlLmVkdXxlc2wtZ3JhbW1hci10aGUtd2F5LXlvdS1saWtlLWl0LWxldmVscy0xLTV8Z3g6M2ZmZTg4NjE3OTZkODI1Yw - Simple Past Paragraph Assignment Write a first person (I) narrative paragraph of at least five sentences about something that happened in your life. Remember to follow the standard paragraph organization with a topic sentence telling us what the paragraph will be about, a body that has the details of what happened, and a concluding paragraph that wraps everything up by telling us what you learned, why this event was important, etc. You will also need to have good sentence variety and include at least one sentence with an introductory subordinate clause. Since this paragraph is short, make sure you choose a short event. You cannot tell us about an entire year or even something that took place over a couple of weeks. You need a small event that took place in a short period of time. Past Progressive Verbs - What Is Past Progressive? - Since the first part of this tense’s name is past, you know that we use it to talk about something in the past. - Progressive means that this verb tense must use the –ing form of the verb. - Since –ing forms of the verb must have an auxiliary verb, you know that these verbs will have two parts. - Definition: past progressive verbs express an activity that was occurring or happening at a specific time or at the time of another action in the past. - When to Use Past Progressive - Like all progressive tenses, you use it to show that something was happening over a period of time when something else was happening or over a period of time at a specific time. - Examples: 1. When the phone rang, I was taking a nap. 2. Last night at 5:30, we were watching the news during dinner. - Difference Between Simple Past and Past Progressive - Simple past talks about something that began and ended in the past. - Like we said in the previous slide, past progressive emphasizes the duration of what you were doing when something else happened. - Sometimes you have to use one or the other, but sometimes both are an option, depending on what you want to stress. Last night, we watched the news. Last night at 5:30, we were watching the news. - Both of these are correct, but you MUST have the specific time (5:30) in order to use the past progressive. - Writing with Past Progressive - Because we only use the past progressive tense in certain situations, you will need to use simple past as well. You will need to use both of them together. You will also need to use time words that are often subordinating conjunctions (after, when, until, before, etc.) Here is an example story: - Really Learn English. “Past Progressive Story 1.” ReallyLearnEnglish.com. https://www.really-learn-english.com/support-files/past-progressive-story-1.pdf - Video Explanation - Shepherd, Nick. “Past Simple and Progressive 3.” YouTube, 18 Nov. 2013. - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bn9gDe5UWgI - Homework Exercise - Complete Exercise 56 on page 114 in ESL for Beginning Students: The Way You Like It. - Bissonnette, Don. “1. Book One.Doc.” Docs.Google.Com. - https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=c291dGhzZWF0dGxlLmVkdXxlc2wtZ3JhbW1hci10aGUtd2F5LXlvdS1saWtlLWl0LWxldmVscy0xLTV8Z3g6M2ZmZTg4NjE3OTZkODI1Yw - Past Progressive Paragraph Assignment Write a short paragraph where you use both simple past and past progressive. Sentence Fragments - What Is a Fragment? - A fragment is an incomplete sentence. - A sentence must have both a subject and a verb in an independent clause, so a fragment is missing either the subject or the verb in the independent clause. - Often the fragment is a dependent clause or a phrase. - Examples of Fragments - The boy who lived next door. This sentence is a fragment because the main subject in the independent clause does NOT have a verb. But wait, what about lived? Lived is the verb that goes with who, and who lived next door is a dependent clause. Who lived? Not the boy, who is the subject for lived. - Running across campus. This sentence is a fragment because it is a verbal phrase only. - Although the boy was hungry. This sentence is also a fragment because the word although subordinates it, so you are going to need an entire sentence after it. - Fragments Are Easy to Correct - The boy, who lived next door, made me a cake. Here boy is the subject of the sentence and made is the verb in the main clause. Who is the subject and lived is the verb in the dependent clause. Do you see that who lived next door does not make sense unless it is a question. - Running across campus, the boy ran into three people. OR The boy was running across campus. - Although the boy was hungry, he did not have time to eat his dinner. Or, the boy was hungry. - Video Explanation Sensei, Kerry. “Sentence or Fragment? \| Identifying Sentences and Sentence Fragments.” YouTube, 23 June 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0GJ3X64NV0 - Sentence Fragment Exercise - To practice discerning (deciding) between fragments and complete sentences, complete Exercise VII on pages 119-120 in Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL. - Peterson, Patricia Wilcox. Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL Beginning/Intermediate Level, United States Department of State: Office of English Language Programs, 1982. - https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/developing_writing.pdf Future Tenses - Future Tenses in English Are Different - They are not like present and past. - They rely on using auxiliary verbs and which auxiliary verbs you use depends on the situation. - There are four main situations in future tense. - Predictions or Statements of Fact - This situation is the most common one and what we usually think of when we say future tense. - Will - EXAMPLES: 1. He will succeed because he works hard. 2. Registration for the spring semester will begin soon. 3. Thursday, November 26, will be Thanksgiving. 4. I probably will not finish this piece of cake. OR I probably won’t finish this piece of cake. 5. Will you help me move this cabinet? - Intentions or Future Plans - Be going to works exactly the same way will does when you are making predictions about the future. Both forms are correct in those examples. However, you MUST use be going to describe prior (before) plans that you have already thought about. - EXAMPLES: 1. We are going to work on future tense this week. 2. I am going to be out of town the first week of November. 3. He is going to succeed because he works hard. - Arrangements - Prior plan that you have already thought about AND discussed with someone else - Uses a form of the present progressive - EXAMPLES: 1. I am meeting my friend for lunch tomorrow at 12:00. OR I’m meeting my friend for lunch tomorrow at 12:00. 2. My daughter is not coming home for Thanksgiving this year. - Scheduled Events - Uses simple present - We only use the simple present for previously scheduled events that are out of our control. - EXAMPLES: 1. I have a meeting at 3:00 today. 2. The bus leaves for Nashville at 8:00 a.m. 3. Our flight does not leave until this evening. OR Our flight doesn’t leave until this evening. - Are You Confused? - These are often confusing because they are very similar, and they overlap each other. - Don’t worry. We will clarify (give more explanation) next week. - Video Explanation - Shepherd, Nick. “Learn English - Future Tense Basics (‘I Will, I Am Going to’).” YouTube, 23 July 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2O4a_7Ony4 - Web Source Shoebottom, Paul. “English Grammar Explanations - Future Tenses.” Fis.Edu, 2019. http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/rules/future.htm - Homework Assignment Write four future tense sentences, one for each of the types of future situations: predictions/statements of fact, intentions/prior plans, arrangements, and scheduled events. Use the examples in this module as your guide. Do your own work, and do NOT copy from the internet!!! - Future Tense Paragraph Assignment Write a paragraph about what you plan to do with your friends and/or family when we are able to travel and gather in groups again. Make an effort to use all four of the types of future tenses. You Editing a Paragraph - Correcting Run-On Sentences – Web Source “Teaching Writing – Fix Run-On Sentences.” Eslwriting.org. https://www.eslwriting.org/teaching-writing-run-on-sentences-paragraphs-grammar-conjunctions-clauses/ - Correct the Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices - The first cat I had after getting married was names Montana and he was a funny little cat who climbed the curtains and kept us awake at night, he also stole nuts from the bowl when he was a kitten he was impossible to stop, he was so cute. - Smart phones are one of the most amazing inventions in the history of the world we can not only call anyone anywhere we can immediately get answers to almost any question, the smart phone has taken the place of phones, cameras, maps, and more however they do distract people and can interfere with human interactions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.923517	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88785/overview", "title": "Grammar Lessons and Assignments - ESL Level 1", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121256/overview	Plagiarism Scenarios Academic Integrity and APA Overview This 90-minute module introduces students to the concept of Academic Integrity, guiding them in applying APA formatting to their work and recognizing academic dishonesty, along with its potential consequences. The module should be straightforward, user-friendly, clear, and intuitive in order to be accessible to all learners for whom this module is designed. This required module complements students' regular coursework, providing essential knowledge of academic integrity—an important step as they prepare for college-level study after completing their college-level, English Language course (an academic department offering preparatory courses for students with lower English proficiency before they begin their undergraduate or certificate programs). This module is designed for international students from diverse backgrounds in terms of work experience, education, ethnicity, and age. Prior knowledge of the subject is not necessary. There are no prerequisites, and students can participate from any location. The module includes live, synchronous sessions that require all students to be online simultaneously. Welcome! - What is this module? You are taking this course as part of your ESL class. If this is the first time you hear about Academic Integrity, don't worry! This module covers the basics of Academic Integrity (with extra information to use in the future). - What about marks? This module is worth 20% of your final mark: participation in discussions (10%) and homework (10%). Your main course is where you will get the other 80% of your final mark. You must complete both the Academic Integrity Module & your main course in order to pass. - How can you join? This module is one week long (from Monday until Sunday). You have a few days to go over the material and get ready for the online class on Thursday, at 6PM EST, using Google Meet. You will need a computer that has a camera and microphone. - How can you go through the course? To go through the steps of this module, just scroll towards the bottom of the page. Whenever available, you can download any learning materials available at the bottom of the page and check out the additional resources for extra help. - Questions? You can ALWAYS reach out if you have any questions about the course or technical difficulties: elakaca@gmail.com Learning Objectives In this module you will: - learn about Academic Integrity - format a paper using APA - apply what you have learned to your own writing Learning Materials 1. Study the list of words before we meet on Thursday. As you study, take notes on any questions you may have and email me (elakaca@gmail.com) or ask me during class. Download the file at the bottom named "Glossary of Terms". 2. Watch the following 5-minute video. If you have any questions about the content of the video, please write them down and send me an email or ask me during class. copyright @Smart Student 2024 Public Domain 3. Additional Resources: Discussion Instructions: Answer ALL of the following questions. Click HERE and then click on the + sign at the bottom of the page to add your answer in a comment. You do not need to register, but please make sure your name appears somewhere in your post. This should take 5-7 minutes to complete. This activity is worth 2.5% of your mark and is due Wednesday. - In your opinion, why is integrity a core value of Seneca college? - In your opinion, does someone who steal have integrity? - What kinds of things can someone steal in an academic setting? - What kind of punishment is appropriate for someone who cheats? In-class (synchronous) activities Join the (45 min) online class on Thursday at 6PM EST > Join Google Meet Links to an external site. Activity 1: Crossword Puzzle Instructions: with your group, take 5-7 minutes to complete the following crossword puzzle. The words are taken from the list of vocabulary available to you about academic integrity. Note that some answers are 2 words. This activity is worth 2.5% of your final mark. created with https://crosswordlabs.com Public Domain Activity 2: Plagiarism Scenarios Instructions: with your group, take 15 minutes to discuss the following questions about two of the scenarios below. This activity is worth 5% of your final mark. Group 1 will discuss scenarios 1 & 4 Group 2 will discuss scenarios 2 & 5 Group 3 will discuss scenarios 3 & 6 Questions to discuss about each scenario: 1. Is the scenario an example of plagiarism? 2. If you said yes, explain why this is an example of plagiarism. 3. If you said yes to question 1, what should happen to the student? Why? Scenarios: Plagiarism scenarios adapted from Mississippi College Library Research Guides. Copyright © by Ela Kaca is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Apply What You Have Learned (Homework) Write 1 or 2 paragraphs (10-15 sentences) about Academic Integrity. Focus on what you specifically learned in this module, how you feel about it, why, and how it will help you/has helped you. This assignment should take 20 minutes to complete. When you finish, send it as a Word Document attachment to me by email (elakaca@gmail.com) with the subject line "Name_Academic Integrity". If you're not sure how to attach a document, check out this video or ask me! You will be marked on: - Task Completion: Have you written 10-15 sentences focusing on what you've learned in this module? - Structure: Have you formatted your paper using APA? Is there a title page? Due Date: Sunday at 11:55PM - 10% of your mark. Note: You will receive 0 if you plagiarize any part of this assignment. Note: Late assignment will receive 0 with no chance to rewrite. References Crosswordlabs. (n.d.). Crossword Labs. https://crosswordlabs.com/ "hands holding the word welcome" by rawpixel.com, licenced under CC BY 2.0 "Research 101: Avoiding Plagiarism" by Mississippi College Library Research Guides (2024) modified and adapted by Ela Kaca, is Public Domain Padlet. (n.d.) https://padlet.com/ Purdue University. (n.d.). Plagiarism Overview. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/avoiding_plagiarism/index.html Seneca College. (n.d.) Academic Integrity Policy. Retrieved June 5, 2021, from shorturl.at/lopEO Seneca College. (n.d.) APA Citation Guide (APA 7th Edition): Welcome. Retrieved June 5. 2021, from https://library.senecacollege.ca/apa Smart Student (2020, May 11). How to format your paper in APA style in 2024 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEqRqSsNDjc	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:01.958991	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121256/overview", "title": "Academic Integrity and APA", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107593/overview	The Emperors of Rome Crossword DALL: Digital Age Latin Learning Overview This small pressbook is designed to give students a brief refresher on Latin Grammar, and exposes learners to a few salient aspects of life in ancient Rome: the time of day, the calendar, and hygiene practices. Introductions and Parts of Speech Salvete, Omnes (Greetings, everyone!) This Pressbook is designed with two goals in mind. The first is to provide self-guided education and activities of a Classical Language. Through the journeys of the first goal we accomplish the second: understanding and appreciation for the daily life of Late Imperial Rome through the simulatd, imagined construction of a famous Roman relic, an Aqueduct! As you go throughout your day, you will assist in the planning, design, stone hewing, cement creation, irrigation, and construction of the Aqua Alexandrina. The Roman World has plentiful aspects which have flowed down to today's age, but olne fohte most impactful legacists was to the language itself, all aspects of which survive today in our own tongue. These surviving linguistics are: - Nouns: their declensions, forms, and genders. - ALL Latin nouns are gendered, either MASCULINE (M), FEMININE, (F), OR NEUTER (N). - We will discuss gendering of nouns as we move further along. - Verbs: As the mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell, the verb is the powerhouse of the Latin sentence. Verb formation, conjugation, and syntax will be broken up over teh course of this book, because of the variegated forms and rules verbs will play. - Most verbs are "normal," in that they follow a genral set of rules for their construction and use. - Some verbs are "irregular," in that their forms and construction do not follow the typical layout of other verbs. These verbs are unique and just must be memorized. - Prepositions: These act out a very similar purpose as they do in English, serving to provide a little bit more infomation in the sentence and its parts - Participles: We will discuss and elucidate the formation, application, and meanings of participles, or "verbal nouns" - These are quite complex constructs, which will unfold new ways to read, understand, and appreciate the Latin language. - Ubiquitous Aspects: Tenses--Moods--Voices - These three aspects impact and affect every level of Latin translation and understanding. As old as it may sound, those three aspects work with the flow of time, that is, when did the action of verbs in different tenses, moods, and voices happen in relation to the action of the governing verb. - Pronouns: Pronouns, just like in English, are crucuial identifiers for whom is doing what in a particular sentence. Pronouns vary in form and size through gender, number, and case. - Gender, Number, and Case: All Latin nouns, evry single one, are gendered, meaning they are all either masculine, feminine, or neuter. English is special in being one of the only Latin legacy languages which uses no such gendering. The lack of gender can certainly be a challenge for the novitiate Latin learner, but this challenge is by no means insurmountable. - Number: The number of Latin nouns is very simple, just like in English: singular or plural. The futher in you go, the easier it will become to distinguish between singular and plural nouns. - Case: All Latin nouns have cases weith their own unique endings. The cases tell you what role the noun is playing in the sentence you're reading. - Nominative: The "Subject" case. The subject of any Latin sentence will be in the Nominative case. - Genitive: The "Possession" case. This case reaveals the relation of ownership among nouns. - Dative: The "Indirect Object" case. Here, teha ction of the verb is imparted "to" or "for" something else. That "something else" noun will be in the Dative case. - Accusative: The "Direct Object" case. Here this noun is fully receiving the action of the verb, and will thus be in the accusative case. - Ablative: The ablative case is by far the largest adn most biazarre of the Noun Cases. It can be used to explain teh relation of one obect by with or from another noun. The Ablative case has many different uses which impact the nuances of translation, and we will discuss these in greater depths as we move along. - Vocative: This final case is the smallest, and it is not seen "in the wild" too terribly often. The Vocative case is the case of Address. A Roman would use the Vocative case to formally address someone else, or how a Roman might begin a speech in the Forum. However, the Vocative case was not used when writing a letter to someone else. For that, the Romans used the Dative case. Pre Education Activity: Identify Parts of Speech As we discussed earlier, the parts of speech in Latin and the parts of speech in English are very similar, with some parts performing the same function. To get a more solid understanding, below you will identify the parts of speech for a number of sentences in English, to give you a foundation of the similary ways the parts of speech in English and Latin both play. Below is the sentence. Its bits have been broken up on the left hand side, with the constituent parts of speech on the right. Connect the parts on the left with its matching aspect on the right. THE GREEN BOY KICKED THE BLUE BALL AT THE PURPLE GIRL \| THE GREEN \| NOUN \| \| [THE] BOY \| INDIRECT OBJECT \| \| KICKED \| PREPOSITION \| \| THE BLUE BALL \| DIRECT OBJECT \| \| AT \| VERB \| \| THE PURRPLE GIRL \| ADJECTIVE \| THE BRIGHT IMAGE OF THE BELOVED STILL BURNS (Grayling, 2011, p. 164) \| THE BRIGHT IMAGE \| VERB \| \| OF THE BELOVED \| PREPOSITION \| \| STILL \| SUBJECT \| \| BURNS \| ADJECTIVE \| \| DIRECT OBJECT \| BETWEEN 70 AND 135, CHRISTIANITY BECAME A RELIGION BASED VERY LARGELY ON THE GEOPGRAPHY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE HELLENISTIC SYNAGOGUE (Frend, 1984, p. 120) \| BETWEEN \| ADJECTIVE \| \| CHRISTIANITY \| DIRECT OBJECT(S) \| \| BECAME \| PREPOSITION \| \| VERY LARGELY \| SUBJECT \| \| GEOGRAPHY; ORGANIZATION \| VERB \| \| AND \| CONJUNCTION \| \| BASED \| AJDECTIVE \| \| HELLENISTIC SYNAGOGUE \| VERB \| Pronunciation & Diphthong Review Before we dive into the meat of our pressbook, it's important to understand how to physically speak the words as an ancient Roman would have. To accomplish that end, we will discuss the ever so famous accent mark, the macron. A Macron looks like this: A lōng line ōver a vowel. What the macron told the Rōmans and tells us is to elongate a vowel when you're speaking a particūlar word. The guide belōw has been adapted from Wheelock's Latin (La Fleur, 2011, p. xxxvii). It works like so: \| LONG \| SHORT \| \| ā like "fAther" (dābo: I give) \| a like "vAssal" (dat: he/she/it gives) \| \| ē like "thEy" (sēdēs: the thones/seats) \| e like "pEt" (et: and) \| \| ī like "machIne" (sī: if) \| i like "bIt" (fortūnātissimam: most fortunate) \| \| ō like "clOver" (magnō: great) \| o like "Off" (Ego: I) \| \| ū like "dUde" (ūnum: one) \| u like "pUt" (sum: I am) \| In addition to the accent mark macron to dictate a long syllable, the ancient Romans also used diphthongs, just like in English. And very much like English, the Latin diphthongs were two (2) vowels producing a single sound. They are explained in the table below, which has been adapted from Wheelock's Latin (La Fleur, 2011, p. xxxvii). \| DIPHTHONG \| SOUNDS LIKE \| IN THE WILD \| \| AE \| AI like AISLE \| horae: the hours/of the hour \| \| AU \| OU like HOUSE \| audite!: hear! \| \| EI \| EI like REIGN \| dei: of a/the god \| \| EU \| E+U: smash these two together \| seu: or if (this diph. is rare in Latin) \| \| OE \| OI like OIl \| coepit: he/she/it begins \| Understand the Powerhouse: Parts of the Verb Okay, so! We discussed earlier in this book how important the verb is in English and in Latin. We made the comparison that as the mitochondria is the cell's powerhouse, the verb is the sentence's powerhouse. Let's break it down: Just like in English, Latin verbs have five characteristics (quinque proprīetates) (QUIN-QUAY PRO-PREE-AY-TAH-TEHS). These characteristics are: Person; Number; Tense; Mood; and Voice - PERSON and Number: (persōna et numerus) (PAIR-SOWN-UH EHT NOO-MEH-RUS) - Who is the subject? That is, who is doing the action of the verb, or receiving the action of the verb? - Latin verbs can have three (3) points of view, - and two (2) numbers, singular or plural Really really similar to English, isn't it? Still with us? Optime! Let's continue with the next characteristic, Tenses.SINGULAR PLURAL I (1st person) We (1st plural) You (2nd person) You (You all/yall) (2nd plural) He/She/It (3rd person) They (3rd plural) - TENSE: (tempus) (TEHM-PUSS) - When did the action of the verb take place? - Latin has six (6) tenses, each of which we will discuss in depth: PRESENT PERFECT IMPERFECT FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PLUPERFECT - MOOD (modus) (MOE-DUHS) - By "the mood" of a verb, we mean indicating the manner or state of being for a verb. Like English, Latin has three (3) moods: - Indicative: from the word "indicate," the indicative mood of a verb more or less "indicates facts;" it tells us important information about what's going on in the sentence. - Imperative: the imperative mood is the commanding mood. Go home! Eat this now! The imperative mood verb commands somone to do something. - Subjunctive: This is a funky mood. It is the mood of possibility and potentiality, what might or could happen. For right now, I want you to focus on the indicative and imperative moods. - By "the mood" of a verb, we mean indicating the manner or state of being for a verb. Like English, Latin has three (3) moods: - VOICE (vox) (try it out!) - The voice of the verb tells us if the subject is actively doing the action of the verb, or if the subject is passively receiving the action of the verb. An example below: - Johnny hit the blue ball. - The blue ball was hit by Johnny. - Notice how little the sentence is actually changing; Johnny is still hitting a blue ball; but the perspective shifted from Johnny's to the inanimate ball when we moved to the Passive Voice. Kinda funky, huh - The voice of the verb tells us if the subject is actively doing the action of the verb, or if the subject is passively receiving the action of the verb. An example below: Next, we will move on to conjugating the Latin verb! From there we will move on to Latin nouns. Once that foundation is established, we'll be able to take a brief early morning journey through Rome, circa 220 C.E. (Common Era). Grammar Review: The Noun Declensions: I & II In this and the next two sections we are going to review case endings for all five Latin Declensions. Declensions 1 & 2 will be on one page; Declension 3 gets its own section; Declensions 4 & 5 will also be on one page. Steps for Declining Proper: - Take a noun, with its nominative and genitive. We'll use incola, incolae (inhabitant(s)) for our purposes. - Chop off the AE ending in the gentive. Whatever results is our stem. For us, it's incol... - Attach your case endings, and watch the magic of translation unfold! Declension I: incola, incolae, f.: inhabitant(s) \| CASE \| ENDING S \| ENDING P \| IN ACTION \| \| NOMINATIVE \| -a \| -ae \| "the inhabitant(s)" \| \| GENITIVE \| -ae \| -arum \| "of the inhabitant(s)/the inhabitant(s)'" \| \| DATIVE \| -ae \| -īs \| "to/for the inhabitant(s)" \| \| ACCUSATIVE \| -am \| -ās \| "the inhabitant/the inhabitants" \| \| ABLATIVE \| -ā \| -īs \| "by/with/from the inhabitant(s)" \| Declension II: servus, servi, m.: slave(s) \| CASE \| ENDING S \| ENDING P \| IN ACTION \| \| NOMINATIVE \| -us \| -ī \| servus, servi \| \| GENITIVE \| -ī \| -orum \| servi, servorum \| \| DATIVE \| -o \| -īs \| servo, servis \| \| ACCUSATIVE \| -um \| -ōs \| servum, servos \| \| ABLATIVE \| -o \| -īs \| servo, servis \| \| VOCATIVE \| -e \| -i \| serve, servī \| Declension II: periclum, periculi, n.: danger(s) \| CASE \| ENDING S \| ENDING P \| IN ACTION \| \| NOMINATIVE \| -um \| -a \| servus, servi \| \| GENITIVE \| -ī \| -orum \| servi, servorum \| \| DATIVE \| -o \| -īs \| servo, servis \| \| ACCUSATIVE \| -um \| -a \| servum, servos \| \| ABLATIVE \| -o \| -īs \| servo, servis \| \| VOCATIVE \| -e \| -a \| serve, servī \| Notae Bene - Declension II is the only one in which the Vocative case ending is different from the nominative. - Some nouns ending in -er keep the e in their forms; other nouns drop it entirely. - 1st and 2nd Declension adjectives follow the gender, number, and case of the nouns they modify. Educational Activity I: Declensions I & II Review. Below are fifteen (15) sentences covering first and second declension nouns and adjectives. Five (5) sentences will ask you write the Latin form for the word requested; five (5) sentences will ask you identify all possible case and number forms for a particular Latin word; and five (5) sentences will ask you to write the Latin noun and adjective for the English phrase. I will provide an example of in each section. Sentences are adapted from Sinkovich, (1989): pp. 20; 33. I. Latin form for requested word: - street, acc. pl: viās - farmer, gen. pl: - Italy, dat. si.: - story, nom. pl.: - land, acc. si.: - letter, abl. pl.: II. Identify all options: - fābulās: acc. pl - puellae: - terram: - Graecis: - epistularum: - agricola: III. Translate English to Latin: - many gods, acc pl.: multos deos - good woman, nom si.: - many roads, abl pl.: - good friend, dat. si.: - large house, gen. pl.: Grammar Review: The Noun Declensions: III The third declension is by far the largest and most complex declension in the language. As explained by Sinkovich (1989), the 3rd Declension is composed of four types of nouns: - Those whose stems end in a consonant. That is, you look at the genitive form, say principis; we chop off its ending, its two terminal letters, and we have the stem, which as luck would have it, ends in a consonant. The consonant stems have declensions in masculine, feminine, and the neuter - Nouns whose stems end in an -i. Masculine and feminine 3rd "I-Stem" nouns end in -is in the nominative. Neuter nouns end in -e, -al, or -ar - 3rd declension nouns that have a consonant stem, but are declined like "I-stem" nouns. I'm sorry, I know it's funky. - Nouns that are irregular in form, but follow the 3rd declension conventions. Helpful Hints: - You've got yourself a third declension noun if the noun ends in: -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, and - There is no guranteed way to identify a 3rd declension noun with the ease we can identify 1st and 2nd. - Fret not! There are etymological clues that can hint which gender of the 3rd declension we work with: To wit: - Masculine nouns typically end in: -tor, -or, -er, -o, -es, -eps, -ex - Feminine nouns typically end in: tās, -tus, -es, -go, -do, -rs, -io, -is - Neuter nouns typically end in: -en, -us, -e -al, -ar, -ur, -or - NOTICE: observe how close the -or neuter ending is to the masculine -tor ending. A keen eye is crucial with the 3rd declension. I. Consonant Stems \| CASE \| miles, militis, m. SI \| lex, legis, f. SI \| corpus, corporis SI \| miles, militis, m. PL \| lex, legis, f. PL \| corpus, corporis, n. PL \| \| NOM \| miles \| lex \| corpus \| milites \| leges \| corpora \| \| GEN \| milites \| legis \| corporis \| militum \| legum \| corporum \| \| DAT \| militi \| legi \| corpori \| militibus \| legibus \| corporibus \| \| ACC \| militem \| legem \| corporem \| milites \| leges \| corpora \| \| ABL \| milite \| lege \| corpore \| militibus \| legibus \| corproibus \| II. I-Stems \| CASE \| hostis, hostis, m. SI \| finis, finis, f., SI \| animal, animalis, n., SI \| hostis, hostis, m. SI PL \| finis, finis, f., PL \| animal, animalis, n., PL \| \| NOM \| hostis \| finis \| animal \| hostes \| fines \| animalia \| \| GEN \| hostīs \| finīs \| animalis \| hostium \| finium \| animalium \| \| DAT \| hostī \| finī \| animalī \| hostibus \| finibus \| animalibus \| \| ACC \| hostem \| fines \| animales \| hostes \| fines \| animalia \| \| ABL \| hoste \| fine \| animale \| hostibus \| finibus \| animalia \| III. I-Stem Mixes \| CASE \| urbs, urbis, f., SI \| mons, montis, m., SI \| urbs, urbis, f., PL \| mons, montis, m., PL \| \| NOM \| urbs \| mons \| urbes \| montes \| \| GEN \| urbis \| montis \| urbium \| montium \| \| DAT \| urbiī \| montī \| urbibus \| montibus \| \| ACC \| urbem \| montem \| urbes \| montes \| \| ABL \| urbe \| monte \| urbibus \| montibus \| For good, bad, or indifferent, the endings of the 3rd declension simply must be memorized with how they work with various consonants or vowels in the stem. Grammar Review: The Noun Declensions: IV & V The final two declensions of nouns are not quite as complex as the third declension, but employ a larger use of -u, -us, -e, and -es than the other declensions. The fourth and fifth declension decline both masculine and feminine nouns. For the fourth declension, the terminal -s is cut off, leaving us with the stem to which we affix our case endings. manus and lacus now become manu- and lacu- respectively. From here, we can add our endings. I. The Fourth Declension \| CASE \| manus, manus, f., SI \| lacus, lacus, m., SI \| manus, manus, f., PL \| lacus, lacus, m., PL \| \| NOM \| manus \| lacus \| manus \| lacua \| \| GEN \| manus \| lacus \| manuum \| lacuum \| \| DAT \| manui \| lacui \| manibus \| lacibus \| \| ACC \| manum \| lacum \| manus \| lacua \| \| ABL \| manu \| lacu \| manibus \| lacibus \| II. The Fifth Declension \| CASE \| fides, fidei, f., SI \| dies, diei, SI \| fides, fidei, f., PL \| dies, diei, m., PL \| \| NOM \| fides \| dies \| fides \| dies \| \| GEN \| fidei \| diei \| fiderum \| dierum \| \| DAT \| fidei \| diei \| fidebus \| diebus \| \| ACC \| fides \| diem \| fides \| dies \| \| ABL \| fide \| die \| fidebus \| diebus \| Like with the 3rd declension, these u, uum, us, and e, erum endings are unique to the fourth and fifth declension and must be simply memorized. Cultural Activity: Identify Domestic Parts As we've discussed, in Roman times the open, spacious villas (villae, f. in Latin) were the homes of the moderately to monumentously wealthy. For the purposes of this PressBook, we are going to examine the Roman domus (lit: "house") that was quite common in ancient and imperial Rome. The Roman domus possessed many features which are still present in residential architecture today: the doorway, the hallways, the bedroom, etc. Below are two lists: Latin vocabulary detailing the parts of the domus, and their English translation or equivalent. Match em up! \| I. vestibulum \| I. a hallway, or corridor, by which one accessed other parts domi \| \| II. atrium \| II. open rooms; think its legacy, alcove \| \| III. impluvium \| III. a servant's entrance and secondary secret entrance for the homeowners. \| \| IV. compluvium \| IV. a drained pool sitting beneath the open space above \| \| V. fauces \| V. open greeting area \| \| VI. tablinum \| VI. a slanted opening in the roof domi (of the house) \| \| VII. triclinium \| VII. the roman bedroom; sound out the word and think its legacy. \| \| VIII. alae \| VIII. main entrance hall \| \| IX. cubiculum \| IX. further in from the atrium, where the master of the house could greet his guests \| \| X. culina \| X. the dining room \| \| XI. posticum \| XI. the kitchen \| Once you're done, or have given your best guesses, check this resource, and this resource, both open access, to check your work! Hintedy-hint-hint: utilize the second resource to flesh out the first. Cultural Activity: Design Your Domus Now that you know the constituent parts of a Roman domus, it's time to design your own! Imagine your ideal Roman domus. Mementote (remember) you're in a neighborhood near the forks of major roads, so space is limited. In the space below, fill out your own domus, with the vocabulary provided. Draw the walls in solid lines, doorways with dashes. Numbering the domus with vocabulary as a key works too. Cultural Education: Telling the Time and the Day So by the time of the early 3rd century (the mid 220s area), the calendar as we know it today was more or less already in place. The solar calendar of ancient Rome was ten months, until Octavian Augustus added two new months with festivals into the solar year: one for his uncle Julius, celebrating the day of his birth, and another month for Augustus himself, also celebrating his birth. Kristina Sessa states that by Late Antiquity, the calendar contained twelve months, three hundred sixty five days, a seven day week, and some months containing leap years. Sounds kinda familiar, huh? But here's where the Romans differed: the Kalends, Ides, and Nonnes Romans identified and labeled any given day based on that day's relation to, that is, distance from, the Kalends, Ides, and Nonnes. The Kalends always marked the first day of every month. Easy enough, right? The Nonnes was the marker dictating a day was 8 days away from the Ides The Ides, made famous through the Bard's eternal play (Act 1, Scene 2), marked the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, and the thirteenth day on all other months of the year. Things to remember: - Romans counted inclusively: meaning if on Monday I were to count how many days until Friday, I would include Monday in my count. - The dates of the calendar were always in relation to this three marker days. Once the Ides passed, the remaining days were related to the Kalends of the next month. And once the Nonnes passed, the remaining days were coordinated for the remaining days until the Ides. Below is a surviving artifact of an imperial Roman calendar. Cultural Activity: Create Your Own Sundial Here we will discuss how to make your own sundial! Directions here: Step I: Accquire a paper plate, a pair of scissors, a marker, and a pen or straw. Step II: Mark the four compass corners with 12, 3, 6, and 9. For accuracy, I chose to go with Roman numerals Step III: Fill in the rest of the numbers. Step IV: Take your pair of scissors, and make a hole in the center of the dial plate. It should look like so: Step V: Once you make your hole, insert the straw, ensuring the hole is tight enough that the straw doesn't tip over and accidentally tell you it's 10:30 at night. Once completed, the sundial should look something like this: Congratulations! You have successfully made a modern replica of an ancient Roman artifact! Cultural Activity: Create Your Own Xylospongium Below will be a step-by-step direction on creating your own xylospongium, the ancestor of the modern-day toiletbrush! Directions Here Step I: Acquire a stick. Literally a wooden stick. Here I have two. The Romans most likely would have carved or smoothed out the shaft of the xylospongium, but for our purposes, au naturale will work for now. Step II: Acquire a sponge. Either a circular sponge from a craft store, or a loofah will work. A kitchen sponge, with its disk type nature, might be an inadequate representation. A blob of sponge is all you'll need. The steps below are for using modern day bath loofahs. Here I have two loofahs: Step III: Most loofahs come with a little cloth loop, like so: Step IV: Cut these loops. Step V: Find where your loofah is held together: Step VI: Poke, slide, twist, screw, or jam, your wooden stick into this area Step VII: Tie the cut loops around the stick for security. Once completed, it might look something like below: You have now created a modern representation of an ancient Roman artifact! Congratulations! Below is an artistic representation of the function, purpose, and use of the xylospongium. If you haven't yet guessed, forewarned is forearmed. Roman Emperor Crossword Here you can use context clues and your vast knowledge of the Roman world to fill out this fun little Emperors of Rome crossword! Every answer is either the name of an emperor, or something else related to the imperium and ruling the empire of the late ancient world. The crossword is attached below. Have fun! Latin and English Vocab Word Search Attached below is a little word search! It includes English and Latin terminology. It includes 37 terms. Not too easy but not too difficult either :) Closing thoughts for now I hope you've enjoyed this little pressbook! For now the journey stops here. But I will share now ambitions of future updates: There are ambitions of dedicating sections to the other integral part of this ancient language: the writing itself. We will explore resources and understandings of ancient Roman writing and literacy. As we stretch further and further away from the Empire and inch closer and close to the medieval period, this will provide an ample opportunity to explore how early medieval manuscripts were created. It will also provide ample options to explore the incredibly complex abbreviation system of medieval Latin literature: our common ideas of abbreviating words was born from the Romans: they were famous for it. There are even modern replicas of manuscripts using ancient techniques. Resources and videos will be uploaded upon discovery, which leads to the next ambition. We have a goal of connecting this resource to other digital sources from around the world; explore artifacts; examine mosaics; analyze ancient handwriting, manuscripts, and graffiti. Graffiti is not some modern fancy of the bored and privileged teenager. In Roman times graffiti was an effective if not impolite means of pulbic communication. In fact, some of the more vulgar words Romans used to describe one another found their homes in wall graffiti. Humans really haven't changed all that much in two thousand years, have we? Just like with manuscript and artifact collections, there are openly accessible resources imaging, detailing, and discussing ancient Roman graffiti. Those will soon be uploaded for perusal, education, and amusement. Until next time, Vale, unice	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.036384	08/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107593/overview", "title": "DALL: Digital Age Latin Learning", "author": "Nicholas Canfield" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89255/overview	American Government. OER Resources. Online Section Overview These Video Lectures (all of which are accompanied by Supplemental Notes that appear in PDF files) draw upon select aspects of every chapter of the third edition of OpenStax's American Government text. The lectures and notes elaborate upon certain ponts raised in each chapter of American Government by providing additional historical context and relating the textual material to contemporary political events. At various points during the video lectures, quiz questions are asked in an attempt to enhance student engagement. (Quiz questions also appear at the end of the Supplemental Notes to each lecture.) For those who wish to use the quizzes, answer keys are included for each one. Video Lectures Supplemental Notes Supplemental Notes to Lecture 1 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 2 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 3 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 4 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 5 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 6 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 7 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 8 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 9 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 10 Corrected Page References for Lecture 10 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 11 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 12 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 13 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 14 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 15 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 16 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 17 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 18 Supplemental Notes to Lecture 19 Answer Key to Quizzes from Video Lectures and Supplemental Notes (Lectures 1-13) Supplemental Readings to Each Chapter of OpenStax's American Government Text Supplemental Reading to Chapter 1: American Government and Civic Engagement Supplemental Reading to Chapter 2: The Constitution and its Origins Supplemental Reading for Chapter 3: American Federalism Supplemental Reading to Chapter 4: Civil Liberties Supplemental Reading to Chapter 5: Civil Rights Supplemental Reading to Chapter 6: The Politics of Public Opinion Supplemental Reading to Chapter 7: Voting and Elections Supplemental Reading to Chapter 8: The Media Supplemental Reading to Chapter 9: Political Parties Supplemental Reading to Chapter 10: Interest Groups and Lobbying Supplemental Reading to Chapter 11: Congress Supplemental Reading to Chapter 12: The Presidency Supplemental Reading to Chapter 13: The Courts Supplemental Reading to Chapter 14: State and Local Government Supplemental Reading to Chapter 15: The Bureaucracy	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.059716	Lecture Notes	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89255/overview", "title": "American Government. OER Resources. Online Section", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74011/overview	State of Innovation - Lesson Submission Guidelines Lesson Plan Submission Guidelines - State of Innovation Challenge Overview For OSPI content area teams or their collaborating educators. This guidance is for curating resources to include on the Washington OER Hub in the Continuous Learning Collections. State of Innovation Challenge: Requirements for Lesson/Activity Plan Uploads In order to freely share developed resources with all educators, open licensing is a requirement for submission to the State of Innovation challenge. The suggested license is: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 or Creative Commons Attribution 4.0. - All participating educators must attend the OER Basics and Submitting Resources to the Washington OER Hub training session (or listen to an archived recording). - All resources must be submitted to State of Innovation Challenge group on the Washington OER Hub. Prior to submission, confirm all items on the Open Licensing Checklist. - Please include your name, school or program, and email address at the top of the lesson plan. - Please indicate clearly in the lesson plan the grade-level or program the lesson is focused on (e.g. "6th-grade"; "4-H"; "11th-grade"; "DECA Chapter," etc.) What Types of Resources Should I Include? Resources ARE: \| Resources are NOT: \| Lessons designed for educational use with clear learning objectives and goals. They are: \| \| \| \| \| \| The State of Innovation Challenge is brought to you by: Challenge administered by: This submission guidelines document by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. Logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.089308	Washington OSPI OER Project	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74011/overview", "title": "Lesson Plan Submission Guidelines - State of Innovation Challenge", "author": "Barbara Soots" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66770/overview	Herbicide Compatibility and Mixing Overview The student will be able to define and describe herbicide formulation types. Students will understand basics and importance of a jar test. Students will be able to follow tank mixing order instructions Weed Science: Herbicide Compatibility and Mixing Order Lab Approximate class time: 60-90 min Overview: Students will review the types of herbicide formulations and proper tank mixing order Objectives: The student will be able to define and describe herbicide formulation types. Students will understand basics and importance of a jar test. Students will be able to follow tank mixing order instructions Teacher Materials Needed: National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual (pdf version available online) Herbicide tank mixing with household products lab materials YouTube (optional) Student Materials Needed: Herbicide compatibility and mixing order observation worksheet Activity: - Teacher defines herbicide formulation types from CH4 in National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual - Teacher discusses mixing compatibility - Teacher reviews jar test - Watch YouTube video “The Jar Test” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hz-5X2XFc4s - Teacher reviews APPLES mixing order - Place students into groups of 2 or 3 - Students conduct Jar Test - Students conduct APPLES tank mixing order Teacher Resources: - Active ingredient- the actual chemical in the product mixture that kills the plant - Solution- active ingredient truly dissolves in water, usually transparent, does not require agitation in the herbicide tank - Suspension- active ingredient is impregnated on solid carrier. Solid carrier is then suspended in the solution, not fully dissolved, requires agitation in the herbicide tank - Emulsion- active ingredient is a liquid dispersed within another liquid. Usually milky appearance. Some agitation required in the herbicide tank - Formulation types - Emulsifiable concentrate (EC): Liquid active ingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents. Mixed with water or other light oil as a carrier; agitation required - Solution (SL): Active ingredient is dissolved in a liquid carrier as a true solution. Requires further dilution; no agitation required - Flowable (F): Active ingredient impregnated on a very fine powder that is suspended into a liquid. Result is a very thick liquid requires further dilution. agitation required - Wettable powder (WP): Dry, finely ground dust; mixed with water; do not dissolve in water; form a suspension most widely used formulations. agitation required - Soluble powder (SP): Looks like wettable powders but completely dissolve to form a true solution. no agitation required - Water-dispersible granule (WDG): Dry, finely ground dust formed into a granule particle; mixed with water; do not dissolve in water; form a suspension - Mixing compatibility - Mixing multiple herbicides together is legal unless prohibited by the label - Mixing multiple types of formulations may cause incompatibilities - Clumping, precipitates - Cause active ingredients to become inactive - May increase activity of active ingredients and cause plant injury - Conduct a jar test to test out compatibility prior to mixing in a tank - Jar Test- Better to have gel, precipitate, sludge, or concrete in a jar rather than in your sprayer - Always wear PPE when pouring or mixing pesticides. - Perform this test in a safe area away from food and sources of ignition. - Pesticide used in this test should be put into the spray tank when completed and applied to a labeled site. - Rinse all utensils and jars and pour rinse water into spray tank. - Mixing Order- A.P.P.L.E.S a specific mixing sequence to ensure compatible formulations mix well - A. Agitate - P. Powders soluble - P. Powder dry (WDG, WP) - L. Liquid flowable - E. Emulsifable concentrate - S. Solutions - Each ingredient must be uniformly mixed (agitated) before adding the next component Herbicide Tank Mixing with Household Products Lab Materials - Text resources: National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual (pdf version available online) Chapter 4 - Household materials: - Emulsifiable concentrate: Pine -sol floor cleaner - Solution: bottled liquid dark tea - Flowables/Liquids: Pepto-Bismol - Wettable powder: hot chocolate powder mix - Soluble powder: powder sugar - Water-dispersable granule (WDG) or dry flowable (DF): powder milk - Pint jars with lids for each student group - Magnetic stir plate for agitation or use jar lid to secure and shake - Milk (liquid coffee creamer packets) - Lemon juice - Baking powder - vinegar - Lab Prep: - Label each household material item with its formulation name and suffix - Print one Herbicide mixing order observation worksheet per student group - Gather jars, mixing spoons or magnetic stir plate Herbicide Compatibility and Mixing Order Observation Worksheet *The compatibility jar test conducted in this lab activity has been scaled down to serve as a demonstration. The steps required to conduct a jar test using real pesticides will be included on the label or can be found on the web Compatibly Jar Test #1- Fill 2 jars half full of bottled liquid black tea Add 3 teaspoons of milk to both jars. Add 1 teaspoon of lemon juice to one jar. Shake both jars and observe after a few minutes. Observation notes: Would you spray either of the mixtures? Why or Why not? Compatibly Jar test #2 – Fill 2 jars half full of water. Add 1 tablespoon of baking powder to each jar Add a ¼ to ½ cup of vinegar to one jar Shake both jars and observe after a few minutes. Observation notes: Would you spray either of the mixtures? Why or Why not? A.P.P.L.E.S. mixing order: Practice following APPLES by making your own herbicide tank mix using the household formulation samples provided	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.115632	Forestry and Agriculture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66770/overview", "title": "Herbicide Compatibility and Mixing", "author": "Chemistry" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111945/overview	The History of a Region in Five Objects Overview The assignment asks students to write the history of a region and period that they have chosen in a world history course using five objects. Each of the five objects should represent different aspects of the region and period chosen. The political, economic, technological, social and religious aspects of the topic should also be explained using the five objects. The resource includes a grading rubric. Description and Expectations You are to write the history of the region and period that you have chosen from the chapter that has been assigned to you by making use of 5 objects. Each of the 5 objects will have to represent different aspects of the region and period chosen. The political, economic, technological, social and religious aspects of the topic have to be explained using the 5 objects. - Your paper should contain 5 sections - one section each for political, economic, technological, social, and religious aspects, and also an introduction (a paragraph dealing with the general features of the region and the era that is the topic of research) and a conclusion. - Each section should contain a picture of the object followed by a description of 500-700 words (1.5-2.5 pages for each section) of the way in which the object brings forth a particular feature of the region. - At the end of the 5th section, there should be a conclusion (300-400 words, 1-1.5 pages). It should deal with the importance of the topic and the ways in which the objects you have chosen gives a meaningful and apt picture of the region. - Please make use of scholarly articles and books to bring forth the unique features of the period and the region. - Cite your sources in Chicago Manual of Style. Rubric - Phase I - Identifying of topic and sources: 30 - The 5 Objects- Content: 60 points - An introduction explaining the topic and relevance of the objects chosen: 10 points - Coherence of the presentation: 10 points: (the student’s ability to present a common narrative thread in the various objects selected is key) - Presents all facets of each required section (the political, the economic, technological, social and religious): 25 points - Displays an in depth understanding of the topic: 5 points - Spelling and grammar: 10 points - Aesthetics: 10 points - Layout: 5 points - Use of pictures appropriate to the topic: 5 points - Depth of Research: 30 points - Cites appropriate Primary sources: 10 points - Information in the book goes beyond the Textbook: 5 points - Uses print and library’s online resources: 5 points - Credibility of the Secondary sources: 5 points - Chicago Manual of Style Citation: 5 points - Extra Credit: 10 points - Use of more than two primary sources (apart from the chosen objects): 5 points - The accompanying articles contain more than 500 words each: 5 points (repetitive points and long convoluted sentences are to be avoided) - Negative points: - Late submission of project: 5 points off for each day - Plagiarism is the surest way of getting a zero. About This Resource The sample assignment included here was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled, "Hot Topics in World History" for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This was a draft document that may subsequently have been revised in light of feedback and discussion during the event. This resource was contributed by Dr. Cynthia Parayil, Raritan Valley Community College.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.132787	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111945/overview", "title": "The History of a Region in Five Objects", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92128/overview	German Level 2, Activity 11: In Der Stadt, Heimatstadt-Tour / In The City, Hometown Tour (Face to Face) Overview Students discuss Boise and their own hometown. They discuss tourist attractions, Make a pic collage of different places and describe their pic college to the other students. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project German activities in our new Let’s Chat! German pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysgerman Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. In The City, Hometown Tour / In Der Stadt, Heimatstadt-Tour Description Students discuss Boise and their own hometown. They discuss tourist attractions, Make a pic collage of different places and describe their pic college to the other students. Semantic Topics Hometown, heimatstadt, town, dorf, city, stadt, tourist attraction, sehenswürdigkeit, travel, reisen, comparisons, vergleiche, adjective, adjektiv Products Google photos, Google-Fotos, Memories, Erinnerungen Practices Discussing hometowns and describing hometowns verses Boise in German. Heimatstädte diskutieren und Heimatstädte beschreiben Verse Boise auf Deutsch. Perspectives Love and pride for the hometowns and the memories of the past that happen both in the US and in German-speaking countries. Liebe und Stolz für die Heimatstädte und die Erinnerungen an die Vergangenheit, die sowohl in den USA als auch im deutschsprachigen Raum passieren. NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1 Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2 Students understand and interpret spoken and written language on a variety of topics. - Standard 1.3 Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics. Idaho State Content Standards - Objective: Comm 1.1 Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - Objective: Comm 2.1 Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - Objective: Comm 3.2 Present information, concepts, and ideas to inform, explain, persuade, and narrate on a variety of topics using appropriate media in the target language. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can talk about landmarks from my hometown. - I can compare two cities. - I can answer questions about my hometown. Materials Needed - Google Presentation - iPads Warm-Up Have students describe a favorite place from their hometown Lassen Sie die Schüler einen Lieblingsort aus ihrer Heimatstadt beschreiben. Have students answer the questions, “What is your favorite place in Boise? Why?” Lassen Sie die Schüler die Fragen beantworten: “Was ist Ihr Lieblingsort in Boise? Warum?” Main Activity 1. Students will give a tour of their hometown using google images and pic collage. Die Schüler werden eine Tour durch ihre Heimatstadt mit Google-Bildern und einer Bildcollage geben. 2. Have students think about the following questions when finding their pictures and have students incorporate the answers into their responses: Lassen Sie die Schüler beim Finden ihrer Bilder über die folgenden Fragen nachdenken und lassen Sie die Schüler die Antworten in ihre Antworten einbeziehen: a. Explain where their hometown is. Wo ist deine Heimatstadt? b. Why did you include this place? Why is it important? Warum hast du dieses Bild gewählt? Warum ist es wichtig? c. What does one do at these places? Do you do these things? Was macht man bei diesen Orten? Machst du diese Dinge? Wrap-Up Ask students the following question(s) to finish the activity: - Wie sind Boise und deine Heimatstadt anders? Gibt es Ähnlichkeiten? Was sind die größte Unterschiede? (How does Boise compare to your hometown? Are there similarities? What are the biggest differences?) Cultural Resources Linked here is an Easy German video about Berlin. End of Activity - Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) - Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can talk about landmarks from my hometown. - I can compare two cities. - I can answer questions about my hometown.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.223076	Emma Eason	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92128/overview", "title": "German Level 2, Activity 11: In Der Stadt, Heimatstadt-Tour / In The City, Hometown Tour (Face to Face)", "author": "Shawn Moak" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62054/overview	Writing the 25-Word Abstract Overview Students read a short story and try to summarize it in 25 words. This is great to teach them to focus on the main ideas from readings. Anthology Lesson Plan - Have students individually read a text their small group has chosen and highlight main ideas and difficult vocabulary. - Have students work in small groups, first to clarify vocabulary, using each other's thinking and other clasroom resources. - Have group members take turns presenting their highlighted main ideas as well as their reasons for selecting them. - Ask groups to discuss and reach consensus about which are the key points. - Have students individually write an abstract of twenty-five words or less that includes the key points selected by their group. - Have students take turns presenting their abstract to their group members. - Ask group members to discuss differences among their abstracts and then agree on and write a group abstract of twenty-five words or less on a poster. - Have groups post their abstracts and rotate around the room reading the abstracts of the other groups. On sticky notes, have groups rate each poster, including their own, on the clarity, conciseness, and cohesiveness of the information in the abstract. After all abstracts have been rated, lead a class discussion in which students surface the qualities that led them to rate an abstract as successful. Modified Lesson Plan adapted from Schoenbach, Ruth, et al. Reading for Understanding: How Reading Apprenticeship Improves Disciplinnary Learning in Secondary and College Classrooms. Second Edition, WestEd, 2012, p. 223.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.237106	01/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62054/overview", "title": "Writing the 25-Word Abstract", "author": "Micki Archuleta" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66700/overview	Amortized Loan Labs Line of Credit Example Simple Interest - Line of Credit Lab Simple Interest - Operating Loan Lab Credit in Agriculture Overview This unit covers different types of loans that agricultural producers commonly use in the business of farming and ranching. It explains some key terms that are important to understand, and provides the equations and framework for setting up loans for short-term (operating loans and lines of credit) as well as amortized loans (equal principal payment loans and equal total payment loans). Credit in Agriculture - Introduction Understanding Capital and Credit in Agriculture The term capital includes money invested in livestock, machinery, buildings, land and any other asset that is either purchased or sold. Agriculture has one of the highest per worker capital investment of any U.S. industry. The “capital” is what helps to make the U.S. farmer as productive as he/she is. A discussion about credit is also important at this point, since many times when we need to purchase capital, we do not have the funds in order to do so. This is where credit comes into play. When you use credit to purchase an asset, whether that asset is a house, a car, a tractor or a bull, you use someone else’s money to purchase the asset and at the same time, make a promise to repay that person, generally with interest. Interest can be thought of as the cost of borrowing capital from someone else. Recall from your economics course the concept of “opportunity cost,” in this case when you borrow money from someone else, they no longer have access to those funds. In order to make it worthwhile for them to do without that “capital” right now, you will need to pay them for their opportunity cost of not getting to use their capital. Let’s use a simple idea to start with. You are a college student and you don’t have a lot of money. You need to buy a car so that you can drive to your new job and earn money, but you don’t have any money, so it is difficult to buy a car. You find out that your roommate (who happens to have a car, and a job) has $2000 in a savings account, and you find a car that you would like to buy for $1500. You make your roommate a proposal, she loans you $1500 to buy the car, and in return you will pay back the $1500, plus an additional $200 in interest, by the end of 1 year (12 months). Your roommate thinks about it, currently the $2000 she has in her savings account is earning 0.50% APR (annual percentage rate). This means that her annual return on the $2000 is: That is right, the opportunity cost for your roommate is only $10, which essentially means that by giving you the money in her savings account, she is only giving up $10. But remember you only need $1500 of her money, so really she will still be able to keep $500 in savings, so technically she will only be giving up $7.50. So why would you offer your roommate the $200 in interest payment? One word – RISK. Risk is a very abstract term, but the idea we want to convey here, is that risk means the chance that you might not pay back the money at all. What happens if you lose your job, get kicked out of school, and Mom and Dad disown you? How will you pay back your roommate? Since all of these are unknown and unanswered questions at the time of the transaction, the risk has to be priced into the interest payment. In this case if you calculate the interest rate on the loan that you offered to your roommate, you would find the rate to look something like this: . We will need to re-write the equation in order to solve it: We can see now that you have offered to pay back your roommate an interest rate of 13.33% per year, but recall that her opportunity cost of capital was only 0.50%. This means that the risk that you represent is 12.83%. But remember that when her money was in the bank it was insured by the FDIC to be there, she had access to the cash whenever she needed it. Now that you are using it to purchase your car, that option is no longer available. And there is little or no guarantee that she will get paid back her principal or interest. There are some tricks to reducing your risk and the risk of the lender (in this case your roommate). One way to reduce risk is security. Security simply put, means that if you “default” (are unable to pay back the loan) the lender will receive something of value, known as collateral. Most of the time the collateral will be the asset that is being purchased. Later we will discuss the times when the asset itself is not used as collateral, and the options that are available. But for now, let’s assume that you choose to use the $1500 car as collateral. Also assume that after a few weeks you lose your job because you don’t like to work very hard! While you sit at home and whine and complain, your roommate keeps going to work and class and does stellar. At the end of the year, you turn the keys and the title over to your roommate (actually if she was smart, she would have put the title in her name, since she is the one that paid for the car) and the car is now hers. There is a problem for her however. That car is NOT a $1500 car anymore because of a little thing we call depreciation. We will cover depreciation more in depth in a later class, but what is important for you here, is that assets have value (are worth money) because of what they can produce for us (say land that can grow corn, or a cow that can have calves, a combine that can harvest the corn, or a machine that can turn sheet metal into parts for the combine – a press break). They also have value based on what they can do for us (a vehicle used to transport you from your home to work, the house that you live in since it shields you from the weather, or your iPhone that lets you call people, check Snapchat and text messages). Since you have driven this car that you paid $1500 for several miles over the year, and possibly spilled your McDonalds on the floor, it is most likely worth less money than what you paid for it. So your roommate isn’t getting a $1500 car back, instead she is getting an $1100 car. In essence, since you weren’t able to pay the interest or the principal on the loan, your roommate took a $400 loss. This loss is often times referred to in business and economics as a “haircut”. So how do lenders cover themselves from the risk of a loss when repayment does not occur and the asset has depreciated in value? Generally speaking a lender will require a down payment often referred to as “down” or “money down”. Think back to the original terms of the deal: you borrowed $1500 (principal) from your roommate, to buy a $1500 car (asset), the rate was 13.33% APR (Annual Percentage Rate), and the time was 1 year (meaning you would pay back the principal and interest accrued in 1 year). If you and your roommate were diligent about your deal, you would have placed all of the things on a document often referred to as a “term sheet” which is essentially a contract that spells out the details of a loan agreement between the borrower and the lender. Now if your roommate was confident that you would be able to pay off the loan they would write up the term sheet, you would keep your job and at the end of the year everyone would be happy. When it comes down to it, finance is a lot like a time machine. It allows you to pull resources from the future that you haven’t yet earned (wages from your job) into the present to purchase assets you need now (your car). In the same token it works the same for your roommate, only in reverse. She is able to send capital (the $1500 she lends you) that she has in the present into the future where it will be worth more (the original $1500 + the $200 in interest), so her $1500 she has now will be worth $1700 in a year. Bam - a time machine! But what happens when you can’t pay off the “note” (another term for loan)? Well most sophisticated lenders have a plan for this, and it is the “down” that we talked about earlier. If your roommate would have made you spend $500 of your own money, she would have only needed to loan you an additional $1000, and would have received an interest payment of $133.33 along with the original $1000 at the end of the year if things went good. If they happened to go bad (as in our example) because you chose to play COD and Madden all damn night, your roommate would get your car, which is now worth $1100. Of course she will have the expense of getting rid of the piece of junk and the time invested in selling it, but at least when requiring you to put some money down, the lender is not losing on the bet. Simply put, a bet is probably the best way to describe loans and finance. You are betting that you will be able to keep a job and earn enough income to pay back the loan, and your roommate (the lender) is betting the same. Over the years lenders have found ways to make their bets “safer.” In biblical times they could enslave borrowers that couldn’t repay debts! Loan sharks use the threat of violence to you and close friends and families to insure that debts get repaid! Actual above board lenders use things like down payments, security (collateral), term sheets, threat of credit score reductions, and even default insurance to make sure they are covered in the event of default (not getting paid back). But they are never fully protected. The lender is quite simply taking the risk of loss on for the borrower in exchange for a payout at the end. Taking Credit to the Next Level So we understand the need for credit and what it can do for us, but the roommate/car example was a little simplistic. How do we take that simple idea and roll it over to a farming operation that has thousands if not millions of dollars in equipment, land and buildings? First we need to look at the different sources of credit that we have access to: Owner Equity Any capital that you have already accumulated can be thought of as credit. Imagine you get out of college and get a job for the first ten years of your life. You spend very little of your money and save the rest. At the end of 10 years you decide to quit your job and start farming (or any other business you want to start). You now have $100,000 in a savings account. This money can be used to get you started in business by either using to purchase assets outright, or using it as a down payment on assets, so that you can use it as “leverage” to purchase even more assets. What is leverage you ask? Think of the teeter-totter from the playground where you grew up. A teeter-totter is a “leverage tool” and to have a leverage tool you need a few things, mainly a lever (the board that you sit on) and a fulcrum (the pivot point on the teeter-totter). See the image below: So what do teeter-totters have to do with capital and credit? The idea is simple, think of credit as the “fulcrum”, the further to the right you place the fulcrum, the less work is needed to lift the object. So in other words, by using more of someone else’s money and less of your own “equity” you can purchase more things. Take that $100,000 you have saved up in the bank. You could buy 1 $50,000 tractor and 20 acres of land for $2500/acre. But that doesn’t get you very far does it? But what if you put your equity to work as a down payment and borrowed the remainder from an outside source of credit. Say you put $10,000 down on the tractor, and $15,000 down on the land? You still have $75,000 left over in your account. You can put $25,000 down on a combine, $10,000 down on a seeder, and save the remaining $40,000 for operating expenses such as land rent, seed, chemical, fuel, fertilizer, etc. By borrowing money and using the capital/equity that you have access to you can “leverage” your way to having access to more assets, and more assets generate more returns. Outside Equity: Leasing Leasing is an alternative that has sprung up in recent years. In essence you are simply renting the asset from someone else. Many of the top equipment manufacturers and dealers now have leasing options available. Leasing is much cheaper on a short-term basis than buying outright or taking on a debt. But with leasing you never gain any equity. This is the reason so many people are eager to buy houses after college. Why pay rent to someone, when you could pay a mortgage to the bank, all the while you will be increasing your equity every time you make a note payment. For many farmers and ranchers that cash rent a lot of land, leasing makes good rational sense. For one the amount of acres (size of your business) can fluctuate year to year. Maybe you lose a few sections of land and no longer need a second or third tractor. With the lease option you can get out from under that payment rather quickly. Whereas if you borrowed money to buy that tractor, you would need to sell the tractor for enough money to cover the remaining debt on the note. This can be difficult and timely. In many cases producers that see varying levels of production every year many times will depend on the ability to lease equipment on a year by year basis. The annual cost will be higher, but you are not locked into the asset or the payment for a long period of time. This illustrates another concept of economics and finance – opportunity cost. All of the credit options we list here will have advantages and disadvantages. To gain in one area, there will be a cost associated with that gain. Contracting This is another method of credit that has increased in popularity over the last few decades. This time rather than buying an asset at all, you contract someone else to do the work for you. Examples of this are sending your calves to someone else to have them feed them out (custom feeding), I am able to retain the ownership of my calves and feed them to slaughter weight, but I do not have the expense of building a feedlot and purchasing all of the additional capital needed to feed cattle. Other examples are custom spraying, harvesting crews, finishing pigs on contract, etc. Typically, the operator provides the labor and management and some of the equipment or buildings. The operator will receive a fixed payment. From the operator’s side (we are talking about operating the contracting business here, so say you do custom spraying) you are able to purchase an asset that might be of use on your operation, but you do not have enough work to pay for the asset itself on just your farm. So you contract your services out to other producers who might also be in the same boat as you. This helps them out since they will not also have to purchase a sprayer, but it also helps you out since it helps cover some of the cost of owning the asset. Credit through Institutions Borrowing money generally occurs through a financial intermediary such as a bank. Although at times they do come from other sources which we will look at later on. As we eluded to earlier borrowing money allows a business to “leverage” the capital that they already have. That can come in the form of using the capital as down payments on debts to purchase additional assets, or it can come in the form of acquiring additional capital (land, equipment, etc.) to compliment the capital that you already have. Borrowed money can provide a means to: - Quickly increase business size. - Improve the efficiency of other resources. - Spread out the purchase cost of capital assets over time. -Withstand temporary periods of negative cash flow. Types of Loans There are many ways to classify loans. Length of repayment, use of the funds and type of security pledged. All of them will include certain terms that are used in the credit industry, so it is important to understand what the terms mean and be familiar with them in order to communicate effectively with your lender. Length of Repayment Short-term Loans Short-term loans are generally used to purchase inputs needed to operate through the current production cycle. Think fertilizer, chemical, fuel, wages to farm workers, etc. All of these items are things that must be purchased in order to do business, but sometimes we do not have the money to pay for them. Imagine you are just starting out farming for the first year, and have spent all of your money to pay for rent. How will you cover the cost of the inputs for your crop? Generally we call these short-term loans “operating loans”, because they mean precisely that – a loan to pay for the operating expenses. The reason that they are considered to be “short-term” is because once the crop is grown, harvested and sold, there should be enough money to available to pay back the loan. Since the typical harvest year for grains and livestock is one calendar year, the finance world has classified short-term loans to be loans that are paid back within 1 year, or less than 12 months. Some businesses will instead set-up what are known as “lines of credit” which are basically a credit card with a lot lower interest rate. What the line of credit allows the business to do is to continue to write checks and purchase items such as fertilizer, feed, or any other input even though your bank account has $0 in it. So rather than having to go to the lender and ask for a loan to purchase inputs, the bank allows you to spend “credit” without their authorization. Much the same with a credit card, you will have a set spending limit or “credit limit” that you are allowed to borrow. By the way credit cards are also considered to be short-term loans as well. Intermediate Loans When a loan is repayable over more than 1 year, but less than 10 years it is classified as an “intermediate loan”. Often time’s banks refer to these types of loans as “chattel loans”. A chattel is a fancy word for property that is not fixed to real estate. Think of a tractor, it is a piece of property, but it can be moved (obviously since it has wheels). A mobile home is often classified as a chattel as well since it is well “mobile”. The advantage to an intermediate or a chattel loan is that since they are “movable” they can be sold much faster than a piece of “real estate” (land). Think back to the laws of economics and supply and demand for a brief second. The more buyers a market has, the higher the quantity demanded, and thus the higher the price. When “real estate” is for sale (think land, barns or stick built homes or items that cannot moved) the number of buyers in the market is much smaller. Only a handful of people are looking to buy farmland in Western North Dakota and most of them are already living in Western North Dakota. However, farmers all over the United States might be interested in your used 9660. Because of this, intermediate loans often carry a lower interest rate and banks often times require a smaller down payment. The risk of loss on the bet is much smaller for the lender. Intermediate loans also carry the 1 – 10 year time frame because that is generally about how long they will last. Now obviously a tractor will last longer than 10 years. We all have or know someone that has an old Farm-all from 1950. But in business it is important to match up the length of repayment to the length of that assets “useful life”. For example I just bought a new truck in 2015. It has a 5 year note on it. By the time 5 years rolls around, that truck will have nearly 150,000 miles on it and will begin to suffer many break-downs and repairs. For the first 5 years it should have virtually no repairs besides basic maintenance. After 5 years, however, the repairs and maintenance will begin to occur and it would suck to be stuck paying a loan and repair bills. The same generally holds true for agricultural equipment and breeding livestock. It doesn’t make sense to be making debt payments and repair and maintenance payments at the same time. It also doesn’t make sense to borrow money on a bull to be paid off over 5 years, when his breeding life might only be 3 years. Matching up the length of the life of the asset on your operation to the length of the debt repayment is very important. Long-Term Loans A loan with a term of 10 years or longer is classified as a long-term loan. Assets with a long or indefinite life, such as land and buildings are often purchased with long-term loans. Land loans can be set up with a term of anywhere from 10 – 40 years. Long-term loans tend to carry higher interest rates since the risk on these assets is much higher than on an intermediate or a short-term loan. The risk is higher for 2 reasons; 1.) the time frame for bad things to happen is much longer and 2.) the asset is generally “not” mobile. Both of these cause the risk of the loan to be high, and the result of a high risk loan is a higher interest rate. Remember that not all loans will get paid back, so the loss on the loans that do not get paid back has to be absorbed by the money made on the loans that do get paid back. Classifying by Security The security for a loan refers to the assets pledged to the lender to ensure loan repayment. If the borrower is unable to make the necessary principal and interest payments on the loan, the lender has the legal right to take possession of the “mortgaged” assets. Mortgaged is another fancy term used in the finance world and it describes the process by which banks can file legal paperwork that entitles them to the asset should you be unable to pay back the loan. If default on a loan occurs, the lender can then sell the asset in order to recoup the cost of the loan. Assets pledged or mortgaged as security are called “collateral”. Secured Loans The term basically means what it says. The loan is backed by an asset of some sort. Generally the security is the asset that is purchased, sometimes it is another asset. Some financial institutions will have blanket or umbrella security which means they have an agreement with you that they can come take whatever they need in order to meet the value of the debt that you are unable to pay. This is the reasons that lenders like to visit farms and ranches. If they have loaned you money to buy 200 cows and a tractor, they want to make sure when they visit your place you have 200 cows and the tractor that they gave you money to purchase, rather than a snowmobile and a swimming pool for your kids. I know what you’re thinking “do people actually do that?” and the answer is YES. And by the way DO NOT DO THAT. If you borrow money from a lender for a specific asset, be sure to buy that asset and pay for it. You sign documents when you get the loan that are legally binding and if you purchase something else with that money, you have violated the contract you had with the bank which is illegal. Unsecured Loans A borrower with a good credit history of prompt loan repayment may be able to borrow some money with only a “promise to repay” or without pledging specific collateral. This is known as an “unsecured loan” or “signature loan”. Most banks prefer to not offer unsecured loans as there is no security. Most borrowers also do not prefer an unsecured loan because the interest rate will be much higher. Why? You guessed it, risk! When there is no recourse there is no incentive for me to repay the loan. They can’t take the asset or anything else they can only hurt my credit rating, so who cares? Now is a good time to talk about credit rating or credit scores. If you have a credit card, you do actually have an unsecured loan. Think about the things you might buy with your credit card; gas, groceries, clothes, etc. These are things that either cannot be reused (as in the case with gas and groceries, once you use it to fuel either your car or your body it is gone) or the credit card company doesn’t want it back (like clothes, video games, etc.). That is why you have to sign your receipt when you buy something with your credit card, it is a “signature loan” remember. You are signing a document that says you will repay. There is where the term “credit” becomes really important and takes on a new meaning. Are you “creditworthy”? Which is basically the same thing as asking can I trust you? If the answer is yes, then a lender will be willing to extend credit to you. If the answer is no, then a lender will be less willing to lend you money as they do not think you will repay. Remember though that there is no way to accurately predict the outcome on everything in life, so lenders have these little tricks. One is the credit rating system, or your credit score. The following 3 pages help to explain the credit rating system and ways that you can keep in good standing in regards to your credit. Simple Interest - Operating Loans Simple Interest Loans in Agriculture When we look at simple interest loans in agriculture, we are generally looking at paying for “operating expenses”. The fact that it is “simple” means that there is no compounding. The formula for simple interest as you may recall was: So, what are operating expenses? It boils down to the fact that in business and on the farm, we have two types of expenses; fixed and operating. Fixed expenses are generally our large ticket items like tractors, buildings and land. We refer to them as fixed because we will use them this year, but we will also use them again next year and hopefully the year after that and so on. When we borrow money to purchase fixed assets, we will generally amortize those out (more on that in the next unit). Operating expenses, however, are the things that we need to purchase, but cannot use repeatedly. Things like fuel, seed, fertilizer, chemical and feed are all examples of operating expenses. If I want to grow a crop, every year I MUST buy more operating inputs. I do NOT have to buy a new tractor every year, but I DO need to buy more fuel every year to run it through the field. We treat loans with respect to operating inputs differently than we do loans for fixed assets. The main reason has to do with the fact that the fixed assets will be in the business helping to generate revenue for several years and can be paid for using the revenue for several crop years. Operating expenses can only be used once though, so they need to be paid for in the year that they are used to produce a crop and thus revenue. Often-times though we will not have enough cash on hand to buy all the needed operating inputs; seed, chemical, fuel, fertilizer, land rent, and on and on. In that case we need to borrow the money from the bank in order to get the inputs purchased and in the ground. When we do this banks will offer a simple interest loan in two forms; 1st an operating loan or 2nd a line of credit. For a lot of people these two ideas are interchangeable, but for now we will separate the two. An operating loan (or note as it is sometimes referred to) is a simple interest loan for a specific item, or a specific set of items. The operating loan will begin on a certain date for a set amount of money and will need to be repaid by a certain date or whenever the owner can pay off the loan. The classic example of the operating loan is for a cattle feeder. Cattle feeding is a very high operating cost business. You must purchase the calves that you are feeding as well as the feed and the labor every single crop year. As a result, cattle feeders will often have an operating loan for the cattle that they are feeding. Lines of credit are slightly more complex than operating loans. Think of a line of credit like a series of several operating notes. On the average farm in North Dakota we will farm about 2000 acres and own about 75 cows. If our average operating cost per care is $175/acre and our average operating cost per cow is about $150 per cow, you are looking at nearly $361,250 per year in just operating expenses. If we took out an operating loan for each specific item that we were borrowing money for, that would be a lot of paperwork for both the owner and the banker. So, banks developed the idea of the line of credit, that basically says, you can borrow so much money every single year from the bank. The bank really doesn’t care what it is being spent on (it does, but it doesn’t make you call in as long as you have a good relationship with the bank) as long as you are able to pay back the loans at the end of the year. The best way to think of a line of credit is like a series of operating loans wrapped up into one note that tracks what you have spent, when and what you owe. Our job in these sections is to figure out how to calculate that amount. Operating Loans (Operating Notes) – Calculations: There are a few terms that you need to familiarize yourself with when it comes to operating loans. Principal is the amount that you borrow from the bank. Don’t’ confuse that with purchase price, which is what you pay for the asset. If you recall from Credit in Agriculture, banks will require a down payment in certain scenarios. That is why the principal and the purchase price will not always be the same. It also may be the case that we do not need to borrow the full amount for the operating loan. So, we pay what we can out of pocket and borrow the remainder. Example #1: Assume that you are a farmer in 2020 and need to borrow money so that you can purchase seed, chemical, fertilizer and land rent for the upcoming crop season. On March 1st, you go to your lender and ask to borrow $250,000 for operating inputs. The bank gives you the loan and they put $250,000 into your checking account. You can use the money as you need it for what you need to purchase. The terms of the loan are that it is payable as soon as you are able, or by December 31st at the latest, the interest is set at 5.00% APR. Let’s also assume that you harvest your crop and sell most of it by December 15th, and free up enough cash to pay off the operating loan and the interest that has accrued so far. Let’s use excel to help us calculate the interest charges. The first step in excel is to set-up a table and label things, then we will use excel to do the calculations for us: Notice in the screenshot above that we need to calculate how long the money is borrowed, rather than trying to count months, or weeks or days on your hands and feet, let excel do the work for you. So long as you use the correct format for the date, excel can do a simple subtraction problem to determine the number of days between the two dates. I like to enter in the date I borrowed the money as well as the date that I repaid the loan. Then I can enter a simple subtraction formula to get the nper (time period) of the loan – 289 days in this case. The reason this works is because excel converts the date to a number. 1/1/1900 is equal to 1, 1/2/1900 is equal to 2, etc.: Because the days since 1/0/1900 is what excel is using for the value behind the scenes, you can use that trick to calculate the number of days in a lot of cases – a very handy trick in a lot of applications! Back to the operating loan problem though. Now all we need to do is convert the nper into the same unit of time as the rate. Since the rate is an APR, it is annual units. To convert 289 days into years, I need to divide the number of days by 365 days/year. This conversion will give me the amount of years that I have the money borrowed: Now that I have that conversion done, it is a simple interest problem: Thus: So the interest on $250,000 dollars borrowed on 3/1/2020 for 289 days at 5% APR is $9,897.26. But you will need to make a payment to the bank for both the principal borrowed and the interest. That payment is known as a total payment and it is the only time that the interest and principal get added together. This is an important detail to understand. Other than when we calculate the total payment, we never combine principal and interest. If you can remember that detail, your life will be much simpler. To get the total payment, all we need to do is add together the Interest and the Principal: Here are a handful of operating loan problems to work on before we add a few more details to the mix: - A farmer borrows $100,000 on 2/25/2020 for inputs at 4.85% APR. He is able to pay off the loan on 1/25/2021. What is the interest due and the total payment made to the bank for the loan? - A farmer borrows $190,000 on 2/2/2020 for inputs at 6.85% APR. He is able to pay off the loan on 11/25/2020. What is the interest due and the total payment made to the bank for the loan? Most of the time farmers won’t utilize the operating loan for farm inputs. The reason is when I borrow the lump sum of money - $190,000 on 2/2/2020 as in problem #2 – I am now paying interest on the full $190,000 starting on 2/2/2020, even though I may not need some or a lot of that money until May or even June/July. I am basically paying interest to have money in my checking account, which doesn’t make a lot of sense, and that is why we will typically use lines of credit or these situations. One situation where we do use the operating loan, however, is in a cattle feedlot, where I have to pay a lot of money to buy the calves to put on feed. We cover these for several reasons; 1) some of you will buy cattle to feed in the future, 2) we can start adding in the concept of a down payment and 3) math problems in converting lbs. to cwt! So, let’s assume that on 6/5/2020 you purchase 200 head of 725 lb. steers and pay $142.65/cwt for them. The bank loans you 80% of the money and charges you 4.85% APR interest. You feed the cattle to 1500 lbs. and sell them on 1/15/2021 and can pay off the loan to the bank. How much do we pay in interest? What is our total payment? A few things that I should point out are the conversions that we do. The first is the conversion of pounds into cwt. Since we pay by the cwt, we need to know how many total cwt’s were purchased: Then we can multiply the total weight purchased by the price per cwt: The down payment and the principal borrowed will always add up to the value of the purchase price, so we can convert them from a percentage to a dollar value: Once we have the principal, the rest is just like the problem before. Convert the dates to a year and then use the simple interest formula to calculate the interest and then add the interest to the principal to get the total payment (Dd not add the interest to the purchase price, we are calculating what we owe to the bank, if you did NOT borrow the full purchase price, you do NOT need to pay them back the full purchase price). Here are a handful of operating loan problems to work on before we move onto Line of Credit problems: - On 4/30/2020 a cattle feeder buys 350 head of 700 lb. steers for $155.95/cwt. The bank loans him 85% of the purchase price at an APR of 4.25%. If the feeder sells the cattle on 11/1/2020 and is able to pay off the loan, what is the interest due and the total payment made to the bank for the loan? - On 5/15/2020 a cattle backgrounder (runs calves on grass) buys 250 head of 550 lb. calves for $162.45/cwt. The bank loans her 75% of the purchase price at an APR of 3.99%. If she sells the cattle on 9/20/2020 and is able to pay off the loan, what is the interest due and the total payment made to the bank for the loan? Simple Interest - Lines of Credit Simple Interest Loans in Agriculture To recap: The formula for simple interest as you may recall was: Remember that we said one of the problems with using operating loans for operating inputs is that you had to start paying interest on the money as soon as you borrowed it. So, if you didn’t spend the money for another month or two, you were paying interest just have money in your account. In a business that can be as brutal as farming and ranching, managing interest costs can be the difference in success and failure. Luckily, you do NOT have to borrow all of your operating needs at one time. Most lenders will allow you to borrow money as it is needed. This is known as a line of credit. In essence the line of credit is a lot like a credit card. Albeit it works different with different banking institutions. Some require that you call the bank when you buy something, others just cover it, that will depend on who you are banking with. Either way, the process is pretty much the same, you write checks for the items that you need for operating expenses; seed, chemical, fertilizer, etc. and the bank makes sure that there is money in your account to cover the cost of those expenses. If your account balance is $0, the bank will pay for the item and add it to your line of credit. Operations have to apply for a line of credit, and as long as you haven’t “maxed out” your credit line. *** Students hate doing line of credit problems. The math is simple (see Simple Interest formula above). The organization is the part that the students generally don’t like. You have to be able to organize data and use it to your advantage. The simple truth is that these are pretty easy, and take very little effort, so long as you are organized and can think in a table format. Line of Credit – Calculations: To start with we will keep this relatively simple. Let’s say we just need to purchase just three things on our line of credit, and we buy them together. So, on 2/15/2020 I am able to buy all of my fuel for the upcoming year. I purchase 20,000 gallons at $1.40/gallon for a total of $28,000. I put it on my line of credit, because I have no cash left and I do NOT want to sell any crop in the bin. The bank is currently charging me 4% APR on the line of credit. Then on 3/20/2020 I purchase all of my seed for the year and the total is $85,000, all of that goes on my line of credit as well. On 5/1/2020 I get the bill for all of my fertilizer and chemical for the year and that total is $78,000. On 6/1/2020 I get a notice that the interest rate on my line of credit will be going to 4.25% APR. On 9/1/2020 I am able to sell off some wheat and free up $100,000 that I use to pay down my line of credit. On 11/12/2020 I sell more crop and am able to pay off the line of credit completely. The two things that I need to know are how much interest do I end up paying in total and what is my total payment to the bank. But there are a lot of steps that I need to remember. The first is to create a table that helps me organize all of the information: There are a lot of columns there, so let’s go through them quickly. The first few are pretty self-explanatory. You list the date that something changes (that term will be important – “when something changes”), so you can see that on 2/15/2020 we borrowed $28,000 against our line of credit, something changed in that we borrowed money so we enter the information. The principal borrowed is typed in if we borrowed money on that date. The interest rate as of that date is also entered into the rate column. Go through all of the things that happen during the duration of the line of credit problem and enter them into the table. Notice on 6/1/2020 the interest rate changes, so we make a note of it. On 9/1/2020 we make a payment against our line of credit, so we make a note of it and enter the information into the table. We only ever enter the information that we have, since I do not know how much of that $100,000 went to principal or interest right now, I leave it blank! The last entry is on 11/12/2020, that is entered because that is the day we are able to pay off the line of credit. We have to do a lot of problem solving to figure out how much we will pay off first though, that is why all we have done is listed the date and the rate. The next step is to start tracking our balances. Balances are accumulations. As I add more principal borrowed, my principal balance will start to increase by the additional amount borrowed. For the first line, the only thing that I can do is update my principal balance: This brings me to rule #1 – you do nothing until something changes. So think about these as a time problem: on 2/15/2020 we borrow $28,000, our principal balance is now $28,000, and that is all we can do until something changes. Something changes on 3/20/2020 – we borrow an additional $85,000. This brings us to rule #2 – when something changes, calculate the interest accrued up to that point first. It is still a simple interest problem, so we need to take $28,000 * 4% * 34/365, the reason we take 34/365 is because there are 34 days between 2/15/2020 and 3/20/2020 and since the rate is quoted in APR, the nper needs to be in the same unit as well, and there are 365 days in a year! Rule #3 – after the interest up to that date has been calculated – update balances. That means that the interest accrued as of 3/20/2020 is $104.33. In other words, having borrowed the $28,000 on 2/15/2020 at 4% so far as 3/20/2020 we have accrued $104.33 in interest charges. Now that we have an interest calculated as of 3/20/2020 we can update our principal and interest balances. Rule #4 – Once the balances are updated revert back to rule #1, which is do nothing until something changes. Nothing changes until 5/1/2020 when we borrow another $78,000. At that time, we follow rules #2 and #3. We calculate interest up to that point and then we update our balances: If we build the formulas correctly for calculating the interest accrued, we should be able to copy the formulas down and we will get the correct answers. The only formula that needs changed this time is the Interest Balance column since before it was just equal to the interest accrued. Now it is equal to the interest balance from the time period before plus the new interest accrued. Now we follow rule #4 and revert back to rule #1 – do nothing until something changes. Something changes on 6/1/2020, the interest rate adjusts higher to 4.25%. That means all dollars borrowed from that date on will accrue interest at the 4.25% rate: Do take note that we are still using the 4.00% APR when calculating the interest as of 6/1/2020, that is because the rate doesn’t change until 6/1/2020, so all money borrowed up to that point accrues at the 4% rate. Now we go back to rule #1 and do nothing until 9/1/2020, when something changes when we make a payment against the line of credit. This introduces us to Rule #5 – When making a payment always pay the interest first. This is because that is the bank makes money, so that is what they want to get paid first. Our first job though is to calculate the interest through 9/1/2020, then we update our balances, then we make our payments and update our balances again: Since on 9/1/2020 our interest balance is $3,319.37, we will make an interest payment of $3,319.37, and since we are paying that off, we are introduced to Rule #6 – after making payments, update balances – Principal and Interest. Our interest balance will drop to $0 as a result: Now that we have calculated our interest payment, we can calculate our principal payment. Remember that total payments are the combination of principal and interest payments, so we take $100,000 - $3,319.37 = $96,680.63: Since we made a payment against the principal, we have to update our principal balance. Principal balance is how we calculate the interest accrued. Since we have paid off some principal, we want to make sure that we reduce our principal balance so that the interest is calculating correctly: Now we can wrap it up, by calculating the interest accrued through 11/12/2020 and figuring out how much we will need to pay the bank to pay off the interest and the principal: Since we still owe $94,319.37, we will need to pay that much in principal – “principal repaid”: We also owe $790.73 in interest, so we need to pay that much in interest – “Interest Repaid”: The last part is to calculate what your total payment made to the bank on 11/12/2020 is by adding the Principal Repaid and the Interest Repaid on 11/12/2020: Rule #7 is to come up with totals: The total for Principal Borrowed should be equal to the total for Principal Repaid. The total for Interest Accrued should be equal to the total for Interest Repaid. If they are there is a good chance that you have calculated things correctly! Again, there are a lot of steps involved in correctly calculating lines of credit. And to be honest, the bank will do a much better job! So why are we learning to work through them? You will gain a lot of skills when it comes to organization of tables and thinking through problems. You will also better understand how your personal credit card works and accrues interest. Here is another problem to work through; sometimes instead of writing out the problems in paragraph form, I will list them in a table: \| Date \| Principal Borrowed \| Rate \| Total Payment \| \| 2/1/2020 \| $40,000 \| 9% \| \| \| 4/1/2020 \| $20,000 \| 9% \| \| \| 9/1/2020 \| 9% \| $32,850 \| \| \| 10/1/2020 \| 8% \| \|\| \| 12/1/2020 \| 8% \| $24,000 \| One place where a lot of students get hung up on these, is the difference between the table that I gave you the information on, and the table that we need to calculate the answers. The table with the information, only contains the information needed to calculate the line of credit. But we need to know other things. That is why I often refer students back to the rules: #1 - you do nothing until something changes. #2 - when something changes, calculate the interest accrued up to that point first. #3 - after the interest up to that date has been calculated – update balances – Principal and Interest. #4 - once the balances are updated revert back to rule #1, which is do nothing until something changes. #5 - When making a payment always pay the interest first. #6 – After making payments, update balances – Principal and Interest. #7 – After balances are adjusted and the table is completed, find totals for Principal Borrowed, Interest Accrued, Total Payment, Principal Repaid and Interest Repaid. Amortized Loans Amortized Loans In the Introduction to this unit – “Credit in Agriculture” we talked about the difference between short-term and intermediate/long-term loans. In the previous two sections covering operating loans and lines of credit we looked at how we borrow money for and pay back loans for “operating inputs” items that get used once. In the following two sections we will look at how we borrow money for and pay back loans for assets that have a lifespan longer than 1-year in business. These are assets like tractors, land, and cows. These assets get used to produce a crop or calves in several different years. Therefore, it is not as important to pay for the asset in one year. We “amortize” or spread out the payment over the course of several years. Even if you never farm or borrow money to pay for land, or a tractor, there is a good chance at some point in life you will borrow money to buy a vehicle or a house, both of which will get amortized out over several years. There are two methods for calculating amortized loans – Equal Principal Payment and Equal Total Payment. Equal principal payment loans mean exactly what they say you make equal payments of principal to the bank each time you make a payment (when you make payments to the bank, remember that you are paying them for both principal and interest). Equal total payments mean that when you make a payment to the bank, each installment or payment will be equal, meaning the amounts of principal and interest will change each payment, but the total will be the same. For this unit, we ware going to focus on Equal Principal Payments. Equal Principal Payments: Calculating the payments on an equal principal payment loan is actually fairly simple. Again, we use the simple interest formula: Example #1: The terms of the loan will dictate how the loan pay-off is calculated. For this example, we’ll use a $100,000 principal loan, 8% APR for 10 years making annual payments. Since this is an equal principal payment loan, it means that every time we make a payment, the amount of principal paid to the bank will be the same. That is pretty easy – we are making 1 payment each year, for 10 years. The calculation for the equal principal payment (EPP) is the principal divided by the number of payments; $100,000/10 pmts = $10,000 per payment. The rest of the problem is again a problem in organization and data management. Again, tables come in very handy, and so we need to use excel. The key is setting up the table so that we have all of the information that is needed listed. See the screenshot below to see the proper method for setting up an amortization table for an equal principal payment loan: Now we can set-up the amortization table: The beginning principal balance and ending principal balance and equal principal payment columns can be filled out immediately because we have that information. Remember that principal and interest balances must be segregated, meaning we do NOT combine them. The ONLY TIME principal and interest is combined is when we make a payment to the bank - “total payment”. That means the only thing left to do to finish this problem is to calculate the interest due each year, as well as the total payment. Remember that the calculation for interest is still just a simple interest problem. So all we need to do is multiply the beginning principal balance for that year times the interest rate times the nper (which in this case is 1 year, so that is a really simple calculation). Interest PMT for Year 1 = $100,000 * 8% APR * 1 year = $8000 Total Payment for Year 1 = $10,000 (principal pmt) + $8,000 (interest pmt) = $18,000: There are some simple tricks to use in excel to make life easier. The first is using cell referencing so that excel will automatically calculate the formulas that you build into the spreadsheet. The second is absolute positioning so that we can create formulas with the capability of click and drag copying. Below is the formula that I created to calculate interest PMT above: By creating the table as we did above it becomes really easy to fill in the entire table: The last step is to calculate the totals for the EPP column, the Interest PMT column and the Total Payment Column. These totals tell us the amount of money that we repaid the bank; total principal repaid = $100,000, total interest paid = $44,000 and total payment = $144,000. Example 2: You purchase a set of 50 heifers at $1800 per head. The bank loans you the money, at 4.50% APR. Terms of the loan are as follows; 20% down payment required, 5 years, annual payments, making EPP. Calculate the amortization table and answer the following questions: 1) What will be the total interest paid to the bank over the course of the 5 years? 2) What will be the total payment paid to the bank at the end of 5 years? To break down the problem above, we must first figure out how much money will be borrowed from the bank – the principal. We are buying 50 head at $1800, so the total purchase price is $90,000. The bank is going to require a down payment of 20%, so we while have to cover $18,000 of the purchase price, which means that the principal will be $72,000. We are making annual payments for 5 years, so the EPP will be $14,400: Equal Total Payments: The second method of amortizing loans is Equal Total Payments (ETP). Again, this method does exactly what it says, it creates a payment plan where the total payment (principal plus interest) made to the bank is equal each payment. These loans are slightly more complex, but still revolve around the same table format as EPP loans. There is one extra step – but good thing for you, you learned it in an earlier unit – PMT formula. For these examples we will use the same examples as we used in the EPP calculations. Example #1: The terms of the loan will dictate how the loan pay-off is calculated. For this example, we’ll use a $100,000 principal loan, 8% APR for 10 years making annual payments. Since this is an equal total payment loan, it means that every time we make a payment, the total amount paid to the bank will be the same. To calculate this, we need to use the PMT formula in excel: See the screenshot below of the Function Arguments: By using the PMT formula and plugging in the Rate, Nper and the PV (the principal is the PV since it is the amount we are borrowing right now) and leaving the FV blank and omitting Type since the payment is made at the end of year, we are given the ETP for this loan. Now all we need to do is build our table again, for the most part it is similar to the EPP table, but it makes more sense to move a few columns around: The reason for rearranging the columns is to place what we can calculate in the first columns. We can calculate the ETP using the PMT formula. We can also calculate the interest. It is still a simple interest problem just like before, that is why the interest pmt in the first year for both EPP and ETP is $8000. If you think about it, it makes sense. In both loans, we have $100,000 borrowed for one full year at 8% APR. It doesn’t matter how it is paid back; we still owe $8000 in interest in year 1. Once we have the interest pmt calculated, we can use it to derive the principal pmt. Since the total pmt = interest pmt + principal pmt, the principal pmt = total pmt – interest pmt: From there we simply fill in the cells to get the finished table. Let’s compare the two types of loans EPP and ETP: Which method casues the borrower to pay more in interest? ETP creates a higher interest payment over the life of the loan. Why? Because we pay off the principal slower, which means there is more principal sitting out there accruing interest each year. Which method is better? It depends. EPP creates less interest expense for the borrower, but it does create higher payments in the first 5 years of the loan. Often borrowers will utilize ETP because of this. We already have to borrow money becuae we don’t have enough. We may be willing to pay more over the life of the loan in order to redcue payments early on. Example 2: You purchase a set of 50 heifers at $1800 per head. The bank loans you the money, at 4.50% APR. Terms of the loan are as follows; 20% down payment required, 5 years, annual payments, making ETP. Calculate the amortization table and answer the following questions: 1) What will be the total interest paid to the bank over the course of the 5 years? 2) What will be the total payment paid to the bank at the end of 5 years? Practice Problems: - Purchase a tractor for $150,000. Bank requires a 25% down payment. Finances the remainder for 6.25% APR for 6 years, annual payments. Create an amortization table with totals for both the EPP and the ETP method. - Purchase 500 acres of land for $1350/acre. The bank requires a 15% down payment. Finances the remainder for 4.80% APR for 20 years, annual payments. Create an amortization table with totals for both the EPP and the ETP method. - Purchase 75 head of 3-year old bred cows for $1600/hd. The bank requires a 30% down payment and finances the remainder for 3.85% APR for 4 years, annual payments. Create an amortization table with totals for both the EPP and the ETP method. See excel file – Amortized Loan Examples for the answers. What about monthly payments? Again, as we have covered thus far, the interest rate and the time always need to be in the same unit. So, what happens when you make monthly payments? If the interest rate is quoted as an APR, the rate needs to be converted to a monthly rate. The simple rule of thumb is that the rate needs to match up with the payment method. If it is annual payments, the rate is quoted as an APR. If it is monthly payments, the rate needs to be quoted as an MPR. A quick example: - You purchase a car for $30,000 and make a $5,000 down payment. The bank finances the remaining $25,000 for 5 years, monthly payments at an APR of 5%. Create an amortization table with totals for both the EPP and the ETP method. See excel file – Amortized Loan Examples for the answers. The table is pretty long, so it doesn’t make sense to add the screenshot here. What you will notice is that there are now 60 payments (5 years * 12 months/year). Also, when you calculate the interest payment the formula, the time (nper) is still one. Since you adjusted your rate to monthly, the time period is calculating interest for one month:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.303250	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66700/overview", "title": "Credit in Agriculture", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56680/overview	7.1 Cellular Respiration (part 1) 7.1 Cellular Respiration This animated video is the first part of a lecture series on cellular respiration that corresponds with Openstax Biology 2e Chapter 7. This animated video is the first part of a lecture series on cellular respiration that corresponds with Openstax Biology 2e Chapter 7.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.324178	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56680/overview", "title": "7.1 Cellular Respiration (part 1)", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113716/overview	Cell Membrane Transport Overview This is a video and supporting worksheet covering membrane transport processes (Chapter 3). Cell Membrane Transport	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.341197	Valerie Pennington (Penguin Prof)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113716/overview", "title": "Cell Membrane Transport", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69267/overview	Basic Concepts For Writing an Essay: sahgalp@laccd.edu Overview Humanities: English 101- Reading & Composition I curated: Writing In College: From Competence to Excellence - Open Textbook ... Since I teach English Composition, and it is a ZTC, I curated this OER and mixed it with other available OER and my own study guides that I created and tweaked over many years of teaching composition. I am able to mark the book with the full TASL attribution; The book can be read in different formats: PDF, EPUB, or online to student needs. Author: Amy Guptill Brockport, Publisher Open SUNY This license makes it conducive for adapting and mixing: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Engaging English 101 Students Humanities: English 101- Reading & Composition Writing In College: From Competence to Excellence - Open Textbook ... Since I teach English Composition, and it is a ZTC, I picked this OER: I am able to mark the book with the full TASL attribution; The book can be read in different formats: PDF, EPUB, or online to student needs. Author: Amy Guptill Brockport, Publisher Open SUNY This license makes it conducive for adapting and mixing: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA How I will curate the OER - This book is a good resource for beginning writers. I would mix this resource with the following OER, to achieve the SLO of: Writing College Level Essays that are thesis driven, I worked backwards. I used the rubric on Canvas to explain how the essay would be graded. I used this spreadsheet: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1uuIUkFvmotPGxbI4zqFbIlNwDw0uHEkuioLi7Kviitg/edit#gid=0 Then added to information in the textbook with a lesson on Writing a Thesis Statement from the Academic Resource Center, at LAVC. I added a guide that I had put together and used over the years that explains how to summarize a piece of writing or a video using the 5Ws: What is the reading about? The time and place--Where and When—the setting of the information and Why is the writer presenting it? Finally, How well does it support the thesis? I have also created a structured method of embedding quotes in an essay, giving in text credit to the source being used, without compromising the flow of the essay. My guide includes the appropriate point of view and tense required for the essay, tips for proof reading and a copy of the MLA format procured from our ARC, linked to purdue online writing lab. Unc.edu is another great resource and their writing lab is an OER. I provide the link in my ZTC classes. Their explanation of ‘How to write and tweak a thesis’ is easy to follow for freshman. Most of the content on these websites is for “fair use” where you may “use” all or part of a copyrighted work only if (a) you have the copyright owner’s permission, or (b) you qualify for a legal exception (the most common exception is called “fair use”). “Use” of a work is defined for copyright purposes as copying, distributing, making derivative works, publicly displaying, or publicly performing the work. The same ‘Teaching License’, would apply to a Ted-Ed or a YouTube video, that I would combine with the textbook to make it more student friendly in an online ZTC class. To complement the textbook license, I would license my own work as: This work is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.362534	07/02/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69267/overview", "title": "Basic Concepts For Writing an Essay: sahgalp@laccd.edu", "author": "Padma Sahgal" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75286/overview	Open Educational Resources for Faculty - Handout Overview Handout created by Debra Flewelling at Douglas College. Open Educational Resources for Faculty (Douglas College) Handout created by Debra Flewelling at Douglas College.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.378908	12/02/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75286/overview", "title": "Open Educational Resources for Faculty - Handout", "author": "Darcye Lovsin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75402/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in A descriptive infographic about soil pollution or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.403176	Data Set	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75402/overview", "title": "Soil pollution", "author": "Environmental Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89756/overview	Angelina Grimke, Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society), 1836 Overview Angelina Grimké. “Appeal to the Christian Women of the South”. Book excerpt, 1836. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/ appeal-to-christian-women-of-the-south/ (accessed January 19, 2022) Description: Grimke writes an anti-slavery tract. Angelina Grimké. “Appeal to the Christian Women of the South”. Book excerpt, 1836. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/ appeal-to-christian-women-of-the-south/ (accessed January 19, 2022) Description: Grimke writes an anti-slavery tract.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.420967	Christopher Gilliland	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89756/overview", "title": "Angelina Grimke, Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society), 1836", "author": "Susan Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74032/overview	What do you do during the weekends?, Novice Mid, Korean Overview In this lab, students will practice vocabulary and learn about adjectives. Students will discuss their weekend activities and compare them to other people’s weekend activities. They will make suggestions to their friends to do something together during the weekend using a grammar expression learned in class. What do you do during the weekends? 주말에 뭐해요? About the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) Language Activity Repository The activities provided by the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) serve as foundational activities which can be adapted by any language and scaled up or down on the proficiency scale. Many of these activities offer an English Version that is “language-agnostic” to provide language instructors from around the country a platform to remix these instructional materials, infusing them with their target language and culture! The activities within the Pathways Project OER Repository seek to help students solidify their interpersonal speaking and interpretive skills through task-based situations or communicative activities. These activities should be facilitated in the target language for approximately 90% (or more), per the recommendation of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. How to use the WLRC Repository’s Activities: 1. Use the Activity as is: Before you begin: Most activities are 30 minutes in duration, unless otherwise specified. Be sure to read through the activity description, and review the list of required materials. You will notice that the activity materials are also highlighted in yellow throughout the activity instructions. If you have any suggestions about grammar, syntax, and content, please kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu 2. Remix for Your Language Classroom: When you are ready to begin remixing the activity, in order to adapt it for the needs of your language classroom, simply click the blue “Remix This Resource” button at the top of your screen. This will then take you to a screen with a NEW, editable version of this activity. The text provided in purple is a suggestion of what you might say to your students in the target language, and may be altered for different levels and age groups. All activities have “NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do” statements, a warm-up, a main activity, and a wrap-up. Many of the activities include printable cards and other instructional materials such as Google Slideshows. If you would like to make changes to these materials for your language follow the instructions below: Google Slideshows: To begin, go to File -> Copy to create an editable version of the slideshow. Once finished with your changes, please complete the following steps to share: Click on Share Who Has Access Ensure link sharing is on and allow external access. Materials Saved as PDF: Please email pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu and we will provide you with an editable copy. Please allow up to two business days for a response. For YouTube videos and other websites, hyperlinks are provided. 3. Adapt for Another Language: See the linked English Version at the top of the activity (English Version may not be available for all activities) What do you do during the weekends? 주말에 뭐해요? Description: In this lab, students will practice vocabulary and learn about adjectives. Students will discuss their weekend activities and compare them to other people’s weekend activities. They will make suggestions to their friends to do something together during the weekend using a grammar expression learned in class. Proficiency Level: Novice Mid Keywords: Weekend, how is, suggest, hobby, leisure NCSSFL-ACTFL World Readiness Standards: Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret written and spoken Korean on a variety of topics. Idaho State World Readiness Standards COMM 1.1 - Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. CLTR 1.2 - Explain the relationship between cultural practices/behaviors and the perspectives that represent the target culture’s view of the world. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: In my own and other cultures, I can identify some typical practices related to familiar everyday life. I can understand the time in a meeting request. I can state my favorite free-time activities and those I don’t like. Materials Needed: Projector Ipad or Computer Warm-up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today’s activity. 2. Students will practice their vocabulary with Kahoot. Main Activity Students will look at popular weekend activities among Korean people. They will discuss whether they do or not do those activities. They will explain the reason. A: 한국 사람들은 주말에 티비를 봐요. OO 씨도 주말에 티비를 봐요? Most Korean people watch television during the weekends. Do you watch television as well? B: 아니요, 저는 티비를 못 봐요. 숙제가 많아요. No, I do not watch television. I have too much homework. Using the grammar expression introduced in the class, the students will make suggestions to their friends. A: 주말에 같이 티비 봐요! Let’s watch television together during the weekend! B: 좋아요. 2시 어때요? Sounds good. How is 2 o'clock? A: 괜찮아요. 그럼 2시에 봐요. That works for me. I will see you at 2 then. Wrap-up Wrap-up questions (Pick the a few you’d like to ask): 1. What activities do you not want to do during the weekend? 주말에 하기 싫은 일은 뭐예요? End of lab: • Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) • Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. • Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future labs! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: In my own and other cultures, I can identify some typical practices related to familiar everyday life. I can understand the time in a meeting request. I can state my favorite free-time activities and those I don’t like.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.490686	Mimi Fahnstrom	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74032/overview", "title": "What do you do during the weekends?, Novice Mid, Korean", "author": "Daum Jung" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111138/overview	Inclusive education Overview In this project work we described the importance of process implementing inclusion and best practices, benefits of inclusion process Project work Managing of the process of implementation and realization of inclusion	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.562823	12/15/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111138/overview", "title": "Inclusive education", "author": "Aksaule Abieva" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97317/overview	Teaching Values of Civil Rights Movement Overview The lesson includes information about the language level of the students, required vocabulary of the topic, warm-up, Jigsaw reading, needed materials and videos, group works and pair works, and reflection. The lesson is designed for a 45 min. lesson. We included the padlet as well as an alternate teaching tool. Civil Communication Civil Communication Lesson Plan Ani Yerknapeshyan Title of Lesson Plan: Teaching values of Civil Rights Movement \| \| Audience (Age, English Level):14-16, B1-B2 \| \| Two Sentence Overview of the Lesson Plan: Lesson is created to help students to feel comfortable speaking about controversial subjects and identify the Values of Civil Rights Movement. \| \| Resources Needed: Emojis on the sticks, projector, whiteboard, computer, posters, pictures showing different subject of discrimination \| \| Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson Ss are able to 1.identify Discrimination and non-violence 2.Categorize Positive and negative Criticism 3. Improve/ Use expressions that are friendly for civil communication \| \| Warm-Up: 7 min Use cards expressing “Who I am” (There are portraits of famous leaders of Civil Rights movement and other world-famous leaders) \| \| Time 10min 10min 10 min 8 min \| Activities/Instructions The same task in Padlet for online teaching 1.Discuss topic related words Look at the words the teacher has written on the whiteboard that would be the new vocabulary for today’s lesson Ask students the following questions: 2. Read along while listening to Martin Luther King’s speech Do post-listening task answering the following questions. 3. Do jigsaw reading by dividing students into 4 groups and ask them to read different parts of the speech (10 min) asking the following questions. 1. All groups should pay close attention to the highlighted words and expressions on the handouts the teacher has given you of the speech. 2. Individual groups should answer the following questions: 4.For all groups what does “I have a dream” and “Let freedom Ring” mean to you? 5.Using the table given write the positive and negative words and expressions you have in your passage and put your worksheet on the whiteboard group by group in order. Then students approach the whiteboard and read other groups’ analysis. 6.Using the positive words and expressions describe Martin Luther King as a good leader in a mind map. (5min, group work) \| Closing/Debrief 5-7 min Taking what we have learnt and discussed today about Martin Luther King, describe Armenian leaders who have similar qualities to Martin Luther King. Use examples from the words we learnt today to explain why you believe that these Armenian leaders have common qualities with Dr. King. \| https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vP4iY1TtS3s	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.603989	World Cultures	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97317/overview", "title": "Teaching Values of Civil Rights Movement", "author": "Political Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89764/overview	“A Plea for Captain Brown,” Henry David Thoreau, October 30, 1859 Overview Thoreau, Henry David. 1906. The Writings of Henry David Thoreau (Walden Edition) Translated by Bradley Dean (Thoreau Institute) Boston:Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1906 (https://archive.vcu.edu/english/engweb/transcendentalism/ authors/thoreau/johnbrown.html) Description:A eulogy on the day of John Brown’s execution Thoreau, Henry David. 1906. The Writings of Henry David Thoreau (Walden Edition) Translated by Bradley Dean (Thoreau Institute) Boston:Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1906 (https://archive.vcu.edu/english/engweb/transcendentalism/ authors/thoreau/johnbrown.html) Description:A eulogy on the day of John Brown’s execution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.621993	Linda Coslett	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89764/overview", "title": "“A Plea for Captain Brown,” Henry David Thoreau, October 30, 1859", "author": "Susan Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90129/overview	3 cinema three originsb 3 cinema three originsc cinema scenes presentation four Overview cinema scenes presentation three cinema scenes presentation four cineam scenes presentation three	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.639611	02/16/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90129/overview", "title": "cinema scenes presentation four", "author": "stuart lenig" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96651/overview	Micrograph Enterobacter aerogenes gram stain 1000X p000175 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Enterobacter aerogenes cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph White background with several pink, rod-shaped Enterobacter aerogenes cells.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.656858	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96651/overview", "title": "Micrograph Enterobacter aerogenes gram stain 1000X p000175", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79484/overview	Creative Commons Certification Overview Analysis of Shared Assignments Copyright and Creative Commons License in Singapore Final Creative Commons Project Shared Assignments Copyright and Creative Commons License in Singapore	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.672945	04/21/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79484/overview", "title": "Creative Commons Certification", "author": "Julliana Probst" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89769/overview	William Lloyd Garrison, from The Liberator, “To the Public,” January 1, 1831, Excerpts Overview Garrison, William Lloyd. “To The Public”. The Liberator. January 01, 1831. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/to-the-public/ (accessed January 19, 2022). Description: First page of the inaugural issue of this anti-slavery newspaper. Garrison, William Lloyd. “To The Public”. The Liberator. January 01, 1831. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/to-the-public/ (accessed January 19, 2022). Description: First page of the inaugural issue of this anti-slavery newspaper.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.690423	Christopher Gilliland	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89769/overview", "title": "William Lloyd Garrison, from The Liberator, “To the Public,” January 1, 1831, Excerpts", "author": "Susan Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55155/overview	The Harlem Renaissance-- Strange Fruit Readings Listen to Billie Holliday's "Strange Fruit" and read the following poems: Assignment The horrors of lynching in this country have left an indelible mark on America. For many of us today, it is hard to even fathom such an atrocity; however, to truly understand the effects, we must consider the thoughts of those who saw these things happen first hand. Your assignment: You are to complete a five paragraph essay discussing the treatment of lynching by the writers of the assigned poems. Disuss the images and figurative language reflected in the works. Be sure to use quotes from the works to support your claims. If necessary, research lynching in America to help you gain further insight into the poems. Your submission to be in MLA format.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.703689	06/06/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55155/overview", "title": "The Harlem Renaissance-- Strange Fruit", "author": "Julie King" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94823/overview	The Human Stopwatch Ten Second Experiment Overview The Human Stopwatch 10 second experiment is an experiment that can be carried out with online instruction. Students get experience in predicting a 10-second interval and can use descriptive statistics to learn about measurement accuracy and precision. The Human Stopwatch Ten Second Experiment for Remote Teaching Fred J. Rispoli Stony Brook University Abstract In this article we describe a simple experiment called the “Human Stopwatch Ten Second Experiment” which can be carried out during remote instruction. The analysis can be calculated by using descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing. Students also learn about the accuracy and precision of measurement. Introduction Teaching remotely has some new challenges to deal with that do not exist in a classroom. One of them that I struggled with is how to run an experiment while teaching via Zoom. I was interested in running a “hands-on” experiment and obtaining data that could be subjected to statistical analysis. My goal was to obtain experimental data that could be used in calculating meaningful means, standard deviations and running a hypothesis test. In this article I shall describe an experiment that I call the “Human Stopwatch Ten Second Experiment” that introduces students to concepts of accurate and precise measurements. The experiment is an extension of “The Human Stopwatch Experiment”, sometimes used in high school and middle school [1]. The experiment also demonstrates the values of basic statistics and the importance of information. I will also describe the implementation using Zoom. The experiment consists of pairing up students into groups of two. If there is an odd number of students, create one group with three students. One student is called the “operator” and the other is called the “timer.” The operator uses a stopwatch which can be found on any smart phone. The operator says “Start” and starts timing with the stopwatch, and the timer must count out 10 seconds in their head, and then say “Stop” when they reach 10. The operator stops the stopwatch and records the actual time that has elapsed. In the first phase of the experiment the operator hides the time elapsed from the timers. The timer should not be able to see the stopwatch or any other clock. The pair repeats this process 9 times for a total of 10 measurements, and then the students switch roles, and repeat the process. If teaching with Zoom, the instructor can divide up the groups using breakout rooms to avoid distractions from other groups. After everyone has finished the first phase, times are all reported to the instructor who records them on a spreadsheet. Times can be communicated either verbally or via an email. The instructor fills in a data collection sheet that looks like Table 1. Precision vs. Accuracy Before the experiment, students are given a brief lesson on measurement concerning precision versus accuracy. They should be aware that an average is used to measure accuracy, and the standard deviation provides a measure of precision. After I ran this experiment numerous times, a third measure evolved which has proven to be very useful and insightful. Since we are mostly interested in the timer being close to 10 seconds, it seemed reasonable to count “Hits”, which is the number of times the timer was between 9.5 and 10.5 seconds. This can be used as a defect indicator. In other words, a defect is whenever the timer is not between 9.5 and 10.5. Once all of the times are recorded on the spreadsheet, it is very informative for the instructor to show the group how to calculate the averages and the standard deviation. Then we ask: “who is the most accurate?” Followed by “who is the least accurate?” We do the same type of thing with precision, reminding the group that we want to identify the person with the smallest standard deviation to identify the most precise timer. Usually, we will see different students being the most accurate and most precise. This is where the “Hits” measure becomes so useful. Hits counts the number of results that are between 9.5 and 10.5 seconds. It can help to determine who the best timer is in the class. Sample data is given in Table 1 on a data collection sheet. Table 1 Phase 1 Data Collection Sheet Phase 1 Trial \| Michael \| Heidi \| Nikolas \| Shreya \| Lynette \| 1 \| 9.36 \| 9.20 \| 9.01 \| 7.89 \| 8.49 \| 2 \| 10.14 \| 10.23 \| 9.12 \| 6.90 \| 9.53 \| 3 \| 10.10 \| 9.94 \| 9.62 \| 8.94 \| 9.56 \| 4 \| 11.48 \| 8.56 \| 9.93 \| 7.56 \| 8.97 \| 5 \| 11.44 \| 8.49 \| 10.17 \| 8.22 \| 9.26 \| 6 \| 12.38 \| 9.66 \| 10.36 \| 8.56 \| 9.05 \| 7 \| 10.63 \| 9.29 \| 10.02 \| 8.48 \| 9.91 \| 8 \| 11.51 \| 9.63 \| 10.41 \| 9.54 \| 9.27 \| 9 \| 11.73 \| 10.08 \| 9.89 \| 9.99 \| 9.00 \| 10 \| 12.02 \| 8.76 \| 10.35 \| 9.25 \| 9.55 \| Average \| 11.08 \| 9.38 \| 9.89 \| 8.53 \| 9.26 \| Standard Deviation \| 0.97 \| 0.63 \| 0.50 \| 0.94 \| 0.40 \| Hits \| 2 \| 5 \| 7 \| 3 \| 1 \| Team Statistics and Phase 2 It is also instructive to look at all of the times combined to determine a team average and a team standard deviation. From the above Phase 1, and a subsequent Phase 2, we get the following. \| Phase 1 \| Phase 2 \| Team Average \| 9.63 \| 10.15 \| Team Standard Deviation \| 1.10 \| 1.01 \| Average Number of Hits/Person \| \| \| After Phase 1 is complete, a good question to ask is: “What can be done to improve the team accuracy?” Typical answers will be to fire the worst timer, or perhaps require training. You may also hear that it would help to provide the timer with their times, so they could try to correct during the process. Does this really help? This is what Phase 2 is all about. In Phase 2 we repeat the experiment, except now the operator shows the timer their times. The analysis carried out is similar to Phase 1. But, in addition, now we run a 2-sample t-test to see if there is a significant difference in the average team scores between Phase 1 and 2. Figure 2 Phase 2 Data Collection Sheet Phase 2 Trial \| Michael \| Heidi \| Nikolas \| Shreya \| Lynette \| 1 \| 8.28 \| 9.50 \| 9.20 \| 7.47 \| 9.26 \| 2 \| 9.31 \| 10.16 \| 10.60 \| 10.22 \| 12.67 \| 3 \| 10.01 \| 9.80 \| 11.11 \| 8.99 \| 9.13 \| 4 \| 10.25 \| 11.22 \| 10.22 \| 9.96 \| 10.93 \| 5 \| 10.07 \| 10.50 \| 10.18 \| 12.19 \| 9.16 \| 6 \| 9.73 \| 10.40 \| 9.70 \| 11.60 \| 11.23 \| 7 \| 10.37 \| 11.16 \| 10.25 \| 9.05 \| 9.44 \| 8 \| 9.68 \| 10.30 \| 10.38 \| 9.50 \| 9.62 \| 9 \| 10.07 \| 11.10 \| 10.17 \| 8.41 \| 11.83 \| 10 \| 9.69 \| 10.38 \| 10.00 \| 12.27 \| 10.63 \| Average \| 9.75 \| 10.45 \| 10.18 \| 9.97 \| 10.39 \| Standard Deviation \| 0.60 \| 0.57 \| 0.51 \| 1.62 \| 1.26 \| Hits \| 8 \| 7 \| 7 \| 3 \| 1 \| Prior to running the t-test we run a two sample F test to determine if we have equal variances. The F-test indicates a one-tailed p-value of 0.27, so we conclude the variances are equal. Next, we check for normality. Times in both phases indicate that the data is normal using an Anderson Darling Test. The t-test yields a 2-tailed p-value of 0.016. So, we conclude that there is a significant difference in means. It turns out that the information made a significant difference. Using the data, we could also run a pairwise t test. Conclusion The idea of using humans as a stopwatch has been considered elsewhere. For an interesting summary see the article [2]. The article published by the Statistics Education Web online journal, [3], gives a 30 second version where the teacher asks the class to predict 30 seconds and class statistics are then considered. The experiment works very well inside a classroom, which is where I first began to run this. But I was pleasantly surprised how well this can still be run when teaching remotely. Students enjoy the exercise, especially when we look at the completed data collection sheet as a group. It is very entertaining to look at everybody’s times, and then determine who is good at this. I even use this as a team building exercise. I try to run this early in the course, often during a first meeting, if possible. References [1] Human Stopwatch published on Desmos.com https://teacher.desmos.com/activitybuilder/custom/59de914bdfeb6e0c086d4b34?collections=featured-collections%2C5da8a6474d5c010a4455b470). [2] Do Humans Have a Biological Stopwatch? By Dan Falk, in the Smithsonian Magazine, January 2013 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-humans-have-a-biological-stopwatch-164710819/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.803954	Fred Rispoli	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94823/overview", "title": "The Human Stopwatch Ten Second Experiment", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76885/overview	French Level 4, Activity 02: L'environnement de travail / The Work Environment (Online) Overview In this activity students will practice discussing their ideal work environment, including preferred types of colleagues and work preferences. They will also practice explaining past and future work experiences. Activity Information Did you know that you can access the complete collection of Pathways Project French activities in our new Let’s Chat! French pressbook? View the book here: https://boisestate.pressbooks.pub/pathwaysfrench Please Note: Many of our activities were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact pathwaysproject@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. The Work Environment / L'environnement de travail Description In this activity students will practice discussing their ideal work environment, including preferred types of colleagues and work preferences. They will also practice explaining past and future work experiences. Semantic Topics Work, workplace, job, situations, travail, métier, l'environnement du travail, jeu télévisé, Jeopardy, les préférences, preferences, le passé, the past tense, le conditionnel, the conditional tense Products The workplace, jobs, co-workers Practices Interacting with co-workers, interacting in a work environment Perspectives There tends to be more formality in the French workplace! In general, co-workers are more likely to keep their personal lives more private than in American offices, and they tend to place a high level of importance on work and personal life separation. NCSSFL-ACTFL World-Readiness Standards - Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. - Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret spoken and written French on a variety of topics. - Standard 1.3: Students present information, concepts, and ideas in French to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics. Idaho State Content Standards - COMM 1.1: Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. - COMM 2.1: Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. - COMP 1.1: Observe formal and informal forms of language. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can describe what my ideal work environment looks like. - I can discuss my past work experiences. - I can describe the qualities I look for in a coworker. Materials Needed Warm-Up Warm-Up 1. Begin the activity by opening the Google presentation and introducing the Can-Do statements. Main Activity Main Activity Jeu télévisé : Jeopardy Aujourd'hui, on va jouer à un jeu de Jeopardy. À tour de rôle, vous allez choisir une catégorie et un nombre. Vous devez répondre à la question en phrase complète pour obtenir les points. La personne qui a le plus de points va gagner. (Today, we are going to play Jeopardy. Taking turns, you are going to choose a category and a number. You must respond to the question in a complete sentence to receive points. The person who has the most points wins.) 1. Have each student pick a category and a point value. - Clicking the number will take you to the slide with the corresponding question. - To return to the game board, click on the house in the bottom right corner. 2. Play until all questions are answered. - If there isn’t enough time, play until each student has at least 100 pts. - If there’s time left over, have students ask each other questions. - They can ask the questions from the game (found below) OR they can come up with original questions that would fall under one of the Jeopardy categories.. - Copy-paste the Jeopardy questions into the chat. - They can ask the questions from the game (found below) OR they can come up with original questions that would fall under one of the Jeopardy categories.. Les questions Vos collègues de travail - Avec quel type de personne préférez-vous travailler ? (10 pts.) - Nommez une qualité importante que tout le monde devrait avoir dans un milieu de travail. (20 pts.) - Parlez-nous de votre pire collègue de travail. (30 pts.) - Voudriez-vous que vos collègues soient vos amis en dehors du travail ? Pourquoi ? (40 pts.) Votre job de rêve - Aimeriez-vous avoir un emploi où vous devriez déménager chaque année ? (10 pts.) - Aimeriez-vous voyager souvent, parfois ou jamais pour votre travail ? (20 pts.) - Souhaitez-vous travailler dans un pays étranger ? Quel(s) pays ? (30 pts.) - Quelles qualifications et/ou expériences devriez-vous avoir pour votre job de rêve ? (40 pts.) Votre premier travail - Quel a été votre premier travail ? (10 pts.) - Décrivez votre premier patron. (20 pts.) - Quel était la longueur de votre pire journée de travail ? (30 pts.) - Parlez-nous de votre pire/meilleure expérience d’emploi passée. (40 pts.) Vos préférences - Quelles sont les choses qui vous aident à être le plus productif ? (10 pts.) - Aimez-vous mieux travailler avec un ordinateur ou du papier ? Pourquoi ? (20 pts.) - Quelle période de la journée êtes-vous le plus productif ? (30 pts.) - Préférez-vous le travail d’équipe ou le travail individuel ? Pourquoi ? (40 pts.) L'environnement de travail - Préféreriez-vous travailler au bureau ou à la maison ? (10 pts.) - Aimeriez-vous travailler dans un environnement formel ou informel ? Pourquoi ? (20 pts.) - Préféreriez-vous travailler pour une entreprise où les règles sont strictes et définies ou pour une entreprise où vous pourriez avoir une totale liberté créative ? (30 pts.) - Décrivez votre environnement de travail idéal. ( 40 pts.) Wrap-Up Wrap-Up Ask the following questions to finish the activity: - Est-ce que vous trouvez que nous avons assez de congés payés aux États-Unis ? (Do you think we have enough paid days off in the United States?) - Quel moyen de transport préférez-vous pour aller au travail ? (Which mode of transportation do you prefer to take to work?) Cultural Resources Comparison between the US and France's work cultures Newbie's guide to French work culture End of Activity - Can-Do statement check-in… “Where are we?” - Read can-do statements and have students evaluate their confidence. - Encourage students to be honest in their self evaluation - Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future activities! NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements - I can describe what my ideal work environment looks like. - I can discuss my past work experiences. - I can describe the qualities I look for in a coworker.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.845450	Camille Daw	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76885/overview", "title": "French Level 4, Activity 02: L'environnement de travail / The Work Environment (Online)", "author": "Mimi Fahnstrom" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96386/overview	Preparations and Reactions of Alkenes Overview Preparations and Reactions of Alkenes Preparations and Reactions of Alkenes	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.866824	08/14/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96386/overview", "title": "Preparations and Reactions of Alkenes", "author": "Yeshashvi Marolikar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97867/overview	Community College: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Toolkit Overview This fifteen-item collection of CRP resources is my attempt to provide my fellow community college teachers with both the tenets of CRP academic research and also some teaching tools they can use right away in their classrooms. Why does CRP matter? Enrollments are declining. Tuition costs are rising. COVID and online learning have changed our campus culture. The students we have in our classrooms are struggling due to myriad socioeconomic factors beyond our control as teachers. It is because of this grim forecast, therefore, that we teachers need to be sure that our students, those determined people who have overcome so much just to be in our courses on the first day, receive a pedagogy that allows them to learn, a pedagogy with rigor that also acknowledges their unique backgrounds and skill sets rather than overlooking them. Why is culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP) important? There are, of course, pragmatic reasons centering on enrollment and retention. We need students to keep our jobs, after all. There are also personal reasons. After the years-long COVID winter and its aftermath, I think it’s safe to assume we all could use some resources to rejuvenate our teaching and face what’s next. Most of all, though, CRP is the right thing to do. It’s a way we can each do our part to help our students in this new future we face. If you have any questions, or just would like to talk, feel free to email me at <mike.mutschelknaus@rctc.edu> or call/text me at 608-385-5443. Dr. Mike Mutschelknaus RCTC English Instructor October 10th, 2022 Toolkit items Community College Equity Assessment Lab Based in California, this research group conducts quantitative and qualitative institutional equity research, for a price. Even so, under their resources tab is quite a bit of scholarly research that practitioners might find useful. Implicit Bias, Blind Grading, and Rubrics There is a groundswell of research out there, too much for me to choose any one particular representative source, that suggests we teachers can reduce our implicit grading bias through blind grading practices and evaluative rubrics. A simple search on Google or Google Scholar using any combination of these terms will provide you with many strong results. Kimberly Crenshaw on Intersectionality Kimberly Crenshaw, the originator of the intersectionality concept, discusses how it’s not just one factor (race, class, gender, socioeconomic, sexual orientation, etc.) that affects people’s interactions, but rather the complex intertwining of these factors. Carol Dweck TED Talk: The Power of Believing that You Can Improve You should do a search on Google, Google Scholar, and Youtube for “Carol Dweck Growth Mindset”. This TED Talk, though, is a good introduction to her core principles. Basically, if we teachers believe that our students can improve, then we will be motivated to develop curricula and strategies that help students improve. Similarly, students who know that intelligence is like a muscle, that can be strengthened with the right practice also experience faster rates of improvement. Empathic Joy in Positive Intergroup Relations This research study from Harvard focused specifically on teachers who used micro-affirmations in their classrooms to improve student outcomes. They did this as a deliberate strategy and had strong results. This builds on the wide body of research on micro-aggressions. It’s not enough to stop micro-aggressing. It’s also important to start micro-affirming. EDX: Cornell University. Teaching and Learning in the Diverse Classroom. This self-paced course is based on the principle that we, as teachers, bring our complex sets of identities and privileges into the classroom with us. The course is designed to make us reflect on the ways that our consequent assumptions about student learning shape our classroom practices. Bobbie Harro’s “Cycle of Socialization” This article, widely available online, has an excellent one-page figure that shows how our identities are shaped, reinforced, or–indeed–diminished by those around us. It provides a useful teaching exercise. Students identify their social identities and then track their history, their milestones, for each of those identities. Inclusive Teaching \| Sheridan Center \| Brown University Inclusive teaching, as a pedagogy, is defined as the explicit, deliberate inclusion of all students into our courses, assessment, and pedagogy. This web site provides broad scope of inclusive strategies that we teachers can apply in our classrooms. Racelighting This set of academic videos and research defines racelighting, the psychological manipulation of BIPOC people that causes them to second-guess themselves and provides tools to combat it. Responding to Racial Bias and Microagressions in the online environment The best part of this hour-long Youtube video webinar is its specificity. I think our default mind-image about microagressions is that they occur basically in face-to-face situations. For the specific teaching tips, I suggest fast forwarding to the framework part of the video. Stereotype Threat: A Conversation with Claude Steele You should do a Google, Google Scholar, and Youtube search on Steele and Aronson’s definition of “stereotype threat”, a situation in which a person can be worried that their performance will confirm a negative group stereotype. This brief Youtube conversation with Claude Steele, though, is a good place to start. Stereotype threat has signicant implications for our pedagogy. Beverly Daniel Tatum. The Complexity of Identity: “Who Am I?” This reflective pedagogical essay, readily available on the web encourages teachers, and students, to reflect more deeply on the process of identity-building. She points out that privileged people often do not realize just how much their privileges shape them, but that people who are less privileged are very away of how their statuses shape them. Universal Design for Learning in Postsecondary Education (Rose et al.) Back in the days before online learning really went mainstream, I used to have blind students, deaf students, and students with muscular dystrophy in my community college courses. We all did. That doesn’t happen as much anymore. UDL, of course, is about providing access to all learners in our courses. It’s not about tweaking one aspect or another of our courses to provide a quick fix. My former students would be quick to let you know that. University of Minnesota’s Center for Educational Innovation As always, the CEI web site has very specific resources we can use in our courses. In addition to more materials on inclusive teaching, there are also resources on anti-racist teaching and trauma-informed teaching. University of Michigan Inclusive Teaching This well-curated web site provides a wealth of resources on inclusive teaching, anti-racist pedagogy, lesson-planning, and class activity ideas. It is organized so that if you are teaching a STEM course, an online course, or a large course, there are resources for you. All too often, inclusive teaching pedagogy erroneously assumes, it seems to me, that there is one teacher, in a physical classroom, with about 20 eager students. Those are not the realities we teach in, and this web site acknowledges this fact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.884410	10/11/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97867/overview", "title": "Community College: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Toolkit", "author": "Mike Mutschelknaus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71132/overview	Economics and Macroeconomics Macroeconomics Syllabus Rhodes-Tourism and Economics Economics-Visuals, Syllabus, Discussion, Student Value-Added Overview Employing visuals in conveying economics information, Economics-Visuals, Syllabus, Discussion, Student Value-Added Conveying information, traditionally, has been through text. The theory of different learning styles has provoked complementary vehicles for conveying information such as video (YouTube), audio, experimentation, games and more. Images can be used to convey teaching points and this is accessible to anyone with a phone that is willing to snap a few photos during the course of their day. The subject of the photo may be just about anything as so much of the way society is organized has an economic content. The three samples are: Rhodes-Tourism and Economics - This Word document highlights the connections between tourism, history and economics. Culture and Economics - This PPT highlights the connections between culture and economics. Economics and Macroeconomics - This Word document is an introduction to macroeconomics. The syllabus is our guide through the entire course and key areas include assessment, schedule and course description. See attached. Discussion carries the learning among students and the instructor. One historical can be to carry forward discussions from previous classes so that current students can build on the thoughts of their predecessors. Finally, student value-added may be demonstrated with student entries in, for example, economics topics in Wikipedia. Students may perceive for example that the typical example of a light house being a public good because there is no way to collect a fee for its use by passing ships, is incorrect. After all, in the modern era cars have transponders whereby highway toll fees are collected. Ships could have the same.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.905054	08/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71132/overview", "title": "Economics-Visuals, Syllabus, Discussion, Student Value-Added", "author": "Mark Friedman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102557/overview	Reading Practice Quiz (Scanning and Skimming) Overview This is a reading passage created for practicing some reading skills, like scanning and skimming. Reading Practice Quiz This is a reading passage practice to exercise some reading skills, like scanning and skimming.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.921165	04/03/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102557/overview", "title": "Reading Practice Quiz (Scanning and Skimming)", "author": "Husam Al-Balushi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96396/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in Preparations of alkenes Preparations of Alkenes or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:02.941556	08/14/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96396/overview", "title": "preparations of alkenes", "author": "Ayesha Sorathiya" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104055/overview	Elementary English for Life and Work Lesson Plan Overview This is a sample lesson plan for an Elementary English class. This is one of my lesson plans I prepared to use for my Elementary English Course for Life and Work. Modesto Junior College / Elementary English for Life and Work Instructor: Zohra Saeed Samadi Date: Number of Students: Classroom Building: Course Learning Outcomes Upon satisfactory completion of this course, you will be able to: - demonstrate accurate use of English grammar and vocabulary at a beginning level in a variety of common life-skill situations. - write sentences with effective support of ideas and utilizing accurate basic punctuation, capitalization, spelling and spatial conventions at a beginning level. Class Objectives By the end of today’s class, students will be able to: - identify rooms in a home. - learn how to talk about a home (describe rooms). - use the words; There is and There are to talk about rooms in a home. - ask about furniture and appliances in a home. - ask questions about furniture and appliances with Is there…..? and Are there…..? (length of task/ activity /exercise) \| Objective \| Task/Activity/Exercise \| Documents/ props/ equipment needed \| Assessment \| 10 minutes 25 minutes 25 minutes \| Review vocabulary By the end of class, Ss will able to learn how to identify rooms in a home. By the end of class, Ss will able to talk about a home (describe rooms) \| Warm-up \| Desktop, projector, hand-outs, white board and markers Future Intro Textbook Page 124 \| Teacher will look at students’ spelling and correct their errors. \| Unit 7 Lesson 1 Exercise 2A, page 125 Exercise 2C, page 125 Exercise 1, page 126 Exercise 2A, B, page 126 Exercise 2C, page 126 Break \| Desktop, projector, white board, textbook and markers Desktop, projector, white board, textbook and markers \| Teacher will observe Ss while answering the questions to see if they have met the objective. Teacher assesses students’ background knowledge and try to build on it. \| \|\| 25 minutes 25 minutes 25 minutes 25 minutes \| By the end of class, students will be able to use the words; There is and There are to talk about rooms in a home. By the end of class students will be able to learn how to ask about furniture and appliances in a home. By the end of class students will be able to ask questions about furniture and appliances with Is there…..? and Are there…..? To review students’ home work from Future Intro Workbook; Unit 6, pages 71-73. \| Exercises 3A & B, page 127 Unit 7 Lesson 3 Exercise 1A, page 128 Exercise 2A, page 129 Exercise 3A, page 129 Homework (Workbook) \| Desktop, projector, white board, textbook and markers Desktop, projector, textbook, white board and markers Desktop, projector, textbook, white board and markers Desktop, projector, workbook, white board and markers \| Teacher monitors students’ understanding of the target grammar when they try to complete the exercises. Teacher assesses students’ background knowledge and try to build on it. Teacher monitors students’ understanding of the target grammar when they try to complete the exercises. Teacher checks students’ homework to make sure that students have learned the skills and the concepts taught in the textbook. \| Reflection: \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.009167	05/20/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104055/overview", "title": "Elementary English for Life and Work Lesson Plan", "author": "Zohra Saeed Samadi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99746/overview	Financial Accounting Classify Accounts https://quickbooks.intuit.com/accounting/cash-vs-accrual-accounting-whats-best-small-business/ https://www.basis365.com/blog/cash-basis-accounting-and-accrual-accounting https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/accounts-receivable-aging.asp https://www.sos.state.tx.us/corp/businessstructure.shtml OER_ch01 Student Accounting For Business and Entrepreneurs, Concepts and Technology Overview The content will cover basic Accounting and Managerial concepts for Non-Accounting Majors. This textbook approaches Financial and Managerial Accounting from a business perspective. The topics covered are relevant for business owners and entrepreneurs; helping them to understand what information is needed to run a business, make decisions, and grow the business. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to Accounting Chapter 2: Analyzing, Posting, and Adjusting Transactions Chapter 3: Receivables Chapter 4: Accounting for a Merchandising Company Chapter 5: Financial Statements Chapter 6: Internal Control and Cash Chapter 7: Long-term Assets Chapter 8: Liabilities Chapter 9: Other business entities: Partnerships and Corporations Chapter 10: The Role of Accounting in the Basic Management Process Chapter 11: Job Order Costing Chapter 12: Cost Behavior and CVP Analysis Chapter 13: Budgeting Chapter 14: Differential Analysis: Relevant Costs Chapter 1 Learning Objectives By the end of this lesson, you will be able to: - LO1: Define the purpose of accounting - LO2: Describe the accounting process. - LO3: Describe the forms of businesses. - LO4: Define the different types of business entities. - LO5: Classify the different types of business activities. - LO6: Identify the four basic financial statements and their purposes - LO7: Define assets, liabilities, and Owner’s equity. What Is the Purpose of Accounting? The Purpose of Accounting The purpose of accounting is to provide financial information to users in order for those users to make decisions. Accounting is often called the “language of business.” Accounting is the means by which financial information is communicated to users. The focus of this text is on the role of accounting in business. Financial Accounting deals with preparing financial information for external users. Managerial accounting deals with preparing financial information for external users. Users Users of accounting information are separated into two groups, internal and external. Internal users are the people within a business organization who use accounting information. External users are people outside the business entity that use accounting information. Accounting information is valuable because decision makers, internal and external, can use it to evaluate the financial decisions of various alternatives. Accountants reduce uncertainty by using professional judgment to quantify the future financial impact of taking action or delaying action. Accounting information plays a significant role in reducing uncertainty within an organization. Nature and Objective of Business and Accounting A business is an organization that provides goods or services to customers. The objective of most business is to earn a profit. Profit is the difference between the amount received for selling your goods and services and the cost of providing those goods and services. Types of Businesses Three types of businesses operated for profit include service, merchandising (retailers), and manufacturing businesses. Examples of each type of business are below: Service businesses: - Federal Express (Delivery services) - American Airlines (Transportation services) - Marriott Hotels (Hotel services) - Universal Studios (Entertainment services) Merchandising businesses (Retailers): - Target (general merchandise) - Amazon (books) - Walmart (general merchandise) - Safeway Stores (groceries) Manufacturing businesses: - Ford Motor Company (vehicles) - Dell Inc. (Computers) Forms of Businesses A business is normally organized in one of the following four forms: - proprietorship - partnership - limit liability company - corporation A proprietorship is an unincorporated business owned and run by one individual with no distinction between the business and the owner. The owner is entitled to all profits and are responsible for ALL business's debts, losses, and liabilities. The primary disadvantage of proprietorships is that the owner has unlimited liability to creditors for the debts of the company. In the United States, more than 70% of all businesses are proprietorships. A partnership is a legal form of business operation between two or more individuals who share management and profits. The In the United States, about 10% of all business are partnerships. The partners of a partnership also have unlimited liability to creditors for the debts of the company. A corporation is a legal entity that is separate and distinct from its owners. Corporations enjoy most of the rights and responsibilities that an individual possesses; that is, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, loan and borrow money, sue and be sued, hire employees, own assets and pay taxes. The ownership of a corporation is represented by shares of stock. A corporation issues the stock to individuals or other entities, who then become owners or stockholders of the corporation. A major advantage of a corporation is that stockholders' have limited liability to creditors for the debts of the company. It is limited to their investment. A limited liability company (LLC) combines attributes of a partnership and a corporation. The primary advantage of the limited liability company form is that it operates similar to a partnership, but its owners' (or members') liability for the debts of the company is limited to their investment. Many professional practices such as, lawyers, doctors, and accountants are organized as limited liability companies. A Limited Liability company is governed by the State you register the company; this means, it can still function like any of the other businesses entities. Use the attached resource to see what business structure will best suit your business. Business Activities All companies are engaged in the following three business activities: Operating activities involve the current assets, current liabilities, revenues, and expenses. Revenues are the assets received from selling the company’s goods or services. Revenues are normally identified according to their source. Investing activities involve buying and selling of company noncurrent assets to start and operate a business. These assets would include land, buildings, computers, office and store machines, office furnishings, trucks, and automobiles. Financing activities involve obtaining funds to begin and operate a business. Companies obtain funds by: - issuing shares of stock (Ownership in the business) - borrowing from the bank - Issuing bonds (borrowing from the public) Accounting Process Accounting is the systemic gathering of financial information about a business and reporting this information to users. The report can be in the form of financial statements, such as the Profit and Loss (Income Statement), or the Balance Sheet. Also, if the company is publicly traded, they must submit an annual report on the financial state of the company. There are six major steps in this process: - Recording: entering financial information about economic events into the accounting system. This system can be a program, such as QuickBooks, that can either be cloud based or downloaded to your desktop. - Classifying: we must ask ourselves what type of information is this? Is this an invoice or a bill? This will help to sort the financial information. - Summarizing: providing the information in an easy to understand method. - Reporting: this would be in the form of the financial statements. - Interpreting: users will use this information to make decisions. The Accounting Equation There is a delicate balancing of the financial information; we will use the Accounting Equation to stay in balance. The Accounting Equation is: The left side shows the assets or economic resources of the company, the right side of the equal shows the claims on the company assets. These claims can be from a creditor or the owner(s). Classifying Accounts Examples The table shown below lists some of the main account names we will use. As we move forward, the list of accounts will increase. Assets: - Current assets are cash and other assets that are expected to be converted to cash or sold or used up within one accounting period which is normally one year or less. This would normally include cash, accounts receivable, notes receivable, supplies, and prepaid expenses. - Long-term assets: Property, Plant, and Equipment are physical assets of a long-term nature. The fixed assets may also be reported on the balance sheet as property, plant, and equipment or plant assets. Fixed assets include equipment, machinery, buildings, and land. Except for land, these assets depreciate over a period of time. The cost less accumulated depreciation is called the book value and is normally reported on the classified balance sheet. - Intangible assets represent rights of a long-term nature, such as patent rights, copyrights, and goodwill. This will be discussed in different chapter. Liabilities: - Current liabilities are liabilities that are due within one accounting period, which is normally one year or less, and are to be paid out of current assets. Normally current liabilities include accounts payable, notes payable, wages payable, interest payable, taxes payable, and unearned revenue. - Long-term Liabilities are liabilities that are due after the first accounting period. Owner's Equity: Owner's equity will be the difference between your assets minus your liabilities (debt) that the owner of the business can claim. This can be derived from the investments, net income less the dividends, that is retained in the business. The owner can decide to withdraw some of the equity in the company. Taking It Further with Technology We have learned the basics of Accounting using the pen to paper method but, we know technology affects every aspect of your life. Even in the world of business, we have different devices or programs that help us to run our business. Let's explore them. Social Media Social media is a way for a business owner to connect with customers and find new customers. The benefits of using social media can save a company advertising cost by creating their own media. One of the other benefits of social media is you can gain loyal customers; all of the these options are advatanges to social media. One of the disadvantages is the time it takes to learn all the different platforms. Thankfully, there are tech companies that you can purchase already created content and post it own your social media page. Customer Relationship Management CRM's will help a company to streamline communication with customers as well as staff. These programs help to orgainize and automate your customer interactions. The scale of the program you select can depend on cost and needs of the company. Collecting Payments Paying for services or purchases has become easier with the use of these payment apps. As a customer, you can send money or pay for services from a business. As a business owner, you can use these apps to collect fees and increase your sales because you take different forms of payment. Virtual Office Assistants and Virtual Offices When the Pandemic hit, every company had to find a way for work to continue; those that could, started to work remote. This caused companies to address what "working from home" means and how to sufficiently get the work done; companies scrammbled to get equipment and laptops to employees. Businesses saw a huge benefit for some employees to work from home because employees were more productive and it was saving some operational costs. Some companies laid off employees. Even now that some employees are back at the physical office, this created a new administrative position called a Virtual Assistants; the employee can work from home, using their own equipment, and work for more than just one company at any location. This also caused a huge wave with virtual offices; now, you can complete work from a remote location, using technology to keep appointments and conduct virtual meetings. Keeping information in one place is easy with cloud storage. There are so many apps or programs you can use to run your business efficiently, it just takes some research to see what apps or programs works best for your business. Comprehensive Problem This Comprehensive Problem will span the entire textbook starting as a service company, then, a merchandising company, and lastly, a manufacturing company. This will also serve an an example of the graded comprehensive problem you will compelete as an exam grade. Foundation Theia Ellis worked in the field as a Physical Therapist until the Pandemic; she found herself out of a job, even though she loved her patients and her work. Her patients loved her as well, stating they would follow her to another facility. After going on serveral job interviews, she decided to open her own business. With the money from her servant's package and her savings, she invested $15,000, acquired some used equipment from Facebook Marketplace for $4,500, and went in search of an office location. She wanted some place her clients would feel safe and private to conduct sessions. She found a place with private suites and an open space for sessions; the rent and utilities would be $3,500 a month. The other monthly expenses were: - Business insurance $900 a year - Supplies - $375 - Uniforms - $175 - New laptop and printer - $2,500 - Advertising and signage - $425 - Internet - $100/month - A lawyer to complete the formation papers for the LLC - $550 - LLC fee - $300 - EMR system - $120/month After consulting with a lawyer, Proficient Therapy LLC was formed; the doors will open on Jan. 1. Theia signed the lease for the unit, paying the first month's rent and purchased all the necessary items for the business to start. Using the Accounting equation, it will look like this: As you can see, Theia has a starting net loss because no revenue has been earned. We will use this information when we check back in with Proficient Therapy. Chapter 1 Summary We have discused the basic foundation of Accounting using the Accounting Equation, Assets = Liabilities + Owner's Equity. We will start off by viewing the information from a the sole proprietorship's perspective. We will slowly add new concepts and materials each week. After each chapter, please return to Blackboard to complete your chapter assignments in OHM. Chapter 2: Analyzing Transactions using the Accounting Equation LO1: Describe the chart of accounts. LO2: Describe and illistrate the journalizing transactions using the expanded equation grid. LO3: Describe and illistrate the journalizing transactions using T accounts. LO4: Prepare an Unadjusted Trial Balance. The Chart of Accounts As we seen in chapter 1, the Chart of Accounts can be extensive depending on the industry or the company. Even so, the Chart of Accounts will have a basic format that most companies will use. A group of accounts for a business entity is called a ledger; the list of accounts in the ledger is called a Chart of Accounts. The accounts are listed in the order they appear in the Balance Sheet. Income Statement: Revenues. Some may ask, what does revenue mean? This means the way the business makes money. For example, if you sell product, you would have a Sales account in your chart of accounts or you can also have an inventory account because you purchase product. Expenses. You will use, consume, or expire the prepaid assets of the company to generate revenue, such as, Prepaid Rent or Prepaid Insurance. This means you have paid for this upfront and will use, consume, or expire a flat amount each month and it will be listed on your Income Statement in the "Expenses" area. Also, to generate revenue, you will use expenses; for example, you paid for some advertising to generate customers; this will be classified as Advertising expense. The expenses are listed in order from greatest to least and Miscellaneous Expense will always be last. Accrual Accounting and Cash Basis Accounting What Is Accrual Accounting? Accrual accounting is an accounting method that records revenue when earned and records expenses when incurred regardless of when cash is received or paid to the Income Statement. Companies often earn revenue before or after cash is received and incur expenses before or after cash is paid. Accrual basis accounting is designed to avoid misleading information arising from the timing of cash receipts and payments. What is Cash Accounting? Cash accounting is an accounting method that reports revenue when it is received and when expenses are paid to the Income Statement; this may not happen in the same period the services or expenses were made. Quickbooks offers a detailed breakdown of Accrual Basis Vs. Cash Basis. For this class, we will focus on Accrual Accounting. GAAP The four corporate financial statements described and illustrated in chapter 1 were prepared using accounting “rules,” called generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are necessary so that stakeholders can compare companies across time. If the management of a company could prepare financial statements as they saw fit, the comparability between companies and across time would be impossible. Accounting principles and concepts develop from research, accepted accounting practices, and pronouncements of regulators. Within the United States, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has the primary responsibility for developing accounting principles. The FASB publishes Statements of Financial Accounting Standards as well as interpretations of these Standards. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), an agency of the U.S. government, also has authority over the accounting and financial disclosures for corporations whose stock is traded and sold to the public. The SEC normally accepts the accounting principles set forth by the FASB. However, the SEC may issue Staff Accounting Bulletins on accounting matters that may not have been addressed by the FASB. Many countries outside the United States use generally accepted accounting principles adopted by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). Accounting Principles and Concepts Business Entity Concept: The business entity concept limits the economic data recorded in an accounting system to data related to the activities of that company. In other words, the company is viewed as an entity separate from its owners, creditors, or other companies. For example, a company with one owner records the activities of only that company and does not record the personal activities, property, or debts of the owner. A business entity may take the form of a proprietorship, partnership, corporation, or limited liability company (LLC). Cost Concept: The cost concept initially records assets in the accounting records at their cost or purchase price. Going Concern Concept: The going concern concept assumes that a company will continue in business indefinitely. This assumption is made because the amount of time that a company will continue in business is not known. Matching Concept: The matching concept reports the revenues earned by a company for a period with the expenses incurred in generating the revenues. That is, expenses are matched against the revenues they generated. Revenue Recognition Principle: Revenues are normally recorded at the time a product is sold or a service is rendered, which is referred to as the revenue recognition principle. At the point of sale, the sale price has been agreed upon, the buyer acquires ownership of the product or acquires the service, and the seller has a legal claim against the buyer for payment. Unit of Measure Concept: In the United States, the unit of measure concept requires that all economic data be recorded in dollars. Other relevant, non-financial information may also be recorded, such as terms of contracts. However, it is only through using dollar amounts that the various transactions and activities of a business can be measured, summarized, reported, and compared. Money is common to all business transactions and thus is the unit of measurement for financial reporting. Adequate Disclosure Concept: The adequate disclosure concept requires that the financial statements, including related notes, contain all relevant data a stakeholder needs to understand the financial condition and performance of the company. Nonessential data are excluded to avoid clutter. Accounting Period Concept: The accounting period concept requires that accounting data be recorded and summarized in financial statements for periods of time. For example, transactions are recorded for a period of time such as a month or a year. Transaction Analysis We will use the extended version of the Accounting Equation to evaluate transactions using T accounts. As you can see, we implemented the Equation with an "Increase" or "Decrease"; once you go to the other side of the equal, the "Increase" and Decrease flip. Examples of Transactions To illustrate accrual accounting, the following transactions are used for Landry Medical Group: - Received $1,800 from ILS Company as rent for the parking lot. - Paid a premium of $2,400 for a two-year general business insurance policy that covers risks from fire and theft. - Purchased a new piece of equipment for $6,000 on account. - Dr. Landry invested an additional $5,000 in the business. - Purchased supplies for $240 on account. - Purchased $8,500 of office equipment. Paid $1,700 cash as a down payment, with the remaining $6,800 ($8,500 − $1,700) due in five monthly installments of $1,360 ($6,800 ÷ 5). - Provided services of $6,100 to patients on account. - Received $5,500 for services provided to patients who paid cash. - Received $4,200 from insurance companies on patients' accounts for services that were provided in transaction 7. - Paid $100 on account for supplies that were purchased in transaction 5. - Expenses paid during November were as follows: wages, $2,790; rent, $800; utilities, $580; interest, $100; and miscellaneous, $420. - Personally withdrew $1,200. Breaking It Down - Assets Here's the Assets listed in the T accounts: Breaking It Down - Liabilities and Equity Adjustments The Adjustment Process Accrual accounting requires the updating of the accounting records prior to preparing financial statements. This updating is called the adjustments. Adjustments are necessary because, at any point in time, some accounts of the accounting equation are not up to date. The income statement of a business reports all revenues earned and all expenses incurred to generate those revenues during a given period. An income statement that does not report all revenues and expenses is incomplete, inaccurate, and possibly misleading. Similarly, a balance sheet that does not report all of an entity’s assets, liabilities, and stockholders’ equity at a specific time may be misleading. Each adjustment has a dual purpose: (1) to make the income statement report the proper revenue or expense and (2) to make the balance sheet report the proper asset or liability. Thus, every adjustment affects at least one income statement account and one balance sheet account. The accounts that need adjusting are: - Deferrals are the result of cash being received or paid before the revenue is earned or the expense is incurred. - Accruals are normally the result of cash being received or paid after revenue has been earned or an expense has been incurred. - Prepaid or deferred expenses: Initially recorded assets but become expenses over time or through normal operations of business. Examples include prepaid insurance and prepaid advertising. - Unearned or deferred revenues: Initially recorded as liabilities but become revenues over time or through normal operations of the business. Examples include unearned rent and insurance premiums received in advance. - Accrued expenses or liabilities: Expenses that have been incurred but are not recorded in the accounts. Examples include unpaid wages and utility expenses. - Accrued revenues or assets: Revenues that have been earned but are not recorded in the accounts. Examples include revenue for patient services that have been earned but are not recorded in the accounts and accrued interest on notes receivable. Adjustment Example Let's make the end of the period adjustments for Landry Medical Group. - Service revenue accrued but unbilled - $19,750. - Used up all the supplies in the Supplies account. - Wages accrued but not paid - $4,900 - Paid $1,500 to creditors; this will pay the remaining balance in supplies and make the first installment payment. - Depreciation of equipment - $575 - Insurance expired - $100 Accounting Cycle The accounting cycle is the process that goes through the following steps: - Analyze the source documents (checks, contracts, invoices, etc.) - Determine what accounts are affected (Assets, Liabilities, and Owner’s Equity). - Determine if the accounts are increasing or decreasing and how each transaction affects the financial statements (Income Statement, Statement of Owner's Equity, Balance Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows). Record the economic transactions. - Assemble adjustment data and record those adjustment to the accounts. - Prepare the financial statements. Comprehensive Problem Let's check in with Theia Ellis, owner of Proficient Therapy LLC. Here is the information for Proficient Therapy LLC: Here are the transactions for the Month of January: Jan. 4. Provided services for clients on account, $9,400; we will use Gross Patient Service Revenue. 5. Purchased additional equipment for $7,000, paying a down payment of $1,000 and making monthly installments of $500 for one year. 7. Received $ 3,760 from the insurance companies for Jan. 4. 10. Created a Groupon advertisement giving patients 20% off services; this will be cash paying clients. 14. Paid wages to part-time workers, $ 1,825. 15. The Groupon was a success! Received $11,700 in advance payment for services; we will record this as unearned revenue. 16. Paid $375 to the Office Depot credit card. 18. Recorded services provided to clients on account, $ 3,625. 20. Purchases more supplies on account from Office Depot, $1,265. 24. Met with the manager of a nursing home to come by twice a week to provide services to the patients. The contract was for a flat rate of $2,000 per month for 3 months; received $6,000. 26. Paid for my professional membership dues of $380. 27. Paid wages to part-time workers, $1,825. 29. Paid utilities of $760. 30. Withdrew $1,750 for personal use. Using the information, enter the economic transactions into GNU cash program. Use the Accounts below: Adjusting entries for the month of January: - Insurance expired during January is $75. - Supplies on hand on January 31 are $759. - Made the first installment payment of $500. - Depreciation of equipment is $ 250. - Some Groupon clients came in for services, $3,510. - Groupon collected their fee from adjustment (e): $1,755 - Accrued wages of $1,095. - Earned $1,000 from transaction 24. Chapter 3: Receivables In this lesson you will be able to account for receivables and short term investments and you will be able to: - Distinguish between the direct write off and allowance methods. - Determine the financial statement effects accounting for uncollectible accounts using the direct write off and allowance methods. - Analyze the notes receivable transactions and effects on the financial statements Accounts Receivable Accounts Receivable All receivables expected to be realized in cash within a year are presented in the Current Assets section of the balance sheet. These assets are normally listed in the order of their liquidity, that is, the order in which they are expected to be converted to cash during normal operations. The usual transaction creating a receivable is selling merchandise or services on account (on credit). This is recorded as an increase to Accounts Receivable. These accounts are normally collected within 30 or 60 days. They are classified on the balance sheet as a current asset. Uncollectible Receivables Uncollectible Receivables A major concern about accounts receivable is that some customers will not pay their accounts and may become uncollectible. - Companies may shift the risk of uncollectible receivables to by accepting major credit cards like American Express, Discover, MasterCard or VISA. This shifts the risk to the credit card companies. - Companies may also sell their receivables to a buyer of receivables called a factor. The risk may shift to the factor. Many companies will grant credit to their customers. Regardless how well you check for customers, some credit sales will be uncollectible. When an account is uncollectible it is recorded as a bad debt expense. There are two methods of accounting for uncollectible receivables are as follows: Direct Write-off Method: General accepted accounting principles (GAAP) do not recognized the direct write-off method. Under the direct write-off method, bad debt expense is recorded when the customer's account is determine to be uncollectible. At that time, the customer's account receivable is written off. Uncollectible Receivables: the Allowance Method The two allowance methods used to estimate uncollectible accounts are as follow: Percentage of the Accounts Receivable Method The allowance method estimates the uncollectible accounts receivable at the end of the accounting period. Based on this estimate, Bad Debt Expense is recorded by an adjustment. Percentage of the Sales Method The percent of sales method assume that a percent of the credit sales is uncollectible. This percent can come from industry standards or historical trends from the company. The Importance The importance of keeping up with how much Accounts receivable is uncollected because there is cash on the line. The longer you wait to collect payment, the more you lose to collect. Please read the following article on Aging of Receivables. Notes Recievable Notes receivable are amounts that customers owe for which a legal, written document is issued. If notes receivable are expected to be collected within a year, they are classified on the balance sheet as a current asset. Parts of a promissory note are as follows: - The maker is the party making the promise to pay. - The payee is the party to whom the note is payable. - The face amount is the amount the note is written for on its face. - The issuance date is the date a note is issued. - The due date or maturity date is the date the note is to be paid. - The term of a note is the amount of time between the issuance and due dates. - The interest rate is that rate of interest that must be paid on the face amount for the term of the note. The interest rate is stated on an annual (yearly) basis, while the term is expressed in days. Thus, the interest and maturity value on the note in computed as follows: Principle X Rate X Time. To simplify, 360 days per year are used in this chapter. In practice, companies such as banks and mortgage lenders use the exact number of days in a year, 365. The maturity value is the amount that must be paid at the due date of the note, which is the sum of the face amount and the interest. You will hear the word for face to also mean principle. The maturity date will be counting the days left in the month it is issued and counting the days for each month until you have accumulated the total days. \| January- 31 \| July - 31 \| \| Feb- 28 \| August - 31 \| \| March - 31 \| September - 30 \| \| April - 30 \| October - 31 \| \| May - 31 \| November - 30 \| \| June - 30 \| December - 31 \| For example, Roberts Company issued a $40,000, 6%, 45 day note on Feb.1 to Peoples Inc. We will use the formula Principle X Rate X Time to calculate the amount of interest: $40,000 X 0.06 X (45/360) = 300 Now, to calculate the due date we will look at the table to count the 45 days; let's determin the due date of the note: \| Number of days in the Note \| 45 \| \| Days remaining in February \| 28 \| \| Days remaining in March \| 17 \| \| Due date of the Note \| March 17th \| Therefore, on March 17, Peoples Inc will pay the maturity value, face + interest, to Roberts Company. Notes may be used to settle a customer's account receivable. Notes and accounts receivable that result from sales transactions are sometimes called trade receivables. All notes and accounts receivable in this chapter are assumed to be from sales transactions. Chapter 4: Merchandise Inventory You will be able to describe the basis for inventory valuation and you will be able to: - Define merchandise inventory. - Calculate ending inventory and cost of goods sold under the periodic inventory system using FIFO, LIFO, Weighted Average methods. - Describe factors considered when selecting and inventory method and the effects of such a selection on the financial statements. Merchandising Business The revenue activities of a merchandising business involve the buying and selling of inventory (merchandise for resale). When the merchandise is purchased, it is shown on the balance sheet as a current asset. A retail business first purchases merchandise to sell to its customers. When this inventory is sold, the revenue is reported as sales revenue. The cost of the inventory sold is reported as cost of goods sold. The cost of goods sold is subtracted from sales revenue to arrive at gross profit. The operating expenses are subtracted from gross profit to arrive at operating income. Sales Transactions Cash Sales Transactions: Sales transactions may be a cash sale or credit sale. Cash sales are recorded in the accounts by increasing cash and sales. Under the perpetual inventory system, Cost of goods sold should be increased and merchandise inventory should be decrease in the same transaction. Credit card sales using VISA, MasterCard, or American Express are recorded as cash sales with a reduction of the credit card fees. Credit Sales: Credit sales are recorded in the accounts by increasing accounts receivable and sales. Increasing the cost of goods sold and decreasing inventory should also be made in the same transaction. Sales Discounts: A merchandiser may grant customers sales discounts as incentives to encourage them to pay their bills early. For example, a seller may offer credit terms of 2/10, n/30, which provides a 2% sales discount if the invoice is paid within 10 days. If not paid within 10 days, the total invoice amount is due within 30 days. A buyer refers to a sales discount as a purchases discount. The revenue recognition principle requires that revenue be recorded in the amount expected to be received from the sale. Therefore, sales revenue should be recorded net of the sales discount. Sales Returns and Allowances: Merchandising companies usually allow customers to return goods that are defective or unsatisfactory for a variety of reasons, such as wrong color, wrong size, wrong style, wrong amounts, or inferior quality. In fact, when their policy is satisfaction guaranteed, some companies allow customers to return goods simply because they do not like the merchandise. A sales return is merchandise returned by a buyer. Sellers and buyers regard a sales return as a cancellation of a sale. Alternatively, some customers keep unsatisfactory goods, and the seller gives them an allowance off the original price. A sales allowance is a deduction from the original invoiced sales price granted when the customer keeps the merchandise but is dissatisfied for any of a number of reasons, including inferior quality, damage, or deterioration in transit. When a seller agrees to the sales return or sales allowance, the seller sends the buyer a credit memorandum indicating a reduction (crediting) of the buyer's account receivable. Sales Tax Sales Taxes Almost all states levy a sales tax on sales of merchandise inventory. A sales tax is levied on the final user of a product. Buyers who purchase product to resale do not have to pay a sales tax. That is referred to as buying it wholesale. When a sale is made on account or for cash, the seller charges the buyer by increasing Accounts Receivable or cash to the total sales plus sales tax, increasing the sales revenue for the amount of the sales, and increasing sales tax payable for the sales taxes. Purchasing Inventory There are two systems for recording and accounting for merchandise inventory: perpetual and periodic. In either case, perpetual or period, an inventory physical count must be taken and compared to the records. This physical inventory is used to determine the cost of inventory on hand at the end of the period, which is the amount reported as Inventory on the balance sheet. Purchase Discounts Purchases Discounts: Normally, the purchaser of inventory will take the discounts taken with the discount period. Purchases discounts are given for early payment of a purchase invoice. The credit terms 2/10, n30 mean that the buyer is entitled to a 2% discount if paid within 10 days (2/10) from the invoice date. If the discount period is missed, the buyer must pay the full invoice within 30 days (n30). In a perpetual inventory system, the merchandise inventory is reduced for the purchase discount. Purchase Returns and Allowances: Purchases returns and allowances result when merchandise inventory received by a buyer is defective, damaged, or not what was ordered. In these cases, the buyer may return the merchandise for full credit or request a price adjustment (allowance). In a perpetual inventory system, the inventory is reduced for the return or allowance. Shipping Terms Freight Cost: Freight cost (shipping cost) must be paid by either the buyer or the seller. Who pays the freight cost is determined when title (ownership) of merchandise inventory passes. Title may pass to the buyer the seller either delivers to the inventory to the freight carrier or when the buyer received the inventory. Shipping Terms We have all purchased goods online, as a consumer, when the rights to the goods can happen in two ways: - The term FOB (free on board) shipping point means that the title for the goods pass to the buyer when the seller delivers the merchandise inventory to the transportation company. Such costs are part of the buyer's total cost of purchasing inventory and should be added to the cost of the inventory. - The term FOB destination means that the seller pays the freight costs from the shipping point (seller’s dock) to the final destination. Such cost would be included in the operating expenses as a shipping expense or freight out expense. Here's an example of how to calculate the different shipping terms. Below are two invoices received by Theia Ellis; she purchsed some merchandise for her company: The terms are expressed in 1/10, n/30; this means they get a 1% discount if they pay in 10 days and pay the remainder in 30 days. The shipping terms gives two benefits, first, to the seller because there will be some form of payment either in 10 days or 30 and second, the buyer gets a discount for paying early. Now, we will calculate how much Theia will pay each invoice: Invoice #8905654: $2,678.75 ( 2,500 - 375 - 21.25 + 575) Invoice #4599125: $4,189.50 ( 4,500 - 225 - 85.50) Inventory Shrinkage Inventory Shrinkage: Although under the perpetual inventory system, the inventory account is continually updated for purchase and sales transactions, a physical inventory count is necessary. The difference in the physical count and the records is normally caused by loss of inventory due to shoplifting, employee theft, or errors. Thus, the physical inventory on hand at the end of the accounting period is usually less than the balance of Inventory. This difference is called inventory shrinkage or inventory shortage. Under the perpetual inventory system, the inventory account is continually updated for purchase and sales transactions. As a result, the balance of the inventory account is the amount of merchandise available for sale at that point in time. Periodic Inventory Method As mentioned earlier, most company uses the perpetual inventory system; but, for merchandising companies with enormous variety of inventory and cost of a perpetual system is not cost benefit, they may use a periodic inventory system. In a periodic system, cost of goods sold is calculated as follows: In order to calculate Cost of merchandise purchase, you must replace the entries to Inventory with four (4) new accounts and they are: - Purchases - Purchase returns and allowances - Purchase Discount - Freight In To calculate Cost of merchandise purchased is as follows: Cost Flow Methods: When identical units of inventory are acquired at various unit costs, it is necessary to determine the cost of the unit sold using various cost flow methods. We will discuss three common cost flow methods using the periodic method in this chapter: Example Mama T's Treats purchased some custom mixers to sell online with the company's brand and logo. The information is show below: After conducting a physical count of the units, only 75 were left; each unit sold for $350. Determine the Cost of Goods Sold, Ending Inventory, and Gross Profit for each of the three methods. Remember, we're only asking one question, what happened to the inventory? Is it sitting in the warehouse or did we sell it? Here are the final calculations: Lower Cost of Market Generally, companies should use historical cost to value inventories and cost of goods sold. However, “Rule of Conservatism” states the for financial statement purposes, companies should us value inventory items at less than their cost when the market is lower. A decline in the selling price of the goods or their replacement cost may indicate such a loss of utility. This section explains how accountants handle some of these departures from the cost basis of inventory measurement. The lower-of-cost-or-market (LCM) method is an inventory costing method that values inventory at the lower of its historical cost or its current market (replacement) cost. The term cost refers to historical cost of inventory as determined under the specific identification, FIFO, LIFO, or weighted-average inventory method. Market generally refers to a merchandise item’s replacement cost in the quantity usually purchased. The basic assumption of the LCM method is that if the purchase price of an item has fallen, its selling price also has fallen or will fall. The LCM method has long been accepted in accounting. Chapter 5: Financial Statements By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Prepare a simple: Income Statement, Statement of Retained Earnings, Balance Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows - Prepare a Classified Balance Sheet Delivery of Information The accounting reports providing this information are called financial statements. The order of the financial statements and the explanation of each statement are listed below: \| Financial Statements \| Description \| Order of Preparation \| \| Income Statement or Profit and Loss \| Shows a detail of the revenues and expenses for a specific period of time. \| 1 \| \| Retained Earnings Statement \| Shows a detail of the changes that occurred in the Retained Earnings during a specific period of time. \| 2 \| \| Balance Sheet \| Shows the Accounting Equation ( Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders' Equity) on a specific date in time. \| 3 \| \| Statement of Cash Flows \| Shows the inflows and outflows of the Cash account for a specific period of time. \| 4 \| These reports are prepared at the end of an accounting period. Income Statement Financial statements present the results of operations and the financial position of the company. Four main statements are commonly prepared by publicly-traded companies and are prepared in the following order: Income Statement The income statement reports the results of the operation of the company. The time period covered by the income statement may vary; it can be monthly, quarterly, or yearly. The income statement formula is: revenues minus expenses. Expenses should be listed in the order of the greatest amount first, except for Miscellaneous and Income Tax Expenses should be last. The Multi-step Income This Income statement will breakdown the expenses to Selling and Administrative; we will use this type of statement to analyze any increases or decreases. First, we will take Sales and deduct the Sales Discounts and Sales Returns and Allowances to get Net Sales. Next, we deduct the Cost of Goods Sold from it to get the Gross Profit. The Gross Profit represents what we sold the product for minus what we purchased the product for; this will show us the gross amount before we deduct any expenses. We will break the expenses down as shown in the illistration: Selling expenses are expenses incurred in the process of selling the goods or product. As you see, this would be any department, such as the sales team, or any process of the product or goods, such as delivery, shipping, or the depreciation of the equipment that makes the good or product. Administrative expenses are general expenses incurred in a normal process of the business such as rent expense, office salaries, depreciation on the office equipment, etc. Other Revenue and Expenses are items not related to the primary function of the business. For example, If I sold a product but I owned a building and leased out offices, I would put my Rent Revenue in this field. Retained Earnings (Statement of Owner's Equity) Statement of Retained Earnings The statement of retained earnings reports the changes in retained earnings. A corporation may retain all of its net income for expanding operations, or it may pay a portion or all of its net income as dividends. Here's another way to complete the Equity Statement: Balance Sheet Balance Sheet The balance sheet reports the financial position of the company at a point in time. The financial condition of a business can be expressed as the accounting equation. The balance sheet, sometimes called the statement of financial condition. Assets on the Balance Sheet are listed in the order of liquidity or how quickly consumed. Classified Balance Sheet The classified balance sheet is prepared to assist the user in decision making through analysis. Let’s first address the classified balance sheet. The classified balance sheet is prepared with various sections and subsections as follows: Assets: - Current assets are cash and other assets that are expected to be converted to cash or sold or used up within one accounting period which is normally one year or less. This would normally include cash, accounts receivable, notes receivable, supplies, and prepaid expenses. - Long-term assets: Property, Plant, and Equipment are physical assets of a long-term nature. The fixed assets may also be reported on the balance sheet as property, plant, and equipment or plant assets. Fixed assets include equipment, machinery, buildings, and land. Except for land, these assets depreciate over a period of time. The cost less accumulated depreciation is called the book value and is normally reported on the classified balance sheet. - Intangible assets represent rights of a long-term nature, such as patent rights, copyrights, and goodwill. This will be discussed in chapter 6. Liabilities: - Current liabilities are liabilities that are due within one accounting period, which is normally one year or less, and are to be paid out of current assets. Normally current liabilities include accounts payable, notes payable, wages payable, interest payable, taxes payable, and unearned revenue. - Long-term Liabilities are liabilities that are due after the first accounting period. Analysis: At this time we will discuss a few liquidity measures. The ability to pay current debt is important. The Quick Ratio, Current Ratio, and Working Capital calculation let the users know if they have enough current assets to pay current liabilities. Working Capital The Working Capital is the excess of the current assets minus the current liabilities; it will show if a company has pay it's current obligations or liabilities. The Working Capital can be express in dollars; the formula to express Working Capital in dollars is: Current Assets - Current Liabilities. To express the Working Capital in a ratio is called Current Ratio; the formula to express Current ratio is: Current Assets/Current Liabilities. Quick Ratio The Quick Ratio looks at the "quick" assets, Cash, termorary investments, and receivables, and divide it by current liabilities. This can also be referred to as the acid-test ratio. Statement of Cash Flow Statement of Cash Flows The statement of cash flows reports the change in the balance sheet due to the changes in cash during a period. The statement of cash flows looks at the three business activities of operating, investing, and financing. Any changes in cash must be related to one or more of these activities. Operating Activities: The most important cash flow is from the operating activities. The net cash flows from operating activities is reported first. Operating activities are associated with cash flow from the company’s income statement. Bankers and creditors look at the cash flow from operating activities to see if the operating activities are generating enough cash In the short term, creditors use cash flows from operating activities to assess whether the company's operating activities are generating enough cash to repay them. In the long term, a company cannot survive unless it generates positive cash flows from operating activities. Thus, cash flows from operating activities is also a focus of employees, managers, suppliers, customers, and other stakeholders who are interested in the long-term success of the company. Investing Activities: The net cash flows from investing activities is reported second. This is because investing activities directly impact the operations of the company. Cash receipts from selling property, plant, and equipment are reported in this section. Likewise, any purchases of property, plant, and equipment are reported as cash payments. Companies that are expanding rapidly, such as start-up companies, normally report negative net cash flows from investing activities. In contrast, companies that are downsizing or selling segments of the business may report positive net cash flows from investing activities. Financing Activities: The net cash flows from financing activities is reported third. Any cash receipts from issuing debt or stock are reported in this section as cash receipts. Likewise, cash payments of debt and dividends are reported in this section. The statement of cash flows is completed by adding the net cash flows from operating, investing, and financing activities to determine the net increase or decrease in cash for the period. This net increase or decrease in cash is then added to the cash at the beginning of the period to arrive at the cash at the end of the period. Financial Statement Analysis Management’s analysis of financial statements primarily relates to parts of the company. Using this approach, management can plan, evaluate, and control operations within the company. Management obtains any information it wants about the company’s operations by requesting special-purpose reports. It uses this information to make difficult decisions, such as which employees to lay off and when to expand operations. Our primary focus in this chapter, however, is not on the special reports accountants prepare for management. Rather, it is on the information needs of persons outside the firm. Investors, creditors, and regulatory agencies generally focus their analysis of financial statements on the company as a whole. Since they cannot request special-purpose reports, external users must rely on the general-purpose financial statements that companies publish. These statements include a balance sheet, an income statement, a statement of stockholders’ equity, a statement of cash flows, and the explanatory notes that accompany the financial statements. Financial Statement Analysis: Horizontal Analysis Financial statement analysis consists of applying analytical tools and techniques to financial statements and other relevant data to obtain useful information. This information reveals significant relationships between data and trends in those data that assess the company’s past performance and current financial position. The information shows the results or consequences of prior management decisions. In addition, analysts use the information to make predictions that may have a direct effect on decisions made by users of financial statements. Comparative financial statements present the same company’s financial statements for one or two successive periods in side-by-side columns. The calculation of dollar changes or percentage changes in the statement items or totals is horizontal analysis. This analysis detects changes in a company’s performance and highlights trends. The good news is you have already been performing the first part of horizontal analysis without realizing it when you were preparing the statement of cash flows. Horizontal analysis consists of 2 things: - Dollar amount of change (calculated as Current Year amount – Previous Year amount) - Percentage of change (calculated as Dollar amount of change / previous year amount) Horizontal analysis is called horizontal because we look at one account at a time across time. We can perform this type of analysis on the balance sheet or the income statement. Financial Statement Analysis: Vertical Analysis Vertical analysis is a method that expresses each item on the financial statements as a percentage of a base. The base on the income statement is sales and the base on the balance sheet is total assets or total liabilities and stockholders’ equity. Other Financial Analyses Other analyses of the company's financial condition and performance are normally analyzed and interpreted by focusing upon the following characteristics: - Liquidity is the ability to convert assets to cash. Short-term creditors such as banks and suppliers focus on a company's liquidity as a means of evaluating the ability of the company to pay short-term debt. - Solvency is the ability of a company to pay its long-term debts. Investors in bonds and banks, focus on a company's solvency as a means to evaluate the ability of the company to pay both the interest and the principle on long-term debt. - Profitability is the ability of a company to generate net income. Chapter 6: Internal Control and Cash At the end of the chapter, you will be able to: - Understand Fraud - Sarbanes-Oxley Act and its impact on controls and financial reporting. - Internal controls procedures that provide a reasonable assurance that the financial statements can be relied on. - Bank reconciliation that determines if the general ledger balance for cash is correct. Fraud Fraud occurs when an employee gains something of value, usually money or property, at a cost to the employer by knowingly making a misrepresentation of a matter of fact. Fraud commonly occurs from the following examples: Federal Regulation Federal Regulation Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX): After the increase of corporate fraud in the early 2000's, the U.S. Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002 to protect investors from the possibility of fraudulent accounting practices by corporations. Sarbanes-Oxley applies only publicly held companies; although all companies have been impacted by Sarbanes-Oxley. The law emphasizes the importance of effective internal control. Internal control is defined as the procedures and processes used by a company to: - Safeguard its assets. - Process information accurately. - Ensure compliance with laws and regulations. The Sarbanes Oxley Act requires all financial reports to include an Internal Controls Report. This shows that a company's financial data accurate and adequate controls are in place to safeguard financial data. Year-end financial disclosure reports are also a requirement. A SOX auditor is required to review controls, policies, and procedures during a Section 404 audit. Internal Regulations Internal Control Objectives of Internal Control The objectives of internal control are to provide reasonable assurance that: - Assets are safeguarded and used for business purposes. - Business information is accurate. - Employees and managers comply with laws and regulations. Internal control can safeguard assets by preventing theft, fraud, misuse, or misplacement of funds and inventory. A serious concern of internal control is preventing employee fraud. Employee fraud is the intentional act of deceiving an employer for personal gain. Such fraud may range from minor overstating of a travel expense report to stealing millions of dollars. Employees stealing from a business often adjust the accounting records in order to hide their fraud. Thus, employee fraud usually affects the accuracy of business information. Accurate information is necessary to successfully operate a business. Businesses must also comply with laws, regulations, and financial reporting standards. Examples of such standards include environmental regulations, safety regulations, and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Control Environment Control Environment The control environment is the overall attitude of management and employees about the importance of controls. Three factors influencing a company's control environment are as follows: - Management's philosophy and operating style - The company's organizational structure - The company's personnel policies Management's philosophy and operating style relates to whether management emphasizes the importance of internal controls. An emphasis on controls and adherence to control policies creates an effective control environment. In contrast, overemphasizing operating goals and tolerating deviations from control policies creates an ineffective control environment. All businesses face risks such as changes in customer requirements, competitive threats, regulatory changes, and changes in economic factors. Management should identify such risks, analyze their significance, assess their likelihood of occurring, and take any necessary actions to minimize them. Control Activities Control activities provide reasonable assurance that business goals will be achieved, including the prevention of fraud. Control procedures, which constitute one of the most important elements of internal control, include the following: - Competent personnel, rotating duties, and mandatory vacations - Separating responsibilities for related operations - Separating operations, custody of assets, and accounting Competent Personnel, Rotating Duties, and Mandatory Vacations A successful company needs competent employees who are able to perform the duties that they are assigned. Procedures should be established for properly training and supervising employees. It is also advisable to rotate duties of accounting personnel and mandate vacations for all employees. In this way, employees are encouraged to adhere to procedures. Cases of employee fraud are often discovered when a long-term employee, who never took vacations, missed work because of an illness or another unavoidable reason. Separating Responsibilities for Related Operations The responsibility for related operations should be divided among two or more persons. This decreases the possibility of errors and fraud. Separating Operations, Custody of Assets, and Accounting The responsibilities for operations, custody of assets, and accounting should be separated. In this way, the accounting records serve as an independent check on the operating managers and the employees who have custody of assets. For example, the person that handles cash should not be the same person that record cash transactions into the journals. Proofs and Security Measures Proofs and security measures are used to safeguard assets and ensure reliable accounting data. Proofs involve procedures such as authorization, approval, and reconciliation. For example, an employee planning to travel on company business may be required to complete a “travel request” form for a manager's authorization and approval. - Documents used for authorization and approval should be prenumbered, accounted for, and safeguarded. Prenumbering of documents helps prevent transactions from being recorded more than once or not at all. In addition, accounting for and safeguarding prenumbered documents helps prevent fraudulent transactions from being recorded. For example, blank checks are prenumbered and safeguarded. Once a payment has been properly authorized and approved, the checks are filled out and issued. - Reconciliations are also an important control. Later in this chapter, the use of bank reconciliations as an aid in controlling cash is described and illustrated. - Security measures involve measures to safeguard assets. For example, cash on hand should be kept in a cash register or safe. Inventory not on display should be stored in a locked storeroom or warehouse. Accounting records such as the accounts receivable subsidiary ledger should also be safeguarded to prevent their loss. For example, electronically maintained accounting records should be safeguarded with access codes and backed up so that any lost or damaged files could be recovered if necessary. Monitoring Monitoring the internal control system is used to locate weaknesses and improve controls. Monitoring often includes observing employees' behavior and the accounting system for indicators of control problems. Some such indicators are Warning Signs of Internal Control Problems. Other potential warning signs are: Fraud Tips Tips on Preventing Employee Fraud in Small Companies - Do not have the same employee write company checks and keep the books. Look for payments to vendors you don't know or payments to vendors whose names appear to be misspelled. - If your business has a computer system, restrict access to accounting files as much as possible. Also, keep a backup copy of your accounting files and store it at an off-site location. - Be wary of any employee working in finance that declines to take vacations. They may be afraid that a replacement will uncover fraud. - Require and monitor supporting documentation (such as vendor invoices) before signing checks. - Track the number of credit card bills you sign monthly. - Limit and monitor access to important documents and supplies, such as blank checks and signature stamps. - Check W-2 forms against your payroll annually to make sure you're not carrying any fictitious employees. - Rely on yourself, not on your accountant, to spot fraud. Source: Steve Kaufman, “Embezzlement Common at Small Companies,” Knight-Ridder Newspapers, reported in Athens Daily News/Athens Banner-Herald, March 10, 1996, p. 4D. Cash and Cash Equivalents Cash Most companies use checking accounts to handle their cash transactions. The company deposits its cash receipts in a bank checking account and writes checks to pay its bills. Keep in mind, a bank account is an asset to the company BUT to the bank your account is a liability because the bank owes the money in your bank account to you. For this reason, in your bank account, deposits are credits (remember, liabilities increase with a credit) and checks and other reductions are debits (liabilities decrease with a debit). The bank sends the company a statement each month. The company checks this statement against its records to determine if it must make any corrections or adjustments in either the company’s balance or the bank’s balance. A bank reconciliation is a schedule the company (depositor) prepares to reconcile, or explain, the difference between the cash balance on the bank statement and the cash balance on the company’s books. The company prepares a bank reconciliation to determine its actual cash balance and prepare any entries to correct the cash balance in the ledger. Certificates of Deposit A certificate of deposit (CD) is an interest-bearing deposit that can be withdrawn from a bank at will (demand CD) or at a fixed maturity date (time CD). Only demand CDs that may be withdrawn at any time without prior notice or penalty are included in cash. Cash does not include postage stamps, IOUs, time CDs, or notes receivable. Bank Statment Bank Statement A bank statement is a record of your bank account transactions, typically for one month, prepared by the bank. In the Deposit and credits section, you see the deposits made into the account and a CM which is a collection of a note (see note at bottom of statement) and interest the bank has paid to your account. In the Checks and debits section, you see the individual checks that have been processed by the bank and you also see SC for a bank service charge on your account as well as a NSF (stands for Non Sufficient Funds) and means we made a deposit from a customer but the customer did not have enough money to pay the check (bounced check). A bank statement looks like this: Company's Records Company’s Records The company’s records (or books) refers to the general ledger posting and can be in the form of cash disbursement journal, cash receipt journal, cash general ledger postings or lists of cash transactions. An example of a cash listing is: The bank balance on September 30 is $27,395 but according to our records, the ending cash balance is $24,457. We need to do a bank reconciliation to find out why there is a difference. Bank Reconciliation Bank Reconciliation A bank reconciliation compares the bank statement and our company’s records and reconciles or balances to two account balances. How does it do this? There are several items of information we can get by comparing the bank statement to our records — anything that doesn’t match or doesn’t exist on both places is called a reconciling item. A reconciling item will be added or subtracted to the bank or book side of the reconciliation. The following table will give you some examples of how these reconciling items apply in a bank reconciliation: Bank Reconciliation Information Deposits Compare the deposits listed on the bank statement with the deposits on the company’s books. To make this comparison, place check marks in the bank statement and in the company’s books by the deposits that agree. Then determine the deposits in transit. A deposit in transit is typically a day’s cash receipts recorded in the depositor’s books in one period but recorded as a deposit by the bank in the succeeding period. The most common deposit in transit is the cash receipts deposited on the last business day of the month. Normally, deposits in transit occur only near the end of the period covered by the bank statement. For example, a deposit made in a bank’s night depository on May 31 would be recorded by the company on May 31 and by the bank on June 1. Thus, the deposit does not appear on a bank statement for the month ended May 31. Also check the deposits in transit listed in last month’s bank reconciliation against the bank statement. Immediately investigate any deposit made during the month but missing from the bank statement (unless it involves a deposit made at the end of the period). Paid checks If canceled checks (a company’s checks processed and paid by the bank) are returned with the bank statement, compare them to the statement to be sure both amounts agree. Then, sort the checks in numerical order. Next, determine which checks are outstanding. Outstanding checks are those issued by a depositor but not paid by the bank on which they are drawn. The party receiving the check may not have deposited it immediately. Once deposited, checks may take several days to clear the banking system. Determine the outstanding checks by comparing the check numbers that have cleared the bank with the check numbers issued by the company. Use check marks in the company’s record of checks issued to identify those checks returned by the bank. Checks issued that have not yet been returned by the bank are the outstanding checks. If the bank does not return checks but only lists the cleared checks on the bank statement, determine the outstanding checks by comparing this list with the company’s record of checks issued. Sometimes checks written long ago are still outstanding. Checks outstanding as of the beginning of the month appear on the prior month’s bank reconciliation. Most of these have cleared during the current month; list those that have not cleared as still outstanding on the current month’s reconciliation. Bank debit and credit memos Verify all debit and credit memos on the bank statement. Debit memos reflect deductions for such items as service charges, NSF checks, safe-deposit box rent, and notes paid by the bank for the depositor. Credit memos reflect additions for such items as notes collected for the depositor by the bank and wire transfers of funds from another bank in which the company sends funds to the home office bank. Check the bank debit and credit memos with the depositor’s books to see if they have already been recorded. Make journal entries for any items not already recorded in the company’s books. Bank Errors Sometimes banks make errors by depositing or taking money out of your account in error. You will need to contact the bank to correct these errors but will not record any entries in your records because the bank error is unrelated to your records. Book Errors List any Book errors. A common error by depositors is recording a check in the accounting records at an amount that differs from the actual amount. For example, a $47 check may be recorded as $74. Although the check clears the bank at the amount written on the check ($47), the depositor frequently does not catch the error until reviewing the bank statement or canceled checks. Deposits in transit, outstanding checks, and bank service charges usually account for the difference between the company’s Cash account balance and the bank balance. Bank Reconciliation Expample After comparing the bank statement and records of My Company, you should have identified the following reconciling items: - Deposit in transit dated 9/30 for $6,700. - Outstanding checks #2004, 2008, 2009, 2012. - Interest paid by the bank $3. - Note collected by bank $3500 less $500 fee - Bank service charge $5 - Customer NSF $350 - Error in Check #2005 correctly processed by bank as $5,843 but recorded in our records as $5,483. This is a difference of $360 (5,843 – 5,483) and since we did not take enough cash we need to reduce cash by $360. Using the chart provided above and the reconciling items, the bank reconciliation would appear as follows: When the bank and book are in agreement, you are almost finished. On the bank side of the reconciliation, you do not need to do anything else except contact the bank if you notice any bank errors. On the book side, you will need to do journal entries for each of the reconciling items. Adjusting Entries for Book side Reconciling Items The ending cash balance on the general ledger is reconciled to the adjusted bank statement balance. When a company maintains more than one checking account, it must reconcile each account separately with the balance on the bank statement for that account. The depositor should also check carefully to see that the bank did not combine the transactions of the two accounts. Within the internal control structure, segregation of duties is an important way to prevent fraud. One place to segregate duties is between the cash disbursement cycle and bank reconciliations. To prevent collusion among employees, the person who reconciles the bank account should not be involved in the cash disbursement cycle. Also, the bank should mail the statement directly to the person who reconciles the bank account each month. Sending the statement directly limits the number of employees who would have an opportunity to tamper with the statement. Chapter 7: Long-term Assets In this section, we will look at the accounting treatment for plant assets, natural resources and intangible assets. Investments will be covered in other chapters. Property, plant, and equipment (fixed assets or operating assets) compose more than one-half of total assets in many corporations. These resources are necessary for the companies to operate and ultimately make a profit. It is the efficient use of these resources that in many cases determines the amount of profit corporations will earn. - Define, classify, and account for the cost of fixed assets. - Compute depreciation using the straight-line and double-declining-balance methods. - Describe the accounting for the disposal of fixed assets. - Describe the accounting for natural resources. - Describe the accounting for intangible assets. - Describe the reporting of fixed assets, natural resources, and intangible assets on the income statement and balance sheet. Long-term Assets Section of the Balance Sheet On a classified balance sheet, the asset section contains: (1) current assets; (2) property, plant, and equipment; and (3) other categories such as intangible assets and long-term investments. Previous chapters discussed current assets. Property, plant, and equipment are often called plant and equipment or simply plant assets. Plant assets are long-lived assets because they are expected to last for more than one year. Long-lived assets consist of tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets have physical characteristics that we can see and touch; they include plant assets such as buildings and furniture, and natural resources such as gas and oil. Intangible assets have no physical characteristics that we can see and touch but represent exclusive privileges and rights to their owners. Plant Assets Plant Assets To be classified as a plant asset, an asset must: - (1) be tangible, that is, capable of being seen and touched; - (2) have a useful service life of more than one year; - and (3) be used in business operations rather than held for resale. Common plant assets are buildings, machines, tools, and office equipment. On the balance sheet, these assets appear under the heading “Property, plant, and equipment”. Property, plant, and equipment (fixed assets or operating assets) compose more than one-half of total assets in many corporations. These resources are necessary for the companies to operate and ultimately make a profit. It is the efficient use of these resources that in many cases determines the amount of profit corporations will earn. Initial recording of plant assets When a company acquires a plant asset, accountants record the asset at the cost of acquisition (historical cost). When a plant asset is purchased for cash, its acquisition cost is simply the agreed on cash price. This cost is objective, verifiable, and the best measure of an asset’s fair market value at the time of purchase. Fair market value is the price received for an item sold in the normal course of business (not at a forced liquidation sale). Even if the market value of the asset changes over time, accountants continue to report the acquisition cost in the asset account in subsequent periods. The acquisition cost of a plant asset is the amount of cost incurred to acquire and place the asset in operating condition at its proper location. Cost includes all normal, reasonable, and necessary expenditures to obtain the asset and get it ready for use. Acquisition cost also includes the repair and reconditioning costs for used or damaged assets as longs as the item was not damaged after purchase. Unnecessary costs (such as traffic tickets or fines or repairs that occurred after purchase) that must be paid as a result of hauling machinery to a new plant are not part of the acquisition cost of the asset. Purchasing Land Land The cost of land includes its purchase price and other many other costs including: - real estate commissions, - title search and title transfer fees, - title insurance premiums, - existing mortgage note or unpaid taxes (back taxes) assumed by the purchaser, - costs of surveying, clearing, and grading; - and local assessments for sidewalks, streets, sewers, and water mains. - Sometimes land purchased as a building site contains an unusable building that must be removed. The accountant the entire costs to Land, including the cost of removing the building less any cash received from the sale of salvaged items while the land is being readied for use. Land is considered to have an unlimited life and is therefore not depreciable. However, land improvements, including driveways, temporary landscaping, parking lots, fences, lighting systems, and sprinkler systems, are attachments to the land. They have limited lives and therefore are depreciable. Owners record depreciable land improvements in a separate account called Land Improvements. They record the cost of permanent landscaping, including leveling and grading, in the Land account. Buildings Recording a purchase of a Building When a business buys a building, its cost includes: - the purchase price, - repair and remodeling costs, - unpaid taxes assumed by the purchaser, - legal costs, - and real estate commissions paid. Determining the cost of constructing a new building is often more difficult. Usually this cost includes architect’s fees; building permits; payments to contractors; and the cost of digging the foundation. Also included are labor and materials to build the building; salaries of officers supervising the construction; and insurance, taxes, and interest during the construction period. Any miscellaneous amounts earned from the building during construction reduce the cost of the building. For example, an owner who could rent out a small completed portion during construction of the remainder of the building, would credit the rental proceeds to the Buildings account rather than to a revenue account. Recording Equipment or Machinery Often companies purchase machinery or other equipment such as delivery or office equipment. Its cost includes: - the seller’s net invoice price (whether the discount is taken or not), - transportation charges incurred, - insurance in transit, - cost of installation, - costs of accessories, - and testing costs. - Also included are other costs needed to put the machine or equipment in operating condition in its intended location. The cost of machinery does not include removing and disposing of a replaced, old machine that has been used in operations. Such costs are part of the gain or loss on disposal of the old machine. Lum Sum Purchases Lump Sum Purchases Sometimes a company buys land and other assets for a lump sum. When land and buildings purchased together are to be used, the firm divides the total cost and establishes separate ledger accounts for land and for buildings. This division of cost establishes the proper balances in the appropriate accounts. This is especially important later because the depreciation recorded on the buildings affects reported income, while no depreciation is taken on the land. Disposal of Assets The definition of depreciation is the rational and systematic allocation of the cost of an asset over its useful life. Depreciation is the amount of plant asset cost allocated to each accounting period benefiting from the plant asset’s use. Depreciation is a process of allocation, not valuation. Eventually, all assets except land wear out or become so inadequate or outmoded that they are sold or discarded; therefore, firms must record depreciation on every plant asset except land. They record depreciation even when the market value of a plant asset temporarily rises above its original cost because eventually the asset is no longer useful to its current owner. To compute the amount of depreciation expense, accountants consider four major factors: - Cost of the asset. - Estimated salvage value of the asset. Salvage value (or residual value) is the amount of money the company expects to recover, less disposal costs, on the date a plant asset is scrapped, sold, or traded in. - Estimated useful life of the asset. Useful life refers to the time the business owning the asset intends to use it; useful life is not necessarily the same as either economic life or physical life. The economic life of a car may be 7 years and its physical life may be 10 years, but if a business has a policy of trading cars every 3 years, the useful life for depreciation purposes is 3 years. Useful life can be expressed in years, months, working hours, or units of production. Obsolescence also affects useful life. For example, a machine capable of producing units for 20 years, may be expected to be obsolete in 6 years. Thus, its estimated useful life is 6 years—not 20. Another example, you may have seen a demolition crew setting off explosives in a huge building and wonder why the owners decided to destroy what looked like a perfectly good building. The building was destroyed because it had reached the end of its economic life. The land on which the building stood could be put to better use, possibly by constructing a new building. - Depreciation method used in depreciating the asset. We describe the three common depreciation methods next. Methods of Depreciation Straight-line method: Straight-line depreciation has been the most widely used depreciation method in the United States for many years because, as you saw in Chapter 3, it is easily applied. To apply the straight-line method, a business expenses an equal amount of plant asset cost to each accounting period. - The formula for calculating depreciation under the straight-line method is: Depreciation Expense = ( Cost – Salvage value ) / Useful Life Using the straight-line method for assets is appropriate where (1) time rather than obsolescence is the major factor limiting the asset’s life and (2) the asset produces relatively constant amounts of periodic services. Assets that possess these features include items such as pipelines, fencing, and storage tanks. Units-of-production (output) Method: The units-of-production or units of activity depreciation method assigns an equal amount of depreciation to each unit of product manufactured or service rendered by an asset. Since this method of depreciation is based on physical output, it is applied in situations where usage rather than obsolescence leads to decreasing of the asset. Under this method, you would compute the depreciation rate per unit of output. Then, multiply this figure by the number of units of goods or services produced during the accounting period to find the period’s depreciation expense. The units of production method requires a 2-step process: - Step 1: Calculate Depreciation Rate per Unit: Depreciation Rate per unit = ( Cost – Salvage) / expected number of units - Step 2: Calculate Depreciation Expense: Depreciation Expense = Number of units produced for the period x Depreciation Rate per unit. Double-declining-balance method: to apply the double-declining-balance (DDB) method of computing periodic depreciation charges you begin by calculating the straight-line depreciation rate. To do this, divide 100 per cent by the number of years of useful life of the asset. Then, multiply this rate by 2. Next, apply the resulting double-declining rate to the declining book value of the asset. Ignore salvage value in making the calculations. At the point where book value is equal to the salvage value, no more depreciation is taken. The double declining balance method requires a 3-step process: - Step 1: Calculate the Straight line (S/L) rate S/L rate = 1 / useful life in years - Step 2: Calculate the double declining (DD) rate DD rate = 2 x S/L rate calculated in Step 1 - Step 3: Calculate Depreciation Expense Depreciation Expense = Beginning Book Value x DD rate Remember, book value is calculated as Asset Cost – Accumulated Depreciation. Sale of Assets Companies frequently dispose of plant assets by selling them. By comparing an asset’s book value (cost less accumulated depreciation) with its selling price (or net amount realized if there are selling expenses), the company may show either a gain or loss. If the sales price is greater than the asset’s book value, the company shows a gain. If the sales price is less than the asset’s book value, the company shows a loss. Of course, when the sales price equals the asset’s book value, no gain or loss occurs. Accounting for depreciation to date of disposal: When selling or otherwise disposing of a plant asset, a firm must record the depreciation up to the date of sale or disposal. For example, if it sold an asset on April 1 and last recorded depreciation on December 31, the company should record depreciation for three months (January 1-April 1). When depreciation is not recorded for the three months, operating expenses for that period are understated, and the gain on the sale of the asset is understated or the loss overstated. When retiring a plant asset from service, a company removes the asset’s cost and accumulated depreciation from its plant asset accounts. Occasionally, a company continues to use a plant asset after it has been fully depreciated. In such a case, the firm should not remove the asset’s cost and accumulated depreciation from the accounts until the asset is sold, traded, or retired from service. Of course, the company cannot record more depreciation on a fully depreciated asset because total depreciation expense taken on an asset may not exceed its cost. Sometimes a business retires or discards a plant asset before fully depreciating it. When selling the asset as scrap (even if not immediately), the firm removes its cost and accumulated depreciation from the asset and accumulated depreciation accounts. In addition, the accountant records its estimated salvage value in a Salvaged Materials account and recognizes a gain or loss on disposal. Other Losses Sometimes accidents, fires, floods, and storms wreck or destroy plant assets, causing companies to incur losses. We call these types of losses we call them "unusual" because we are estimating they will only occur once. Disposal of Assets All plant assets except land eventually wear out or become inadequate or obsolete and must be sold, retired, or traded for new assets. When disposing of a plant asset, a company must remove both the asset’s cost and accumulated depreciation from the accounts. Overall, then, all plant asset disposals have the following steps in common: - Bring the asset’s depreciation up to date. - Record the disposal by: - Writing off the asset’s cost. - Writing off the accumulated depreciation. - Recording any consideration (usually cash) received or paid or to be received or paid. - Recording the gain or loss, if any. As you study this section, remember these common procedures accountants use to record the disposal of plant assets. In the paragraphs that follow, we discuss accounting for the (1) sale of plant assets, (2) retirement of plant assets without sale (write it off) , and (3) trading plant assets. Natural Rescources Resources supplied by nature, such as ore deposits, mineral deposits, oil reserves, gas deposits, and timber stands, are natural resources or wasting assets. Natural resources represent inventories of raw materials that can be consumed (exhausted) through extraction or removal from their natural setting (e.g. removing oil from the ground). Intangible assets Although they have no physical characteristics, intangible assets have value because of the advantages or exclusive privileges and rights they provide to a business. Intangible assets generally arise from two sources: (1) exclusive privileges granted by governmental authority or by legal contract, such as patents, copyrights, franchises, trademarks and trade names, and leases; and (2) superior entrepreneurial capacity or management know-how and customer loyalty, which is called goodwill. All intangible assets are nonphysical, but not all nonphysical assets are intangibles. For example, accounts receivable and prepaid expenses are nonphysical, yet classified as current assets rather than intangible assets. Intangible assets are generally both nonphysical and noncurrent; they appear in a separate long-term section of the balance sheet entitled “Intangible assets”. Examples of intangible assets include: - Research and development (R&D) - Amortization - A patent - A copyright - A franchise - A trademark - A lease - A leasehold improvement - Goodwill Initially, firms record intangible assets at cost like most other assets. However, computing an intangible asset’s acquisition cost differs from computing a plant asset’s acquisition cost. Firms may include only outright purchase costs in the acquisition cost of an intangible asset; the acquisition cost does not include cost of internal development or self-creation of the asset. If an intangible asset is internally generated in its entirety, none of its costs are capitalized. Therefore, some companies have extremely valuable assets that may not even be recorded in their asset accounts. Amortization is the systematic write-off of the cost of an intangible asset to expense. A portion of an intangible asset’s cost is allocated to each accounting period in the economic (useful) life of the asset. All intangible assets are not subject to amortization. Only recognized intangible assets with finite useful lives are amortized. The finite useful life of such an asset is considered to be the length of time it is expected to contribute to the cash flows of the reporting entity. (Pertinent factors that should be considered in estimating useful life include legal, regulatory, or contractual provisions that may limit the useful life). The method of amortization should be based upon the pattern in which the economic benefits are used up or consumed. If no pattern is apparent, the straight-line method of amortization should be used by the reporting entity. Recognized intangible assets deemed to have indefinite useful lives are not to be amortized. Amortization will however begin when it is determined that the useful life is no longer indefinite. The method of amortization would follow the same rules as intangible assets with finite useful lives. Straight-line amortization is calculated the same was as straight-line depreciation for plant assets. Generally, we record amortization by debiting Amortization Expense and crediting the intangible asset account. An accumulated amortization account could be used to record amortization. However, the information gained from such accounting would not be significant because normally intangibles do not account for as many total asset dollars as do plant assets. A copyright is an exclusive right granted by the federal government giving protection against the illegal reproduction by others of the creator’s written works, designs, and literary productions. The finite useful life for a copyright extends to the life of the creator plus 50 years. Most publications have a limited (finite) life; a creator may amortize the cost of the copyright to expense on a straight-line basis or based upon the pattern in which the economic benefits are used up or consumed. A franchise is a contract between two parties granting the franchisee (the purchaser of the franchise) certain rights and privileges ranging from name identification to complete monopoly of service. In many instances, both parties are private businesses. For example, an individual who wishes to open a hamburger restaurant may purchase a McDonald’s franchise; the two parties involved are the individual business owner and McDonald’s Corporation. This franchise would allow the business owner to use the McDonald’s name and golden arch, and would provide the owner with advertising and many other benefits. The legal life of a franchise may be limited by contract. The parties involved in a franchise arrangement are not always private businesses. A government agency may grant a franchise to a private company. A city may give a franchise to a utility company, giving the utility company the exclusive right to provide service to a particular area. In addition to providing benefits, a franchise usually places certain restrictions on the franchisee. These restrictions generally are related to rates or prices charged; also they may be in regard to product quality or to the particular supplier from whom supplies and inventory items must be purchased. If periodic payments to the grantor of the franchise are required, the franchisee charges them to a Franchise Expense account. If a lump-sum payment is made to obtain the franchise, the franchisee records the cost in an asset account entitled Franchise and amortizes it over the finite useful life of the asset. The legal life (if limited by contract) and the economic life of the franchise may limit the finite useful life A trademark is a symbol, design, or logo used in conjunction with a particular product or company. A trade name is a brand name under which a product is sold or a company does business. Often trademarks and trade names are extremely valuable to a company, but if they have been internally developed, they have no recorded asset cost. However, when a business purchases such items from an external source, it records them at cost and amortizes them over their finite useful life. A lease is a contract to rent property. The property owner is the grantor of the lease and is the lessor. The person or company obtaining rights to possess and use the property is the lessee. The rights granted under the lease are a leasehold. The accounting for a lease depends on whether it is a capital lease or an operating lease. The proper accounting for capital leases for both lessees and lessors has been an extremely difficult problem. We leave further discussion of capital leases for an intermediate accounting text. In accounting, goodwill is an intangible value attached to a company resulting mainly from the company’s management skill or know-how and a favorable reputation with customers. A company’s value may be greater than the total of the fair market value of its tangible and identifiable intangible assets. This greater value means that the company generates an above-average income on each dollar invested in the business. Thus, proof of a company’s goodwill is its ability to generate superior earnings or income. A goodwill account appears in the accounting records only if goodwill has been purchased. A company cannot purchase goodwill by itself; it must buy an entire business or a part of a business to obtain the accompanying intangible asset, goodwill. Specific reasons for a company’s goodwill include a good reputation, customer loyalty, superior product design, unrecorded intangible assets (because they were developed internally), and superior human resources. Since these positive factors are not individually quantifiable, when grouped together they constitute goodwill. The intangible asset goodwill is not amortized. Goodwill is to be tested periodically for impairment. The amount of any goodwill impairment loss is to be recognized in the income statement as a separate line before the subtotal income from continuing operations (or similar caption). The goodwill account would be reduced by the same amount. Chapter 8: Liabilities By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the accounting for payrolls, short-term financing devices, and other current liabilities. - Describe the occurrence and accounting for typical current liabilities. - Record the effects on financial statements related to notes payable. - Define contingent liabilities and discern when these should be recorded in the accounts, and when footnote disclosure is appropriate. - Record transactions related to product warranties. - Record the effects on financial statement related to accrue salaries. Current Liabilites Liabilities result from some past transaction and are obligations to pay cash, provide services, or deliver goods at some future time. This definition includes each of the liabilities discussed in previous chapters and the new liabilities presented in this chapter. The balance sheet divides liabilities into current liabilities and long-term liabilities. Current liabilities are obligations that (1) are payable within one year or one operating cycle, whichever is longer, or (2) will be paid out of current assets or create other current liabilities. Long-term liabilities are obligations that do not qualify as current liabilities. In this section, we describe liabilities not previously discussed that are clearly determinable—sales tax payable, federal excise tax payable, and current portions of long-term debt. Warranties, notes payable and payroll liabilities will be examined later. Sales Tax Payable Many states have a state sales tax on items purchased by consumers. The company selling the product is responsible for collecting the sales tax from customers. When the company collects the taxes, Cash, Sales and Sales Tax Payable are all increased. Periodically, the company pays the sales taxes collected to the state. At that time, Sales Tax Payable and Cash is decreased. Current portions of long-term debt Accountants move any portion of long-term debt that becomes due within the next year to the current liability section of the balance sheet. Notes Payable Notes Payable Transactions Remember, with Notes Receivable we learned we need to know 3 things about a note: - Principal (the amount of money we borrowed) - Interest Rate (typically an annual interest rate) - Maturity term (or frequency of the year — how many days or months for the note) In Notes Receivable, we were the ones providing funds that we would receive at maturity. Now, we are going to borrow money that we must pay back later so we will have Notes Payable. Interest is still calculated as Principal x Interest x Time of the year (use 360 days as the base if note term is days or 12 months as the base if note term is in months). Interest-bearing notes: To receive short-term financing, a company may issue an interest-bearing note to a bank. An interest-bearing note specifies the interest rate charged on the principal borrowed. The company receives from the bank the principal borrowed; when the note matures, the company pays the bank the principal plus the interest which is called the maturity value. Payroll Accounting: Employee Deductions Payroll Accounting Defined If you haven’t already, at some point you will most likely receive a paycheck. The first time you do, you will be disappointed. You will want to know who took all your money! But not to worry, this section and the next will explain where it all goes. What is included in an employee’s paycheck? - Gross Pay: This is the amount of money you are promised either hourly, weekly or annually. - Federal Income Tax Withheld (also referred to as FIT): You will fill out a document called a W-4 when you are hired. This document allows you to claim allowances and a federal filing status for tax purposes. These options along with your gross pay are used to calculate your federal tax withheld. This will reduce your gross pay. - State Income Tax Withheld (also referred to as SIT): A different form than the W-4 but the same concept except it applies to the state. Not all states have a state income tax. This will reduce your gross pay. - FICA Social Security Tax (also referred to as OASDI): This tax helps fund social security and is calculated as gross pay x 6.2% unless you make OVER $118,500 in 2015 then you are only responsible to pay 6.2% of $118,500 and nothing more. This will reduce your gross pay. - FICA Medicare Tax (also referred to as HI): This tax helps fund medicare and is calculated as gross pay x 1.45%. Everyone must pay the 1.45% of gross pay without limit. This will reduce your gross pay. - Voluntary Deductions: Any deductions you authorize will also reduce your gross pay. This includes things like medical premiums, 401K and savings accounts, charity donations, etc. - Net Pay: Finally! This is the amount you will receive after all taxes and voluntary deductions have been taken out. Wait — this section is on current liabilities so how do they fit in? Your employer will take money out of your paycheck for the items listed above and combine them with other employee amounts to send one big check to the government or business (for voluntary deductions). When you are paid, the company records liabilities for the amounts taken out of your paycheck. Payroll Accounting: Employer Deductions Don’t think employers are getting off easy! There is a cost (more than gross pay) for having employees. The employer must pay the following on every dollar an employee earns: - FICA Social Security Tax: This tax helps fund social security and is calculated as gross pay x 6.2% unless an employee makes OVER $118,500 in 2015 then you are only responsible to pay 6.2% of $118,500 and nothing more for that employee. - FICA Medicare Tax: This tax helps fund medicare and is calculated as gross pay x 1.45%. Everyone must pay the 1.45% of gross pay without limit. - Federal Unemployment Tax (FUTA): This tax is for unemployment claims and is typically calculated as 0.8% of the first $7,000 of an employee’s earnings. Once the employee has earned more than $7,000 in gross pay for the year, the company no longer has to pay FUTA tax. - State Unemployment Tax (SUTA): This tax is for the state unemployment and does not have a consistent rate. The rate is provided by the state annually and can change each year by business. - Voluntary Deductions Matching: Any matching funds the company provides for insurance or retirement plans. Contingent Liabilities Contingencies Some liabilities may arise from past transactions if certain events occur in the future. These potential liabilities are called contingent liabilities. The accounting for contingent liabilities depends on the following two factors: - Likelihood of occurring - The likelihood of occurring is classified as probable, reasonably possible, or remote. The ability to measure the potential liability is classified as estimable or not estimable. - Measurement—It is reasonable estimable or not. - Probable means that the future even is likely to occur. Reasonable possible means the chances of the future event occurring is more than remote but less than likely. Remote means the chance of the future event occurring is slight. Examples of Contingent Liabilities: - Income Tax Disputes - Pending or threats from litigation - Warranties Probable and Estimable If a contingent liability is probable and the amount of the liability can be reasonably estimated, it is recorded and disclosed. The liability is recorded by increasing an expense and a liability. Product Warranties Estimated product warranty payable: When companies sell products such as computers, often they must guarantee against defects by placing a warranty on their products. When defects occur, the company is obligated to reimburse the customer or repair the product. For many products, companies can predict the number of defects based on experience. To provide for a proper matching of revenues and expenses, the accountant estimates the warranty expense resulting from an accounting period’s sales which will be used as a reserve to pull actual warranty expenses from at a later date. The increase is to Warranty Expense and the increase to Estimated Warranty Payable (or Liability). Bonds Payable Bonds payable Corporations finance that operation by using the following sources: - Getting a loan from the bank with either short-term or long-term debt. - Selling common or preferred stock - Selling Bonds In this portion of the chapter we will discuss the topic of selling bonds. A bond is a long-term debt, or liability, owed by its issuer. Physical evidence of the debt lies in a negotiable bond certificate. In contrast to long-term notes, which usually mature in 10 years or less, bond maturities often run for 20 years or more. A bond is an interest bearing document and requires periodic interest payment with the face amount paid at the maturity date. The goal is to calculate the interest to be paid; the maturity date; and the maturity value. Generally, a bond issue consists of a large number of $1,000 bonds rather than one large bond. For example, a company seeking to borrow $100,000 would issue one hundred $1,000 bonds rather than one $100,000 bond. This practice enables investors with less cash to invest to purchase some of the bonds. Bonds derive their value primarily from two promises made by the borrower to the lender or bondholder. The borrower promises to pay (1) the face value or principal amount of the bond on a specific maturity date in the future and (2) periodic interest at a specified rate on face value at stated dates, usually semiannually, until the maturity date. Selling (issuing) bonds A company seeking to borrow millions of dollars generally is not able to borrow from a single lender. By selling (issuing) bonds to the public, the company secures the necessary funds. Usually companies sell their bond issues through an investment company or a banker called an underwriter. The underwriter performs many tasks for the bond issuer, such as advertising, selling, and delivering the bonds to the purchasers. Often the underwriter guarantees the issuer a fixed price for the bonds, expecting to earn a profit by selling the bonds for more than the fixed price. When a company sells bonds to the public, many purchasers buy the bonds. Rather than deal with each purchaser individually, the issuing company appoints a trustee to represent the bondholders. The trustee usually is a bank or trust company. The main duty of the trustee is to see that the borrower fulfills the provisions of the bond indenture. A bond indenture is the contract or loan agreement under which the bonds are issued. The indenture deals with matters such as the interest rate, maturity date and maturity amount, possible restrictions on dividends, repayment plans, and other provisions relating to the debt. An issuing company that does not adhere to the bond indenture provisions is in default. Then, the trustee takes action to force the issuer to comply with the indenture. Bonds may differ in some respects; they may be secured or unsecured bonds, registered or unregistered (bearer) bonds, and term or serial bonds. Next, we will discuss these different type of bonds. Certain bond features are matters of legal necessity, such as how a company pays interest and transfers ownership. Such features usually do not affect the issue price of the bonds. Other features, such as convertibility into common stock, are sweeteners designed to make the bonds more attractive to potential purchasers. These sweeteners may increase the issue price of a bond. - Secured bonds: A secured bond is a bond for which a company has pledged specific property to ensure its payment. Mortgage bonds are the most common secured bonds. A mortgage is a legal claim (lien) on specific property that gives the bondholder the right to possess the pledged property if the company fails to make required payments. - Unsecured bonds: An unsecured bond is a debenture bond, or simply a debenture. A debenture is an unsecured bond backed only by the general creditworthiness of the issuer, not by a lien on any specific property. A financially sound company can issue debentures more easily than a company experiencing financial difficulty. - Registered bonds: A registered bond is a bond with the owner’s name on the bond certificate and in the register of bond owners kept by the bond issuer or its agent, the registrar. Bonds may be registered as to principal (or face value of the bond) or as to both principal and interest. Most bonds in our economy are registered as to principal only. For a bond registered as to both principal and interest, the issuer pays the bond interest by check. To transfer ownership of registered bonds, the owner endorses the bond and registers it in the new owner’s name. Therefore, owners can easily replace lost or stolen registered bonds. - Unregistered (bearer) bonds: An unregistered (bearer) bond is the property of its holder or bearer because the owner’s name does not appear on the bond certificate or in a separate record. Physical delivery of the bond transfers ownership. - Coupon bonds: A coupon bond is a bond not registered as to interest. Coupon bonds carry detachable coupons for the interest they pay. At the end of each interest period, the owner clips the coupon for the period and presents it to a stated party, usually a bank, for collection. - Term bonds and serial bonds: A term bond matures on the same date as all other bonds in a given bond issue. Serial bonds in a given bond issue have maturities spread over several dates. For instance, one-fourth of the bonds may mature on 2011 December 31, another one-fourth on 2012 December 31, and so on. - Callable bonds: A callable bond contains a provision that gives the issuer the right to call (buy back) the bond before its maturity date. The provision is similar to the call provision of some preferred stocks. A company is likely to exercise this call right when its outstanding bonds bear interest at a much higher rate than the company would have to pay if it issued new but similar bonds. The exercise of the call provision normally requires the company to pay the bondholder a call premium of about $30 to $70 per $1,000 bond. A call premium is the price paid in excess of face value that the issuer of bonds must pay to redeem (call) bonds before their maturity date. - Convertible bonds: A convertible bond is a bond that may be exchanged for shares of stock of the issuing corporation at the bondholder’s option. A convertible bond has a stipulated conversion rate of some number of shares for each $1,000 bond. Although any type of bond may be convertible, issuers add this feature to make risky debenture bonds more attractive to investors. - Bonds with stock warrants: A stock warrant allows the bondholder to purchase shares of common stock at a fixed price for a stated period. Warrants issued with long-term debt may be nondetachable or detachable. A bond with nondetachable warrants is virtually the same as a convertible bond; the holder must surrender the bond to acquire the common stock. Detachable warrants allow bondholders to keep their bonds and still purchase shares of stock through exercise of the warrants. - Junk bonds Junk bonds are high-interest rate, high-risk bonds. Many junk bonds issued in the 1980s financed corporate restructurings. These restructurings took the form of management buyouts (called leveraged buyouts or LBOs), hostile takeovers of companies by outside parties, or friendly takeovers of companies by outside parties. In the early 1990s, junk bonds lost favor because many issuers defaulted on their interest payments. Some issuers declared bankruptcy or sought relief from the bondholders by negotiating new debt terms. Several advantages come from raising cash by issuing bonds rather than stock. First, the current stockholders do not have to dilute or surrender their control of the company when funds are obtained by borrowing rather than issuing more shares of stock. Second, it may be less expensive to issue debt rather than additional stock because the interest payments made to bondholders are tax deductible while dividends are not. Finally, probably the most important reason to issue bonds is that the use of debt may increase the earnings of stockholders through favorable financial leverage. Bond Price and Interest Rates The price of a bond issue often differs from its face value. The amount a bond sells for above face value is a premium. The amount a bond sells for below face value is a discount. A difference between face value and issue price exists whenever the market rate of interest for similar bonds differs from the contract rate of interest on the bonds. The effective interest rate (also called the yield) is the minimum rate of interest that investors accept on bonds of a particular risk category. The higher the risk category, the higher the minimum rate of interest that investors accept. The contract rate of interest is also called the stated, coupon, or nominal rate is the rate used to pay interest. Firms state this rate in the bond indenture, print it on the face of each bond, and use it to determine the amount of cash paid each interest period. The market rate fluctuates from day to day, responding to factors such as the interest rate the Federal Reserve Board charges banks to borrow from it; government actions to finance the national debt; and the supply of, and demand for, money. Market and contract rates of interest are likely to differ. Issuers must set the contract rate before the bonds are actually sold to allow time for such activities as printing the bonds. Assume, for instance, that the contract rate for a bond issue is set at 12%. If the market rate is equal to the contract rate, the bonds will sell at their face value. However, by the time the bonds are sold, the market rate could be higher or lower than the contract rate. As shown above, if the market rate is lower than the contract rate, the bonds will sell for more than their face value. Thus, if the market rate is 10% and the contract rate is 12%, the bonds will sell at a premium as the result of investors bidding up their price. However, if the market rate is higher than the contract rate, the bonds will sell for less than their face value. Thus, if the market rate is 14% and the contract rate is 12%, the bonds will sell at a discount. Investors are not interested in bonds bearing a contract rate less than the market rate unless the price is reduced. Selling bonds at a premium or a discount allows the purchasers of the bonds to earn the market rate of interest on their investment. Computing long-term bond prices involves finding present values using compound interest. Buyers and sellers negotiate a price that yields the going rate of interest for bonds of a particular risk class. The price investors pay for a given bond issue is equal to the present value of the bonds. Issuers usually quote bond prices as percentages of face value—100 means 100% of face value, 97 means a discounted price of 97% of face value, and 103 means a premium price of 103% of face value. For example, one hundred $1,000 face value bonds issued at 103 have a price of $103,000 (100 bonds x $1,000 each x 103%). Regardless of the issue price, at maturity the issuer of the bonds must pay the investor(s) the face value (or principal amount) of the bonds. Financial Statement Effects on Issuance of Bonds When a company issues bonds, it incurs a long-term liability on which periodic interest payments must be made, usually twice a year. If an interest date fall on other than balance sheet dates, the company must accrue interest in the proper periods. It would be nice if bonds were always issued at the par or face value of the bonds. But, certain circumstances prevent the bond from being issued at the face amount. We may be forced to issue the bond at a discount or premium. Chapter 9: Corporations, Partnerships, and LLCs By the end of this section, you will be able to: - The students should be able to develop the accounting for stockholders’ equity, earnings, and dividends. - Explain “retained earnings.” - Financial Statements effect from Cash and Stock Dividends. - Define dividends between preferred and common stockholders. - Explain the effect of stock dividends and stock splits on the stockholders’ equity section of the balance sheet. Partnerships Partnerships are another form of a business entity; it is an association of two or more Characteristics are: - Moderately complex to form. If you're wanting to form a Partnership, it is best to consult with a lawyer and a CPA. - ALL partners are personally responsible for any debt created by any of the partners. - Limited life; if a partner dies or retires, the relationship will cease to exist. This will be true is a new partner is added the the relaionship. - All invested property becomes joint property to all the partners. - Net profits and losses will be split up between the owners based on the partnership agreement. Limited Liability Company One of the most popular small business formations is a Limited Liability Company; the benefits are the limited liability to its owners. Corporations A corporation is an entity recognized by law as possessing an existence separate and distinct from its owners; that is, it is a separate legal entity. Endowed with many of the rights and obligations possessed by a person, a corporation can enter into contracts in its own name; buy, sell, or hold property; borrow money; hire and fire employees; and sue and be sued. Let’s look at a video to learn about the difference in partnerships and corporations. Corporations have a remarkable ability to obtain the huge amounts of capital necessary for large-scale business operations. Corporations acquire their capital by issuing shares of stock; these are the units into which corporations divide their ownership. Investors buy shares of stock in a corporation for two basic reasons. First, investors expect the value of their shares to increase over time so that the stock may be sold in the future at a profit. Second, while investors hold stock, they expect the corporation to pay them dividends (usually in cash) in return for using their money. Advantages and Disadvantages of a Corporation Corporations have many advantages over sole proprietorships and partnerships. The major advantages a corporation has over a sole proprietorship are the same advantages a partnership has over a sole proprietorship. Although corporations may have more owners than partnerships, both have a broader base for investment, risk, responsibilities, and talent than do sole proprietorships. Since corporations are more comparable to partnerships than to sole proprietorships, the following discussion of advantages contrasts the partnership with the corporation. Advantages - Easy transfer of ownership. In a partnership, a partner cannot transfer ownership in the business to another person if the other partners do not want the new person involved in the partnership. In a publicly held (owned by many stockholders) corporation, shares of stock are traded on a stock exchange between unknown parties; one owner usually cannot dictate to whom another owner can or cannot sell shares. - Limited liability. Each partner in a partnership is personally responsible for all the debts of the business. In a corporation, the stockholders are not personally responsible for its debts; the maximum amount a stockholder can lose is the amount of his or her investment. - Continuous existence of the entity. In a partnership, many circumstances, such as the death of a partner, can terminate the business entity. These same circumstances have no effect on a corporation because it is a legal entity, separate and distinct from its owners. - Easy capital generation. The easy transfer of ownership and the limited liability of stockholders are attractive features to potential investors. Thus, it is relatively easy for a corporation to raise capital by issuing shares of stock to many investors. Corporations with thousands of stockholders are not uncommon. - Professional management. Generally, the partners in a partnership are also the managers of that business, regardless of whether they have the necessary expertise to manage a business. In a publicly held corporation, most of the owners (stockholders) do not participate in the day-to-day operations and management of the entity. They hire professionals to run the business on a daily basis. - Separation of owners and entity (no mutual agency). Since the corporation is a separate legal entity, the owners do not have the power to bind the corporation to business contracts. This feature eliminates the potential problem of mutual agency that exists between partners in a partnership. In a corporation, one stockholder cannot jeopardize other stockholders through poor decision making. Disadvantages The corporate form of business has the following disadvantages: - Double taxation. Because a corporation is a separate legal entity, its net income is subject to double taxation. The corporation pays a tax on its income, and stockholders pay a tax on corporate income received as dividends. - Government regulation. Because corporations are created by law, they are subject to greater regulation and control than single proprietorships and partnerships. Forming a Corporation Corporations are chartered by the state. Each state has a corporation act that permits the formation of corporations by qualified persons. Incorporators are persons seeking to bring a corporation into existence. Most state corporation laws require a minimum of three incorporators, each of whom must be of legal age, and a majority of whom must be citizens of the United States. The laws of each state view a corporation organized in that state as a domestic corporation and a corporation organized in any other state as a foreign corporation. If a corporation intends to conduct business solely within one state, it normally seeks incorporation in that state because most state laws are not as severe for domestic corporations as for foreign corporations. Corporations conducting interstate business usually incorporate in the state that has laws most advantageous to the corporation being formed. Important considerations in choosing a state are the powers granted to the corporation, the taxes levied, the defenses permitted against hostile takeover attempts by others, and the reports required by the state. Once incorporators agree on the state in which to incorporate, they apply for a corporate charter. A corporate charter is a contract between the state and the incorporators, and their successors, granting the corporation its legal existence. The application for the corporation’s charter is called the articles of incorporation. After supplying the information requested in the incorporation application form, incorporators file the articles with the proper office in the state of incorporation. Each state requires different information in the articles of incorporation, but most states ask for the following: - Name of corporation. - Location of principal offices. - Purposes of business. - Number of shares of stock authorized, class or classes of shares, and voting and dividend rights of each class of shares. - Value of assets paid in by the incorporators (the stockholders who organize the corporation). - Limitations on authority of the management and owners of the corporation. On approving the articles, the state office (frequently the secretary of state’s office) grants the charter and creates the corporation. As soon as the corporation obtains the charter, it is authorized to operate its business. Stockholders: Stockholders are the owners of the corporation. You become an owner by receiving shares of stock in the company. Stockholders do not have the right to participate actively in the management of the business unless they serve as directors and/or officers. However, stockholders do have certain basic rights, including the right to (1) dispose of their shares, (2) buy additional newly issued shares in a proportion equal to the percentage of shares they already own (called the preemptive right), (3) share in dividends when declared, (4) share in assets in case of liquidation, and (5) participate in management indirectly by voting at the stockholders’ meeting (one vote for every share of stock). Normally, companies hold stockholders’ meetings annually. At the annual stockholders’ meeting, stockholders vote on such issues as changing the charter, increasing the number of authorized shares of stock to be issued, approving pension plans, selecting the independent auditor, and other related matters. Stockholders who do not personally attend the stockholders’ meeting may vote by proxy. A proxy is a legal document signed by a stockholder, giving a designated person the authority to vote the stockholder’s shares at a stockholders’ meeting. Board of directors Elected by the stockholders, the board of directors is primarily responsible for formulating policies for the corporation. The board appoints administrative officers and delegates to them the execution of the policies established by the board. The board’s more specific duties include: (1) authorizing contracts, (2) declaring dividends, (3) establishing executive salaries, and (4) granting authorization to borrow money. The decisions of the board are recorded in the minutes of its meetings. The minutes are an important source of information to an independent auditor, since they may serve as notice to record transactions (such as a dividend declaration) or to identify certain future transactions (such as a large loan). Corporate officers A corporation’s bylaws usually specify the titles and duties of the officers of a corporation. The number of officers and their exact titles vary from corporation to corporation, but most have a president, several vice presidents, a secretary, a treasurer, and a controller. The president is the chief executive officer (CEO) of the corporation. He or she is empowered by the bylaws to hire all necessary employees except those appointed by the board of directors. Most corporations have more than one vice president. Each vice president is responsible for one particular corporate operation, such as sales, engineering, or production. The corporate secretary maintains the official records of the company and records the proceedings of meetings of stockholders and directors. The treasurer is accountable for corporate funds and may supervise the accounting function within the company. A controller carries out the accounting function. The controller usually reports to the treasurer of the corporation. Stockholders' Equity Section The Stockholders' Equity section consist of: - Paid in Capital: includes common stock, preferred stock, and any Paid in Capital accounts including Paid in Capital for treasury stock. - Retained Earnings: comes from the Statement of Retained Earnings financial statement - Treasury Stock: reports the cost we paid for Treasury Stock and this reduces total equity Common Stock Common Stock All corporations have common stock. Common stock provides the following rights to shareholders: - sell or transfer any of their shares - buy additional newly issued shares in a proportion equal to the percentage of shares they already own (called the preemptive right), - receive a dividend when declared, - receive a portion of any money left over after paying all debts in a liquidation, and - one vote for every share of stock. It is important to note that shareholders cannot take money out of the business whenever they want like owners could in a sole proprietorship or partnership. Shareholders receive earnings of the company in the form of dividends which must be declared by the board of directors. There is some terminology we need to get familiar with for stock. These include: - Authorized shares: Authorized share are the total number of shares we are allowed to sell as specified in the corporate charter. - Issued shares: Issued shares are the total number of share we have given out to shareholders. - Outstanding shares: Outstanding shares are the total number of shares currently held by shareholders. Issues and outstanding shares will be different if the company has treasury stock, which we will discuss later. - Par value: Random value assigned to each share of stock in the corporate charter. - No par value: A par value was not assigned to each share of stock in the corporate charter. - Stated value: No par value stock (meaning no value was assigned to stock in the charter) but the board of directors voted and determined a value for each share of stock. - Market value: Current value of a share of stock as determined by the stock exchange. Preferred Stock Preferred Stock All corporations have common stock. Another type of stock some corporations may have is preferred stock. Preferred stock has the same rights and terminology associated with common stock with a few differences. Preferred stock is guaranteed a specific amount or rate of dividends each year when dividends are declared. Preferred stockholders may give up their right to vote. Types of preferred stock When a corporation issues both preferred and common stock, the preferred stock may be: - Noncumulative preferred stock is preferred stock on which the right to receive a dividend expires whenever the dividend is not declared. This means that if the company does not declare dividends this year they do not have to pay preferred shareholders the guaranteed dividend amount. - Cumulative preferred stock is preferred stock for which the right to receive a basic dividend accumulates if the dividend is not paid. Companies must pay unpaid cumulative preferred dividends before paying any dividends on the common stock. This means if the company does not declare dividends this year, the amount owed from this year will rollover to next year. Preferred shareholders must receive all dividends owed before common shareholders can get a dividend. - Convertible preferred stock is preferred stock that is convertible into common stock of the issuing corporation. Many preferred stocks do not carry this special feature; they are nonconvertible. Holders of convertible preferred stock shares may exchange them, at their option, for a certain number of shares of common stock of the same corporation. - Callable preferred stock means that the corporation can inform nonconvertible preferred stockholders that they must surrender their stock to the company. Also, convertible preferred stockholders must either surrender their stock or convert it to common shares. Most preferred stocks are callable at the option of the issuing corporation. Preferred shares are usually callable at par value plus a small premium of 3 or 4 % of the par value of the stock. This call premium is the difference between the amount at which a corporation calls its preferred stock for redemption and the par value of the preferred stock. Why would a corporation call in its preferred stock? Corporations call in preferred stock for many reasons: (1) the outstanding preferred stock may require a 12 per cent annual dividend at a time when the company can secure capital to retire the stock by issuing a new 8 per cent preferred stock; (2) the issuing company may have been sufficiently profitable to retire the preferred stock out of earnings; or (3) the company may wish to force conversion of its convertible preferred stock because the cash dividend on the equivalent common shares is less than the dividend on the preferred shares. Treasury Stock Treasury stock is the corporation’s own capital stock that it has issued and then reacquired; this stock has not been canceled and is legally available for reissuance. Because it has been issued, we cannot classify treasury stock as unissued stock. Instead, treasury stock reduces shares outstanding but does not change shares issued. A corporation may reacquire its own capital stock as treasury stock to: (1) cancel and retire the stock; (2) reissue the stock later at a higher price; (3) reduce the shares outstanding and thereby increase earnings per share; or (4) issue the stock to employees. If the intent of reacquisition is cancellation and retirement, the treasury shares exist only until they are retired and canceled by a formal reduction of corporate capital. For dividend or voting purposes, most state laws consider treasury stock as issued but not outstanding, since the shares are no longer in the possession of stockholders. Also, accountants do not consider treasury shares outstanding in calculating earnings per share. When firms reacquire treasury stock, they record the stock at cost as a decrease in a stockholders’ equity account called Treasury Stock. Any excess of the reissue price over cost represents additional paid-in capital and is credited to Paid-In Capital—Common (Preferred) Treasury Stock. Retained Earnings The retained earnings portion of stockholders’ equity typically results from accumulated earnings, reduced by net losses and dividends. Like paid-in capital, retained earnings is a source of assets received by a corporation. Paid-in capital is the actual investment by the stockholders; retained earnings is the investment by the stockholders through earnings not yet withdrawn. The balance in the corporation’s Retained Earnings account is the corporation’s net income, less net losses, from the date the corporation began to the present, less the sum of dividends paid during this period. Net income increases Retained Earnings, while net losses and dividends decrease Retained Earnings in any given year. Thus, the balance in Retained Earnings represents the corporation’s accumulated net income not distributed to stockholders. When the Retained Earnings account has a negative balance, a deficit exists. A company indicates a deficit by listing retained earnings with a negative amount in the stockholders’ equity section of the balance sheet. The firm need not change the title of the general ledger account even though it contains a negative balance. The most common increases and decreases made to Retained Earnings are for income (or losses) and dividends. Occasionally, accountants make other entries to the Retained Earnings account. Dividends Cash Dividends Dividends are distributions of earnings by a corporation to its stockholders. Usually the corporation pays dividends in cash, but it may distribute additional shares of the corporation’s own capital stock as dividends. Occasionally, a company pays dividends in merchandise or other assets. Since dividends are the means whereby the owners of a corporation share in its earnings, accountants charge them against retained earnings. Dividends are always based on shares outstanding! Before dividends can be paid, the board of directors must declare them so they can be recorded in the corporation’s minutes book. Three dividend dates are significant: - Date of declaration. The date of declaration indicates when the board of directors approved a motion declaring that dividends should be paid. The board action creates the liability for dividends payable (or stock dividends distributable for stock dividends). - Date of record. The board of directors establishes the date of record; it determines which stockholders receive dividends. The corporation’s records (the stockholders’ ledger) determine its stockholders as of the date of record. - Date of payment. The date of payment indicates when the corporation will pay dividends to the stockholders. Preferred Stock Dividends Preferred Stock Dividends Stock preferred as to dividends means that the preferred stockholders receive a specified dividend per share before common stockholders receive any dividends. A dividend on preferred stock is the amount paid to preferred stockholders as a return for the use of their money. Noncumulative preferred stock is preferred stock on which the right to receive a dividend expires whenever the dividend is not declared. When noncumulative preferred stock is outstanding, a dividend omitted or not paid in any one year need not be paid in any future year. Because omitted dividends are lost forever, noncumulative preferred stocks are not attractive to investors and are rarely issued. Cumulative preferred stock is preferred stock for which the right to receive a basic dividend accumulates if the dividend is not paid. Companies must pay unpaid cumulative preferred dividends before paying any dividends on the common stock. Dividends in arrears are cumulative unpaid dividends, including the dividends not declared for the current year. Dividends in arrears never appear as a liability of the corporation because they are not a legal liability until declared by the board of directors. However, since the amount of dividends in arrears may influence the decisions of users of a corporation’s financial statements, firms disclose such dividends in a footnote. The board of directors of a corporation possesses sole power to declare dividends. The legality of a dividend generally depends on the amount of retained earnings available for dividends—not on the net income of any one period. Firms can pay dividends in periods in which they incurred losses, provided retained earnings and the cash position justify the dividend. And in some states, companies can declare dividends from current earnings despite an accumulated deficit. The financial advisability of declaring a dividend depends on the cash position of the corporation. Stock Dividends A company that lacks sufficient cash for a cash dividend may declare a stock dividend to satisfy its shareholders. Note that in the long run it may be more beneficial to the company and the shareholders to reinvest the capital in the business rather than paying a cash dividend. If so, the company would be more profitable and the shareholders would be rewarded with a higher stock price in the future. Stock dividends are payable in additional shares of the declaring corporation’s capital stock. When declaring stock dividends, companies issue additional shares of the same class of stock as that held by the stockholders. Stock dividends have no effect on the total amount of stockholders’ equity or on net assets. They merely decrease retained earnings and increase paid-in capital by an equal amount. Immediately after the distribution of a stock dividend, each share of similar stock has a lower book value per share. This decrease occurs because more shares are outstanding with no increase in total stockholders’ equity. A corporation might declare a stock dividend for several reasons: - Retained earnings may have become large relative to total stockholders’ equity, so the corporation may desire a larger permanent capitalization. - The market price of the stock may have risen above a desirable trading range. A stock dividend generally reduces the per share market value of the company’s stock. - The board of directors of a corporation may wish to have more stockholders (who might then buy its products) and eventually increase their number by increasing the number of shares outstanding. Some of the stockholders receiving the stock dividend are likely to sell the shares to other persons. - Stock dividends may silence stockholders’ demands for cash dividends from a corporation that does not have sufficient cash to pay cash dividends. The percentage of shares issued determines whether a stock dividend is a small stock dividend or a large stock dividend. Firms use different accounting treatments for each category. Stock Split Stock Split A company can control their market price in some cases. When the market price is too high, people will not invest in the company. What can we do? We can split our stock! A stock splits does not cause an accounting entry as it does not change any monetary amounts listed on the financial statements. What does it do? - Shares increase by number of the stock split - Par value decreases by the number of the stock split Technology: Creating a Chatbot We will create a chatbot for your business. Please refer to Blackboard. Chapter 10: Accounting in the Management Process Managerial accounting helps managers make good decisions. Managerial accounting provides information about the cost of goods and services, whether a product is profitable, whether to invest in a new business venture, and how to budget. It compares actual performance to planned performance and facilitates many other important decisions critical to the success of organizations. The remaining chapters in this book focus on managerial accounting. This chapter provides an overview of managerial accounting and shows how to determine the cost of a particular type of product known as a job. After you complete the required assignments you will be able to: - Compare/Contrast Financial vs. Managerial Accounting. - Define product and period costs - Compute cost of goods sold for a manufacturer - Prepare a manufacturing statement Managerial Accounting VS Financial Accounting Compare Managerial Accounting with Financial Accounting Whereas financial accounting provides financial information primarily for external use, managerial accounting information is for internal use. By reporting on the financial activities of the organization, financial accounting provides information needed by investors and creditors. Most managerial decisions require more detailed information than that provided by external financial reports. For instance, in their external financial statements, large corporations such as General Electric Company show single amounts on their balance sheets for inventory. However, managers need more detailed information about the cost of each of several hundred products. Managerial Accounting Reports Financial reporting by manufacturing companies Many of you will work in manufacturing companies or provide services for them. Others will work in retail or service organizations that do business with manufacturers. This section will help you understand how manufacturing companies work and how to read both their internal and external financial statements. Assume you own a bicycle store and purchase bicycles and accessories to sell to customers. To determine your profitability, you would subtract the cost of bicycles and accessories from your gross sales as cost of goods sold. However, if you owned the manufacturing company that made the bicycles, you would base your cost of goods sold on the cost of manufacturing those bicycles. Accounting for manufacturing costs is more complex than accounting for costs of merchandise purchased that is ready for sale. Perhaps the most important accounting difference between merchandisers and manufacturers relates to the differences in the nature of their activities. A merchandiser purchases finished goods ready to be sold. On the other hand, a manufacturer must purchase raw materials and use production equipment and employee labor to transform the raw materials into finished products. Thus, while a merchandiser has only one type of inventory—merchandise available for sale—a manufacturer has three types—unprocessed materials, partially complete work in process, and ready-for-sale finished goods. Instead of one inventory account, three different inventory accounts are necessary to show the cost of inventory in various stages of production. We compare a manufacturer’s cost of goods sold section of the income statement to that same section of the merchandiser’s income statement in the chart below. There are two major differences in these cost of goods sold sections: (1) goods ready to be sold are referred to as merchandise inventory by a merchandiser and finished goods inventory by a manufacturer, and (2) the net cost of purchases for a merchandiser is equivalent to the cost of goods manufactured by a manufacturer. Product Cost Vs Period Expenses Product Costs vs Period Expenses Companies also classify costs as product costs and period costs. Product costs are the costs incurred in making products. These costs include the costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead. Period expenses are closely related to periods of time rather than units of products. For this reason, firms expense (deduct from revenues) period costs in the period in which they are incurred. Accountants treat all selling and administrative expenses (operating expenses) as period costs for external financial reporting. In manufacturing companies, a product’s cost is made up of three cost elements: direct material costs, direct labor costs, and manufacturing overhead costs. Period Cost Period costs are recorded as expenses of the current period as either selling or administrative expenses. Selling expenses are costs incurred to obtain customer orders and get the finished product in the customers’ possession. Advertising, market research, sales salaries and commissions, and delivery and storage of finished goods are selling costs. The costs of delivery and storage of finished goods are selling costs because they are incurred after production has been completed. Therefore, the costs of storing materials are part of manufacturing overhead, whereas the costs of storing finished goods are a part of selling costs. Remember that retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers, and service organizations all have selling costs. Administrative expenses are nonmanufacturing costs that include the costs of top administrative functions and various staff departments such as accounting, data processing, and personnel. Executive salaries, clerical salaries, office expenses, office rent, donations, research and development costs, and legal costs are administrative costs. As with selling costs, all organizations have administrative costs. To illustrate, assume a company pays its sales manager a fixed salary. Even though the manager may be working on projects to benefit the company in future accounting periods, it expenses the sales manager’s salary in the period incurred because the expense cannot be traced to the production of a specific product. In summary, product costs (direct materials, direct labor and overhead) are not expensed until the item is sold when the product costs are recorded as cost of goods sold. Period costs are selling and administrative expenses, not related to creating a product, that are shown in the income statement along with cost of goods sold. Cost Classification We will cover many cost classifications useful for planning and control. We will introduce the basic concepts behind these classifications but you will use them (and get in greater depth) in other chapters. - Fixed vs Variable Costs. A fixed cost remains the same in total but changes per unit. Fixed costs examples include your monthly rent, salaried employees, straight-line depreciation as these amounts do not change based on volume. A variable cost remains the same per unit but changes in total. Variable cost examples include sales commissions, hourly workers, units-of-production method depreciation as these amounts will change based on total volume but the amount charged per unit does not change. - Direct vs Indirect Costs. A direct cost is an amount that can be traced to a specific department, process or job. Direct costs can be product costs like direct materials or direct labor or they can be period costs like an accountant’s salary would be traced to the accounting department. Indirect costs is an amount that cannot be traced to a specific department, process or job. These costs are typically allocated (or estimated) to the departments, processes or jobs using those items. Indirect costs can be product costs like overhead or period costs like an IT employee’s salary to the sales department. The sales department needs the services provided by IT and the IT employee’s time would be an indirect expense to the sales department. - Controllable vs Non-controllable Costs. When evaluating the performance of an executive or manager under managerial accounting, it is helpful to recognize that some costs and expenses may be out of the control of that manager or executive. One example is the manager’s salary. The manager has no control over his own salary and has no power to change or stay within the budget for the salary. Controllable costs are things the executive, manager, or department even can control or change. If the executive, manager or department cannot change or control the cost, it is an uncontrollable cost. An example of an uncontrollable cost would be an allocation of administrative expenses to each job or department. - Differential Costs including Sunk and Opportunity Costs. Differential Costs represent the difference between two alternatives. We will analyze what is relevant to our decision making including any opportunity costs. Opportunity costs are what you give up by choosing one alternative over another (think about what you are giving up by taking this course — what else could you be doing?). Sunk costs are not relevant for decision making as the cost cannot be recovered at a later date. Statement of Cost of Goods Manufactured The statement of cost of goods manufactured supports the cost of goods sold figure on the income statement. The two most important numbers on this statement are the total manufacturing cost and the cost of goods manufactured. Be careful not to confuse the terms total manufacturing cost and cost of goods manufactured with each other or with the cost of goods sold. Total Manufacturing Cost includes the costs of all resources put into production during the period (meaning, the direct materials, direct labor and overhead applied). Cost of goods manufactured consists of the cost of all goods completed during the period. It includes total manufacturing costs plus the beginning work in process inventory minus the ending work in process inventory. Cost of goods sold are the costs of all goods SOLD during the period and includes the cost of goods manufactured plus the beginning finished goods inventory minus the ending finished goods inventory. Cost of goods sold is reported as an expense on the income statements and is the only time product costs are expensed. This chart will summarize the formulas you will need: Chapter 11: Job Order Costing After you complete the required assignments you will be able to: - Understand the difference between direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. - Calculate the cost of a job. - Apply overhead to jobs using a predetermined overhead rate. - Determine and record adjustments for over- or under-applied factory overhead Process Costing Vs Job Order Costing The two main types of cost accounting systems for manufacturing operations are process cost and job order cost systems. Many businesses produce large quantities of a single product or similar products. Pepsi-Cola makes soft drinks, Exxon Mobil produces oil, and Kellogg Company produces breakfast cereals on a continuous basis over long periods. For these kinds of products, companies do not have separate jobs. Instead, production is an ongoing process. Job costing and process costing have important similarities: - Both job and process cost systems have the same goal: to determine the cost of products. - Both job and process cost systems have the same cost flows. Accountants record production in separate accounts for materials inventory, labor, and overhead. Then, they transfer the costs to a Work in Process Inventory account. - Both job and process cost systems use predetermined overhead rates to apply overhead. Job costing and process costing systems also have their significant differences: - Types of products produced. Companies that use job costing work on many different jobs with different production requirements during each period. Companies that use process costing produce a single product, either on a continuous basis or for long periods. All the products that the company produces under process costing are the same. - Cost accumulation procedures. Job costing accumulates costs by individual jobs. Process costing accumulates costs by process or department. - Work in Process Inventory accounts. Job cost systems have one Work in Process Inventory account for each job. Process cost systems have a Work in Process Inventory account for each department or process. What kinds of companies would use job costing? The chart below shows how various companies choose different accounting systems, depending on their products. First, companies producing individual, unique products known as jobs use job costing (also called job order costing). Companies such as construction companies and consulting firms, produce jobs and use job costing. Characteristics of Job Order Costing The general cost accumulation model In general, companies match the flow of costs to the physical flow of products through the production process. They place materials received from suppliers in the materials storeroom and record the cost of those materials when purchasing them to raw materials inventory. As they are needed for production, the materials move from the materials storeroom (raw materials inventory) to the production departments with their cost. During production, the materials processed by workers and machines become partially manufactured products. At any time during production, these partially manufactured products are collectively known as work in process (or goods in process). Completed products are finished goods. When the products are completed and transferred to the finished goods storeroom, the company removes their costs from Work in Process Inventory and assigns them to Finished Goods Inventory. As the goods are sold, the company transfers related costs from Finished Goods Inventory to Cost of Goods Sold. Some companies, like furniture manufacturers, produce batches of products. They produce all of the components of a single product (e.g. coffee tables) in one batch. They would then produce the components of another product (e.g. dining room sets) in a new batch. (Some university food service companies prepare meals this way.) Companies such as these use job costing methods to accumulate the cost of each batch. Applied Factory Overhead Vs Actual Factory Overhead By definition, overhead cannot be traced directly to jobs. Most company use a predetermined overhead rate (or estimated rate) instead of actual overhead for the following reasons: - A company usually does not incur overhead costs uniformly throughout the year. For example, heating costs are greater during winter months. However, allocating more overhead costs to a job produced in the winter compared to one produced in the summer may serve no useful purpose. - Some overhead costs, like factory building depreciation, are fixed costs. If the volume of goods produced varies from month to month, the actual rate varies from month to month, even though the total cost is constant from month to month. The predetermined rate, on the other hand, is constant from month to month. - Predetermined rates make it possible for companies to estimate job costs sooner. Using a predetermined rate, companies can assign overhead costs to production when they assign direct materials and direct labor costs. Without a predetermined rate, companies do not know the costs of production until the end of the month or even later when bills arrive. For example, the electric bill for July will probably not arrive until August. If Creative Printers had used actual overhead, the company would not have determined the costs of its July work until August. It is better to have a good estimate of costs when doing the work instead of waiting a long time for only a slightly more accurate number. Predetermined overhead rates Predetermined overhead rates are used to apply overhead to jobs until we have all the actual costs available. To create the rate, we use cost drivers to assign overhead to jobs. A cost driver is a measure of activities, such as machine-hours, that is the cause of costs. To assign overhead to jobs, the cost driver should be the cause of the overhead costs, or at least be reasonably associated with the overhead costs. Just as automobile mileage is a good cost driver for measuring the cause of gasoline consumption, machine-hours is a measure of what causes energy costs. By assigning energy costs to jobs based on the number of machine-minutes or hours the job uses, we have a pretty good idea of the energy costs required to produce the job. Most manufacturing and service organizations use predetermined rates. To calculate a predetermined overhead rate, a company divides the estimated total overhead costs for a period by an estimated base (or expected level of activity). This activity could be total expected machine-hours, total expected direct labor-hours, or total expected direct labor cost for the period. Companies set predetermined overhead rates at the beginning of the year in which they will use them. This formula computes a predetermined rate: Predetermined Overhead Rate (POHR) = Estimated Overhead/Estimated Base (DLC, DLH, MH, Etc.) Notice how the predetermined rate is based on ESTIMATED overhead and the ESTIMATED base or level of activity. To apply overhead, we will use the actual amount of the base or level of activity x the predetermined overhead rate. Again, to apply overhead use this formula: Applied Overhead = Actual amount of base x POHR Actual Overhead Actual Overhead costs are the true costs incurred and typically include things like indirect materials, indirect labor, factory supplies used, factory insurance, factory depreciation, factory maintenance and repairs, factory taxes, etc. Actual overhead costs are any indirect costs related to completing the job or making a product. Next, we look at how we correct our records when the actual and our applied (or estimated) overhead do not match (which they almost never match!). We know overhead is applied using estimated or budgeted overhead and a base. Actual overhead costs may be different and we will not have all of those costs until late in the year. Estimated may be close but is rarely accurate with what really happens, so the result is Over-applied or Under-applied Overhead. At the end of the year, we will compare the applied overhead to the actual overhead and if applied overhead is GREATER than actual overhead, overhead is over-applied. Any adjustments to will be made to Cost of Goods Sold. Job Costing Process A job cost system (job costing) accumulates costs incurred according to the individual jobs. Companies generally use job cost systems when they can identify separate products or when they produce goods to meet a customer’s particular needs. Who uses job costing? Examples include home builders who design specific houses for each customer and accumulate the costs separately for each job, and caterers who accumulate the costs of each banquet separately. Consulting, law, and public accounting firms use job costing to measure the costs of serving each client. Motion pictures, printing, and other industries where unique jobs are produced use job costing. Hospitals also use job costing to determine the cost of each patient’s care. Chapter 12: Cost Behavior and CVP Hello, you should be able to understand these concepts: - Classify cost as fixed, variable, or mixed - Compute contribution margin, ratio, and unit - Determine Break Even Analysis Cost Behavior Cost Behavior Vs. Cost Estimation Cost behavior patterns There are four basic cost behavior patterns: fixed, variable, mixed (semi-variable), and step which graphically would appear as below. Fixed Costs Fixed costs remain in TOTAL but change per unit based on the actual amount of production. Here is a video to discuss these concepts. Examples of fixed costs include monthly rent, mortgage or car payments, employee salary, depreciation calculated under straight-line method, and insurance. Variable Costs Variable Costs remain the same PER UNIT but CHANGE in total. Variable costs for a manufacturer would include things like direct labor of hourly workers, other wage employees, direct materials, applied overhead, sales commissions, and depreciation under units of production method. Mixed Costs Mixed costs are costs that contain a portion of both fixed and variable costs. Common examples include utilities and even your cell phone! You may be charged a fixed amount each month for data usage or text messages allowed but when you exceed your limit, you are charged a set amount (variable cost) based on each text message or gigabyte of data you use over your limit. Cost Classification: Fixed, Mixed, Variable, and Step Fixed costs remain constant (in total) over some relevant range of output. Depreciation, insurance, property taxes, and administrative salaries are examples of fixed costs. Recall that so-called fixed costs are fixed in the short run but not necessarily in the long run. In contrast to fixed costs, variable costs vary (in total) directly with changes in volume of production or sales. In particular, total variable costs change as total volume changes. If pizza production increases from 100 10-inch pizzas to 200 10-inch pizzas per day, the amount of dough required per day to make 10-inch pizzas would double. The dough is a variable cost of pizza production. Direct materials and sales commissions are variable costs. Direct labor is a variable cost in many cases. If the total direct labor cost increases as the volume of output increases and decreases as volume decreases, direct labor is a variable cost. Piecework pay is an excellent example of direct labor as a variable cost. In addition, direct labor is frequently a variable cost for workers paid on an hourly basis, as the volume of output increases, more workers are hired. However, sometimes the nature of the work or management policy does not allow direct labor to change as volume changes and direct labor can be a fixed cost. Mixed costs have both fixed and variable characteristics. A mixed cost contains a fixed portion of cost incurred even when the facility is idle, and a variable portion that increases directly with volume. Electricity is an example of a mixed cost. A company must incur a certain cost for basic electrical service. As the company increases its volume of activity, it runs more machines and runs them longer. The firm also may extend its hours of operation. As activity increases, so does the cost of electricity. Managers usually separate mixed costs into their fixed and variable components for decision-making purposes. They include the fixed portion of mixed costs with other fixed costs, while assuming the variable part changes with volume. We will look at ways to separate fixed and variable components of a mixed cost later in the chapter. A step cost is a mixed cost. A step cost remains constant at a certain fixed amount over a range of output (or sales). Then, at certain points, the step costs increase to higher amounts. Visually, step costs appear like stair steps. Supervisors’ salaries are an example of a step cost when companies hire additional supervisors as production increases. For instance, the local McDonald’s restaurant has one supervisor until sales exceed 100 meals during the lunch hour. If sales regularly exceed 100 meals during that hour, the company adds a second supervisor. The supervisor costs will remain the same for between 0 – 100 meals served that hour. When meals served are between 101 – 200, the supervisor cost goes up to reflect 2 supervisors. Step costs will increase by the same amount for each new cost or step. Step costs are sometimes labeled as step variable costs (many small steps) or step fixed costs (only a few large steps). Although we have described four different cost patterns (fixed, variable, mixed, and step), we simplify our discussions in this chapter by assuming managers can separate mixed and step costs into fixed and variable components using cost estimation techniques. Cost Volume Profit Analysis Companies use cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis (also called break-even analysis) to determine what affects changes in their selling prices, costs, and/or volume will have on profits in the short run. A careful and accurate cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis requires knowledge of costs and their fixed or variable behavior as volume changes. A cost-volume-profit chart is a graph that shows the relationships among sales, costs, volume, and profit. Look at illustration below. The illustration shows a cost-volume-profit chart for Video Productions, a company that produces DVDs. Each DVD sells for $20. The variable cost per DVD is $12, and the fixed costs per month are $ 40,000. The total cost line represents the fixed costs of $40,000 plus $12 per unit. Thus, if Video Productions produces and sells 6,000 DVDs, the company’s total costs are $112,000, made up of $40,000 fixed costs and $ 72,000 total variable costs ($ 72,000 = $ 12 per unit X 6,000 units produced and sold). The total revenue line shows how revenue increases as volume increases. Total revenue is $ 120,000 for sales of 6,000 tapes ($ 20 per unit X 6,000 units sold). In the chart, we demonstrate the effect of volume on revenue, costs, and net income, for a particular price, variable cost per unit, and fixed cost per period. At each volume, one can estimate the company’s profit or loss. For example, at a volume of 6,000 units, the profit is $8,000. We can find the net income either by constructing an income statement or using the profit equation. The contribution margin income statement gives the following results for a volume of 6,000 units: We have introduced a new term in this income statement—the contribution margin. The contribution margin is the amount by which revenue exceeds the variable costs of producing that revenue. We can calculate it on a per unit or total sales volume basis. On a per unit basis, the contribution margin for Video Productions is $8 (the selling price of $20 minus the variable cost per unit of $ 12). The contribution margin indicates the amount of money remaining after the company covers its variable costs. This remainder contributes to the coverage of fixed costs and to net income. In Video Production’s income statement, the $ 48,000 contribution margin covers the $ 40,000 fixed costs and leaves $ 8,000 in operating income. You can also calculate a contribution margin ratio by using the following formula: Contribution Margin RATIO = Contribution Margin/Sales The CVP chart above shows cost data for Video Productions in a relevant range of output from 500 to 10,000 units. The relevant range is the range of production or sales volume over which the basic cost behavior assumptions hold true. For volumes outside these ranges, costs behave differently and alter the assumed relationships. For example, if Video Productions produced and sold more than 10,000 units per month, it might be necessary to increase plant capacity (thus incurring additional fixed costs) or to work extra shifts (thus incurring overtime charges and other inefficiencies). In either case, the assumed cost relationships would no longer be valid. The contribution margin income statement is used quite frequently since it separates fixed and variable costs to allow a company to see what it can directly change and what it cannot change. Below we will show how to use this new contribution margin income statement to do the following analyses: - Breakeven in units—the number of units needed to be sold to breakeven - Breakeven in dollars—the number of sales dollars needed to breakeven - Target profit in units—the number of units needed to be sold to reach a target profit - Target profit in dollars—the number of sales dollars needed to reach a target profit - Margin of Safety—the difference between current sales dollars (or budget) and breakeven in sales - Margin of Safety Ratio—the margin of safety (5 above)/ current sales - Operating leverage Break Even Analysis A company breaks even for a given period when sales revenue and costs charged to that period are equal. Thus, the break-even point is that level of operations at which a company realizes no operating income or loss. A company may express a break-even point in dollars of sales revenue or number of units produced or sold. No matter how a company expresses its break-even point, it is still the point of zero operating income or loss. To illustrate the calculation of a break-even point work with the previous company, Video Productions. Recall that Video Productions produces DVDs selling for $20 per unit. Fixed costs per period total $40,000, while variable cost is $12 per unit making the contribution margin per unit $8 or 40% (8/12) of sales. We compute the break-even point in units and sales dollars as: - Break Even in Units = Fixed Cost / Unit Contribution Margin - Break Even in Dollars = Fixed cost / Contribution Margin Ratio The result tells us that Video Productions breaks even at a volume of 5,000 units per month. We can prove that to be true by computing the revenue and total costs at a volume of 5,000 units as follows: Look at the cost-volume-profit chart and note that the revenue and total cost lines cross at 5,000 units—the break-even point. Video Productions has Operating income at volumes greater than 5,000, but it has losses at volumes less than 5,000 units. Target Profit The unit sales or dollar sales can also can be calculated by using the formula above. Let’s say that Video Productions wants to achieve a target profit of $50,000. The following calculations would be completed to calculate the unit and dollars sales to achieve target profit: - Target Profit in Units = Fixed Cost + Target / Unit Contribution Margin - Target Profit in Dollars = Fixed Cost + Taget / Unit Contribution Margin Ratio Margin of Safety If a company’s current sales are more than its break-even point, it has a margin of safety equal to current sales minus break-even sales. The margin of safety is the amount by which sales can decrease before the company incurs a loss. For example, assume Video Productions currently has sales of $120,000 and its break-even sales are $ 100,000. The margin of safety is $ 20,000, computed as follows: Margin of safety = Current sales – Break even sales Margin of safety = $ 120,000 – $ 100,000 = $ 20,000 Sometimes people express the margin of safety as a percentage, called the margin of safety rate or just margin of safety percentage. The margin of safety ratio is equal to Using the data just presented, we compute the margin of safety rate is $20,000 / 120,000 = 16.67 % This means that sales volume could drop by 16.67 percent before the company would incur a loss. In the contribution approach that we used for breakeven analysis did not take inventories into consideration. We will not review the difference in the generally accepted accounting principles approach which is referred to as absorption costing and the contribution approach which is referred to as variable costing. Absorption Costing Absorption costing, also called full costing, is what you are used to under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Under absorption costing, companies treat all manufacturing costs, including both fixed and variable manufacturing costs, as product costs. Remember, total variable costs change proportionately with changes in total activity, while fixed costs do not change as activity levels change. These variable manufacturing costs are usually made up of direct materials, variable manufacturing overhead, and direct labor. The product costs (or cost of goods sold) would include direct materials, direct labor and overhead. The period costs would include selling, general and administrative costs. Remember the following under absorption costing: - Typically used for financial reporting (GAAP) - ALL manufacturing costs are included in the cost (direct materials, direct labor, fixed and variable overhead) - Can be misleading as some costs are not affected by products - Fixed manufacturing overhead costs are applied to units PRODUCED and not just unit sold - Income statement shows Sales – Cost of Goods sold = Gross Margin (or Gross Profit) – Operating Expenses = Net Income and is based on the number of units SOLD. Variable Costing Variable costing (also known as direct costing) treats all fixed manufacturing costs as period costs to be charged to expense in the period received. Under variable costing, companies treat only variable manufacturing costs as product costs. The logic behind this expensing of fixed manufacturing costs is that the company would incur such costs whether a plant was in production or idle. Therefore, these fixed costs do not specifically relate to the manufacture of products. In variable costing, it is important to remember: - ONLY includes variable costs meaning costs that increase with volume - Does not include FIXED costs as volume levels do not change these costs (fixed costs treated as period costs not product costs) - Can provide more accurate information for decision makers as costs are better tied to production levels - Can be applied to ALL costs and not just product costs. - Uses Contribution Margin Income Statement showing Sales – VARIABLE expenses = Contribution Margin – Fixed Expenses = Net Income and is based on the number of units SOLD. Chapter 13: Budgeting By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe budgeting, its objectives, its impact on human behavior, and types of budget systems. - Describe and prepare a master budget for a manufacturing company. Introduction to Budgeting and Budgeting Processes The Budget—For Planning and Control Time and money are scarce resources to all individuals and organizations; the efficient and effective use of these resources requires planning. Planning alone, however, is insufficient. Control is also necessary to ensure that plans actually are carried out. A budget is a tool that managers use to plan and control the use of scarce resources. A budget is a plan showing the company’s objectives and how management intends to acquire and use resources to attain those objectives. Companies, nonprofit organizations, and governmental units use many different types of budgets. Responsibility budgets are designed to judge the performance of an individual segment or manager. Capital budgets evaluate long-term capital projects such as the addition of equipment or the relocation of a plant. This chapter examines the master budget, which consists of a planned operating budget and a financial budget. The planned operating budget helps to plan future earnings and results in a projected income statement. The financial budget helps management plan the financing of assets and results in a projected balance sheet. The budgeting process involves planning for future profitability because earning a reasonable return on resources used is a primary company objective. A company must devise some method to deal with the uncertainty of the future. A company that does no planning whatsoever chooses to deal with the future by default and can react to events only as they occur. Most businesses, however, devise a blueprint for the actions they will take given the foreseeable events that may occur. A budget: (1) shows management’s operating plans for the coming periods; (2) formalizes management’s plans in quantitative terms; (3) forces all levels of management to think ahead, anticipate results, and take action to remedy possible poor results; and (4) may motivate individuals to strive to achieve stated goals. Companies can use budget-to-actual comparisons to evaluate individual performance. For instance, the standard variable cost of producing a personal computer at IBM is a budget figure. This figure can be compared with the actual cost of producing personal computers to help evaluate the performance of the personal computer production managers and employees who produce personal computers. We will do this type of comparison in a later chapter. Many other benefits result from the preparation and use of budgets. For example: (1) businesses can better coordinate their activities; (2) managers become aware of other managers’ plans; (3) employees become more cost conscious and try to conserve resources; (4) the company reviews its organization plan and changes it when necessary; and (5) managers foster a vision that otherwise might not be developed. The planning process that results in a formal budget provides an opportunity for various levels of management to think through and commit future plans to writing. In addition, a properly prepared budget allows management to follow the management-by-exception principle by devoting attention to results that deviate significantly from planned levels. For all these reasons, a budget must clearly reflect the expected results. Failing to budget because of the uncertainty of the future is a poor excuse for not budgeting. In fact, the less stable the conditions, the more necessary and desirable is budgeting, although the process becomes more difficult. Obviously, stable operating conditions permit greater reliance on past experience as a basis for budgeting. Remember, however, that budgets involve more than a company’s past results. Budgets also consider a company’s future plans and express expected activities. As a result, budgeted performance is more useful than past performance as a basis for judging actual results. A budget should describe management’s assumptions relating to: (1) the state of the economy over the planning horizon; (2) plans for adding, deleting, or changing product lines; (3) the nature of the industry’s competition; and (4) the effects of existing or possible government regulations. If these assumptions change during the budget period, management should analyze the effects of the changes and include this in an evaluation of performance based on actual results. Budgets are quantitative plans for the future. However, they are based mainly on past experience adjusted for future expectations. Thus, accounting data related to the past play an important part in budget preparation. The accounting system and the budget are closely related. The details of the budget must agree with the company’s ledger accounts. In turn, the accounts must be designed to provide the appropriate information for preparing the budget, financial statements, and interim financial reports to facilitate operational control. Management should frequently compare accounting data with budgeted projections during the budget period and investigate any differences. Budgeting, however, is not a substitute for good management. Instead, the budget is an important tool of managerial control. Managers make decisions in budget preparation that serve as a plan of action. The period covered by a budget varies according to the nature of the specific activity involved. Cash budgets may cover a week or a month; sales and production budgets may cover a month, a quarter, or a year; and the general operating budget may cover a quarter or a year. Budgeting involves the coordination of financial and non-financial planning to satisfy organizational goals and objectives. No foolproof method exists for preparing an effective budget. However, budget makers should carefully consider the conditions that follow: - Top management support: All management levels must be aware of the budget’s importance to the company and must know that the budget has top management’s support. Top management, then, must clearly state long-range goals and broad objectives. These goals and objectives must be communicated throughout the organization. Long-range goals include the expected quality of products or services, growth rates in sales and earnings, and percentage-of-market targets. Overemphasis on the mechanics of the budgeting process should be avoided. - Participation in goal setting Management uses budgets to show how it intends to acquire and use resources to achieve the company’s long-range goals. Employees are more likely to strive toward organizational goals if they participate in setting them and in preparing budgets. Often, employees have significant information that could help in preparing a meaningful budget. Also, employees may be motivated to perform their own functions within budget constraints if they are committed to achieving organizational goals. - Communicating results People should be promptly and clearly informed of their progress. Effective communication implies (1) timeliness, (2) reasonable accuracy, and (3) improved understanding. Managers should effectively communicate results so employees can make any necessary adjustments in their performance. - Flexibility If significant basic assumptions underlying the budget change during the year, the planned operating budget should be restated. For control purposes, after the actual level of operations is known, the actual revenues and expenses can be compared to expected performance at that level of operations. - Follow-up Budget follow-up and data feedback are part of the control aspect of budgetary control. Since the budgets are dealing with projections and estimates for future operating results and financial positions, managers must continuously check their budgets and correct them if necessary. Often management uses performance reports as a follow-up tool to compare actual results with budgeted results. The term budget has negative connotations for many employees. Often in the past, management has imposed a budget from the top without considering the opinions and feelings of the personnel affected. Such a dictatorial process may result in resistance to the budget. A number of reasons may underlie such resistance, including lack of understanding of the process, concern for status, and an expectation of increased pressure to perform. Employees may believe that the performance evaluation method is unfair or that the goals are unrealistic and unattainable. They may lack confidence in the way accounting figures are generated or may prefer a less formal communication and evaluation system. Often these fears are completely unfounded, but if employees believe these problems exist, it is difficult to accomplish the objectives of budgeting. Problems encountered with such imposed budgets have led accountants and management to adopt participatory budgeting. Participatory budgeting means that all levels of management responsible for actual performance actively participate in setting operating goals for the coming period. Managers and other employees are more likely to understand, accept, and pursue goals when they are involved in formulating them. Within a participatory budgeting process, accountants should be compilers or coordinators of the budget, not preparers. They should be on hand during the preparation process to present and explain significant financial data. Accountants must identify the relevant cost data that enables management’s objectives to be quantified in dollars. Accountants are responsible for designing meaningful budget reports. Also, accountants must continually strive to make the accounting system more responsive to managerial needs. That responsiveness, in turn, increases confidence in the accounting system. Although many companies have used participatory budgeting successfully, it does not always work. Studies have shown that in many organizations, participation in the budget formulation failed to make employees more motivated to achieve budgeted goals. Whether or not participation works depends on management’s leadership style, the attitudes of employees, and the organization’s size and structure. Participation is not the answer to all the problems of budget preparation. However, it is one way to achieve better results in organizations that are receptive to the philosophy of participation. Master Budget A master budget consists of a projected income statement (planned operating budget) and a projected balance sheet (financial budget) showing the organization’s objectives and proposed ways of attaining them. In diagram below, we depict a flowchart of the financial planning process that you can use as an overview of the elements in a master budget. The remainder of this chapter describes how a company prepares a master budget. We emphasize the master budget because of its prime importance to financial planning and control in a business entity. The budgeting process starts with management’s plans and objectives for the next period. These plans take into consideration various policy decisions concerning selling price, distribution network, advertising expenditures, and environmental influences from which the company forecasts its sales for the period (in units by product or product line). Managers arrive at the sales budget in dollars by multiplying sales units times sales price per unit. They use expected production, sales volume, and inventory policy to project cost of goods sold. Next, managers project operating expenses such as selling and administrative expenses. This chapter cannot cover all areas of budgeting in detail—entire books have been written on budgeting. However, the following video provides an overview of a budgeting procedure that many successful companies have used. We begin the budget process by discussing the planned operating budget or projected income statement. The projected balance sheet, or financial budget, depends on many items in the projected income statement. Thus, the logical starting point in preparing a master budget is the projected income statement, or planned operating budget. However, since the planned operating budget shows the net effect of many interrelated activities, management must prepare several supporting budgets (sales, production, and purchases, to name a few) before preparing the planned operating budget. The process begins with the sales budget. Operating Budgets In this Operating Budget section, we will discuss the following budgets: - Sales Budget - Production Budget - Cost of Goods Sold Budget - Selling and Administrative Expense Budget - Income Statement Sales Budget he cornerstone of the budgeting process is the sales budget because the usefulness of the entire operating budget depends on it. The sales budget involves estimating or forecasting how much demand exists for a company’s goods and then determining if a realistic, attainable profit can be achieved based on this demand. Sales forecasting can involve either formal or informal techniques, or both. Formal sales forecasting techniques often involve the use of statistical tools. For example, to predict sales for the coming period, management may use economic indicators (or variables) such as the gross national product or gross national personal income, and other variables such as population growth, per capita income, new construction, and population migration. To use economic indicators to forecast sales, a relationship must exist between the indicators (called independent variables) and the sales that are being forecast (called the dependent variable). Then management can use statistical techniques to predict sales based on the economic indicators. Management often supplements formal techniques with informal sales forecasting techniques such as intuition or judgment. In some instances, management modifies sales projections using formal techniques based on other changes in the environment. Examples include the effect on sales of any changes in the expected level of advertising expenditures, the entry of new competitors, and/or the addition or elimination of products or sales territories. In other instances, companies do not use any formal techniques. Instead, sales managers and salespersons estimate how much they can sell. Managers then add up the estimates to arrive at total estimated sales for the period. Usually, the sales manager is responsible for the sales budget and prepares it in units and then in dollars by multiplying the units by their selling price. The sales budget in units is the basis of the remaining budgets that support the operating budget. Production Budget The production budget considers the units in the sales budget and the company’s inventory policy. Managers develop the production budget in units and then in dollars. Determining production volume is an important task. Companies should schedule production carefully to maintain certain minimum quantities of inventory while avoiding excessive inventory accumulation. The principal objective of the production budget is to coordinate the production and sale of goods in terms of time and quantity. Companies using a just-in-time inventory system need to closely coordinate purchasing, sales, and production. In general, maintaining high inventory levels allows for more flexibility in coordinating purchases, sales, and production. However, businesses must compare the convenience of carrying inventory with the cost of carrying inventory; for example, they must consider storage costs and the opportunity cost of funds tied up in inventory. Firms often subdivide the production budget into budgets for materials, labor, and manufacturing overhead, which we will discuss in the manufacturing budgets. Usually materials, labor, and some elements of manufacturing overhead vary directly with production within a given relevant range of production. Fixed manufacturing overhead costs do not vary directly with production but are constant in total within a relevant range of production. To determine fixed manufacturing overhead costs accurately, management must determine the relevant range for the expected level of operations. Cost of Goods Sold Budget The cost of goods sold budget establishes the forecast for the inventory expense and is usually on of the largest expenses on an income statement. A cost of goods sold budget would not be necessary for a service company since they do not sell a product. Management must now prepare a schedule to forecast cost of goods sold, the next major amount in the planned operating budget. We need to understand the costs for making the product. Selling and Administrative Budget The costs of selling a product are closely related to the sales forecast. Generally, the higher the forecast, the higher the selling expenses. Administrative expenses are likely to be less dependent on the sales forecast because many of the items are fixed costs (e.g. salaries of administrative personnel and depreciation of administrative buildings and office equipment). Managers must also estimate other expenses such as interest expense, income tax expense, and research and development expenses. Budgeted Income Statement We will use a standard multi-step income statement showing sales minus gross profit is gross profit (or gross margin). Gross profit minus operating expenses is the income from operations. We will need the Sales budget, Cost of goods sold budget, and the Selling and Administrative expense budgets. Manufacturing Budgets In a manufacturing company, you will have a budget for all of your manufacturing costs including Direct Materials, Direct Labor and Overhead. Each cost will have their own budget. You will need the information from the Sales and Production budgets to complete these 3 budgets: - Material Budget - Direct Labor Budget - Manufacturing Overhead Budget Materials Budget The materials budget (or materials purchases budget) is used to plan how much raw materials we need to have available to meet budgeted production. This budget is prepare similarly to the production budget as the company must decide how much raw materials inventory they want to have on hand at the end of each quarter. This is typically determined as a percent of next quarter’s material needs. In a materials budget, we will deal with units first and then add the budgeted cost near the end. We also need to know how many direct materials are needed for each unit. Direct Labor Budget The direct labor budget is a very easy one. We need to know the units required from the production budget. Next, we need to know how many direct labor hours it takes to complete one unit and the cost per labor hour. Using this information, we can determine how many direct labor hours are required to meet the budgeted level of production. We will take the production units x direct labor per unit to get the number of direct labor hours. Finally, we will take the direct labor hours x the rate per hour. Manufacturing Overhead Budget The final budget for manufacturing is the manufacturing overhead budget. The manufacturing overhead budget is prepare depending on how the company allocates overhead. The company can choose to allocate overhead using one predetermined overhead rate, departmental rates or using activity-based costing. Further, the company can choose to separate the fixed and variable overhead costs and assign costs to overhead using only the variable overhead. Cash Budget Cash budget: After the preceding analyses have been prepared, sufficient information is available to prepare the cash budget and compute the balance in the Cash account for each quarter. Preparing a cash budget requires information about cash receipts and cash disbursements from all the other operating budget schedules. Cash receipts We can prepare the cash receipts schedule based on how the company expects to collect on sales. We know, from past experience, how much of our sales are cash sales and how much are credit sales. We also can analyze past accounts receivable to determine when credit sales are typically paid. Flexible Budget Early in the chapter, you learned that a budget should be adjusted for changes in assumptions or variations in the level of operations. Managers use a technique known as flexible budgeting to deal with budgetary adjustments. A flexible operating budget is a special kind of budget that provides detailed information about budgeted expenses (and revenues) at various levels of output. A flexible budget can be prepared for any level of activity. The advantage to a flexible budget is we can create a budget based on the ACTUAL level of production to give us a clearer picture of our results by comparing the flexible budget to actual results. Flexible Budget A flexible budget is a budget prepared using the ACTUAL level of production instead of the budgeted activity. The difference between actual costs incurred and the flexible budget amount for that same level of operations is called a budget variance. Budget variances can indicate a department’s or company’s degree of efficiency, since they emerge from a comparison of what was with what should have been. The performance report shows the budget variance for each line item. A flexible budget allows volume differences to be removed from the analysis since we are using the same actual level of activity for both budget and actual. How can we do this? We will need to determine the budgeted variable cost per unit for each variable cost. Budgeted fixed costs would remain the same because they do not change based on volume. Flexible budgets often show budgeted amounts for every 10 per cent change in the level of operations, such as at the 70 per cent, 80 per cent, 90 per cent, and 100 per cent levels of capacity. However, actual production may fall between the levels shown in the flexible budget. If so, the company can find the budgeted amounts at that level of operations using the following formula: Budgeted amount = Budgeted fixed portion of costs + [Budgeted variable portion of cost per unit X Actual units of output] Standard Costs Uses of standard costs Whenever you have set goals that you have sought to achieve, these goals could have been called standards. Periodically, you might measure your actual performance against these standards and analyze the differences to see how close you are to your goal. Similarly, management sets goals, such as standard costs, and compares actual costs with these goals to identify possible problems. This section begins with a discussion of the nature of standard costs. Next, we explain how managers use standard costs to establish budgets. Then we describe how management uses the concept of management by exception to investigate variances from standards. We also explain setting standards and how management decides whether to use ideal or practical standards. The section closes with a discussion of the other uses of standard costs. Nature of standard costs A standard cost is a carefully predetermined measure of what a cost should be under stated conditions. Standard costs are not only estimates of what costs will be but also goals to be achieved. When standards are properly set, their achievement represents a reasonably efficient level of performance. Usually, effective standards are the result of engineering studies and of time and motion studies undertaken to determine the amounts of materials, labor, and other services required to produce a product. Also considered in setting standards are general economic conditions because these conditions affect the cost of materials and other services that must be purchased by a manufacturing company. Manufacturing companies determine the standard cost of each unit of product by establishing the standard cost of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead necessary to produce that unit. Determining the standard cost of direct materials and direct labor is less complicated than determining the standard cost of manufacturing overhead. The standard direct materials cost per unit of a product consists of the standard amount of material required to produce the unit multiplied by the standard price of the material. You must distinguish between the terms standard price and standard cost. Standard price usually refers to the price per unit of inputs into the production process, such as the price per pound of raw materials. Variances Flexible operating budget and budget variances illustrated: As stated earlier, a flexible operating budget provides detailed information about budgeted expenses at various levels of activity. The main advantage of using a flexible operating budget along with a planned operating budget is that management can appraise performance on two levels. First, management can compare the actual results with the planned operating budget, which enables management to analyze the deviation of actual output from expected output. Second, given the actual level of operations, management can compare actual costs at actual volume with budgeted costs at actual volume. The use of flexible operating budgets gives a valid basis for comparison when actual production or sales volume differs from expectations. A company makes a valid analysis of expense controls by comparing actual results with a flexible operating budget based on the levels of sales and production that actually occurred. Calculating Material Variances As stated earlier, standard costs represent goals. Standard cost is the amount a cost should be under a given set of circumstances. The accounting records also contain information about actual costs. The amount by which actual cost differs from standard cost is called a variance. When actual costs are less than the standard cost, a cost variance is favorable. When actual costs exceed the standard costs, a cost variance is unfavorable. Do not automatically equate favorable and unfavorable variances with good and bad. You must base such an appraisal on the causes of the variance. Materials Variances The standard materials cost of any product is simply the standard quantity of materials that should be used multiplied by the standard price that should be paid for those materials. Actual costs may differ from standard costs for materials because the price paid for the materials and/or the quantity of materials used varied from the standard amounts management had set. These two factors are accounted for by isolating two variances for materials—a price variance and a usage variance. Accountants isolate these two materials variances for three reasons. First, different individuals may be responsible for each variance—a purchasing agent for the price variance and a production manager for the usage variance. Second, materials might not be purchased and used in the same period. The variance associated with the purchase should be isolated in the period of purchase, and the variance associated with usage should be isolated in the period of use. As a general rule, the sooner a variance can be isolated, the greater its value in cost control. Third, it is unlikely that a single materials variance—the difference between the standard cost and the actual cost of the materials used—would be of any real value to management for effective cost control. A single variance would not show management what caused the difference, or one variance might simply offset another and make the total difference appear to be immaterial. Materials price variance: In a manufacturing company, the purchasing and accounting departments usually set a standard price for materials meeting certain engineering specifications. They consider factors such as market conditions, vendors’ quoted prices, and the optimum size of a purchase order when setting a standard price. A materials price variance (MPV) occurs when a company pays a higher or lower price than the standard price set for materials. Materials price variance is the difference between actual price paid (AP) and standard price allowed (SP) multiplied by the actual quantity of materials purchased (AQ). In equation form, the materials price variance can be done in two ways: Materials price variance = (SP-AP) x AQ purchased Materials usage variance Because the standard quantity of materials used in making a product is largely a matter of physical requirements or product specifications, usually the engineering department sets it. But if the quality of materials used varies with price, the accounting and purchasing departments may perform special studies to find the right quality. The materials usage variance occurs when more or less than the standard amount of materials is used to produce a product or complete a process. The variance shows only differences from the standard quantity caused by the quantity of materials used; it does not include any effect of variances in price. Thus, the materials usage variance is: Materials usage variance = (SQ-AQ) x SP Calculating Labor Variances Labor Variances Labor rate variance: The labor rate variance occurs when the average rate of pay is higher or lower than the standard cost to produce a product or complete a process. The labor rate variance is similar to the materials price variance. To compute the labor rate variance, we use the actual direct labor-hour rate paid (AR), the standard direct labor-hour rate allowed (SR) and the actual hours of direct labor services worked (AH). It can also be calculated in either of the following ways: Labor rate variance= (SR – AR) x AH Labor efficiency variance Usually, the company’s engineering department sets the standard amount of direct labor-hours needed to complete a product. Engineers may base the direct labor-hours standard on time and motion studies or on bargaining with the employees’ union. The labor efficiency variance occurs when employees use more or less than the standard amount of direct labor-hours to produce a product or complete a process. The labor efficiency variance is similar to the materials usage variance. To compute the labor efficiency variance, we will use the actual direct labor-hours worked (AH), the standard direct labor-hours allowed (SH), and the standard direct labor-hour rate per hour (SR) in either of the following ways: Labor efficiency variance= (SH – AH) x SR Chapter 14: Differential Analysis By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Analyze product costs for planning and decision making. - Identify relevant costs and apply them to managerial decisions. - List the necessary criteria that make information relevant to a decision involving two or more alternative courses of action. - Describe the nature of differential analysis and illustrate its application to decisions involving: - Accepting business at a special price - Discontinuing an unprofitable segment - Making or buying - Replacing a long term asset Differential Analsysis Examples Differential analysis involves analyzing the different costs and benefits that would arise from alternative solutions to a particular problem. Relevant revenues or costs in a given situation are future revenues or costs that differ depending on the alternative course of action selected. Differential revenue is the difference in revenues between two alternatives. Differential cost or expense is the difference between the amounts of relevant costs for two alternatives. Future costs that do not differ between alternatives are irrelevant and may be ignored since they affect both alternatives similarly. Past costs, also known as sunk costs, are not relevant in decision making because they have already been incurred; therefore, these costs cannot be changed no matter which alternative is selected. For certain decisions, revenues do not differ between alternatives. Under those circumstances, management should select the alternative with the least cost. In other situations, costs do not differ between alternatives. Accordingly, management should select the alternative that results in the largest revenue. Many times both future costs and revenues differ between alternatives. In these situations, the management should select the alternative that results in the greatest positive difference between future revenues and expenses (costs). To illustrate relevant, differential, and sunk costs, assume that Joanna Bennett invested $400 in a tiller so she could till gardens to earn $1,500 during the summer. Not long afterward, Bennett was offered a job at a horse stable feeding horses and cleaning stalls for $1,200 for the summer. The costs that she would incur in tilling are $100 for transportation and $150 for supplies. The costs she would incur at the horse stable are $100 for transportation and $50 for supplies. If Bennett works at the stable, she would still have the tiller, which she could loan to her parents and friends at no charge. The tiller cost of $400 is not relevant to the decision because it is a sunk cost. The transportation cost of $100 is also not relevant because it is the same for both alternatives. These costs and revenues are relevant (note: differential means difference): Based on this differential analysis, Joanna Bennett should perform her tilling service rather than work at the stable. Of course, this analysis considers only cash flows; nonmonetary considerations, such as her love for horses, could sway the decision. In many situations, total variable costs differ between alternatives while total fixed costs do not. For example, suppose you are deciding between taking the bus to work or driving your car on a particular day. The differential costs of driving a car to work or taking the bus would involve only the variable costs of driving the car versus the variable costs of taking the bus. Suppose the decision is whether to drive your car to work every day for a year versus taking the bus for a year. If you bought a second car for commuting, certain costs such as insurance and an auto license that are fixed costs of owning a car would be differential costs for this particular decision. Before studying the applications of differential analysis, you must realize that opportunity costs are also relevant in choosing between alternatives. An opportunity cost is the potential benefit that is forgone by not following the next best alternative course of action. For example, assume that the two best uses of a plot of land are as a mobile home park (annual income of $100,000) and as a golf driving range (annual income of $60,000). The opportunity cost of using the land as a mobile home park is $60,000, while the opportunity cost of using the land as a driving range is $100,000. Companies do not record opportunity costs in the accounting records because they are the costs of not following a certain alternative. Thus, opportunity costs are not transactions that occurred but that did not occur. However, opportunity cost is a relevant cost in many decisions because it represents a real sacrifice when one alternative is chosen instead of another. Applying Differential Analysis Applications of differential analysis To illustrate the application of differential analysis to specific decision problems, we consider five decisions: - setting prices of products; - accepting or rejecting special orders; - adding or eliminating products, segments, or customers; - processing or selling joint products; and - deciding whether to make products or buy them. Although these five decisions are not the only applications of differential analysis, they represent typical short-term business decisions using differential analysis. Our discussion ignores income taxes. Pricing Decisions When applying differential analysis to pricing decisions, each possible price for a given product represents an alternative course of action. The sales revenues for each alternative and the costs that differ between alternatives are the relevant amounts in these decisions. Total fixed costs often remain the same between pricing alternatives and, if so, may be ignored. In selecting a price for a product, the goal is to select the price at which total future revenues exceed total future costs by the greatest amount, thus maximizing income. A high price is not necessarily the price that maximizes income. The product may have many substitutes. If a company sets a high price, the number of units sold may decline substantially as customers switch to lower-priced competitive products. Thus, in the maximization of income, the expected volume of sales at each price is as important as the contribution margin per unit of product sold. In making any pricing decision, management should seek the combination of price and volume that produces the largest total contribution margin. This combination is often difficult to identify in an actual situation because management may have to estimate the number of units that can be sold at each price. Make or Buy Decisions Managers also apply differential analysis to make-or-buy decisions. A make-or-buy decision occurs when management must decide whether to make or purchase a part or material used in manufacturing another product. Management must compare the price paid for a part with the additional costs incurred to manufacture the part. When most of the manufacturing costs are fixed and would exist in any case, it is likely to be more economical to make the part rather than buy it. Make or Buy Example To illustrate the application of differential analysis to make-or-buy decisions, assume that Small Motor Company manufactures a part costing $6 for use in its toy automobile engines. Cost components are: materials, $3.00; labor, $1.50; fixed overhead costs, $1.05; and variable overhead costs, $0.45. Small could purchase the part for $5.25. Fixed overhead would presumably continue even if the part were purchased. The added costs (variable costs only) of manufacturing amount to $4.95 ($3.00 DM + $1.50 DL + $0.45 Variable OH). This amount is 30 cents per unit less than the purchase price of the part. Therefore, manufacturing the part should be continued as shown in the following analysis: In make-or-buy decisions, management also should consider the opportunity cost of not utilizing the space for some other purpose. In the previous example, if the opportunity costs of not using this space in its best alternative use is more than 30 cents per unit times the number of units produced, the part should be purchased. In some manufacturing situations, firms avoid a portion of fixed costs by buying from an outside source. For example, suppose eliminating a part would reduce production so that a supervisor’s salary could be saved. In such a situation, firms should treat these fixed costs the same as variable costs in the analysis because they would be relevant costs. Sometimes the cost to manufacture may be only slightly less than the cost of purchasing the part or material. Then management should place considerable weight on other factors such as the competency of existing personnel to undertake manufacturing the part or material, the availability of working capital, and the cost of any loans that may be necessary. Accepting or Rejecting Special Orders Sometimes management has an opportunity to sell its product in two or more markets at two or more different prices. Movie theaters, for example, sell tickets at discount prices to particular groups of people—children, students, and senior citizens. Differential analysis can determine whether companies should sell their products at prices below regular levels. Good business management requires keeping the cost of idleness at a minimum. When operating at less than full capacity, management should seek additional business. Management may decide to accept such additional business at prices lower than average unit costs if the differential revenues from the additional business exceed the differential costs. By accepting special orders at a discount, businesses can keep people employed that they would otherwise lay off. Adding or Eliminating Periodically, management has to decide whether to add or eliminate certain products, segments, or customers. If you have watched a store or a plant open or close in your area, you have seen the results of these decisions. Differential analysis is useful in this decision making because a company’s income statement does not automatically associate costs with certain products, segments, or customers. Thus, companies must reclassify costs as those that the action would change and those that it would not change. If companies add or eliminate products, they usually increase or decrease variable costs. The fixed costs may change, but not in many cases. Management bases decisions to add or eliminate products only on the differential items; that is, the costs and revenues that change. Capital Budgeting Capital budgeting is the process of considering alternative capital projects and selecting those alternatives that provide the most profitable return on available funds, within the framework of company goals and objectives. A capital project is any available alternative to purchase, build, lease, or renovate buildings, equipment, or other long-range major items of property. The alternative selected usually involves large sums of money and brings about a large increase in fixed costs for a number of years in the future. Once a company builds a plant or undertakes some other capital expenditure, its future plans are less flexible. Typical capital budgeting decisions are: - Decision to purchase equipment to reduce cost - Decision to expand by purchasing a new facilities. - Decision to make a purchasing decision on which equipment to buy. - Decision to replace equipment Poor capital-budgeting decisions can be costly because of the large sums of money and relatively long periods involved. If a poor capital budgeting decision is implemented, the company can lose all or part of the funds originally invested in the project and not realize the expected benefits. In addition, other actions taken within the company regarding the project, such as finding suppliers of raw materials, are wasted if the capital-budgeting decision must be revoked. Poor capital-budgeting decisions may also harm the company’s competitive position because the company does not have the most efficient productive assets needed to compete in world markets. Making capital-budgeting decisions involves analyzing cash inflows and outflows. This section shows you how to calculate the benefits and costs used in capital-budgeting decisions. Because money has a time value, these benefits and costs are adjusted for time. The Time Value of Money Money received today is worth more than the same amount of money received at a future date, such as a year from now. This principle is known as the time value of money. Money has time value because of investment opportunities, not because of inflation. For example, $100 today is worth more than $100 to be received one year from today because the $100 received today, once invested, grows to some amount greater than $100 in one year. Future value and present value concepts are extremely important in assessing the desirability of long-term investments (capital budgeting). The net cash inflow (as used in capital budgeting) is the net cash benefit expected from a project in a period. The net cash inflow is the difference between the periodic cash inflows and the periodic cash outflows for a proposed project. Asset Replacement Asset replacement: Sometimes a company must decide whether or not it should replace existing plant assets. Such replacement decisions often occur when faster and more efficient machinery and equipment appear on the market. The computation of the net cash inflow is more complex for a replacement decision than for an acquisition decision because cash inflows and outflows for two items (the asset being replaced and the new asset) must be considered. To illustrate, assume that a company operates two machines purchased four years ago at a cost of $18,000 each. The estimated useful life of each machine is 12 years (with no salvage value). Each machine will produce 40,000 units of product per year. The annual cash operating expenses (labor, repairs, etc.) for the two machines together total $14,000. After the old machines have been used for four years, a new machine becomes available. The new machine can be acquired for $28,000 and has an estimated useful life of eight years (with no salvage value). The new machine produces 60,000 units annually and entails annual cash operating expenses of $10,000. The $4,000 reduction in operating expenses ($14,000 for old machines – $10,000 for the new machine) is a $4,000 increase in net cash inflow (savings) before taxes. The firm would pay $28,000 in the first year to acquire the new machine. In addition to this initial outlay, the annual net cash inflow from replacement is computed as follows: Notice that these figures concentrated only on the differences in costs for each of the two alternatives. Two other items also are relevant to the decision. First, the purchase of the new machine creates a $28,000 cash outflow immediately after acquisition. Second, the two old machines can probably be sold, and the selling price or salvage value of the old machines creates a cash inflow in the period of disposal. Also, the previous example used straight-line depreciation. Out-of-pocket and sunk costs A distinction between out-of-pocket costs and sunk costs needs to be made for capital budgeting decisions. An out-of-pocket cost is a cost requiring a future outlay of resources, usually cash. Out-of-pocket costs can be avoided or changed in amount. Future labor and repair costs are examples of out-of-pocket costs. Sunk Cost Sunk costs are costs already incurred. Nothing can be done about sunk costs at the present time; they cannot be avoided or changed in amount. The price paid for a machine becomes a sunk cost the minute the purchase has been made (before that moment it was an out-of-pocket cost). The amount of that past outlay cannot be changed, regardless of whether the machine is scrapped or used. Thus, depreciation is a sunk cost because it represents a past cash outlay. Depletion and amortization of assets, such as ore deposits and patents, are also sunk costs. A sunk cost is a past cost, while an out-of-pocket cost is a future cost. Only the out-of-pocket costs (the future cash outlays) are relevant to capital budgeting decisions. Sunk costs are not relevant, except for any effect they have on the cash outflow for taxes. Initial cost and salvage value: Any cash outflows necessary to acquire an asset and place it in a position and condition for its intended use are part of the initial cost of the asset. If an investment has a salvage value, that value is a cash inflow in the year of the asset’s disposal. Cost of Capital The cost of capital: The cost of capital is important in project selection. Certainly, any acceptable proposal should offer a return that exceeds the cost of the funds used to finance it. Cost of capital, usually expressed as a rate, is the cost of all sources of capital (debt and equity) employed by a company. For convenience, most current liabilities, such as accounts payable and federal income taxes payable, are treated as being without cost. Every other item on the right (equity) side of the balance sheet has a cost. The subject of determining the cost of capital is a controversial topic in the literature of accounting and finance and is not discussed here. We give the assumed rates for the cost of capital in this book. Next, we describe several techniques for deciding whether to invest in capital projects. Short Term Business Decisions Payback period The payback period is the time it takes for the cumulative sum of the annual net cash inflows from a project to equal the initial net cash outlay. In effect, the payback period answers the question: How long will it take the capital project to recover, or pay back, the initial investment? If the net cash inflows each year are a constant amount, the formula for the payback period is: \| Payback Period \| = \| Initial Cash Outlay/Annual net cash inflow \| Payback Period = $120,000/$18,200 = 6.6 years. For the two assets discussed in the previous section, you can compute the payback period as follows. The purchase of the $120,000 equipment creates an annual net cash Remember that the payback period indicates how long it will take the machine to pay for itself. The replacement machine being considered has a payback period of 10.8 years but a useful life of only 8 years. Therefore, because the investment cannot pay for itself within its useful life, the company should not purchase a new machine to replace the two old machines. When using payback period analysis to evaluate investment proposals, management may choose one of these rules to decide on project selection: - Select the investments with the shortest payback periods. - Select only those investments that have a payback period of less than a specified number of years.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.338123	01/05/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99746/overview", "title": "Accounting For Business and Entrepreneurs, Concepts and Technology", "author": "La Tasha Roberts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124238/overview	IQ Test Sample Overview PSY101 IQ Test Sample PSY101 OpenStax Module 7 Directions: The purpose of this assignment is to give you a chance to think about some issues involving analyzing the quality and usefulness of a measure. - Complete the IQ test (not a formal assessment, only for assignment purposes): https://www.allthetests.com/iq-tests/new-iq-test.phpLinks to an external site. - Take a screenshot of your results to show completion of the test. - Copy and paste your results into the provided document at the bottom of the page after completing the questions pertaining to the IQ test sample that is attached below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.372481	01/29/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124238/overview", "title": "IQ Test Sample", "author": "Sierra Stewart" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101413/overview	تطبيقات وأدوات للتّعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد Overview يهدف الموقع التعرف على التطبيقات والأدوات التي يمكن توظيفها في التّعلم الإلكتروني والتّعلم عن بُعد وذلك من أجل التغلب على كثير من مشكلات الواقع التّعليمي الحالي، فضلاً عن استمرار التّعليم وإجراء التقويم في حالات الطوارئ، مثل توقف التّعليم خلال جائحة كورونا Covid-19. الصفحة الرئيسية مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| \| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| يهدف الموقع التعرف على التطبيقات والأدوات التي يمكن توظيفها في التّعلم الإلكتروني \| الموضوعات مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| تطبيقات وبرامج لنشر ومشاركة الدروس تطبيقات وبرامج للتواصل عن بُعدتطبيقات وبرامج لإدارة التّعلم عبر الإنترنت \| من نحن مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| \| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| طلبة قسم تكنولوجيا التّعليم والمعلومات مستوى ثالث شعبة الحاسوب كلية التربية _ جامعة إب الدفعة العاشرة (2022 – 2023م) \| تطبيقات وبرامج لنشر ومشاركة الدروس مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| \| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| :أولاً: تطبيقات وبرامج لنشر ومشاركة الدروستساعد المعلمين والمدربين على تقديم الدروس والمواد التعليمية والمواد التعليمية ، حيث تكون معلمة تعليمية كبيرة من المعلمين في التعليم المدرسي ، حيث تقتصر على نشر المحتوى ، كما تُنشأ : Word Press تطبيق وورد برس أحد برامج نشر وإدارة محتوى التّعلم الإلكتروني، فهو يُمكّن المُعلم من تصميم موقع إلكتروني عبر الإنترنت، وبدون الحاجة إلى خبرات سابقة في البرمجة أو تصميم الويب : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق وورد بريس النقر على الرابط التالي :YouTubeتطبيق يوتيوب يمكن الاطلاع على موقع اليوتيوب YouTube من أهم مواقع تدوين وموقع الفيديو ضمن تطبيقات جوجل ، والوصول إلى الحصول على إمكانية الحصول على مقطع فيديو مرئي ، الوصول بسهولة الوصول إلى مقطع فيديو للوصول بسهولة ، يمكن الوصول إلى مقطع فيديو مباشر ، الوصول إلى وسيلة الوصول إلى معلم ، وسرعة انتشار ووصول الفيديو إلى أي مكان على مستوى العالم : Slide Share تطبيق تطبيق تطبيق Slide Share نشر العروض التقديمية على الإنترنت ، فبعد تصميم وتجهيز عرض تقديمي للمحاضرة باستخدام برنامج باوربوينت ، يمكن رفع العرض اونلاين ثم مشاركة الرابط مع الطلاب من خلال مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق شيلد شاير النقر على الرابط التالي :Bloggerتطبيق بلوجر تعد المدونات الإلكترونية Blogs من أسهل التطبيقات التي يمكن توظيفها بفاعلية في العملية التّعليمية، لسهولة استخدامها وإمكاناتها في نشر المحتوى الإلكتروني : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق بلوجر النقر على الرابط التالي Outlook: تطبيق أحد التطبيقات التابعة لشركة مايكروسوفت Microsoft، وبالرغم من استخدامه الأساسي كبرنامج بريد إلكتروني فإنه يتضمن العديد من الأدوات التي يمكن توظيفها بفاعلية في التّعليم : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق اوتلوك النقر على الرابط التالي \| تطبيقات وأدوات للتّعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| \| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| :ثانياً: تطبيقات وبرامج للتواصل عن بُعد.باتت تطبيقات التّعليم عن بعد من أهم التطبيقات المستخدمة بالتّعلم خصوصاً في عالمنا الحالي .وقد ساهم انتشار جائحة كورونا في الانتشار الكبير لهذه الوسيلة التّعليمية المواكبة للعالم التكنولوجي الذي جعل من عالمنا قرية صغيرة : ومن أمثلة هذه التطبيقات : Social Networks تطبيقات التواصل الاجتماعي توفر مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي كثيراً من الخدمات التّعليمية عبر تطبيقاتها المختلفة، مما يساعد في التواصل وتبادل المعلومات بشكل فعال؛ حيث تتيح للمعلم والطلاب الاتصال المباشر والدائم مع بعضهم البعض، ومن أشهر هذه التطبيقات الفيسبوك والواتساب وتويتر : Microsoft Teams تطبيق مايكروسوفت تيمز وهو أيضًا أحد التطبيقات التابعة لشركة مايكروسوفت، ويوفر إنشاء فصول دراسية، والتواصل مع الطلاب والزملاء، وهو ضمن مجموعة الاوفيس ومتوافق مع أنظمة التشغيل المختلفة حيث يمكن استخدامه من خلال الحاسب الآلي، أو الهاتف الذكي : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق مايكروسوفت تيمز النقر على الرابط التالي : Zoom تطبيق زووم تطبيق مميز جدًا، وفكرته هي تنفيذ المحاضرات مباشرة مثل الفيديو كون فرانس، حيث يمكن للمعلم التواصل مع الطلاب بالصوت والصورة، بالإضافة إلى إمكانية مشاركة الشاشة معهم لتقديم العروض التقديمية : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق زووم النقر على الرابط التالي : Skypeتطبيق سكايب .وهو أحد تطبيقات مايكروسوفت، ويتيح التواصل بالصوت والصورة مع الطلاب : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق سكايب النقر على الرابط التالي Nearpod : تطبيق .ويستخدم للتواصل ومشاركة الشاشة بين المعلم والطلاب عبر الهواتف الذكية : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب تطبيق سكايب النقر على الرابط التالي \| تطبيقات وبرامج لإدارة التّعلم عبر الإنترنت مرحبـــــــــاً بــــــكم \| \|\| \| تطبيقات وأدوات للتًعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد \| \|\| إعداد الطالب/ عبدالرزاق الخياط إشراف الدكتور/ أنور الوحش \| \|\| من نحن \| الموضوعات \| الصفحة الرئيسية \| :ثالثاً: تطبيقات وبرامج لإدارة التّعلم عبر الإنترنت: ومن أمثلة هذه التطبيقات(المنصات) : Moodleمنصة مودل هو نظام إدارة تعلّم صُمّم على أُسس تعليمية ليساعد المعلمين على توفير بيئة تعليمية إلكترونية، ويحتوي على عدة وحدات تدعم تقديم المناهج الإلكترونية، منها وحدة الواجبات الدراسية ووحدة المنتدى ووحدة الدرس ووحدة المصادر ووحدة التقييم والاختبارات، وهو يحتاج إلى تحميل مصدر النظام من الموقع الرسمي ثم إعادة رفعه إلى نطاق أو موقع شخصي : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب لمنصة مودل النقر على الرابط التالي : Google Classroom منصة جوجل كلاس رووم هي منصة للتَّعليم الإلكتروني من إنتاج شركة جوجل تم إطلاقها بشكل مجاني لتسهيل التّعلم عن بُعد، وذلك باستخدام التقنيات المتوفرة فيه، والتي من أبرزها: نشر مصادر تعلم إلكترونية للطلاب، إدارة الطلاب المشاركين، التواصل الاجتماعي، طلب تنفيذ التكليفات والمهام، واستلامها وتقييمها، وإرسال الدرجات للطلاب : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب لمنصة جوجل كلاس رووم النقر على الرابط التالي : Edmodo منصة ادمودو هي منصة اجتماعية مجانية توفر للمعلمين والطلاب بيئة للاتصال والتعاون، وتبادل المحتوى التّعليمي وتطبيقاته الرقمية إضافة إلى الواجبات المنزلية والمناقشات والاختبارات الإلكترونية : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب لمنصة ادمودو النقر على الرابط التالي : Schoology منصة سكولوجي هي أيضًا منصة تعليمية توفر للمعلمين بيئة إلكترونية لإدارة الدروس والمحاضرات، حيث توفر نشر الدروس وتعيين التكليفات والواجبات وتصميم الاختبارات : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب لمنصة سكولوجي النقر على الرابط التالي : Black Boardبلاك بورد هو أحد أنظمة إدارة التّعلم الإلكتروني المتكاملة حيث يقوم بإدارة العملية التّعليمية بطريقة تزامنية وغير تزامنية، مهمته تقوم على إدارة العملية التّعليمية وهي منظومة متكاملة يتم الدخول إليها عبر رابط معين، وتستخدم الكثير من الجامعات حول العالم هذه التقنية في عمليات الحضور وتعلم المقررات عن بعد، مما يجعلها من أفضل تطبيقات التّعليم عن بعد : لمعرفة كيفية استخدام الطالب لمنصة بلاك بورد النقر على الرابط التالي \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.461190	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101413/overview", "title": "تطبيقات وأدوات للتّعلم الإلكتروني عن بُعد", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112166/overview	ISC_112_Industrial_Safety_with_disclaimer_3Jz4hQn ISC_112_Industrial_Safety_with_disclaimer_3Jz4hQn ISC_112_Industrial_Safety_with_disclaimer_3Jz4hQn ISC 112 Mid Term Exam Questions and Answers ISC 112 Quiz Questions and Answers ISC-112, Industrial Safety Overview This is a course in industrial safety practices and training. The course content has been alighed with OSHA-10 standards. This means that, should the instructor be OSHA-10 certified, the students will be able to apply for their OSHA-10 cards upon completing the course. Subjects covered include Workers Compensation, Lock Out, Tag Out Procedures, Industrial Hygiene, Electrical Safety, among others. The course is set up for a 15 week semester and includes mid-term and final exams. The course can be customized and cut down to a shorter session as needed. ISC-112, Industrial Safety This is a course in industrial safety practices and training. The course content has been alighed with OSHA-10 standards. This means that, should the instructor be OSHA-10 certified, the students will be able to apply for their OSHA-10 cards upon completing the course. Subjects covered include Workers Compensation, Lock Out, Tag Out Procedures, Industrial Hygiene, Electrical Safety, among others. The course is set up for a 15 week semester and includes mid-term and final exams. The course can be customized and cut down to a shorter session as needed. Odigia was the platform used to create the course.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.488358	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112166/overview", "title": "ISC-112, Industrial Safety", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56682/overview	7.2 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis 7.2 Cellular Respiration Glucose Catabolism Glycolysis Cellular Respiration, Glucose catabolism, ATPGlucose breakdown 7.2 Cellular Respiration Glucose Catabolism Glycolysis Cellular Respiration, Glucose catabolism, ATPGlucose breakdown	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.510102	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56682/overview", "title": "7.2 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114424/overview	AI and OER Open Educational Resources Initiative OERI Resources AI’s Role in Revolutionizing Open Educational Resources (OER) ASCCC-OERI Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Open Educational Resources (OER) Authoring Open Textbooks Breaking Down Barriers: Advancing Open Education through the Power of AI and OER CCCOER Community College Consortium for OER CCCOER: Finding OER Centering DEI in OER through Instructional Design and Equity Consultation Community College Consortium for OER: Community of Practice for Open Education Community College Consortium OER Community of Online Research Assignments Creation: OER Creation & Management, Copyright, Licensing, and CC101, Instructional Design and Ed Tech for OER, Open Pedagogy Curating OER Content through AI and Chat GPT Efficacy of Open Textbook Adoption on Learning Performances and Course Withdrawal Rates: A Meta-Analysis Enhancing Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Accessibility (IDEA) in Open Educational Resources (OER) Faculty Guide to Evaluating Open Education Resources Ferris State University Library OER Resources FLOE Project ¬¬Framework for Reviewing Inclusion, Diversity, Equity and Accessibility (IDEA) in Open Educational Resources (OER) Generative AI in OER Development Generative AI, Synthetic Contents, Open Educational Resources (OER), and Open Educational Practices (OEP): A New Front in the Openness Landscape GSU Open Educational Resources (OER): What is OER How do we respond to generative AI in education? Open educational practices give us a framework for an ongoing process Iowa State University OER Starter Kit iRubric: Evaluating OER Rubric JCCC Open Access Guideline JCCC Scholar Space Kansas Board of Regents OER LibreTexts Commons MASON OER Metafinder (MOM) MERLOT Content Builder Merlot Faculty Development Community Portal Merlot OER Search MERLOT_Peer_Review_Information.htm Missouri A&OER Conference Missouri A&OER Conference 2024: OER 101 MIT OpenCourseWare Educator MO AOA 2024 Conference MOBIUS OER Resources OASIS OER Metafinder OATCJ: Open Access Teaching Case Journal OER Commons OER Commons Higher Education Open-Textbooks OER @ JCCC Guide OER Review Rubric: University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus OER Tools: Documentation for Instructors One Size Does Not Fit All: Making Open Textbooks More Accessible 2021 MO A&OER Symposium 2021 Open Author OER Commons Open Case Studies Open Course Library Open Dialogues: Open Education & Accessibility Open Education & AI: Future Trends Forum Open Education Conference 2024 Open Education Consortium: Addressing Accessibility Issues Open Education Network Certificate in Open Education Librarianship Open Education Network Faculty Incentives Open Education SPARC Open Pedagogy Student Toolkit OpenStax Open SUNY Textbooks Open Textbook Library Open Washington OER Network: OER Stories Park University OER Guide Reasons to Use Open Educational Resources: Open Education Consortium Regional Leaders in Open Education Network Regional Leaders OER Resources Regional Leaders of Open Education (RLOE) Program Rubrics for Evaluating Open Education Resource (OER) Objects Skills Commons OER Repository SPARC Open Education Leadership Program SPARC* Open Education Pedagogy Worksheet SPARC* Open Education Primer An Introduction to Open Educational Resources, Practices and Policy for Academic Libraries Strategic Plan Template SUNY OER Sustainability The 5-Ps of Jumpstarting Open Assessment Creation with Generative AI The OER Starter Kit Workbook The Open Pedagogy Student Toolkit Understanding CC Licenses and Generative AI UNM AI OER Faculty Pilot Project Virginia Clinton-Lisell MO A&OER Conference 2024 Keynote Virginia Clinton-Lisell's MO A&OER 2024 Conference Keynote Address What are OERs and Why Use Them? Why Open Education Matters Open Education Resources Overview This resource provides an overview of Open Education and Open Education Resources (OERs). Presentation Overview Welcome to Learning More About Open Education & OERs - Open Education & OERs Defined - Reasons to Use OERs - Finding OERs: OER Metafinders & Repositories - Finding OERs: Textbooks, Courseware, Assignments, Case Studies, Open Data, etc. - Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Accessibility (IDEA) & Evaluating OERs - Supporting Faculty and Institutional OER Efforts - My Work with OERs - Creating OERs: Opportunities for Teaching & Learning - On the Horizon: AI and OERs - Learn More: Community College OER Community of Practice, KBOR and JCCC Resources - Learn More: Professional Development Opportunities - Discussion Open Education and OERs Defined Video source TEDxNYED, David Wiley, 03/06/10: https://youtu.be/Rb0syrgsH6M?si=Fu7a3W5xXpFYBWaF "Open Education encompasses educational resources, tools and practices that can be freely and fully used in the digital environment without legal, financial or technical barriers. The meaning of “open” is typically defined in terms of users being able to freely exercise the five “R” rights: retain, reuse, revise, remix, and redistribute." Open Education's three pillars include: - Open Educational Resources (OER) - what we will focus on today - Open Educational Practices (OEP) - Open Educational Policy Open Education: - allows for continuous quality improvement - gives educators and learners control over content - supports try academic freedom OERs are: “OER are teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use and re-purposing by others. Open educational resources include full courses, course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge” (Hewlett Foundation, n.d.)." Information taken from the SPARC Open Education Leadership Program https://sparcopen.org/our-work/open-education-leadership-program/ Copied and communicated under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Image source: "What are OERs and why use them?" Copied and communicated under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Reasons to Use OERs - From 2008-2018, the average net price (including tuition and fees, room and board, and books and supplies) of public four-year institutions has risen by 24%. - This increase disproportionately affects students and families of color. For Black and Hispanic households, this net price accounts for at least 25% of the median household income in 36 states. - Students spend over $3 billion in financial aid on textbooks each year. - High textbook costs cause adverse student behavior, including: - 64% of students reported not purchasing the required textbook due to cost - 43% reported taking fewer courses - 41% reported choosing not to register for a specific course - 41% reported dropping a course - 36% reported earning a poor grade in a course - The high cost of course materials disproportionately affects food-insecure students. 82% of students who reported missing a meal also reported not buying a textbook. - At Park, 88% of full-time, first-time students receive some kind of financial aid, but only 41% of their average financial aid is met, and the average student debt at graduation is $18,103. Studies from 2005-2020 indicate: - No statistically significant difference in test scores between sections of a class that use OERs vs. commercial textbooks - Classrooms using OERs saw a greater improvement in national test scores - Classes with OERs saw lower failure and withdrawal rates than classes with traditional textbooks OERs "equalize" students' engagement and performance, meaning they lead to a lower standard deviation in page views, on-time assignment submissions, attendance, and Video OER \| Katie Gosa \| TEDxUTA https://youtu.be/dUgqdSOD9bg?si=YE74o9eZBhR-_wSh Scholarship on OER Benefits Degrees of Open: Keynote for the MO A&OER 2024 Conference https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09LGoOd4Zhg Clinton, V., & Khan, S. (2019). Efficacy of Open Textbook Adoption on Learning Performance and Course Withdrawal Rates: A Meta-Analysis. AERA Open, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419872212 Barnes, C. A., Vine, S., & Nadeau, R. (2024). Assessing textbook affordability before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: Results of student and faculty surveys. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 50(2), N.PAG. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2024.102864 Finding OERs: OER Metafinders & Repositories Finding OERs: Textbooks, Courseware, Assignments, Case Studies, Open Data, etc. Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Accessibility (IDEA) & Evaluating OERs Video “Open Dialogues: Open education and accessibility” by CTLT, University of British Columbia [Youtube] is licensed CC BY 4.0. Enhancing Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Accessibility (IDEA) in Open Educational Resources (OER) by Nikki Anderson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 License, Doing the Work: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Open Educational Resources Copyright © by Heather Blicher, Valencia Scott, Stephanie Lenox, Abbey Gaterud, Michaela Willi Hooper, Veronica Vold is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Enhancing Inclusion, Diversity, Equity, and Accessibility (IDEA) in Open Educational Resources (OER) by Nikki Anderson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 License, Floe Project is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 License Faculty OER Toolkit by Shannon Moist is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Supporting Faculty and Institutional OER Efforts Washington State Board for Community and Technical Colleges licensed under CC BY 4.0. https://www.openwa.org/module-1/ Faculty Incentives to Incorporate OERs into their Course Design Video: Open Education Network Faculty Incentives https://oer.suny.edu/oer-sustainability/ Creating a Sustainable Campus-Wide OER Program My Experience with OERs Creating OERs: Opportunities for Teaching & Learning The OER Starter Kit Workbook by Abbey K. Elder & Stacy Katz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Creating OERs in the Classroom with Students Open Education Conference Access, Outcomes, & Engagement: Student-Centred Collaboration as a Values-Based Approach to OER https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLsUGPTCIII On the Horizon: OERs & AI University of New Mexico AI-Enhanced OER Development Faculty Pilot Project CCOER Community College Consortium for OER Community of Practice AAI and OER: Defining Education. Open Education GLOBAL 2024 https://youtu.be/nl08elC-yy8?si=5WTqllhAttd2Lx1G How do we respond to generative AI in education? 2023 Bryan Alexander https://youtu.be/ItFKi8JPUEk?si=M5K-v1OzK5WD9HXH Mills, Bali, & Eaton. (2023). How do we respond to generative AI in education? Open educational practices give us a framework for an ongoing process. Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching. 46(1). https://journals.sfu.ca/jalt/index.php/jalt/article/view/843/597 McNulty, Rebecca; Dubach, Lily; and Paradiso, James R., "The 5-Ps of Jumpstarting Open Assessment Creation with Generative AI" (2023). Faculty Scholarship and Creative Works. 1229. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/ucfscholar/1229 Tila, D. and Levy, D. (2023) Curating OER Content through AI and ChatGPT. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 11, 510-527. doi: 10.4236/jss.2023.1112035. Learn More: Community College OER COP, KBOR, and JCCC Learn More: Professional Development Opportunities Discussion Discussion Image source: "What are OERs and why use them?" Copied and communicated under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.634985	03/21/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114424/overview", "title": "Open Education Resources", "author": "Danielle Theiss" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111979/overview	(Template) Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (Add Institution Name) Overview This template supports faculty and staff as they interrogate their OER and iterate the resource. This template is part of a Canvas course titled Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL. The initial course is offered by ISKME to California Community College faculty and staff and was created with support from the Michelson Foundatin's Spark Grant Program. Background on the Resource and Collaborators Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please note: one template will be created per team unless a team has decided that each person is interrogating a separate OER. In that instance, this section could be copied and pasted into each person's template. Please provide background information on the team members and the resource you have chosen to interrogate and adapt. - Who is on your team and what are their positions at your Institution? - What resource did your team chose to interrogate? - What are your team's goals with interrogating and adapting this resource? - What impact do you envision this will have on students? - What impact do you envision this will have on other faculty and staff at your institution? Adaptations to support Open Educational Practices Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of OER tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of the open licensing on this resource? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Adaptations to support Accessibility Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of Accessibility tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of Accessibility on this resource? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Adaptations to support UDL Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please refer to the Characteristics of UDL tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of UDL on this resource? - DId your team identify any opportunities to co-create with students and what might that look like? - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? Sharing your iteration Prompts are provided below. Please replace the prompts with your own information. Please attach or link your iterated resource in this section. To help make your experience visible to others who pursue similar work, please share the following: - What aspect of this process stretched your thinking about your resource? - What next steps is your team considering?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.657196	01/28/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111979/overview", "title": "(Template) Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (Add Institution Name)", "author": "Joanna Schimizzi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120359/overview	Exploring Gamification in English Language Teaching: A Research Perspective Overview Overview of Gamification in ELT Gamification integrates game-like elements, such as points, badges, and competition, into English Language Teaching (ELT) to boost learner engagement and motivation. By turning learning activities into games, students become more active participants in their language acquisition, making the process enjoyable and interactive. Popular tools like Duolingo, Kahoot!, and Classcraft use rewards and challenges to encourage continuous learning and help reinforce vocabulary, grammar, and fluency. While gamification offers clear benefits—such as increased motivation and personalized learning—it also presents challenges, including the risk of over-relying on game mechanics, which can undermine deeper learning, and technology access issues in certain regions. Despite these obstacles, gamification remains a powerful tool in modern ELT, offering innovative ways to enhance language teaching. ELT Gamification Exploring Gamification in English Language Teaching: A Research Perspective In recent years, gamification has emerged as a transformative trend in education, offering dynamic approaches to engage learners and improve learning outcomes. The incorporation of game elements into non-gaming contexts, particularly in English Language Teaching (ELT), has demonstrated potential in enhancing motivation, retention, and participation. As educational paradigms shift from traditional methods to more interactive and learner-centered approaches, gamification offers educators innovative ways to make language learning more effective and enjoyable. This essay explores the role of gamification in ELT, examines its benefits, challenges, and provides examples of tools and apps that have revolutionized language learning. Gamification: Concept and Relevance to ELT Gamification involves integrating game mechanics such as point scoring, competition, badges, and rewards into learning activities. In the context of ELT, gamification aligns with learner-centered teaching strategies, as it places the student at the core of the learning process, encouraging active participation. A notable example is the use of progression systems where learners gain points or badges as they complete tasks, providing a sense of achievement and motivating them to continue learning. Research suggests that gamified learning environments help increase intrinsic motivation by fostering a sense of autonomy, mastery, and purpose (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This is particularly effective in language acquisition, where maintaining learner engagement is key. Gamification also supports task-based learning (TBL), where learners use language in meaningful, practical contexts, and communicative tasks are turned into interactive games. Benefits of Gamification in ELT 1. Increased Engagement and Motivation: One of the main advantages of gamification is its ability to captivate learners. For example, the use of leaderboards and reward systems in apps like Duolingo or Kahoot! creates a sense of friendly competition. Learners are driven to improve their language skills, as each completed task leads to immediate feedback and progress tracking. 2. Enhanced Learning through Repetition: Language acquisition often involves repetitive practice, which can be mundane in traditional settings. Gamified learning platforms like Quizlet allow learners to repeatedly practice vocabulary through fun, game-like formats such as flashcards and timed quizzes. This interactive repetition aids retention and recall without the monotony of conventional drills. 3. Personalized Learning: Gamification facilitates adaptive learning paths where learners can proceed at their own pace. Apps like Memrise utilize spaced repetition systems (SRS) that adapt to the learner’s progress, ensuring that new vocabulary or grammatical structures are reviewed at optimal intervals to boost long-term retention. This creates a tailored learning experience that suits individual needs. Challenges of Gamification in ELT Despite its numerous benefits, there are challenges associated with gamification in language teaching. Over-reliance on game mechanics can detract from deep learning. When students become overly focused on rewards, badges, or competition, the quality of learning may be compromised. Teachers need to strike a balance between motivating learners through games and ensuring they develop a genuine understanding of language structures. Another challenge is the digital divide, particularly in contexts where access to technology is limited. In countries like Pakistan, where technological infrastructure varies significantly across regions, educators may face difficulty implementing gamified language learning tools uniformly. Practical Applications of Gamification in ELT Several tools and platforms provide practical examples of gamification in ELT: 1. Duolingo: This app offers language learners a series of bite-sized lessons structured as levels in a game. Learners earn points and unlock new levels by completing tasks. The app's competitive elements, such as streaks and leaderboards, keep learners motivated. For ELT, Duolingo helps reinforce grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure through engaging tasks. 2. Classcraft: This gamified learning management system allows teachers to turn classroom activities into a role-playing game. Students work together as teams, completing tasks and challenges to earn rewards. In the ELT context, teachers can design language-based quests where students must use target language structures to solve problems or advance to the next level. 3. Kahoot!: A popular tool in language classrooms, Kahoot! allows teachers to create quizzes and surveys in a game-show format. The competitive and timed nature of the platform encourages students to think quickly and use the target language under pressure, helping improve fluency. 4. Wordwall: This interactive tool enables teachers to create custom games for language learning, such as word searches, match-ups, and quizzes. It adds variety to classroom activities while allowing students to review vocabulary and grammar in a fun and engaging way. Conclusion Gamification offers a promising avenue for enhancing English language teaching by increasing student engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes. Through platforms such as Duolingo, Kahoot!, and Classcraft, educators can incorporate game-like elements that create a fun, competitive, and immersive learning environment. However, challenges such as over-reliance on game mechanics and the digital divide must be addressed to maximize the benefits of gamification in ELT. As technology continues to evolve, the future of gamification in language teaching promises to be dynamic and innovative, with the potential to reshape how we approach language acquisition in diverse educational settings.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.673551	Anam Ikhtiar	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120359/overview", "title": "Exploring Gamification in English Language Teaching: A Research Perspective", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93395/overview	Micrograph Neisseria sicca Gram stain 1000x p000030 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Neisseria sicca cells grown on nutrient agar at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox micrograph Dozens of pink, round cells on a light background.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.690860	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93395/overview", "title": "Micrograph Neisseria sicca Gram stain 1000x p000030", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117525/overview	Assignment 1 - Individual Practice Observing Animal Behavior Assignment 2 - Behavioral Project Experimental Design Assignment 3 - Group Project Observations Assignment 4 - Behavioral Project Data Analysis Assignment 5 - Behavioral Project Presentations Introduction to the Animal Behavior Project Introductory Biology Animal Behavior Project Overview Engaging introductory biology students in course-based undergraduate research (CURE), especially when they are not intending to major in the discipline, can feel challenging and at times, laborious for them. Studying animal behavior is highly accessible for this population because it allows opportunity to engage with animals within their lives, such as pets, or within the community, including native fauna. Designing experiments around animal behavior allows students to employ the scientific method while avoiding the complexity of techniques and skills more commonly found in molecular labs and also fosters connectivity to the world around them, with which they regularly interact, driving a degree of intrinsic motivation. In addition, creating this opportunity for students early on in their undergraduate career can build critical thinking, teamwork, and analytical skills applicable to other coursework. This CURE, highly adaptable and able to be completed in as little as six weeks, is readily implemented to courses at any level. Citation Hoffman, S., Najera, D., Studdach, L. (2023, October). A Non-Major Biology CURE Studying Animal Behavioral Patterns. OER Commons. Retrieved August 20, 2024 from https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117525/ Introduction Course-based undergraduate research has rich roots within the biology department at Green River College, found within the upper level majors series. However, until this point, there was no opportunity for non-major students to engage in authentic learning experiences. In order to receive the Associate in Arts Degree for direct transfer, students need at least 15 credits of natural sciences, five of which need to have a lab component. Of the eligible courses, BIOL&100, Survey of Biology, a foundational course for non-majors, has the largest enrollment (Green River College Data Dashboards, 2021-2023). As a result, implementation of a course-based undergraduate research experience, a high-impact practice, within this course will engage a large population of students at our college. Using animal behavior as a basis for group research projects is accessible, as all students have some degree of familiarity with the subject. Students need not learn specialized techniques to engage in the project and interpretation of results can sometimes be more intuitive when placed into a lens of behavioral rationale. In addition, they can engage in this study using multiple modalities, observing wildlife in the community, pets at home, or zoo cameras. Students will first be introduced to the concept of animal behavior and why it is useful to study. They will learn the methods via which behavioralists monitor their subjects, via the use of ethograms and creating behavioral sequences. Students will practice as a class and then individually, preparing them for the group project. As a group, they will design an experiment in which they seek to study how different conditions impact the behavioral patterns of animal subjects. After conducting observations, they will graph and interpret their data, ultimately presenting it in some form, giving them a whole picture of how the scientific method is applied. Scientific Teaching Context Learning Objectives - Design a controlled, scientific study that involves data collection and analysis (Assignment 2,3) - Work effectively in a team environment (Assignment 2) - Learn how biologists utilize ethograms for behavioral analysis studies (Assignment 1) - Draw meaningful conclusions and share them with a broader audience (Assignment 5) Research Objectives - Determine how animal behaviors alter in response to different external stimuli (Assignment 4) Intended Audience This material is designed to be accessible to non-major biology students at a community college, but can be adapted for introductory or upper-level biology students with modifications to details and expectations. Required Learning Time This material can be completed during a 10-week course term in as little as four-five weeks depending on how much class-time you would like to dedicate to learning activities and how much time you would like to give students to complete observations, process the data, and put together their final assessment. Prerequisite Student Knowledge Students should be familiar with components of the scientific method, including independent and dependent variables, forming hypotheses, designing a controlled experiment, data collection and analysis. Familiarity with Excel and graphing is desirable, but not necessary. Lesson Plan Overview \| Activity \| Description \| Estimated Time \| Notes \| \| Project Introduction \| \|\|\| \| In-Class: Introduction to Animal Behavior & Ethograms \| Discussion of why we study animal behavior and class practice creating ethograms and calculating behavioral practice \| 60 minutes \| File: Animal Behavior Introduction PowerpointFile: Animal Behavior Project OverviewSome of the slides will need to be updated by the instructor in real-time as they elicit student participation \| \| Out-of-Class: Create and Analyze Behavioral Sequences for Different Species \| Students independently practice the skills they learned in the in-class activity to solidify understanding of creating ethograms and behavioral sequences. \| 60 minutes \| File: Assignment 1This activity is conducted independently by students outside of class. \| \| Behavioral Project Experimental Design - Done during two-hour in-class lab session \| \|\|\| \| In-Class: Group Contracts \| Provides a structure for groups to self-determine decision-making, meeting, and communication plans for the duration of the project \| 30 minutes \| File: Assignment 2 \| \| In-Class: Experimental Design \| Students are guided through developing a research question, a hypothesis, and the variables they will be manipulating or controlling. They will create a plan for observations. \| 90 minutes \| File: Assignment 2Students may need to finish this outside of class, but setting a deadline for the supply list is critical for instructional support staff.Dialog with students at this point is important to get them to think deeply and design experiments that will yield interesting results. \| \| Behavioral Project Observations \| \|\|\| \| Out-of-Class: \| Students spend time outside of class conducting their experiments. \| 1-2 weeks \| File: Assignment 3 \| \| Data Analysis \| \|\|\| \| Out-of-Class: \| Students use the data from their observations to create two figures. This assignment serves as a scaffolding assignment for feedback before the poster creation. \| 1 week \| File: Assignment 4While students complete this assignment in their groups, the instructor may choose to do an in-class presentation portion on using Excel and creating graphs as well as determining what graph type to use. \| \| Poster Creation \| \|\|\| \| In or Out-of-Class \| The final stage of the scientific method is communicating the findings. This assignment asks students to use the information they put together in Assignments 2 & 4 to share and interpret their experimental design & results. \| 1-2 weeks \| File: Assignment 5You might reserve an open lab time for students to work on these with the support of the instructor. Or, you can ask them to find time to do the work outside of class. \| Project Introduction - Animal Behavior See file: "Animal Behavior Introduction Powerpoint" See file: "Introduction to Animal Behavior Project" In this interactive lecture (Animal Behavior Introduction Powerpoint), students learn about animal behavior and why we study it. Some context related to the biological impulses that lead to behavior is also introduced. As a hook, students watch a 15-minute clip from the docuseries 60-minutes and learn about the work of an animal behaviorist studying African forest elephants, in particular how intense study can inform us as to how individuals and families interact and utilize distinct vocal cues during socialization. The instructor introduces what ethograms are and how they are used to create behavioral sequences. These sequences can further be analyzed to determine the frequency of given behaviors and behavioral patterns, helping scientists better learn about a species. As a class, the instructor will play a one-minute video clip of capuchin monkeys. Students will write down the behaviors they observe during the clip and the instructor will solicit responses to build an ethogram together. Using the class-created ethogram, the instructor will play an additional 30-seconds of the clip, asking students to create a behavioral sequence from that clip. Using an example offered up by a student, the instructor will guide the class through how to calculate behavioral frequencies from that sequence. *This can be a good place to discuss the importance of repetition/iteration in scientific experimentation. It is likely that different students generated different behavioral sequences. This variation becomes neutralized with more repetition. Student Assignment Students will individually practice the skills learned in class related to creating ethograms and monitoring behaviors. They have the option of observing animals proximal to them or using Zoo Cam footage, but will record 25 behavioral sequences and calculate the behavioral frequencies. Behavior Project Experimental Design Students will form groups of 3-5 to develop a question related to animal behavior that they would like to answer. Before beginning, they will complete a group contract (Assignment 2, pages 2-5) in which they will identify how they will communicate with one another, role delegation, expectations related to work quality, participation, and accountability, and how the group will self-manage infractions to the contract. It’s best if the instructor keeps a copy of this contract while a second copy belongs to the group. Students will next work on designing an experiment that will answer the question they have created related to animal behavior. This could be a good time to review the components of the scientific method with students as well as controls and variables. In part I, while brainstorming, they are prompted to think about the variables to their experiment, their research question and hypothesis, and generally how they will conduct their experiment. The instructor will be talking with groups at this point, providing suggestions or insights that might strengthen their design, or ask questions to prompt students to reconsider the feasibility of their strategy. Once deemed satisfactory, the instructor will sign-off on the initial project proposal and students will develop a more comprehensive materials and methods section. The procedure is designed for them to plan out exactly who is doing what and when and to make sure the experiment is replicable. The materials list is especially crucial so that lab support staff can purchase needed equipment in a timely manner. Behavior Project Observations See file “Assignment 3 - Group Project Observations”. Students will, as a group, set up their experiment and create ethograms for the species they are observing. A key difference from their individual ethogram creations is that they will need to capture photos of the behaviors, so that interpretation between group members can be as consistent as possible. Students will be asked to put together 75-100 behavioral sequences from their observations (encourage 25 observations per person) and calculate behavioral frequencies. Data Analysis See file “Assignment 4 - Group Data Analysis” This aspect of the assignment is designed to scaffold student work on the project before they get to the final assessment. It can be removed if there isn’t sufficient time. As attached, it is an asynchronous assignment, wherein students view tutorials on how to use Excel and how to create and use different graph types. Alternatively, the instructor can prepare a lesson on this for in-class use. Students use their behavioral data to create two charts or graphs to display interesting information. Challenge them to really dig into interesting questions and examine their data from all angles. Some suggestions are provided, but feel free to add more. Let them know that their data need not support their hypothesis. This is part of science! This will also be a chance for them to receive feedback on their charts before adding them to their final poster or presentation, particularly with labels, correct chart selection, and whether or not the data they are displaying actually conveys meaning or something of interest. Final Assessment Choice for final assessment is flexible depending on the timing, resources, and instructor preference. Suggestions include a written report of their findings, creating a presentation for the class, or posters for campus symposiums. In this instance, an assessment containing parameters for poster creation is used. Students can work on their final assessment during a time when there is instructor supervision and support, such as an empty lab period, or they can be asked to do it exclusively outside of class. A rubric is included that explicitly indicates to students what information should be included, as are templates and previous examples. You might take time to go through these elements with students, have them critique example posters of different qualities, or do a peer review of each others’ posters before final submission. Teaching Discussion & Notes Instructor Notes IRB Approval None needed. Students should not be using human subjects. Materials Needed This will depend on the lists created by the students. Feel free to prompt modifications to their experimental design if the cost for materials exceeds the departmental budget for the project. Game Cameras, if available, are preferable for students so that they don’t have to constantly monitor a site. If used, you will need to make time for students to learn how to use them while also briefing them about the necessity to change the batteries and clear the memory card often. They will also need to be versed on how to observe the recordings made by the game camera. For Instructional Support Staff Coordinate with instructional support staff well in advance to find out how much time they will need to get supplies DEI Connections The formulaic approach to sharing out the results can be challenged. By allowing students the opportunity to decide how they will communicate their findings embraces concepts of Universal Design of Learning (UDL). Extensions and Modifications Modifications for an Online Format The same assignments can readily be done in an online environment, utilizing Zoo and Aquarium cameras. Students will have less agency in experimental design and will need to familiarize themselves with the schedule of animals in the environment before deciding upon a research question or hypothesis. Files Attached are the files referenced in the resource.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.734687	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117525/overview", "title": "Introductory Biology Animal Behavior Project", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85399/overview	Math 150: Myth and Measurement--African Americans and Statistics Overview Welcome to Statistics! In this statistics course, we learn about the ethical use and the basic practice of statistics. As we learn, we will also explore how statistics have been used unethically to create enduring and false myths about African Americans. We will also see how statistics can be used to illuminate injustice and offer clear information upon which we can act to become anti-racist agents in our communities. Math 150: Myth and Measurment--African Americans and Statistics Welcome to Statistics! In this statistics course, we learn about the ethical use and the basic practice of statistics. As we learn, we will also explore how statistics have been used unethically to create enduring and false myths about African Americans. We will also see how statistics can be used to illuminate injustice and offer clear information upon which we can act to become anti-racist agents in our communities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.752089	Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85399/overview", "title": "Math 150: Myth and Measurement--African Americans and Statistics", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105701/overview	Trident Technical College OER Implementation Pilot Overview In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. May 11 - Section One: Landscape Analysis for Accessibility in OER in Local Context (Work on during May 11th implementation) In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. We exnourage to explore some of the questions from each category. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. We ask that you complete Parts One, Two and Six. Part One: Initial Thoughts What is your team's initial goal for this series? - Initially, our goal was to discover and promote OER. - Collaboration with the History Department . The members of this cohort team are three History instructors and two librarians. - Create a Digital Collection of OER to support History assignments. After creation, use it as an example to other departments. Part Two: Introductory probing questions: What does accessibility look like in our organization? How do we measure accessibility? - Through this cohort experience, is was discovered by the team that there is a designated staff member in our Distance Learning Services area who can assist faculty with making documents and resources more accessible. In speaking with the staff member, a few years ago there was a huge push for making documents accessible. Since many resources are shared departmental documents (e.g. syllabi), that are still in use, there has not been a lot of inquiry lately and most of the syallbi have already been through an accessibility checklist. Especially since the LMS used (Desire to Learn / D2L) has so many built in tools. However, that does not help with the individually created documents (e.g. WORD, Powerpoint) by faculty and other resources (OER) uploaded. Discussion with Distance Learning Services resulted in them deciding to do more promotion of thier ongoing services. Esepcially to new faculty and adjuncts. They also are evaluating new software that could enhance what they are already doing. - The Office of Counseling and Disability works with students who have documented needs and work with those particular faculty who have those students in their classes. What does OER look like in our organization? How do we measure access to OER? - Currently there is no overall OER initiative. The library, the Center for Teaching Excellence and several pockets of faculty / departments have taken a few steps towards more awareness and the discovery and use of OER. However, nothing cohesive and consistent. campuswide. Things have been Hit or Miss. There are quite a few courses that do use OpenStax and other free textbooks. The focus at the institution has primarily been reducing Textbook costs. However, there is not a clear understanding of what actually constitutes a true OER. Some of the textbooks are “free” but cannot, for example be remixed or revised. They are just free resources. So a clear understanding of what OER actually entails is needed. Part Six: Final Probing questions: What is our current goal for Accessibility in OER and why is that our goal? - Collaborate with the library to create a databank of History OER - Check all sources using Accessibility checklist / Accessibility checker, and other accessibility tools (e.g. mouse test, ANDI, POUR). - Collaborate with the Distance Learning Services Staff to promote their services. Because of this cohort and questions, the library has recently been included in a couple of demos (Blackboard Ally and YuJa Panorama) that Distance Learning Services is evaluating for possible future purchase. Section Two: Team Focus (Finish before May 25th to share during Implementation Session Two) Identifying and Describing a Problem of Practice The following questions should help your team ensure that you are focusing your collaboration. What is your Team’s specific goal for this series? What other partners might support this work? What is your desired timeframe for this work? (Save for during May 25th's session.) What feedback did you receive from another team during the May 25th Implementation Session? - Create a Databank of History Department Assignments beginning with Cohort Members. Eventually include all History Faculty. - Create / Edit Research Guides (Libguides) for each course (e.g. HIS 101) that, in addition to other resources (e.g. library databases, books), contains OER that have met accessibility desirables. (run accessibility checkers). - Create and link an accessibility guide to all research guides that provides information on accessibility features of various library academic databases already available. (e.g. turning on closed captioning feature in Films on Demand database, how to increase fonts and using the built in reader in EBSCO databases). - The planning for the pilot will be over the summer and the implementation will be in the Fall of 2023 with the History Department. - Examples of additional areas of the college who are potential partners include: Distance learning, Center for Teaching Excellence and IT. - The Library will provide several webinars (e.g. Creative Commons, What is an OER?, Help!! I am a New Instructor / Adjunct). - This was shared with Briar Cliff University. Feedback was positive. They especially thought it was a great idea to work with adjunct and new faculty who often times need even more assistance in becoming acclimated and aware of available resources. Section Three: Team Work Time and Next Steps (Complete by the end of Implementation Session Three) Sharing and Next Steps What was your redefined goal for this series? What does your team want to celebrate? What did your team accomplish? If you have links to resources, please include them here. - Our redefined goal is to focus on OER discovery, however to also emphasize more on accessibility . - A Digital Library or Resource guide of OER to support History assignments is the goal. We have started a research guide for the History Faculty where discovered OER and additional in resources will be made available. The guide is an ongoing work in progress. We would also like to create a collection of assignments and assessments that could faculty could share. https://libguides.tridenttech.edu/historyoer - The three History Instructors and two librarians learned more about each other’s needs, and ways to collaborate. The group as a whole learned more about accessibility and also the “holes” at the institution that need to be addressed and filled. - iclickers were made available and will be tested this summer in the class of a cohort member. - Because of this series, more inquiries on what was actually available on campus, or not available, on campus were made. The result was very positive and the Distance Learning Services area has included the librarian on their team that is currently vetting several products to improve accessibility at the institution (e.g. Blackboard Ally, YuJa Panoramic Digital).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.776013	06/21/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105701/overview", "title": "Trident Technical College OER Implementation Pilot", "author": "Charnette Singleton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115959/overview	Signature Assignment: Primary Source Analysis Overview For this assignment, the student will select an historical issue from the first half of U.S. history (pre-history to 1877) to analyze in a paper using primary sources. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample assignment where students use primary sources to analyze a debated historical issue. About This Resource The sample assignment was submitted by a participant in a one-day workshop entitled “New Approaches to Frontier History” for world history teachers hosted by the Alliance for Learning in World History. This resource was contributed by Kristen Vogel.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.794585	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115959/overview", "title": "Signature Assignment: Primary Source Analysis", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114468/overview	Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (Gavilan) Overview This template supports faculty and staff as they interrogate their OER and iterate the resource. This template is part of a Canvas course titled Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL. The initial course is offered by ISKME to California Community College faculty and staff and was created with support from the Michelson Foundatin's Spark Grant Program. Background on the Resource and Collaborators Please provide background information on the team members and the resource you have chosen to interrogate and adapt. - Who is on your team and what are their positions at your Institution? - Rachel Moller, Chemistry faculty; Erik Medina, Math faculty; Patrick Yuh, Biology faculty - What resource did your team chose to interrogate? - OER textbooks in our respective disciplines - What are your team's goals with interrogating and adapting this resource? - Individual goals may vary; Patrick will be looking at aspects of UDL in the OpenStax textbook Biology 2e - What impact do you envision this will have on students? - Hopefully students will be more engaged with the course content in the OER, be able to learn more effectively with the OER, or have more options for completing assessments in the course - What impact do you envision this will have on other faculty and staff at your institution? - This might help educate other campus faculty/staff on the quality and versatility possible with OER Adaptations to support Open Educational Practices Please refer to the Characteristics of OER tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of the open licensing on this resource? - I'm planning to adapt the OpenStax Biology 2e OER textbook. This text is available as a PDF and also as an online Web version. OpenStax makes available to instructors editable .docx files of each chapter, so they can customize the content to their liking. This will greatly facilitate the process of adapting and customizing the OER. Given that OpenStax has already put a lot of effort into fulfilling many characteristics of OER, I can look more into the content itself. As I go about customizing this text, I think it would be useful to look at the backwards design aspect and make sure my changes remain consistent with chapter-level and section-level objectives. - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - It would take a long time to customize the entire textbook! I would likely be the person to spearhead this. - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? - File redundancy and documenting the changes - always saving a new copy before customizing so the original versions will be there for reference and comparison. The impact on students could be determined by asking for their feedback from time to time. This feedback could then be shared with the department. Adaptations to support Accessibility Please refer to the Characteristics of Accessibility tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of Accessibility on this resource? - OpenStax makes their textbooks available as a PDF and also as an online Web version. It would be worth looking over images, links, and other materials to make sure they have included things like alt text and contextual links. - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - This could take quite a long time to go through the entire textbook. I'm unsure who would be the point person, though as the only instructor for the course I would likely take the lead on this. - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? - As this work progresses, I can check in with my students and get feedback from them on the accessibility of the textbook. This can be reported out in subsequent department meetings or other venues. Adaptations to support UDL Please refer to the Characteristics of UDL tool. Based on your interrogation of your resource, please share: - What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of UDL on this resource? - I plan to adapt Chapter 12 of the OpenStax Biology 2e textbook. This chapter deals with genetics and inheritance, and in my experience it is a challenging part of the course. I want to improve on the multiple means of representation aspect of the UDL framework for this part of the textbook. - DId your team identify any opportunities to co-create with students and what might that look like? - I think a good way to incorporate student feedback would be to have students (who are taking the course) look over and work with the remixed chapter with additional resources, and see what they think. - How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? - After the remix is complete and available for students, this would probably involve setting up a meeting with some students to solicit their feedback. I can be the point person to work on this. - How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? - This could be something I do each semester as I teach this course. I can document the student feedback and share out at department meetings. Sharing your iteration Please attach or link your iterated resource in this section. To help make your experience visible to others who pursue similar work, please share the following: - What aspect of this process stretched your thinking about your resource? - For me, it's just the idea that OERs can be remixed and repackaged at all. I have always provided additional resources outside of the textbook for my students, but this approach seems to be about integrating them into something more seamless and streamlined. Or maybe I'm thinking about this differently! - What next steps is your team considering? - I'll have to consult with my team about this! We are each working on our own remix, so I don't know where we plan to go next with them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.820854	Lecture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114468/overview", "title": "Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (Gavilan)", "author": "Genetics" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105772/overview	Through the Lens of Social Justice: An Inclusive Approach to Mentoring Undergraduates in Macrophage Cell Diversity and Severe Covid-19 Symptoms in Public Health Overview In our resource, we highlight the role of the viral non-structural proteins and their role in blocking host interferon signaling of the innate immune system. In addition, we also describe the host immune response specifically the cytokine signaling clouds in the variation in severity of patients living with COVID-19. Finally, we apply these latest peer-reviewed research on host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the context of integrated immunology framework linked with three-dimensional learning in life science education and topics on social justice dimensions of vaccination access in global health. Through the social justice lens and global health perspectives, we provide an innovative framework to engage undergraduates in the field of integrated immunology and developmental biology in both remote and hybrid-flexible (HyFlex) learning settings. Integrating Immunology, Public Health, and Social Justice Rahel S. Ghebrihiwot and Robert M. Kao Article Info Keywords: Coronavirus Novel coronavirus Pneumonia SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 Pre-symptomatic transmission Asymptomatic transmission Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2 ACE-2 Non-structural proteins Interferon signaling Cytokine signaling Public Health Social Justice Abstract The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has taken center stage in infectious disease research. Since the first reports to the World Health Organization (WHO) in winter 2019, we know that the infectious agent was a virus of the coronavirus family, named SARS-CoV-2 (the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2) causes a respiratory disease in COVID-19 and attacks lung cells due to the presence the host cell receptor Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-2. In our resource, we highlight the role of the viral non-structural proteins and their role in blocking host interferon signaling of the innate immune system. In addition, we also describe the host immune response specifically the cytokine signaling clouds in the variation in severity of patients living with COVID-19. Finally, we apply these latest peer-reviewed research on host immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the context of integrated immunology framework linked with three-dimensional learning in life science education and topics on social justice dimensions of vaccination access in global health. Through the social justice lens and global health perspectives, we provide an innovative framework to engage undergraduates in the field of integrated immunology and developmental biology in both remote and hybrid-flexible (HyFlex) learning settings.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.848011	06/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105772/overview", "title": "Through the Lens of Social Justice: An Inclusive Approach to Mentoring Undergraduates in Macrophage Cell Diversity and Severe Covid-19 Symptoms in Public Health", "author": "Bob Kao" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95090/overview	simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_630x, p000127 Overview simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_630x, \| one layer surface cells top layer is flat \| simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_630x p000127 simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_630x, one layer surface cells top layer is flat	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.860559	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95090/overview", "title": "simple squamous epi_top view_wide mount_mesothelium_630x, p000127", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107502/overview	Education Standards Nutritional Value of Livestock Feeds Overview How does the nutrient content of cereal grains and their by-products change as they are processed? In this lesson, students will determine the presence of starch and protein in common feedstuffs used in the livestock agriculture industry. Overview Essential Question What nutrients are present in common cereal grains and their by-products? Learning Objectives Identify feed products that contain carbohydrates and/or proteins. Demonstrate the use of chemical tests to indicate the presence of nutrients. Equipment and Materials Equipment - (5) Test Tubes - (1) Test Tube Rack - (1) Mortar and Pestle - (5) Droppers - (4) 50 mL Beaker Materials - Example Samples of Livestock Feed - Whole Corn, Ground Corn, Steam-Flaked Corn - Whole Soybeans, Soybean Meal, Soy Hulls - Whole Oats, Wheat Bran, Wheat Straw - Masking Tape - Iodine Solution (with dropper) - Biueret Solution (with dropper) - Distilled Water Any material that might be used as feed for animals may be substituted. Per Student - Pen/Pencil - Lab Notebook - Safety Goggles Lesson Plan Background Information Livestock must be fed a diet that provides them with enough energy to sustain all of their physical activities and bodily functions. One type of feed may supply several of the needed nutrients, but usually a certain feedstuff only contains a concentration of a particular nutrient. This is why feedstuffs are generally combined with other types of feeds to create a more complete diet for the animal. Interest Approach Facilitate a discussion with students about which of them raise livestock and what they raise them for. Transition into asking them about what they feed their livestock and why they choose to give them that specific feedstuff. Explain that feedstuffs usually contain a concentrated amount of a particular nutrient, and that the type of feed we need to provide to our livestock will change based on the nutritional needs of each specific animal. Career Connections - Feedlot Manager - Nutrition Consultant - Veterinarian Experimental Procedure Preparing the Nutrient Solutions - Prepare the first nutrient solution by grinding one of the feed samples into smaller particles using a mortar and pestle. - Once the sample is completely ground, add a small amount of distilled water to the sample to turn the mixture into a waterlike solution. - Grind until the feed and water are thoroughly mixed and the solids are small enough to pass through a dropper. - Pour the mixture into one of the 50 mL beakers. Use a piece of masking tape to label the beaker with the name of the feedstuff the solution contains. - Wash the mortar and pestle and repeat Steps 1-4 to prepare each of the other desired feed materials. Label each beaker appropriately. Part 1 - Test for Starch (Carbohydrates) Caution - Wash chemicals immediately from your skin if any is spilled!* - Obtain the same number of test tubes as nutrient solutions you have prepared and use masking tape to label each with the name of the feedstuff it will contain. - Using a clean dropper for each sample, place ten drops of each nutrient solution into the appropriately labeled test tube and put them in the test tube rack. - Label an additional test tube as "water" and then put ten drops of distilled water into the test tube. This will serve as a control group during the experiment. - Hypothesize which feeds contain each nutrient and record your answer in Table 1.1. - Record the color of the solution in each test tube you have prepared in Table 1.2. - Add three drops of iodine to each of the test tubes. - Gently swirl each test tube to mix the contents. If the color changes to a deep blue or a blue-black, starch is present. Record the results for each sample in Table 1.2. - Properly dispose of the nutrient solutions in the test tubes into a sanitary sink and wash the test tubes thoroughly. Part 2 - Test for Protein - Using the same quantity of test tubes as in Part 1, label each with the name of the feedstuff contained in each of the nutrient solutions prepared in the 50 mL beakers. - Use a clean dropper to place ten drops of each nutrient solution in its corresponding test tube and place them in the test tube rack. Add ten drops of distilled water to the control test tube. - Record the color of the solution in each test tube you have prepared in Table 1.3 - Add ten drops of Biuret Solution to each test tube and swirl gently to mix the contents. - Record the color of each test tube in Table 1.3. The presence of protein is indicated by a shade of purple. - Properly dispose of the nutrient solutions in the test tubes into a sanitary sink and wash the test tubes thoroughly. Conclusion/Check for Understanding After the conclusion of student data collection and cleaning up of materials, bring the class back together and have students discuss their results in small groups. Discussion should be focused on which feed samples contained each of the individual nutrient classes. Have students share their results with the whole class by having them group the feedstuffs used during the experiment into distinct categories. - Which feed samples contained starch? - Which feed samples contained protein? - Did the results of any of the samples surprise you? Why? - Do any of your families feed these feedstuffs to your livestock? Why? Extension Activity Based on the data collected in their experiment, students should research a specific livestock species and create a proposal for the types of feedstuffs that should be included in their ration.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.887270	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107502/overview", "title": "Nutritional Value of Livestock Feeds", "author": "Nutrition" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81345/overview	Eukaryotic cell concept map KEY Eukaryotic Cell Concept Map and KEY Overview This resource will allow students to practice matching eukaryotic cell organelles with definitions. Eukaryotic Cell Concept Map Practice Worksheet: Eukaryotic Cell Concept Map Introductory Biology Course (non-majors) Guidance on how to use this assignment: This activity provides the opportunity for the students to practice using new terminology that is associated with introduction to eukaryotic cells and their organelles in an undergraduate introductory biology course. This corresponds with OpenStax Concepts of Biology (Ch 3) https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/2-3-biological-molecules Instructors could assign this worksheet to be completed as a pre-class assignment to assess understanding before any instruction begins and again as a post-class assignment to see how much they actually learn during instruction. It also could solely be assigned as a post-class assignment to challenge the students to use the new terminology right after the introductory	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.906070	06/01/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81345/overview", "title": "Eukaryotic Cell Concept Map and KEY", "author": "Jessica Sherburne" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97543/overview	Psychology 101 Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview By the end of the course, it is anticipated that you will learn how: 1. To identify the basic parts and functions of the neuron and lobes of the brain. 2. To identify different parenting styles and their effect on human development and 3. To identify major psychological disorders, key symptoms, and the main strategies used for treatment. Upon satisfactory completion of the course, students will be able to: 1. discuss the development of psychology as a science. 2. identify the major biologic response systems of the human body and discuss their influence on behavior. 3. discuss the difference between sensation and perception, giving one illustration of each. 4. define consciousness and describe how sleep, psychoactive substances and other stimuli affect consciousness. 5. identify and describe the major theories of human development and discuss how growth and development affect behavior. 6. discuss the processes by which humans learn and store skills and information. 7. discuss major theories of personality, their assumptions and implications. 8. outline the nature, causes, and treatments of abnormal behavior. 9. discuss the ways in which the social milieu affects human behavior. 10. identify major theories of emotion and motivation. Introduction to Psychology An introduction to the study of human behavior and cognition. Includes consideration of many of the major topics in psychology including, but not limited to, the biology of behavior, learning, human development, sleep and consciousness, personality, mental disorders and therapy, and social processes. (C-ID PSY 110) (CSU/UC)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.925356	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97543/overview", "title": "Psychology 101 Syllabus: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56697/overview	1.1 Study of Life 1.1 Study of Life (video) Lecture This animated lecture video explores the topics of what is biology. Quantitative and qualitative data. This animated lecture video explores the topics of what is biology. Quantitative and qualitative data.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.938209	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56697/overview", "title": "1.1 Study of Life", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115216/overview	Molecular Structure \| Assignment for OpenStax Chemistry: Atoms First 2e \| Section 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity Overview This chemistry activity was created to enhance student learning about molecular structure. It guides students through Phet simulations and then asks comprehension questions thereafter. Material Description & Supported Learning Objectives This chemistry activity was created to enhance student learning about molecular structure. This assignment utilizes Phet simulations and guides students through exploration and then comprehension questions. The content and reference for this activity was obtained through the OpenStax text of Chemistry: Atoms First 2e in Section 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity. Learning objectives for Section 4.6 of the OpenStax text - Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory - Explain the concepts of polar covalent bonds and molecular polarity - Assess the polarity of a molecule based on its bonding and structure Attributions Simulation by PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado Boulder, licensed under CC-BY-4.0 (https://phet.colorado.edu). This activity has been adapted from an activity by Richard Hoenyefia Boni licensed under CC-BY-4.0 (https://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/6919). This activity has been adapted from an activity by Scott Sinex licensed under CC-BY-4.0 (https://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/5690). Material Attachement Canvas Link: https://lor.instructure.com/resources/e1b2703925c84645bbdf7e32bfb7d839?shared	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.958363	Colleen Gallagher	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115216/overview", "title": "Molecular Structure \| Assignment for OpenStax Chemistry: Atoms First 2e \| Section 4.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88717/overview	Rubric (10 pts)-Reaction to a text Overview 10 point rubric for a reaction to a text or video. Rubric sections include: grammar, organization, content 10 point rubric for a reaction to a text or video. Rubric sections include: grammar, organization, content	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.974954	Reading Informational Text	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88717/overview", "title": "Rubric (10 pts)-Reaction to a text", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120762/overview	Audiovisual Media Literacy Primary Source Workshop: HIV/AIDS in the 1980s Overview This is a 4-hour audiovisual media literacy workshop that can be facilitated in a traditional, hybrid, or remote setting. Preferably, the videos should be viewed three times in order to create a more scaffolded experience. After the first viewing, students answer questions 1–4 and are assigned the provided HIV/AIDS timeline. After the second viewing, students answer questions 5–8 and are assigned an article from The New York Times about the production of the two videos. After the third viewing, students are asked to focus specifically on two dialogue scenes that differ between the two videos and create a list of noticings. They can use this list to note the way the videos changed, or to create their own questions for their classmates who are watching the segment(s) for the first time. Post-workshop reflection questions following the workshop are included to make connections and identify skills that were developed during the workshop. This audiovisual media literacy educational resource focuses on video media. Articulating precisely how this is done, through both visual and narrative information, requires critical media literacy skills. Through watching and analyzing these videos, students will explain underlying messages and attitudes within the video. The videos included were financed by the New York City Board of Education: Sex, Drugs & AIDS (1986) and The Subject is: AIDS (1987).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:03.991724	The Rockefeller Archive Center	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120762/overview", "title": "Audiovisual Media Literacy Primary Source Workshop: HIV/AIDS in the 1980s", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104440/overview	Career Planning and Personal Exploration Overview This course introduces students to the career-decision making process and job search strategies that will increase their job readiness, employability, and success in their career. The following four major areas will be covered: (1) Self-Understanding; (2) Creating an attitude of success; (3) Researching jobs and careers; (4) and Job search skills. Goals and Motivations Image by Sasin Tipchai from Pixabay If one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours. –Henry David Thoreau LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain how time management plays a factor in goal setting, leading to short-term, medium-term, and long-term objectives. - Identify your specific short, medium, and long-term goals. - Identify and apply motivational strategies to support goal achievement. - Explore the social aspects of achieving goals (networking, social media, etc.). - Brainstorm factors that might hinder goal achievement and possible ways to address these issues. Time Management and Goal Setting There is no doubt that doing well in college is a sizable challenge. Every semester you have to adjust to new class schedules, instructors, classmates as well as learning objectives and requirements for each course. Along with that, you may be juggling school with work, family responsibilities, and social events. Do you feel confident that you can attend to all of them in a balanced, committed way? What will be your secret of success? SUCCESS BEGINS WITH GOALS A goal is a desired result that you envision and then plan and commit to achieve. Goals can relate to family, education, career, wellness, spirituality, and many other areas of your life. Generally, goals are associated with finite time expectations, even deadlines. As a college student, many of your goals are defined for you. For example, you must take certain courses, you must comply with certain terms and schedules, and you must turn in assignments at specified times. These goals are mostly set for you by someone else. But there are plenty of goals for you to define yourself. For example, you decide what you would like to major in. You decide how long you are going to be in college or what terms you want to enroll in. You largely plan how you would like your studies to relate to employment and your career. Goals can also be sidetracked. Consider the following scenario in which a student makes a discovery that challenges her to reexamine her goals, priorities, and timetables: Janine had thought she would be an accountant, even though she knew little about what an accounting job might entail. Her math and organizational skills were strong, and she enjoyed taking economics courses as well as other courses in her accounting program. But when one of her courses required her to spend time in an accounting office working with taxes, she decided that accounting was not the right fit for her, due to the higher-stress environment and the late hours. At first she was concerned that she invested time and money in a career path that was not a good fit. She feared that changing her major would add to her graduation time. Nevertheless, she did decide to change her major and her career focus. Janine is now a statistician with a regional healthcare system. She is very happy with her work. Changing her major from accounting to statistics was the right decision for her. This scenario represents some of the many opportunities we have, on an ongoing basis, to assess our relationship to our goals, reevaluate priorities, and adjust. Opportunities exist every day—every moment, really! Below is a set of questions we can ask ourselves at any turn to help focus on personal goals: - What are my top-priority goals? - Which of my skills and interests make my goals realistic for me? - What makes my goals believable and possible? - Are my goals measurable? How long will it take me to reach them? How will I know if I have achieved them? - Are my goals flexible? What will I do if I experience a setback? - Are my goal controllable? Can I achieve them on my own? - Are my goals in sync with my values? As you move through your college career, make a point to ask these questions regularly. Aids to Successful Goal Setting Watch the following overview of SMART goals – a memory aid in setting and evaluating goals to ensure that they are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time bound. After watching the video, complete Activity 2.1. ACTIVITY 2.1: IDENTIFYING YOUR GOALS In order to achieve long-term goals (from college on), you will need to first achieve a series of shorter goals. Medium-term goals (this year and while in college) and short-term goals (today, this week, and this month) may take several days, weeks, months, or even a few years to complete, depending on your ultimate long-term goals. Complete the following Goals Activity to identify short and medium-term goals that will help you achieve your long-term goal. Objectives - Identify 1 long-term academic or career goal. - Identify two related medium-term and two related short-term goals that will help you achieve your long-term goal. - Identify specific, measurable, achievable, relevant activities to achieve your identified goals by a certain timeframe. Instructions - Review the worksheet below, and fill in the blank sections to the best of your ability. Guidelines - Phrase goals as positive statements: Affirm your excitement and enthusiasm about attaining a goal by using positive language and expectations. - Be exact: Set a precise goal that includes dates, times, and amounts, so that you have a basis for measuring your progress. - Prioritize: Select your top goals, and put them in order of importance. This helps you understand the degree to which you value each of them. It will also help you better manage related tasks and not feel overwhelmed. - Take the lead: Identify goals that are linked to your own performance, not dependent on the actions of other people or situations beyond your control. - Be realistic but optimistic and ambitious: The goals you set should be achievable, but sometimes it pays to reach a little higher than what you may think is possible. Certainly don’t set your goals too low. - Be hopeful, excited, and committed: Your enthusiasm and perseverance can open many doors! GOAL PRIORITIES \| MY PRECISE GOALS \| WHAT I AM DOING NOW TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS \| Example: Long-term goal \| I will graduate with an Associate of Arts degree in Automotive Technology by May 2023. \| I am attending the college of my choice and getting good grades in my major. \| Example: Related medium-term goal \| I will find either an internship or start a part-time job at an auto repair business within the next year. \| I have created an account in ACC Career Link. I visited with Career Services to start working on my resume. When I meet with my automotive tech instructor, I will ask for recommendations for an internship. \| Example: Related short-term goal \| I will earn a 3.0 GPA this semester. \| I attend every class. I reviewed the syllabi and put due dates in my calendar with reminders. This week I have a meeting with one of my instructors to ask about my progress. I have blocked regular study time in my weekly schedule. Last week I started visiting with a Learning Lab tutor. \| Identify your Long-term goal \| \|\| Identify a related medium-term goal #1 \| \|\| Identify a related medium-term goal #2 \| \|\| Identify a related short-term goal #1 \| \|\| Identify a related short-term goal #2 \| Motivational Strategies to Support You Every day we make choices. Some are as simple as what clothes we decide to wear, what to eat for lunch, or how long to study for a test. But what about life-altering choices—the ones that leave us at a crossroads? How much thought do you give to taking Path A versus Path B? Do you like to plan and schedule your choices, by making a list of pros and cons, for instance? Or do you prefer to make decisions spontaneously and just play the cards that life deals you as they come? How do you view challenges? Have you been coming from a growth mindset or a fixed mindset? How can believing that we can learn and improve through effort contribute to our success and our ability to achieve goals? The power of “yet” by Carol Dweck Carol Dweck is a professor at Stanford and the author of Mindset, a classic work on motivation and “growth mindset.” Her work is influential among educators and increasingly among business leaders as well. She researches “growth mindset” — the idea that we can grow our brain’s capacity to learn and to solve problems. In this talk, she describes two ways to think about a problem that’s slightly too hard for you to solve. Are you not smart enough to solve it … or have you just not solved it yet? https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve Passion and Perseverance or “Grit” by Angela Duckworth Leaving a high-flying job in consulting, Angela Lee Duckworth took a job teaching math to seventh graders in a New York public school. She quickly realized that IQ wasn’t the only thing separating the successful students from those who struggled. Here, she explains her theory of “grit” as a predictor of success. https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance After watching the videos, reflect on how you can improve the ways you currently set goals to allow you the opportunity to apply “grit” and use your “growth mindset” in order to successfully accomplish your goals. Social Aspects of Achieving Your Goals Setting goals can be a challenge, but working toward them, once you’ve set them, can be an even greater challenge—often because it implies that you will be making changes in your life. You might be creating new directions of thought or establishing new patterns of behavior, discarding old habits or starting new ones. Change will always be the essence of achieving your goals. You may find that as you navigate this path of change, one of your best resources is your social network. Your family, friends, roommates, coworkers, and others can help you maintain a steady focus on your goals. They can encourage and cheer you on, offer guidance when needed, share knowledge and wisdom they’ve gained, and possibly partner with you in working toward shared goals and ambitions. Your social network is a gold mine of support. Here are some easy ways you can tap into goal-supporting “people power”: - Make new friends - Study with friends - Actively engage with the college community - Volunteer to help others - Join student organizations - Get an internship - Work for a company related to your curriculum - Stay connected via social media (but use it judiciously)* - Keep a positive attitude - Congratulate yourself on all you’ve done to get where you are A note about social media: More than 98 percent of college-age students use social media, says Experian Simmons. Twenty-seven percent of those students spent more than six hours a week on social media (UCLA, 2014). The University of Missouri, though, indicates in a 2015 study that this level of use may be problematic. It can lead to symptoms of envy, anxiety, and depression. Still, disconnecting from social media may have a negative impact, too, and further affect a student’s anxiety level. Is there a healthy balance? If you feel overly attached to social media, you may find immediate and tangible benefit in cutting back. By tapering your use, your can devote more time to achieving your goals. You can also gain a sense of freedom and more excitement about working toward your goals. Dealing with Setbacks and Obstacles At times, unexpected events and challenges can get in the way of best-laid plans. For example, you might get sick or injured or need to deal with a family issue or a financial crisis. Earlier in this section we considered a scenario in which a student realized she needed to change her major and her career plans. Such upsets, whether minor or major, may trigger a need to take some time off from school—perhaps a term or a year. Your priorities may shift. You may need to reevaluate your goals. Problem-Solving Strategies Below is a simple list of four problem-solving strategies. They can be applied to any aspect of your life. - What is the problem? Define it in detail. How is it affecting me and other people? - How are other people dealing with this problem? Are they adjusting their time management skills? Can they still complete responsibilities, and on time? - What is my range of possible solutions? Are solutions realistic? How might these solutions help me reach my goal/s? - What do I need to do to implement solutions? You may wish to also review the earlier set of questions about focusing with intention on goals. Be confident that you can return to your intended path in time. Acknowledge the ways in which you need to regroup. Read inspiring words from people who have faced adversity and gained. Line up your resources, be resolved, and proceed with certainty toward your goals. KEY TAKEAWAYS Success with goals (any goals—education, family, career, finances, etc.) is essentially a three-part process: - Identify your goals (specifically long-term, medium-term and short-term goals). - Set priorities to accomplish these goals. - Manage your time according to the priorities you have set. By following these three straightforward steps, you can more readily achieve goals because you clearly organize the process and follow through with commitment. Focus your sights on what you want to acquire, attain, or achieve. Prioritize the steps you need to take to get there. And organize your tasks into manageable chunks and blocks of time. These are the roadways to accomplishment and fulfillment. In the following passage from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom, former political-science student Patricia Munsch—now a college counselor—reflects on how a structured, conscientious approach to decision-making and goal setting in college can lead to fulfillment and achievement. WHAT DO YOU ENJOY STUDYING? There is a tremendous amount of stress placed on college students regarding their choice of major. Everyday, I meet with students regarding their concern about choosing right major; the path that will lead to a fantastic, high-paying position in a growth industry. There is a hope that one decision, your college major, will have a huge impact on the rest of your life. Students shy away from subject areas they enjoy due to fear that such coursework will not lead to a job. I am disappointed in this approach. As a counselor I always ask—what do you enjoy studying? Based on this answer it is generally easy to choose a major or a family of majors. I recognize the incredible pressure to secure employment after graduation, but forcing yourself to choose a major that you may not have any actual interest in because a book or website mentioned the area of growth may not lead to the happiness you predict. Working in a college setting I have the opportunity to work with students through all walks of life, and I do believe based on my experience, that choosing a major because it is listed as a growth area alone is not a good idea. Use your time in college to explore all areas of interest and utilize your campus resources to help you make connections between your joy in a subject matter and the potential career paths. Realize that for most people, in most careers, the undergraduate major does not lead to a linear career path. As an undergraduate student I majored in Political Science, an area that I had an interest in, but I added minors in Sociology and Women’s Studies as my educational pursuits broadened. Today, as a counselor, I look back on my coursework with happy memories of exploring new ideas, critically analyzing my own assumptions, and developing an appreciation of social and behavioral sciences. So to impart my wisdom in regards to a student’s college major, I will always ask, what do you enjoy studying? Once you have determined what you enjoy studying, the real work begins. Students need to seek out academic advisement. Academic advisement means many different things; it can include course selection, course completion for graduation, mapping coursework to graduation, developing opportunities within your major and mentorship. As a student I utilized a faculty member in my department for semester course selection, and I also went to the department chairperson to organize two different internships to explore different career paths. In addition, I sought mentorship from club advisors as I questioned my career path and future goals. In my mind I had a team of people providing me support and guidance, and as a result I had a great college experience and an easy transition from school to work. I recommend to all students that I meet with to create their own team. As a counselor I can certainly be a part of their team, but I should not be the only resource. Connect with faculty in your department or in your favorite subject. Seek out internships as you think about the transition from college to workplace. Find mentors through faculty, club advisors, or college staff. We all want to see you succeed and are happy to be a part of your journey. As a counselor I am always shocked when students do not understand what courses they need to take, what grade point average they need to maintain, and what requirements they must fulfill in order to reach their goal—graduation! Understand that as a college student it is your responsibility to read your college catalog and meet all of the requirements for graduation from your college. I always suggest that students, starting in their first semester, outline or map out all of the courses they need to take in order to graduate. Of course you may change your mind along the way, but by setting out your plan to graduation you are forcing yourself to learn what is required of you. I do this exercise in my classes and it is by far the most frustrating for students. They want to live in the now and they don’t want to worry about next semester or next year. However, for many students that I see, the consequence of this decision is a second semester senior year filled with courses that the student avoided during all the previous semesters. If you purposefully outline each semester and the coursework for each, you can balance your schedule, understand your curriculum and feel confident that you will reach your goal. —Dr. Patricia Munsch, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Growth Mindset vs. Fixed Mindset: An Introduction. Authored By: PERT and Rita Kitchen. Provided by: TED-Ed. Located at: https://ed.ted.com/best_of_web/qrZmOV7R. License: CC BY – NC – ND 4.0 International CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Carol Dweck: The Power of Believing That You Can Improve. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Angela Lee Duckworth: Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Defining Goals. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Image: Children Splash Asia Sunset. Created by: Sasin Tipcha.Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/children-splash-asia-sunset-1822688/ License: Standard Pixabay License - SMART Goals - Quick Overview . Located at: https://youtu.be/1-SvuFIQjK8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License RETURN TO THE TABLE OF CONTENTS Personality, Skills, and Interests Image by Andre Mouton for Pixabay Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom. – Aristotle Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand personality preferences based on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI). - Explore the qualities of personality types that you most identify with. - Research job titles that matches your preferred work styles. - List specific skills that will be necessary for your career path - List transferable skills that will be valuable for any career path - Identify your skills and interests according to Dr. John Holland’s Occupational Themes - Determine career paths that align with your occupational code - Explain how to acquire necessary skills, both in and out of class, for your career goals Now that you have reviewed the concepts of goal setting and identified values most important to you, the next part of the career development process will help you to reflect on personal preferences. By doing this, you will understand the work environment that you will naturally find a greater fit in. The career development process is all about you. You are a unique individual with a distinct combination of personality traits, skills, and interests, skills. Self -knowledge can help you in your career decision-making process to discover careers that are the best match for you. Personality Type Taking the time to ensure that your personality is compatible with your career choice is extremely important. If you do not invest the time now to figure out what makes you happy and keeps you motivated every day, you could be very unhappy in the future. Why is personality so important? Learning about your personality allows you to think about your emotions, behaviors, and ways of thinking on a day-to-day basis. For example, do you prefer to work alone or do you prefer to work with others? Would you be content in a career that requires you to be extremely organized and have a set schedule? Or are you the type of person that likes to have an open, flexible schedule that allows you to be spontaneous? This information will assist you in deciding which career(s) match with your personality preferences. To review personality preferences, one of the most common tools used to understand personality preferences is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI). Some organizations (such as law enforcement) use it to find out more about the personalities of their potential employees, some universities use the MBTI to learn more about the personalities of potential graduate students considering psychology, counseling, and social work fields, and it is commonly used in relationship therapy to help individuals understand each other and their behaviors better. Watch the following video to get an introduction to the MBTI. Personality Theory: The 4 Facets - Extroversion-Introversion (EI): how you get your energy and where you prefer to focus your attention - Sensing-Intuition (SN): how you take in information about the world around you - Thinking-Feeling (TF): how you like to make decisions - Judging-Perceiving (JP): how you prefer to organize your life Complete the following activity to identify your personality type based on your own self- reflection. Then compare the results with the personality assessment at the website later in the chapter to see how your results are similar and different. Activity 4.1: What’s Your Type? Read descriptions for the four facets. Pick which is more like you. - E (Extraversion) or I (Introversion)? - S (Sensing) or N (Intuition)? - T (Thinking) or F (Feeling)? - J (Judging) or P (Perceiving)? Could be described as: Then you prefer (E) Extraversion \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (I) Introversion \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (S) Sensing \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (N) Intuition \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (T) Thinking \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (F) Feeling \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (J) Judging \| Could be described as: Then you prefer (P)Perceiving \| What is your 4-letter personality type? __ __ __ __ The following are brief descriptions of the 16 personality types from Humanmetrics. Click on your personality type or a similar type to see which describes you best. The 16 personality types \| \|\|\| Work Styles ONET OnLine provides an online tool that helps you to review your personal characteristics and how they can affect how well one performs a job. This tool is available via the Work Styles search function on ONET OnLine. You can browse ONet data by clicking on the quality that you think best represents you including achievement, innovation, and leadership to explore the different jobs that will require the specific characteristic. Skills In addition to personality, skills are also important to consider in the career development process. If you lived and worked in colonial times in the United States, what skills would you need to be gainfully employed? What kind of person would your employer want you to be? And how different would your skills and aptitudes be then, compared to today? Many industries that developed during the 1600s–1700s, such as health care, publishing, manufacturing, construction, finance, and farming, are still with us today. And the professional abilities, aptitudes, and values required in those industries are many of the same ones employers seek today. For example, in the health care field then, just like today, employers looked for professionals with scientific insight, active listening skills, a service orientation, oral comprehension abilities, and teamwork skills. And in the financial field then, just like today, employers looked for economics and accounting skills, mathematical reasoning skills, clerical and administrative skills, and deductive reasoning. Why is it that with the passage of time and all the changes in the work world, some skills remain unchanged (or little changed)? The answer might lie in the fact there are are two main types of skills that employers look for: hard skills and soft skills. Hard Skills & Soft Skills - Hard skills are concrete or objective abilities that you learn and perhaps have mastered. They are skills you can easily quantify, like using a computer, speaking a foreign language, or operating a machine. You might earn a certificate, a college degree, or other credentials that attest to your hard-skill competencies. Obviously, because of changes in technology, the hard skills required by industries today are vastly different from those required centuries ago. - Soft skills, on the other hand, are subjective skills that have changed very little over time. Such skills might pertain to the way you relate to people, or the way you think, or the ways in which you behave—for example, listening attentively, working well in groups, and speaking clearly. Soft skills are sometimes also called “transferable skills” because you can easily transfer them from job to job or profession to profession without much training. What Employers Want in an Employee Employers want individuals who have the necessary hard and soft skills to do the job well and adapt to changes in the workplace. Soft skills may be especially in demand today because employers are generally equipped to train new employees in a hard skill—by training them to use new computer software, for instance—but it’s much more difficult to teach an employee a soft skill such as developing rapport with coworkers or knowing how to manage conflict. An employer might rather hire an inexperienced worker who can pay close attention to details than an experienced worker who might cause problems on a work team. In this section, you will look at ways of identifying and building particular hard and soft skills that will be necessary for your career path. You will also learn how to use your time and resources wisely to acquire critical skills for your career goals. Transferable Skills for Any Career Path Transferable (soft) skills may be used in multiple professions. They include, but are by no means limited to, skills listed below: - Dependable and punctual (showing up on time, ready to work, not being a liability) - Self-motivated - Enthusiastic - Committed - Willing to learn (lifelong learner) - Able to accept constructive criticism - A good problem solver - Strong in customer service skills - Adaptable (willing to change and take on new challenges) - A team player - Positive attitude - Strong communication skills - Good in essential work skills (following instructions, possessing critical thinking skills, knowing limits) - Ethical - Safety conscious - Honest - Strong in time management Career Readiness The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) defines career readiness as a foundation from which to demonstrate the core competencies that broadly prepare college educated for success in the workplace and lifelong career management. These are the key skills and abilities that employers have identified as being highly valuable across all job functions. Career and Self-Development: Proactively develop oneself and one's career through continual personal and professional learning, awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses, navigation of career opportunities, and networking to build relationships within and without one's organization. Communication: Clearly and efffectively exchange information, ideas, facts, and perspectives with persons inside and outside of an organization. Critical Thinking: Identify and respond to needs based upon an understanding of situational context and logical analysis of relevant information. Equity and Inclusion: Demonstrate the awareness, attitude, knowledge, and skills required to equitably engage and include people from different local and global cultures. Engage in anti-racist practices that actively challenge the systems, structures, and policies of racism. Leadership: Recognize and capitalize on personal and team strengths to achieve organizational goals. Professionalism: Knowing work environments differ greatly, understand and demonstrate effective work habits, and act in the interest of the larger community and workplace. Teamwork: Build and maintain collaborative relationships to work effectively toward common goals, while appreciating diverse viewpoints and shared responsibilities. Technology: Understand and leverage technolgies ethically to enhance efficiencies, complete tasks, and accomplish goals. Do these career readiness skills look familiar? Of course! They are another way to describe the soft and transferable skills which can be more difficult to define than hard skills, but they are often more important to employers. Imagine that you are the hiring authority at your company. What would you look for in a new hire? These skills are transferable because they are positive attributes that are invaluable in practically any kind of work. They also do not require much training from an employer—you have them already and take them with you wherever you go. Soft skills are a big part of your “total me” package. So, identify the soft skills that show you off the best, and identify the ones that prospective employers are looking for. By comparing both sets, you can more directly gear your job search to your strongest professional qualities. ACTIVITY 4.2: IDENTIFYING YOUR SKILLS Objective: - To self identify your Top 5 transferable (soft) skills, skills you are good at, and those skills you wish to learn or develop further. Instructions: - Review the list of transferable skills list and additional checklist of transferable skills above to complete the chart below. Top 5 Skills I Enjoy Using \| Top 5 Skills That Come Naturally \| Top 5 Skills I Want to Learn \| \| 1 \| \|\|\| 2 \| \|\|\| 3 \| \|\|\| 4 \| \|\|\| 5 \| 10 Top Skills You Need to Get a Job When You Graduate The following video summarizes the ten top skills that the Target corporation believes will get you a job when you graduate. You can read a transcript of the video here. Assessing Your Skills and Interests In this section you will continue to assess your skills and your interests in more depth. Most career assessment tests created to measure skills and interests are based on the career theory developed by Dr. John Holland. The following video from Weber University provides you with an introduction to the Holland codes and occupation themes: As mentioned in the video, Holland defined six categories of people based on personality, interests, and skills: - Realistic: These people describe themselves as honest, loyal, and practical. They are doers more than thinkers. They have strong mechanical, motor, and athletic abilities; like the outdoors; and prefer working with machines, tools, plants, and animals. - Investigative: These people love problem solving and analytical skills. They are intellectually stimulated and often mathematically or scientifically inclined; like to observe, learn, and evaluate; prefer working alone; and are reserved. - Artistic: These people are the “free spirits.” They are creative, emotional, intuitive, and idealistic; have a flair for communicating ideas; dislike structure and prefer working independently; and like to sing, write, act, paint, and think creatively. They are similar to the investigative type but are interested in the artistic and aesthetic aspects of things more than the scientific. - Social: These are “people” people. They are friendly and outgoing; love to help others, make a difference, or both; have strong verbal and personal skills and teaching abilities; and are less likely to engage in intellectual or physical activity. - Enterprising: These people are confident, assertive risk takers. They are sociable; enjoy speaking and leadership; like to persuade rather than guide; like to use their influence; have strong interpersonal skills; and are status conscious. - Conventional: These people are dependable, detail oriented, disciplined, precise, persistent, and practical; value order; and are good at clerical and numerical tasks. They work well with people and data, so they are good organizers, schedulers, and project managers. ACTIVITY 4.3: What’s Your Occupational Type? Objective: - To determine your occupational types and code Instructions: - Using the descriptions above, choose the three types that most closely describe you and list them in order in the following table. Most people are combinations of two or sometimes three types. - Then list the specific words or attributes that you feel describe you best. - After determining your primary, secondary, and tertiary occupational types, take the first initial for each type, in order, to establish your occupational code. Occupational Type \| Words and Attributes That Closely Describe Me \| Primary type (the one I identify with most closely) \| \| Secondary type \| \| Tertiary type \| Note: Your occupational code is made up of the initials of the three personality types you selected, in order. My occupational code: ___ ___ ___ (For example: if Social, Enterprising, and Conventional are your top three occupational types, your occupational code would be: S E C) Exploring Careers and Your Occupational Type Now that you have determined your top three occupational types, you can begin to explore the types of careers that may be best suited for you. Holland studied people who were successful and happy in many occupations and matched their occupations to their occupational type, creating a description of the types of occupations that are best suited to each personality type. Just as many individuals are more than one personality type, many jobs show a strong correlation to more than one occupational type. Use the top thee occupation types you defined in Exercise 4.2 “What’s Your Occupational Type?” to help identify careers you may want to consider from the table below. Table 4.1 Occupational Options by Type Ideal Environments \| Sample Occupations \| \| Realistic \| \| \| Investigative \| \| \| Artistic \| \| \| Social \| \| \| Enterprising \| \| \| Conventional \| \| \| ACC’s Career Coach also has an interest assessment. You have a choice between a quick start 6 question version similar to the self-reflection exercise above or a detailed 60 question version based on the ONET Interest Profiler. After answering the questions, you will be given your top three interest themes and suggested career matches with career information and local job market information. You can also check out the Department of Labor’s ONet (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) to get a deeper understanding of your occupation. For each occupation, ONet lists the type of work, the work environment, the skills and education required, and the job outlook for that occupation. This is a truly rich resource that you should get to know. Identify Which Factors Might Affect Your Choice You may now have a list of careers you want to explore. But there are other factors you will need to take into consideration as well. It is important to use your creative thinking skills to come up with alternative “right” answers to factors that may present an obstacle to pursuing the right career. - Timing. How much time must I invest before I actually start making money in this career? Will I need to spend additional time in school? Is there a certification process that requires a specific amount of experience? If so, can I afford to wait? - Finances. Will this career provide me with the kind of income I need in the short term and the security I’ll want in the longer term? What investment will I need to make to be successful in this field (education, tools, franchise fees, etc.)? - Location. Does this career require me to relocate? Is the ideal location for this career somewhere I would like to live? Is it somewhere my family would like to live? - Family/personal. How will this career affect my personal and family life? Do friends and family members who know me well feel strongly (for or against) about this career choice? How important is their input? Your Next Steps It may seem odd to be thinking about life after school, especially if you are just getting started. But you will soon be making decisions about your future, and regardless of the direction you may choose, there is a lot you can do while still in college. You will need to focus your studies by choosing a major. You should find opportunities to explore the careers that interest you. You can ensure that you are building the right kind of experience on which to base a successful career. These steps will make your dreams come to life and make them achievable. Start by developing a relationship with your AoS Advisor for guidance on the academic requirements for your career goals. Will you need to prepare to transfer to a university? If you are in a workforce development program, start building relationships with your instructors as many still work in your field of interest and can give you great tips on how to get started. Another great resource is ACC’s Career Services. They can provide information on internships and strategies to help you connect with employers. And, if you are still undecided, start meeting with a career counselor. It is never too early to start thinking of your plans after college! All too often students engage these counselors only near the end of their college days, when the pressure is just on getting a job—any job—after having completed their certificate or degree. But these counselors can be of great help in matching your interests to a career and in ensuring you are gathering the right kind of experience to put you at the top of the recruiting heap. Keep in mind that deciding on and pursuing a career is an ongoing process. The more you learn about yourself and the career options that best suit you, the more you will need to fine-tune your career plan. Don’t be afraid to consider new ideas, but don’t make changes without careful consideration. Career planning is exciting: learning about yourself and about career opportunities, and considering the factors that can affect your decision, should be a core part of your thoughts while in college. Learn Specific Skills Necessary for Your Career Path The table below lists three resources to help you determine which concrete skills are needed for all kinds of professions. You can even discover where you might gain some of the skills and which courses you might take. Spend some time reviewing each resource. You will find many interesting and exciting options. When you are finished, you may decide that there are so many interesting professions in the world that it’s difficult to choose just one. This is a good problem to have! Table 4.2 Online Skills Identification Resources RESOURCE \| DESCRIPTION \| \| 1 \| Career Aptitude Test (Rasmussen College) \| This test helps you match your skills to a particular career that’s right for you. Use a sliding scale to indicate your level of skill in the following skill areas: artistic, interpersonal, communication, managerial, mathematics, mechanical, and science. Press the Update Results button and receive a customized list customized of career suggestions tailored to you, based on data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. You can filter by salary, expected growth, and education. \| 2 \| Skills Matcher (Career OneStop from the U.S. Department of Labor) \| Use the Skills Profiler to create a list of your skills, and match your skills to job types that use those skills. Plan to spend about 20 minutes completing your profile. You can start with a job type to find skills you need for a current or future job. Or if you are not sure what kind of job is right for you, start by rating your own skills to find a job type match. When your skills profile is complete, you can print it or save it. \| 3 \| This U.S. government website helps job seekers answer two of their toughest questions: “What jobs can I get with my skills and training?” and “What skills and training do I need to get this job?” Browse groups of similar occupations to explore careers. Choose from industry, field of work, science area, and more. Focus on occupations that use a specific tool or software. Explore occupations that need your skills. Connect to a wealth of ONET data. Enter a code or title from another classification to find the related ONET-SOC occupation. \| Acquiring Necessary Skills (both in and out of class) for Your Career Goals “Lifelong learning” is a buzz phrase in the twentieth-first century because we are inundated with new technology and information all the time, and those who know how to learn, continuously, are in the best position to keep up and take advantage of these changes. Think of all the information resources around you: colleges and universities, libraries, the Internet, videos, games, books, films—the list goes on. With these resources at your disposal, how can you best position yourself for lifelong learning and a strong, viable career? Which hard and soft skills are most important? What are employers really looking for? The following list was inspired by the remarks of Mark Atwood, director of open-source engagement at Hewlett-Packard Enterprise. It contains excellent practical advice. - Learn how to write clearly. After you’ve written something, have people edit it. Then rewrite it, taking into account the feedback you received. Write all the time. - Learn how to speak. Speak clearly on the phone and at a table. For public speaking, try Toastmasters. “Meet and speak. Speak and write.” - Be reachable. Publish your email so that people can contact you. Don’t worry about spam. - Learn about computers and computing, even if you aren’t gearing for a career in information technology. Learn something entirely new every six to twelve months. - Build relationships within your community. Use tools like Meetup.com and search for clubs at local schools, libraries, and centers. Then, seek out remote people around the country and world. Learn about them and their projects first by searching the Internet. - Attend conferences and events. This is a great way to network with people and meet them face-to-face. - Find a project and get involved. Start reading questions and answers, then start answering questions. - Collaborate with people all over the world. - Keep your LinkedIn profile and social media profiles up-to-date. Be findable. - Keep learning. Skills will often beat smarts. Be sure to schedule time for learning and having fun! Just Get Involved Even as a new college student, there are actions that you can take now to help you create the experiences and build the skils that employers want. What seems like an unrelated part-time job or fun extracurricular activity can help you develop valuable skills, create a network, and connect you with job openings that may be a good fit for your skills. The video, below, gives tips from students at Monash University in Australia that are relevant to all students: - Get involved in part-time work - Get involved in extracurricular activities - Get involved with the employment and career services offered at your school “Just Get involved. There are so many opportunities and open doors for you.” Key Takeaways - The right career for you depends on your interests, your personality, and your skills. - Learning about your personality helps you to think about your emotions, behaviors, and ways of thinking on a day to day basis. An awareness of these things will help you to find a career that compliments your personality. - Employers look for both hard and soft (transferable) skills in future employees; however transferable skills may be in more demand because they help people adapt to a variety of different jobs and professions without much training. - Defining your occupational type may confirm career choices you have already made and open entirely new options for you. - Connect with a college counselor early in your career development process to help you match your skills, personality and interests with potential jobs and eventually a career that best suits you. - Career planning is an ongoing process involving knowing yourself, knowing about career options, and understanding the context in which your decisions will be made. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Image by Andre Mouton. Provided by: Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/monkey-mirror-thinking-reflection-4788334/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 CC licensed content, Shared previously - Professional Skill Building. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Line B: Employability Skills Competency . Provided by: Camosun College. Located at: http://open.bccampus.ca/find-open-textbooks/?uuid=c9bcd8df-17a3-4cf8-8400-426f395b3a62&contributor=&keyword=&subject=Common+Core. License: CC BY: Attribution - 7 skills to land your open source dream job. Authored by: Jason Hibbets. Located at: https://opensource.com/business/14/4/open-source-job-skills. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike - What's Your Personality Type?. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MyersBriggsTypes.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Career Exploration. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/freshmanexperience/chapter/12-2-career-exploration/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Career Readiness: Competencies for a Career-Ready Workforce. Provided by: NACE, Revised March 2021. Located at: www.naceweb.org/career-readiness-competencies - Myers Briggs (MBTI) Explained - Personality Quiz. Created by: Practical Psychology. Provided by: YouTube. Located at: https://youtu.be/2ZF4OM6mrrI. License: All Rights Reserved - Preworkshop Video - Holland Codes. Authored by: Weber State University Career Services. Provided by: Weber State University. Located at: https://youtu.be/fNGa-_u7nQU. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - 10 top skills that will get you a job when you graduate. Authored by: TARGETjobs. Located at: https://youtu.be/jKtbaUzHLvw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - How to find a new jobu2014Transferable Job Skills. Authored by: Learn English with Rebecca. Located at: https://youtu.be/7Kt4nz8KT_Y. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Tips to improve your career from Monash Graduates. Authored by: Monash University. Located at: https://youtu.be/7EBDrTdccAY. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Discover Your Personality Type \| Myers Briggs . Provided by: YouTube. Located at: https://youtu.be/WQoOqQiVzwQ. License: All Rights Reserved - Work Styles. Provided by: ONET OnLine. Located at: https://www.onetonline.org/find/descriptor/browse/Work_Styles/. License: All Rights Reserved Values and Decision Making When your values are clear to you, making decisions becomes easier. -- Roy Disney LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Define your work values. - Learn steps to a rational decision-making model. - Understand how making decisions based on values can lead to career satisfaction. Values An essential part in your self discovery journey of your career exploration process is identifying what is most important to you–your values–and learn how they influence and motivate your goals. Values drive our actions and they motivate your goals. Your goals help you establish your priorities in life, guide your decision-making, and affect your evaluation of your success and happiness in life. Take time to reflect what being successful means to you. It will be different for you than for other people. Think of your values as you are thinking about becoming successful. Here's a video of a spoken word performance by Rashad Hedgepeth at a TEDx event titled, “Values”. VALUES As defined at CareerOneStop, a source for employment information sponsored by the US Department of Labor: - Values are your beliefs about what is important or desirable. - When your values line up with how you live and work, you tend to feel more satisfied and confident. - Living or working in ways that contradict your values can lead to dissatisfaction, confusion, and discouragement. So there is good reason to clarify your values, and seek to match your work to them. Identify Your Work Values The best career choices are ones that match your values. So do you know what your values are? Complete the following activity to review the work values that are most important to you. ACTIVITY 3.1: IDENTIFY YOUR WORK VALUES Complete the following activities offered by CareerOneStop to review your work values: - Visit the CareerOneStop Work Values Matcher and complete the card sort exercise. - Review your results and read about all six of the universal work values developed by the U.S. Department of Labor’s ONET program. Click on the ones that best describe you to see careers that highlight that value. What do you notice when reading about the careers that express your top values? Making Decisions Based on Values Decision making refers to making choices among alternative courses of action—which may also include inaction. Not all decisions in life have major consequences or even require a lot of thought. For example, before you come to class, you make simple and habitual decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, and which route to take as you go to and from home and school. You probably do not spend much time on these mundane decisions. However, decisions that are unique and important require conscious thinking, information gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives. In this case, making a decision about your future career is an important one that requires a thoughtful review of what you consider most important in life, your values. Increasing effectiveness in decision making is an important part of maximizing your effectiveness at work. How do you normally make important decisions? Toss a coin? Take advice from trusted role-models? Or let fate decide for you? It is important to be self-aware, especially when it comes to making difficult and important life decisions. We will examine here a decision making model which includes a series of steps to help decision makers make the best choice. Decision Making Model Let’s imagine that your old, clunky car has broken down, and you have enough money saved for a substantial down payment on a new car. It will be the first major purchase of your life, and you want to make the right choice. The first step, therefore, has already been completed—the problem is that you need a new vehicle and need to choose one to buy. In Step 2, you will decide which factors you value most in a vehicle. How many passengers do you want to accommodate? How important is fuel economy to you? Is safety a major concern? You only have a certain amount of money saved, and you don’t want to take on too much debt, so price range is probably an important factor as well. Perhaps you have identified the following as being important to you: room for at least five adults, minimum gas mileage of twenty MPG, a strong safety rating, and no more than $20,000 in price. These are the decision criteria which you have identified. Now, for Step 3, you should allocate weight or determine how important each factor is to your decision. If each is equally important, then there is no need to weigh them, but if you know that price and mpg are key factors, you might weigh them more and weigh the other criteria as being less important. In step 4, you will narrow your choices and develop alternatives. Perhaps, after speaking with others and researching vehicles in unbiased journals and online resources, you are trying to decide between a small SUV, a sports car and a fairly new, but used sedan. For step 5 you can now analyze the alternatives. Using the criteria you established in step 2, analyze each vehicle. Usually it is easier to create a spreadsheet or pros and cons list. Start with the factors that you identified as most important to you. Does the SUV cost less than $20,000? How about the sports car? Or the sedan? Continue to evaluate each vehicle based on your remaining criteria. After weighing the evidence for each, for step 6, choose the best alternative. Remember to give greater weight to the factors that you identified as most important. That means that a vehicle that doesn’t meet your MPG and price needs should not be highest on your list, despite how good you look driving it! For step 7, you take action and purchase your car with confidence knowing that you have made an informed decision. Of course, reviewing the outcome of this decision will influence the next decision made. That is where step 8 comes in. For example, if you purchase a car and have nothing but problems with it, you will be less likely to consider the same make and model when purchasing a car the next time. Perhaps a new important factor will be the maintenance expectations. The decision-making process has important lessons for decision makers. - First, when making a decision, you may want to make sure that you establish your decision criteria before you search for alternatives. This would prevent you from liking one option too much and setting your criteria accordingly. For example, let’s say you started browsing cars online before you generated your decision criteria. You may come across a car that you feel reflects your sense of style and you develop an emotional bond with the car. Then, because of your love for the particular car, you may say to yourself that the fuel economy of the car and the innovative braking system are the most important criteria. After purchasing it, you may realize that the car is too small for your friends to ride in the back seat, which was something you should have thought about. Setting criteria before you search for alternatives may prevent you from making such mistakes. Another advantage of the rational model is that it urges decision makers to generate all alternatives instead of only a few. By generating a large number of alternatives that cover a wide range of possibilities, you are unlikely to make a more effective decision that does not require sacrificing one criterion for the sake of another. - Second, despite all its benefits, you may have noticed that this decision-making model involves a number of unrealistic assumptions as well. It assumes that people completely understand the decision to be made, that they know all their available choices, that they have no perceptual biases, and that they want to make optimal decisions. - Additionally, while decision makers can get off track during any of these steps, research shows that searching for alternatives in the fourth step can be the most challenging. Think about how you make important decisions in your life. It is likely that you rarely sit down and complete all eight of the steps in the rational decision-making model. For example, this model proposed that we should search for all possible alternatives before making a decision, but that process is time consuming, and individuals are often under time pressure to make decisions. Moreover, even if we had access to all the information that was available, it could be challenging to compare the pros and cons of each alternative and rank them according to our preferences. Learning from these important lessons, you can use the work values you identified from Acitivity 3.1 as your criteria in your career exploration. This will help you focus on what is most important to you so that you can choose a career that will help you feel fulfilled and satisfied. Once you decide on a career, your decision will help guide the goals you set for yourself from your college education to your future career. For help to stay on track in this journey, you can seek assistance from the information and resources you learn in this class as well as counselors and career staff at the college to guide your search. KEY TAKEAWAYS Having a clear understanding of your life and career values will help make your decisions in school and work easier. - First, identify your values, what you find most important and essential in life. - Second, use your values to guide your decision making in your education and career options. - Finally, practice a decision-making process that provides you the opportunity to discover all of your choices so that you can make the best decisions based on all the options you have. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Values: spoken word performance. Created by: Rashad Hedgepeth. Provided by TEDx. Located at: https://youtu.be/eI1yo-a3QBs License: CC BY – NC – ND 4.0 International CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Understanding Decision Making. Located at: https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/11-3-understanding-decision-making/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Image: Compass Direction. Created by: PDPics Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/compass-direction-magnetic-compass-390907/ . License: Standard Pixabay License - ONET Online. Located at: https://www.onetonline.org/. License: All Rights Reserved PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Provided by: Career OneStop. Located at: https://www.careeronestop.org/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright College and Exploring Careers Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Stay focused, go after your dreams, and keep moving toward your goals. —L L Cool J, musician Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify your motivations for attending college as it relates to your future career goals - Review your individual career profile - Explore activities to gain knowledge and experience about your future career College and Career Knowing what you truly want to gain from your college experience is the first step toward achieving it. But reaching your goals doesn’t necessarily mean you are college and career ready. Ultimately, college and career readiness demands students know more than just content, but demonstrate that they know how to learn and build upon that content to solve problems. They must develop versatile communication skills, work collaboratively and work competitively in a school or work environment. Ensuring that you possess both the academic and technical know-how necessary for a career beyond the classroom is a great step toward succeeding on whatever path you choose. —Washington, DC Office of the State Superintendent of Education What does it mean to be ready for college and a career? In general, you are a college- and career-ready student if you have gained the necessary knowledge, skills, and professional behaviors to achieve at least one of the following: - Earn a certificate or degree in college - Participate in career training - Enter the workplace and succeed For instance, if you are studying for a skilled trade license in college, or perhaps pursuing a bachelor of arts degree, you are college-ready if you have the reading, writing, mathematics, social, and thinking skills to qualify for and succeed in the academic program of your choice. Similarly, you are a career-ready student if you have the necessary knowledge and technical skills needed to be employed in your desired field. For example, if you are a community college student ready to be a nurse, you possess the knowledge and skill needed to secure an entry-level nursing position, and you also possess required licensing. For a long time, my plan had always been to be a kindergarten teacher. But when I began my undergraduate degree I fell into that ever-growing pool of college students who changed their major three times before graduation. I was swayed by family members, my peers, and the economy, but I eventually realized that I was investing my education in the wrong areas for the wrong reasons. It shouldn’t just be about salaries and job security. I needed to find that personal attachment. At eighteen, it’s hard to see your entire life spread out before you. College may feel like a free-for-all at times, but the reality is that it’s one of the most defining times of our lives. It should never be squandered. I started to imagine my life beyond college—what I found important and the type of lifestyle I wanted in the end. I started thinking about the classes that I was actually interested in—the ones that I looked forward to each week and arrived early to just so I could get a seat up front. A turning point for me was when I took the advice of a campus mentor and enrolled in a career exploration course. I learned more about myself in that class than I had in my entire three years at college prior to taking it. It showed me that my passion was something I had always thought about but never thought about as a career. . . . Through this realization and my participation in my career exploration class, I saw a viable future in the Higher Education Administration field. —Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom The Marriage of College and Career The oldest institution of higher learning in the United States is widely acknowledged to be Harvard University. It was established in 1636 with the aim of providing instruction in arts and sciences to qualify students for employment. In the 1779 Constitution of Massachusetts submitted by Samuel Adams, John Adams, and James Bowdoin to the full Massachusetts Convention, the following language was used: Art. I.—Whereas our wise and pious ancestors, so early as the year one thousand six hundred and thirty six, laid the foundation of Harvard-College, in which University many persons of great eminence have, by the blessing of GOD, been initiated in those arts and sciences, which qualified them for public employments, both in Church and State . . . Is “public employment” preparation still the goal of higher education institutions today? Indeed, it is certainly one of the many goals! College is also an opportunity for students to grow personally and intellectually. In fact, in a 2018 report titled, “Why Higher Ed?” from a Strada-Gallup Education Consumer Report Survey, students reported their motivations for pursuing a college education: - 58% related to job and career outcomes. - 23 % a general motivation to learn more and gain knowledge without linking it to work or career aspirations. - 12 percent because of family or social expectations. These statistics are understandable in light of the great reach and scope of higher education institutions. Today, there are some 5,300 colleges and universities in the United States, offering every manner of education and training to students. What do employers think about the value of a college education? What skills do employers seek in their workforce? Those that are developed through college coursework across disciplines as well as the personal skills needed to succeed in college. In 2016, a survey by the Society for Human Resource Managers found that these were the most important skills for entry-level positions across industries: - Dependability & Reliability - Integrity - Teamwork - Custom Focus - Initiative - Professionalism - Adaptability - Respect - Critical Thinking - Oral Communication - Planning & Organization - Written Communication In 2018, Hart Research Associates conducted a survey on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. The survey revealed that the majority of employers believe that a college education is valuable and important. The best preparation for long-term career success is broad learning and skills found across all majors. The learning outcomes they rate as most important include oral and written communication, critical thinking, ethical decision-making, teamwork, critical thinking, and the ability to apply knowledge in real-world settings.[1] Employment Rates and Salaries Consider, too, the following statistics on employment rates and salaries for college graduates. College does make a big difference! - Over the course of a 50-year working life, a male with a bachelor’s degree will earn $900,000 more in median lifetime earnings than high school graduates. (SSA)[2] - In 2019, young adults ages 25 to 34 with a bachelor’s degree or higher had the highest employment rate (87%). (NCES)[3] - In 2019, the employment rate for those some college, including an associate’s degree (80%) was higher than the rate for those who just completed high school (74%) and those who had not finished high school (57%). (NCES)[3] - Employment rates were generally higher for males than females at each level of educational attainment in 2019. (NCES)[3] - There is a wider earnings gap between college-educated and less educated Millennials compared with previous generations. (PEW, 2014)[4] Perhaps most important, an overwhelming majority of college graduates—82% —say that college has been a good investment for them personally (PEW, 2016)[5]. And, on all measurements of career attainment and economic well-being in a 2014 survey, college graduates out performed peers with less education (PEW, 2014)[4]. Differences in Earnings You may wish to use this interactive tool to compare wages within and across demographic groups in the United States, including education level, on the Washington Center for Equitable Growth website. As you can see, education level is just one factor of earning potential. All in all, college imparts a wide and deep range of benefits. The short video Is College Worth It? shows that with a college degree you are more likely to: - Have a higher salary - Have better job prospects - Be healthier - Vote - Be involved in their community Success in College Success in college can be measured in many ways: through your own sense of what is important to you; through your family’s sense of what is important to your collective group; through your institution’s standards of excellence; through the standards established by your state and country; through your employer’s perceptions about what is needed in the workplace; and in many respects through your own unfolding goals, dreams, and ambitions. How are you striving to achieve your goals? And how will you measure your success along the way? Career Journey Continued As you make a commitment to your college career, let’s review your career journey so far. As we learned in Chapter 1, the first stop on the journey requires an inventory of your unique attributes - your goals, values, personality, skills and interests – before you can proceed to the next stop and research specific careers. Activity 5.1: Your Personal Profile Goals - Reflecting on your career exploration and using the SMART format from Chapter 2, identify one long-term career goal. - Then, identify 2-3 short-term goals for this semester to achieve your long-term goal from #1. Values - From Chapter 3 and the CareerOneStop Work Values Matcher, what are your top work values? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to express your values. Interests - From Chapter 4 and the Career Coach Interest Assessment or ONet Interest Profiler, what are your top interests (Holland Code)? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to express your interests. Personality - From Chapter 4 and the personality test from the Humanmetrics website, what is your 4-letter personality type? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and are often associated with your personality type. Skills - From Chapter 4, what are your top skills? - Name 2 career titles in which you are most interested and will allow you to utilize your skills. Research activity: - Of all the career titles you have explored, which 2 or 3 careers would you be most interested in researching in-depth? Below is the second part of Jamie Edwards’s essay (former student at State University of New York). Her advice is to make connections between the “now” of college experience and future career possibilities. She thinks that the more informed you are about your career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future—and the more confident you will be in your career decisions. From where I sit now—my former personal and professional struggles in tow—I offer up some pieces of advice that were crucial to getting me where I am today. Whether you’re an undecided major who is looking for guidance or a student with a clearly defined career path, I suggest the following: - Find a mentor—For me, everything began there. Without my mentor, I wouldn’t have done any of the other items I’m about to suggest. Finding the right mentor is crucial. Look for someone who can complement your personality (typically someone who’s the opposite of you). My advice would be to look beyond your direct supervisor for mentorship. It’s important to create an open forum with your mentor, because there may be a conflict of interest as you discuss work issues and other job opportunities. Potential mentors to consider are an instructor on campus, your academic advisor, a professional currently working in your prospective field, someone you admire in your community, or anyone in your network of friends or family that you feel comfortable discussing your future goals with. - Enroll in a Career Exploration/Planning course, or something similar—Even if you do not see the effects of this course immediately (such as dramatically changing your major), you will notice the impact down the road. Making educated career choices and learning job readiness skills will always pay off in the end. Through my career exploration class, I learned how to relate my personality and values to potential career fields. These self-assessments changed my entire thought process, and I see that influence daily. Beyond changing the way you think, the knowledge you gain about effective job search strategies is invaluable. Learning how to write purposeful résumés and cover letters, finding the right approach to the interview process, and recognizing your strengths and weaknesses are just a few of the benefits you can gain from these type of courses. - Complete a Job Shadow and/or Informational Interview—No amount of online research is going to give you the same experience as seeing a job at the front line. In a job shadow or an informational interview, you’re able to explore options with no commitment and see how your in-class experience can carry over to a real world setting. Additionally, you’re expanding your professional network by having that personal involvement. You never know how the connections you make might benefit you in the future. My only regret about job shadowing in college is that I didn’t do it sooner. - Do an Internship—A main source of frustration for recent grads is the inability to secure an entry-level position without experience. “How do I get a job to gain experience when I can’t get a job without experience?” This is how: do an internship or two! Most colleges even have a course where you can obtain credit for doing it! Not only will you earn credits towards graduation, but you’ll gain the necessary experience to put on your résumé and discuss in future interviews. Having completed four internships throughout my college career, I can’t say they were all great. However, I don’t regret a single one. The first one showed me the type of field I didn’t want to work in. The second confirmed that I was heading in the right direction with my career. My third and fourth internships introduced me to completely different areas of higher education which broadened my knowledge and narrowed my search simultaneously. My takeaway is that sometimes you have to learn what you don’t want in order to find out what you do want. The more informed you are about career options through real-life conversations and experiences, the better prepared you will be for your future and the more confident you will be in your career decisions. Always explore your options because even if you learn you hate it, at least you’re one step close to finding what you love. —Jamie Edwards, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom Activity 5.2: Informational Interview As recommended in Part 2, #3 above, reach out to someone working in your area of interest and ask for an opportunity to talk to them for 20 or 30 minutes about their career path and profession. Your friends, family, professors, co-workers, and alumni network are potential connections. Just ask if they know someone with whom you can meet. The goal is not to land a job, but to learn, however, that person can be a part of your network in the future. Be sure to respect their time, be prepared with questions, and present yourself professionally. \| Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Activity 5.3: resources for career research After you have identified career titles you are most interested and have conducted informational interviews, check out the following resources to help research careers more in-depth: - Occupational Outlook Handbook from US Department of Labor - The OOH can help you find career information on duties, education and training, pay, and outlook for hundreds of occupations. Includes career videos. - O*Net Online - Detailed descriptions of careers with many different ways to search. - Career Coach - Learn about the connection between academic programs and careers as well as local labor market information and current job postings. - Texas Career Check - Detailed career information with video - For more help with your search, visit Austin Community College’s Career Services Key Takeaways Labor research indicates that as educational attainment increases in individuals the unemployment rate decreases. A college degree affects other personal factors you may have not considered such as retirement plan, health care insurance, and higher lifetime salary. College is an ideal place to explore careers. Selecting the right career involves thorough research such as, informational interviews, online research, and utilizing the Career Center located in your college. - “Employers Express Confidence in Colleges and Universities; See College as Worth the Investment, New Research Finds.” Hart Research Associates, Web. 29 Aug. 2019 ↵ - “Education and Lifetime Earnings”. Social Security Administration: Research, Statistics & Policy Analysis. Web. Nov. 2015. ↵ - "Fast Facts: Employment Rates of College Graduates." Fast Facts. National Center For Education Statistics. Web. ↵ - "The Rising Cost of Not Going to College." Pew Research Center: Social & Demographic Trends. Web. 11 Feb. 2014. ↵ - “The State of American Jobs: The Value of a College Education.” Pew Research Center: Social & Demographic Trends. Web. 6 Oct. 2016. ↵ Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/board-school-training-career-3683740/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/exchange-of-ideas-debate-discussion-222787/ . License: Standard Pixabay License CC licensed content, Shared previously - The Big Picture. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike - Student Voices: What Does it Mean to be College and Career Ready?. Authored by: Achieve. Located at: https://youtu.be/9pYqsShxqD4. License: CC BY: Attribution - First University in the United States. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_university_in_the_United_States. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Why Higher Ed?: Strada and Gallup Examine Consumers' Top Motives for Choosing Their Educational Pathways. Authored by: Strada Education Network and Gallup. Located at: https://news.gallup.com/reports/226457/why-higher-ed.aspx. License: All Rights Reserved - Entry-Level Applicant Job Skills Survey. Authored by: Society for Human Resource Management. Located at: https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/research-and-surveys/PublishingImages/Pages/Entry-Level-Applicant-Job-Skills-Survey-/Entry- Level%20Applicant%20Job%20Skills%20Survey.pdf. License: All Rights Reserved - Comparing Wages Within and Across Demographic Groups in the US. Authored by: Washington Center for Equitable Growth. Located at: https://equitablegrowth.org/demographic-group-wages-interactive/ License: All Rights Reserved - Is College Worth It? Authored by: Third Way. Provided by: You Tube. Located at: https://youtu.be/CWms2LMQmhU . License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Public domain content - What Does College and Career Readiness Mean?. Provided by: Office of the State Superintendent of Education. Located at: http://osse.dc.gov/service/what-does-college-and-career-readiness-mean. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Chart of Unemployment Rates and Earnings By Educational Attainment (4 Sept. 2019) Provided by: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Located at: https://www.bls.gov/emp/chart-unemployment-earnings-education.htm. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Networking Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay You should be accumulating really great relationships throughout your career. -- Anne M. Mulcahy, former CEO of Xerox LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define network and identify strategies for networking - Identify sources for developing professional networks In the context of career development, networking is the process by which people build relationships with one another for the purpose of helping one another achieve professional goals. When you “network,” you exchange information. - You may share business cards, résumés, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about a specific field. - You might also share information about meet-up groups, conferences, special events, technology tools, and social media. - You might also solicit job “headhunters,” career counselors, career centers, career coaches, an alumni association, family members, friends, acquaintances, and vendors. Networking can occur anywhere and at any time. In fact, your network expands with each new relationship you establish. And the networking strategies you can employ are nearly limitless. With imagination and ingenuity, your networking can be highly successful. Strategies for Networking We live in a social world. Almost everywhere you go and anything you do professionally involves connecting with people. It stands to reason that finding a new job and advancing your career entails building relationships with these people. Truly, the most effective way to find a new job is to network, network, and network some more. Once you acknowledge the value of networking, the challenge is figuring out how to do it. What is your first step? Whom do you contact? What do you say? How long will it take? Where do you concentrate efforts? How do you know if your investments will pay off? For every question you may ask, a range of strategies can be used. Begin exploring your possibilities by viewing the following energizing video, Networking Tips for College Students and Young People, by Hank Blank. He recommends the following modern and no-nonsense strategies: - Hope is not a plan. You need a plan of action to achieve your networking goals. - Keenly focus your activities on getting a job. Use all tools available to you. - You need business cards. No ifs, ands, or buts. - Register your own domain name. Find your favorite geek to build you a landing page. Keep building your site for the rest of your life. - Attend networking events. Most of them offer student rates. - Master Linkedin because that is what human resource departments use. Post updates. - Think of your parents’ friends as databases. Leverage their knowledge and their willingness to help you. - Create the world you want to live in in the future by creating it today through your networking activity. These are the times to live in a world of “this is how I can help.” See the LinkedIn for Students Web site. Finding Work Using Your Networks This video was created for international students, but it has helpful tips for all students. It focuses on the importance of networking when looking for jobs and keeping an open mind. Simply talking to people can help you move from casual work to full-time employment. . . . And More Strategies Strategies at College - Get to know your professors: Communicating with instructors is a valuable way to learn about a career and also get letters of reference if and when needed for a job. Professors can also give you leads on job openings, internships, and research possibilities. Most instructors will readily share information and insights with you. Get to know your instructors. They are a valuable part of your network. - Check with your college’s alumni office: You may find that some alumni are affiliated with your field of interest and can give you the “inside scoop.” - Check with classmates: Classmates may or may not share your major, but any of them may have leads that could help you. You could be just one conversation away from a good lead. Strategies at Work - Join professional organizations: You can meet many influential people at local and national meetings and events of professional and volunteer organizations. Learn about these organizations. See if they have membership discounts for students, or student chapters. Once you are a member, you may have access to membership lists, which can give you prospective access to many new people with whom to network. Check out the Professional Association Finder on CareerOneStop . - Volunteer: Volunteering is an excellent way to meet new people who can help you develop your career, even if the organization you are volunteering with is not in your field. Just by working alongside others and working toward common goals, you build relationships that may later serve you in unforeseen and helpful ways. VolunteerMatch matches you with volunteer opportunities based on the causes and populations in which you want to make a difference. - Get an internship: Many organizations offer internship positions to college students. Some of these positions are paid, but often they are not. Paid or not, you gain experience relevant to your career, and you potentially make many new contacts. Check out Texas Internship Challenge for information on paid or class credit opportunities in Texas while still in school. - Get a part-time job: Working full-time may be your ultimate goal, but you may want to fill in some cracks or crevices by working in a part-time job. Invariably you will meet people who can feasibly help with your networking goals. And you can gain good experience along the way, which can also be noted on your résumé. See what is posted by local employers on ACC Career Link. - Join a job club: Your career interests may be shared by many others who have organized a club, which can be online or in person. If you don’t find an existing club, consider starting one. See if there is a student organization for your major registered with the Office of Student Life that you can join or start one. If you want to meet other community members searching for career opportunities in Austin, consider the networking program available through Launchpad. - Attend networking events: There are innumerable professional networking events taking place around the world and also online. Find them listed in magazines, community calendars, newspapers, journals, and at the Web sites of companies, organizations, and associations. - Conduct informational interviews: You may initiate contact with people in your chosen field who can tell you about their experiences of entering the field and thriving in it. Many Web sites have guidance on how to plan and conduct these interviews. Strategies at Home and Beyond - Participate in online social media: An explosion of career opportunity awaits you with social media, including LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and many more. Keep your communication ultra-professional at these sites. Peruse magazine articles, and if you find one that’s relevant to your field and it contains names of professionals, you can reach out to them to learn more and get job leads. Find more information about using social and career networking sites at CareerOneStop - Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and acquaintances for referrals: Do they know others who might help you? You can start with the question “Who else should I be talking to?” - Use business cards or networking cards: A printed business card can be an essential tool to help your contacts remember you. Creativity can help in this regard, too. Students often design cards themselves and either hand print them or print them on a home printer. ACTIVITY: NETWORKING FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT Objectives - Examine five strategies for obtaining and engaging with networking contacts - Develop relationships with new contacts to enhance your career Instructions - Find information about five companies or people in your field of interest, and follow them on Twitter or Instagram. - Get an account at four social media sites that you’ve not yet been active with that may enhance your career. - Find names of three people who interest you (peruse magazine articles, online sites, or other resources), and write an email to them explaining your interests and any requests you may have for information. - Sign up for newsletters from two professional organizations in a field you want to know more about. - Find and attend one in-person or online event within a month. - Now write about this experience at one of your social media sites. Sources for Developing Professional Networks The bottom line with developing professional networks is to cull information from as many sources as possible and use that information in creative ways to advance your career opportunities. The strategies listed in the section above provide you with a comprehensive set of suggestions. Below is a summary of sources you can use to network your way to career success: - Meet-up groups - Conferences - Special events - Technology tools - Social media - Career centers - Alumni association - Professional organizations - Volunteer organizations - Internships - Part-time job - Job club - Networking events - Magazine articles - Web sites - Career coaches - Headhunters - Career counselors - Family members - Friends - Coworkers - Vendors - College professors - Advisers - Classmates - Administrators - Coaches - Guest speakers Don’t Wait to Develop Your Network For inspiration, listen to Isaac Serwanga’s Tedx Talk on his 3 Bones of Networking for Student Success: the Wishbone (State what you want!), the Jawbone (Ask with competency and humility!), and the Backbone (Persist, persist, persist!). KEY TAKEAWAYS Networking is the process by which people form professional relationships to create, act upon opportunities, share information and help one another achieve professional goals. - When you “network” with a person, you may: - Share business cards, resumes, cover letters, job-seeking strategies, leads about open jobs, information about companies and organizations, and information about specific fields. - Share information about networking groups, conferences, events, technology tools, and social media - Research career counselors, career centers, career coaches and alumni, relatives, and acquaintances - Networking can occur anywhere and anytime, and expands as you form and nurture new relationships - According to Hank Blank, producer of the video Networking Tops for College Students and Young People, as a college student, you should have specific modern and no-nonsense strategies when developing your network. - If you are an international student you may want to focus on keeping an open mind when it comes to networking - When networking at college: - Get to know your professors - Check with your college alumni office - Check with classmates - Some strategies that you can develop at work include: - Joining professional organizations - Volunteering - Internships - Clubs - Attend networking events - Conduct informational interviews - Some strategies that you can develop at home include: - Be active on social media - Ask family members and friends, coworkers, and relatives for referrals - Utilize business cards for networking LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Found at: https://pixabay.com/photos/play-stone-network-networked-1237457/ License: Standard Pixabay License - Isaac Serwanga: The 3 Bones of Networking for Student Success. Provided by: TED. Located at: https://youtu.be/4OTPJZnBP8s License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Networking. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Image of 3D Social Networking. Provided by: ccPixs.com Authored by: Chris Potter. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/d9K1Bc. License: CC BY: Attribution - Networking. Authored by: Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by: Chadron State College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Hank Blank - Networking Tips for College Students and Young People. Authored by: Hank Blank. Located at: https://youtu.be/TDVstonPPP8. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - International Student Series: Finding work using your networks. Authored by: The University of Sydney. Located at: https://youtu.be/1yQ5AKqpeiI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Résumés and Cover Letters Image by: Flazingo.com The most important tool you have on a résumé is language. —Jay Samit, digital media innovator LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define the purpose and contents of a résumé - Identify characteristics of an effective cover letter and résumé A résumé is a “selfie” for business purposes. It is a written picture of who you are—it’s a marketing tool, a selling tool, and a promotion of you as an ideal candidate for any job you may be interested in. The word résumé comes from the French word résumé, which means “a summary.” Leonardo da Vinci is credited with writing one of the first known résumés, although it was more of a letter that outlined his credentials for a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza. The résumé got da Vinci the job, though, and Sforza became a longtime patron of da Vinci and later commissioned him to paint The Last Supper. You can see the letter and read the translation Ladders Career Advice. Résumés and cover letters work together to represent you in the brightest light to prospective employers. With a well-composed résumé and cover letter, you stand out—which may get you an interview and then a good shot at landing a job. In this section we discuss résumés and cover letters as key components of your career development tool kit. We explore some of the many ways you can design and develop them for the greatest impact in your job search. Your Résumé: Purpose and Contents Your résumé is an inventory of your education, work experience, job-related skills, accomplishments, volunteer history, internships, residencies, and/or more. It’s a professional autobiography in outline form to give the person who reads it a quick, general idea of who you are. With a better idea of who your are, prospective employers can see how well you might contribute to their workplace. As a college student or recent graduate, though, you may be unsure about what to put in your résumé, especially if you don’t have much employment history. Still, employers don’t expect recent grads to have significant work experience. And even with little work experience, you may still have a host of worthy accomplishments to include. It’s all in how you present yourself. The following quick video from the Career Development Center at West Chester University describes the purpose of a resume. Elements of Your Successful Résumé Perhaps the hardest part of writing a résumé is figuring out what format to use to organize and present your information in the most effective way. There is no correct format, per se, but most résumés follow one of the four formats below. Which format appeals to you the most? - Reverse chronological résumé: A reverse chronological résumé (sometimes also simply called a chronological résumé) lists your job experiences in reverse chronological order—that is, starting with the most recent job and working backward toward your first job. It includes starting and ending dates. Also included is a brief description of the work duties you performed for each job, and highlights of your formal education. The reverse chronological résumé may be the most common and perhaps the most conservative résumé format. It is most suitable for demonstrating a solid work history, and growth and development in your skills. It may not suit you if you are light on skills in the area you are applying to, or if you’ve changed employers frequently, or if you are looking for your first job. Reverse Chronological Résumé Examples - Functional résumé: A functional résumé is organized around your talents, skills, and abilities (more so than work duties and job titles, as with the reverse chronological résumé). It emphasizes specific professional capabilities, like what you have done or what you can do. Specific dates may be included but are not as important. So if you are a new graduate entering your field with little or no actual work experience, the functional résumé may be a good format for you. It can also be useful when you are seeking work in a field that differs from what you have done in the past. It’s also well suited for people in unconventional careers. Functional Résumé Examples - Hybrid résumé: The hybrid résumé is a format reflecting both the functional and chronological approaches. It’s also called a combination résumé. It highlights relevant skills, but it still provides information about your work experience. With a hybrid résumé, you may list your job skills as most prominent and then follow with a chronological (or reverse chronological) list of employers. This résumé format is most effective when your specific skills and job experience need to be emphasized. Hybrid Résumé Examples - Video, infographic, and Web-site résumé: Other formats you may wish to consider are the video résumé, the infographic résumé, or even a Web-site résumé. These formats may be most suitable for people in multimedia and creative careers. Certainly with the expansive use of technology today, a job seeker might at least try to create a media-enhanced résumé. But the paper-based, traditional résumé is by far the most commonly used—in fact, some human resource departments may not permit submission of any format other than paper based. Video Resume Examples; Infographic Résumé Examples; Web-Site Résumé Examples An important note about formatting is that, initially, employers may spend only a few seconds reviewing each résumé—especially if there is a big stack of them or they seem tedious to read. That’s why it’s important to choose your format carefully so it will stand out and make the first cut. According to the Indeed video below, there are 5 Resume Tips That Will Get You Noticed: - Use key words from the job posting - List your hard skills - List your soft skills - List your achievements and be specific - Edit Résumé Contents and Structure For many people, the process of writing a résumé is daunting. After all, you are taking a lot of information and condensing it into a very concise form that needs to be both eye-catching and easy to read. Don’t be scared off, though! Developing a good résumé can be fun, rewarding, and easier than you think if you follow a few basic guidelines. In the following video, a résumé-writing expert describes some keys to success. Contents and Components To Include - Your contact information: name, address, phone number, professional email address - A summary of your skills: 5–10 skills you have gained in your field; you can list hard skills as well as soft skills (refer to the Professional Skill Building topic in this course) - Work experience: depending on the résumé format you choose, you may list your most recent job first; include the title of the position, employer’s name, location, employment dates (beginning, ending) - Volunteer experience - Education and training: formal and informal experiences matter; include academic degrees, professional development, certificates, internships, etc. - References statement (optional): “References available upon request” is a standard phrase used on résumés, although it is often implied - Other sections: may include a job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, a summary statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences Caution Résumés resemble snowflakes in as much as no two are alike. Although you can benefit from giving yours a stamp of individuality, you will do well to steer clear of personal details that might elicit a negative response. It is advisable to omit any confidential information or details that could make you vulnerable to discrimination, for instance. Your résumé will likely be viewed by a number of employees in an organization, including human resource personnel, managers, administrative staff, etc. By aiming to please all reviewers, you gain maximum advantage. - Do not mention your age, gender, height or weight. - Do not include your social security number. - Do not mention religious beliefs or political affiliations, unless they are relevant to the position. - Do not include a photograph of yourself or a physical description. - Do not mention health issues. - Do not use first-person references. (I, me). - Do not include wage/salary expectations. - Do not use abbreviations. - Proofread carefully—absolutely no spelling mistakes are acceptable. Top Ten Tips for a Successful Résumé - Aim to make a résumé that’s 1–2 pages long on letter-size paper. - Make it visually appealing. - Use action verbs and phrases. See Action Words and Phrases for Résumé Development. - Proofread carefully to eliminate any spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors. - Include highlights of your qualifications or skills to attract an employer’s attention. - Craft your letter as a pitch to people in the profession you plan to work in. - Stand out as different, courageous. - Be positive and reflect only the truth. - Be excited and optimistic about your job prospects! - Keep refining and reworking your résumé; it’s an ongoing project. Remember that your résumé is your professional profile. It will hold you in the most professional and positive light, and it’s designed to be a quick and easy way for a prospective employer to evaluate what you might bring to a job. When written and formatted attractively, creatively, and legibly, your résumé is what will get your foot in the door. You can be proud of your accomplishments, even if they don’t seem numerous. Let your résumé reflect your personal pride and professionalism. More Resume Tip Videos from Indeed Don't forget to include the hard and soft (or transferable) skills that you can offer. And here are some examples of words to use and words to avoid when describing your strengths and qualifications. Résumé Writing Resources WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| Everything you need to know about resumes: what they are for, the types, the parts, action words, samples, etc. \| \| Helps you create the foundation of a resume so you can individualize it using suggested tasks and skills from your work experience. \| \| ACC Library Services – Research Guide for Resumes and Cover Letters \| Resources to help with writing a resume and cover letter. \| What to put on your resume when you are a new graduate or just starting your career with little to no relevant work experience. \| \| An example of a terrible resume for a recent college graduate and details of what NOT to do. \| \| \| \| Indeed – How to Write a College Student Resume Indeed – Including Relevant Coursework on a Resume \| Resume formats, tips, and examples for college students. Articles and how-tos \| Your Résumé: It’s Like Online Dating The following essay by Jackie Vetrano is excerpted from Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. It’s a true-to-life story comparing job hunting to online dating. The writer’s “lessons learned” are meant to enlarge your awareness of your career goals as you attend college. IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING Searching for a job, especially your first job, is a lot like online dating. It begins as a time commitment, gets nerve-wracking towards the middle, but ends in success and happiness if you follow the right process. Like many single people with access to current technology, I ventured into the world of online dating. I went for coffee with potential mates who were instant no ways, some who left me scratching my head, and a few who I found a connection with. But hang on. We are here to talk about professional development, not my love life. Being on the job hunt is not easy. Many spend hours preparing résumés, looking at open positions, and thinking about what career path to travel. Occasionally, it is overwhelming and intimidating, but when taken one step at a time, it can be a manageable and an exciting process. The first step of online dating is the most important: create your dating profile. Your profile is where you put your best foot forward and show off all of your attractive qualities through visuals and text. Online daters find their most flattering photos and then season the “about me” section of their profile with captivating and descriptive words to better display who they are and why other online daters should give them a shot. Résumés follow this same logic. Your résumé should be clean, polished, and present you in your best light for future employers. Like dating profiles, they are detailed and should paint a picture for other prospective dates (or future employers) supporting why you deserve a chance at their love—an interview. The unspoken rules of online dating profiles are very similar to the rules for writing a résumé. Whether you like it or not, your online dating profile and résumé both serve as a first impression. Profiles and résumés that are short, filled with spelling errors, or vague are usually passed over. Unless you are a supermodel and all you need is an enticing photo, your written description is very important to display who you are. Your résumé should capture who you are, your skill set, education, past experiences, and anything else that is relevant to the job you hope to obtain. Knowing your audience is a key factor in crafting the perfect resume. Logically, if my online dating profile presented studious and quiet personality traits, I would likely start receiving messages from potential mates who are looking for someone who is seeking those traits. By taking a similar approach while writing a résumé, you can easily determine the tone, language, and highlighted skills and experiences you should feature. The tone of your résumé is dictated by the nature of the position you hope to obtain in the future. For example, hospitality jobs or positions that require you to interact with many people on a daily basis should be warm and welcoming while analytical jobs, such as accounting or research positions, should reflect an astute attention to detail. Your choice in language follows similar logic—use appropriate terms for the position you are seeking. Unlike online dating profiles, your résumé should include your important contact information, including email address, telephone number, and mailing address. Some advise refraining from listing a mailing address, as this could create a bias due to some organizations that are looking for a new employee who is already in the area. Unfortunately, this bias cannot be foreseen, which means you should use your best judgment when listing your contact information. If you include this contact information on your dating profile, you may have some very interesting text messages in the morning. —Jackie Ventrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom Vetrano’s essay is continued ahead in the “Cover Letters” section of this page. ACTIVITY: CREATE YOUR RÉSUMÉ Objectives: - Compile data reflecting your professional and educational skills and accomplishments. - Assess the main résumé formats and select one that meets your needs. - Create a first draft of your professional résumé. Directions: - Compile all needed information for your résumé, including your contact information, a summary of your skills, your work experience and volunteer experience, education and training (including your intended degree, professional development activities, certificates, internships, etc.). Optionally you may wish to include job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences. - Select one of the résumé builder tools listed above in the Résumé Writing Resources table. - Create your résumé, following instructions at your selected site. - Save your document as a PDF file. - Follow instructions from your instructor on how to submit your work. Your Cover Letter Image by Andrea Polini from Pixabay Cover letters matter. When you have to go through a pile of them, they are probably more important than the résumé itself. —woodleywonderworks What Is a Cover Letter? A cover letter is a letter of introduction, usually 3–4 paragraphs in length, that you attach to your résumé. It’s a way of introducing yourself to a potential employer and explaining why you are suited for a position. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as an initial method of screening out applicants who may who lack necessary basic skills, or who may not be sufficiently interested in the position. Indeed Cover Letter basics https://youtu.be/hrZSfMly_Ck Often an employer will request or require that a cover letter be included in the materials an applicant submits. There are also occasions when you might submit a cover letter uninvited: for example, if you are initiating an inquiry about possible work or asking someone to send you information or provide other assistance. With each résumé you send out, always include a cover letter specifically addressing your purposes. Characteristics of an Effective Cover Letter Cover letters should accomplish the following: - Get the attention of the prospective employer - Set you apart from any possible competition - Identify the position you are interested in - Specify how you learned about the position or company - Present highlights of your skills and accomplishments - Reflect your genuine interest - Please the eye and ear The following video features Aimee Bateman, founder of Careercake.com, who explains how you can create an incredible cover letter. You can download a transcript of the video here. Cover Letter Resources WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| Everything you need to know about resumes: what they are for, the types, the parts, action words, samples, etc. \| \| Helps you create the foundation of a resume so you can individualize it using suggested tasks and skills from your work experience. \| \| How to write a college student cover letter with templates and examples (including email version) \| \| Resources about the reality of cover letters, using a cover letter, the worst use of the cover letter, the testimonial cover letter technique, and a cover letter checklist \| \| Brief video on the basics of writing a strong cover letter. \| Your Cover Letter: It’s Like Online Dating The following is another excerpt from the “It’s Like Online Dating” essay by Jackie Vetrano. Writing a cover letter may feel like a chore, but the payoff will be well worth it if you land the job you want! IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING Sending a Message—The Cover Letter After searching through dozens of profiles, online daters generally find a handful of people they can picture themselves with. There’s only one way to find out more about the person, and that’s by sending the first message. The challenging part of the first message I send through online dating sites is determining what to say. I’ve never met these people before, but I do have access to their dating profiles filled with their hobbies, hometowns, and more. This is a perfect starting point for my message, especially if we both root for the same football team or if the other person likes to run as much as I do. Your cover letter serves as an introduction to your future employer and should complement your résumé to create a shining first impression. It is incredibly challenging to sit in front of a blank screen trying to find a good starting point, which means you should look at the job posting and organization’s Web site for ideas about what to include. Generally, these job postings provide a set of hard skills (such as proficiency with certain technology) and soft skills (such as public speaking, teamwork, or working in a flexible environment) required and desired for the posted position. This information provides you a list of what should be explained in your cover letter. Demonstrating your hard skills is a simple enough task by using examples or stating certifications, but describing your soft skills may require a little more thought. These soft skills can be exhibited by discussing specific examples of past experiences in previous jobs you’ve held, volunteer work, or work you’ve done in college classes. After you have crafted your cover letter, you should send it to a few people you trust for their opinion and overall proofreading along with the job posting for their reference. It’s obvious that your cover letter should be free of spelling and grammar errors, but these trustworthy individuals will also be able to provide helpful insight about the examples you’ve used to display your soft skills. —Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom KEY TAKEAWAYS The purpose of the resume is to get your foot in the door and be offered an interview. The resume is your one chance to catch your employer’s attention and stand out from the other applicants. A cover letter is a letter of introduction that you submit with your resume and it explains why you are suited for the position. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS - Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 - Image of "Scrabble - Application" by flazingo_photos is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 - Image of typewriter with CV by Andrea Polini Provided by: Pixabay Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/cv-curriculum-vitae-job-application-5082903/ License: Standard Pixabay License CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Ru00e9sumu00e9s and Cover Letters. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Resume Writing: Purpose of a Resume. By: Career Development Center: West Chester University. Located at: https://youtu.be/cNAoMp_Ni5I. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - 5 Resume Tips That’ll Get You Noticed By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/w82xo-CfwqU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Top Resume Skills By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/_bZi-34IFxs License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Resume Words to Include and Avoid By: Indeed Located at: https://youtu.be/BxPy_-cl4mY License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Steps to an Incredible Cover Letter. Authored by: Aimee Bateman. Located at: https://youtu.be/mxOli8laZos. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License - Resume Tutorial. Authored by: Cameron Cassidy. Located at: https://youtu.be/O5eVMaPZWmM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License RETURN TO THE TABLE OF CONTENTS Interviewing Image by by souvenirsofcanada One important key to success is self-confidence. An important key to self-confidence is preparation. —Arthur Ashe, champion tennis player LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe effective strategies to prepare for an interview - Differentiate between different types of interview situations and identify appropriate interview techniques for each - Analyze different question types common in interviews If your résumé and cover letter have served their purposes well, you will be invited to participate in an interview with the company or organization in which you are interested. Congratulations! It’s an exciting time, and your prospects for employment are very strong if you put in the time to be well prepared. In this section we look at how to get ready for an interview, what types of interviews you might need to engage in, and what kinds of questions you might be asked. Preparing Effectively for a Job Interview Review the Job Description When you prepare for an interview, your first step will be to carefully read and reread the job posting or job description. This will help you develop a clearer idea of how you meet the skills and attributes the company seeks. Research the Company or Organization Researching the company will give you a wider view of what the company is looking for and how well you might fit in. Your prospective employer may ask you what you know about the company. Being prepared to answer this question shows that you took time and effort to prepare for the interview and that you have a genuine interest in the organization. It shows good care and good planning—soft skills you will surely need on the job. Practice Answering Common Questions Most interviewees find that practicing the interview in advance with a family member, a friend, or a colleague eases possible nerves during the actual interview. It also creates greater confidence when you walk through the interview door. In the “Interview Questions” section below, you’ll learn more about specific questions you will likely be asked and corresponding strategies for answering them. Plan to Dress Appropriately Interviewees are generally most properly dressed for an interview in business attire, with the goal of looking highly professional in the eyes of the interviewer. The following short video from UC Davis Internship and Career Center describes “How to Dress For Success for Interviews and the Workplace.” And the even shorter video, “What to Wear to an Interview: Business Casual and Business Formal Examples” from Indeed. Come Prepared Plan to bring your résumé, cover letter, and a list of references to the interview. You may also want to bring a portfolio of representative work. Leave behind coffee, chewing gum, and any other items that could be distractions. Be Confident Above all, interviewees should be confident and “courageous.” By doing so you make a strong first impression. As the saying goes, “There is never a second chance to make a first impression.” Job Interview Types and Techniques Every interview you participate in will be unique: The people you meet with, the interview setting, and the questions you’ll be asked will all be different from interview to interview. The various factors that characterize any given interview can contribute to the sense of adventure and excitement you feel. But it’s also can normal to feel a little nervous about what lies ahead. With so many unknowns, how can you plan to “nail the interview” no matter what comes up? A good strategy for planning is to anticipate the type of interview you may find yourself in. There are common formats for job interviews, described in detail, below. By knowing a bit more about each type and being aware of techniques that work for each, you can plan to be on your game no matter what form your interview takes. Screening Interviews Screening interviews might best be characterized as “weeding-out” interviews. They ordinarily take place over the phone or in another low-stakes environment in which the interviewer has maximum control over the amount of time the interview takes. Screening interviews are generally short because they glean only basic information about you. If you are scheduled to participate in a screening interview, you might safely assume that you have some competition for the job and that the company is using this strategy to whittle down the applicant pool. With this kind of interview, your goal is to win a face-to-face interview. For this first shot, though, prepare well and challenge yourself to shine. Try to stand out from the competition and be sure to follow up with a thank-you note. Phone or Web Conference Interviews If you are geographically separated from your prospective employer, you may be invited to participate in a phone interview or online interview, instead of meeting face-to-face. Technology, of course, is a good way to bridge distances. The fact that you’re not there in person doesn’t make it any less important to be fully prepared, though. In fact, you may wish to be all the more “on your toes” to compensate for the distance barrier. Make sure your equipment (phone, computer, Internet connection, etc.) is fully charged and works. If you’re at home for the interview, make sure the environment is quiet and distraction-free. If the meeting is online, make sure your video background is pleasing and neutral, like a wall hanging or even a white wall. One-on-One Interviews The majority of job interviews are conducted in this format—just you and a single interviewer—likely with the manager you would report to and work with. The one-on-one format gives you both a chance to see how well you connect and how well your talents, skills, and personalities mesh. You can expect to be asked questions like “Why would you be good for this job?” and “Tell me about yourself.” Many interviewees prefer the one-on-one format because it allows them to spend in-depth time with the interviewer. Rapport can be built. As always, be very courteous and professional. Have handy a portfolio of your best work. Panel Interviews An efficient format for meeting a candidate is a panel interview, in which perhaps four to five coworkers meet at the same time with a single interviewee. The coworkers comprise the “search committee” or “search panel,” which may consist of different company representatives such as human resources, management, and staff. One advantage of this format for the committee is that meeting together gives them a common experience to reflect on afterward. In a panel interview, listen carefully to questions from each panelist, and try to connect fully with each questioner. Be sure to write down names and titles, so you can send individual thank-you notes after the interview. Serial Interviews Serial interviews are a combination of one-on-one meetings with a group of interviewers, typically conducted as a series of meetings staggered throughout the day. Ordinarily this type of interview is for higher-level jobs, when it’s important to meet at length with major stakeholders. If your interview process is designed this way, you will need to be ultraprepared, as you will be answering many in-depth questions. Stay alert. Lunch Interviews In some higher-level positions, candidates are taken to lunch or dinner, especially if this is a second interview (a “call back” interview). If this is you, count yourself lucky and be on your best behavior, because even if the lunch meeting is unstructured and informal, it’s still an official interview. Do not order an alcoholic beverage, and use your best table manners. You are not expected to pay or even to offer to pay. But, as always, you must send a thank-you note. Group Interviews Group interviews are comprised of several interviewees and perhaps only one or two interviewers who may make a presentation to the assembled group. This format allows an organization to quickly prescreen candidates. It also gives candidates a chance to quickly learn about the company. As with all interview formats, you are being observed. How do you behave with your group? Do you assume a leadership role? Are you quiet but attentive? What kind of personality is the company looking for? A group interview may reveal this. For a summary of the most common interview formats, take a look at the following video from the Career Center at Texas A&M University, Types of Interviews. ACTIVITY: WHAT MAKES YOU A GREAT FIT? Objectives: - Define your ideal job. - Identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job. Directions: - Write a paragraph describing your ideal job. Imagine that you are already in this job. What is your job title and what are you responsible for executing? What is the name of the company or organization? What is its function? - Now identify the top three reasons why you are a great fit for this ideal job. What sets you apart from the competition? List the qualities, skills and values you have that match the job requirements. Provide examples to support your answers. Connect your values to the company’s values. - Summarize your answer. - Submit this assignment according to directions provided by your instructor. Interview Questions For most job candidates, the burning question is “What will I be asked?” There’s no way to anticipate every single question that may arise during an interview. It’s possible that, no matter how well prepared you are, you may get a question you just didn’t expect. But that’s okay. Do as much preparation as you can—which will build your confidence—and trust that the answers will come. To help you reach that point of sureness and confidence, take time to review common interview questions. Think about your answers. Make notes, if that helps. And then conduct a practice interview with a friend, a family member, or a colleague. Speak your answers out loud. Below is a list of resources that contain common interview questions and good explanations/answers you might want to adopt. WEBSITE \| DESCRIPTION \| \| 1 \| 100 top job interview questions—be prepared for the interview (from Monster.com) \| This site provides a comprehensive set of interview questions you might expect to be asked, categorized as basic interview questions, behavioral questions, salary questions, career development questions, and other kinds. Some of the listed questions provide comprehensive answers, too. \| 2 \| Interview Questions and Answers (from BigInterview) \| This site provides text and video answers to the following questions: Tell me about yourself, describe your current position, why are you looking for a new job, what are your strengths, what is your greatest weakness, why do you want to work here, where do you see yourself in five years, why should we hire you, and do you have any questions for me? \| 3 \| Ten Tough Interview Questions and Ten Great Answers (from CollegeGrad) \| This site explores some of the most difficult questions you will face in job interviews. The more open-ended the question, the greater the variation among answers. Once you have become practiced in your interviewing skills, you will find that you can use almost any question as a launching pad for a particular topic or compelling story. \| 4. \| Illegal Interview Questions (from Better Team) \| Illegal questions that should not be asked in an interview. \| Why Should We Hire You From the Ohio State University Fisher College of Business Career Management Office, here is a video featuring representatives from recruiting companies offering advice for answering the question “Why should we hire you?” As you watch, make mental notes about how you would answer the question in an interview for a job you really want. In closing, below is the final excerpt from the essay “It’s Like Online Dating,” by Jackie Vetrano. You’ll recall that the writer compares job hunting—including résumé creation and cover-letter writing—to online dating. In this last section, she concludes with a look at the job interview and compares it to a first date. IT’S LIKE ONLINE DATING The First Date—The Job Interview After what may feel like forever, you hear back from the love of your life. Congratulations! In the online dating world, you may chat about common interests (because you wrote a stunning first message), but in the world of work, you’ll be asked to visit the organization for an interview. I have been on many first dates, and whether it’s in a coffee shop or over dinner, the first face-to-face meeting is tremendously important. If someone I am meeting for the first time looks like they just came from the gym or rolled out of bed, my impression instantly changes. This same theory can be directly applied to your first date with your future employer. You have worked hard on your cover letter and résumé, and you should not taint the sparkling first impression you have created with the wrong choice in dress. What you wear to a job interview may change based on the position you have applied for, but there are a set of basic rules that everyone should follow. Similar to meeting someone on a first date for coffee, you want to be comfortable. Some interviews may take place with multiple people in an organization, meaning you will be walking to different locations, sitting down, and potentially sweating from a broken air conditioning unit. Consider these factors when choosing your outfit for your interview, and if you’re concerned about being underdressed, remember to always dress a bit nicer than how you’d dress for the job itself. There is nothing worse than sitting alone at a coffee shop waiting for a mystery date to show up. It’s uncomfortable and affects my overall first impression of whom I’m about to meet. Avoid making your mystery employer annoyed and waiting for you by leaving at least ten minutes earlier than you need to, just in case you get stuck in traffic. Arrive at least ten minutes early. The interview will start out much better if you are early rather than nervous and running late. Arriving early also gives you the time to have some coffee and review materials you may need for the interview. Coming on time to an interview or a first date shows you respect the time of the person you plan to meet. On a first date, it is all about communication. Sometimes, there may be silences that cannot be filled or the person I have just met discloses their entire life story to me in less than an hour. If we cannot achieve a proper balance, there will not be a second date. Communicating effectively in a job interview is equally as important, especially if you want a job offer! All of the rules of dating apply to how you should behave in a job interview. The interviewer will ask you questions, which means that you should look at them and focus on what is being asked. Your phone should be on silent (not even on vibrate), and hidden, to show that you are fully attentive and engaged in the conversation you are having. Much like having a conversation on a date, the answers to your questions should be clear and concise and stay on topic. The stories I tell on my first dates are more personal than what would be disclosed in a job interview, but the mindset is the same. You are building the impression that the organization has of you, so put your best foot forward through the comments you make. To make that great impression, it is really important to heavily prepare and practice, even before you have an interview scheduled. By brainstorming answers to typical interview questions in a typed document or out loud, later during the interview you will easily remember the examples of your past experiences that demonstrate why you are best for the job. You can continue to update this list as you move through different jobs, finding better examples to each question to accurately describe your hard and soft skills. This interview is as much a date for your future employer as it is for you. Come prepared with questions that you have about the company, the position, and anything else you are curious about. This is an opportunity for you to show off the research you’ve done on the organization and establish a better understanding of company culture, values, and work ethic. Without knowing these basics of the company or organization, what you thought was a match might only end in a tense breakup. After your interview is over, you continue to have an opportunity to build on the positive impression that you’ve worked hard to form. Sending a follow up thank you note to each person you interviewed with will show your respect for the time the organization spent with you. These notes can be written and sent by mail or emailed, but either way should have a personal touch, commenting on a topic that was discussed in the interview. While sending a thank you note after a first date may sound a little strange, you might not get asked to a second interview without one! It’s Official—The Job Offer In the online dating world, it takes a few dates to determine if two people are a match. In the corporate world, you may have a one or two interviews to build a relationship. If your impression was positive and the organization believes you’re a match for the open position, you’ll be offered a job. With a job offer also comes the salary for the position. It is important to know what a reasonable salary is for the position and location, which can be answered with a bit of research. One good place to look is the Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site. At this point, it is not uncommon to discuss your salary with your future employer, but be sure to do so in a polite way. Online dating sites provide the means for millions of people to meet future partners, and the number of people who use online dating is so large that there are sure to be disappointments along the way. I have met people who I thought were compatible with me, but they did not feel the same, and vice versa. This happens frequently while searching for a job, which can be discouraging, but should not hinder you from continuing to search! There are a great number of opportunities, and sometimes all it takes is adjusting your filters or revising your résumé and cover letter. The cliché “there’s plenty of fish in the sea” may be true, but there is definitely a way for each person to start their career off. —Jackie Vetrano, Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom KEY TAKEAWAYS - Prepare for the interview by carefully reviewing the job description and researching the company in advance. This will help you tailor your interview responses to illustrate how your skills and abilities match the needs of the organization. - Practice common interview questions with a family member or friend to help you respond to questions more naturally, make a good impression, and build confidence in your interviewing skills. - Come prepared for the interview by dressing professionally for the position and bringing copies of your résumé, cover letter, letters of reference, and samples of your work if relevant to the position. - Become familiar with common formats for job interviews, such as screening interviews, one-on-one interviews, phone or web conference interviews, and panel interviews. Each will require different interview techniques from you, and by learning about each type, you will be prepared to demonstrate how you are the best person for the job. - Always send a personalized thank you note to each person who interviewed you immediately following the interview. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Career/Life Planning and Personal Exploration. Authored by: Joanna Campos-Robledo, Thu Nguyen. Provided by: Lumen Learning and found at OER Commons. License: CC BY 4.0 CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY College Success. Authored by: Linda Bruce. Provided by: Lumen Learning License: CC BY: Attribution Foundations of College Success: Words of Wisdom. Authored by: Thomas C. Priester, editor. Provided by: Open SUNY Textbooks. Located at: http://textbooks.opensuny.org/foundations-of-academic-success/. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT How to Dress for Success for Interviews and the Workplace. Authored by: UC Davis Internship and Career Center Located at https://youtu.be/taDdxF0T5B8 License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License What to Wear to an Interview: Business Causal and Business Formal Examples Authored by: Indeed. Located at: https://youtu.be/muwkauOZjEI License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Types of Interviews Authored by: Texas A&M University Career Center Located at: https://youtu.be/S49RQc_OtfU License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License Why Should We Hire You? How to Answer this Interview Question. Authored by: Fisher OSU. Located at: https://youtu.be/Ut-fKJNbqmc. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.565549	05/31/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104440/overview", "title": "Career Planning and Personal Exploration", "author": "Donna Dutcher" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60433/overview	Taboo Cards 학교와 직장/ School and Work, Intermediate Mid, Korean 202, Lab 13 Overview In this lab, students will try to explain a vocabulary or concepts without using a specific word. Students will utilize other vocabulary or description to communicate their message. 학교와 직장/ School and Work, Korean, Intermediate Mid Please Note: Many of the activities on the Pathways Project OER Repository were created by upper-division students at Boise State University and serve as a foundation that our community of practice can build upon and refine. While they are polished, we welcome and encourage collaboration from language instructors to help modify grammar, syntax, and content where needed. Kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu with any suggestions and we will update the content in a timely manner. — The Pathways Project About the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) Language Activity Repository The activities provided by the Boise State World Languages Resource Center (WLRC) serve as foundational activities which can be adapted by any language and scaled up or down on the proficiency scale. Many of these activities offer an English Version that is “language-agnostic” to provide language instructors from around the country a platform to remix these instructional materials, infusing them with their target language and culture! The activities within the Pathways Project OER Repository seek to help students solidify their interpersonal speaking and interpretive skills through task-based situations or communicative activities. These activities should be facilitated in the target language for approximately 90% (or more), per the recommendation of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. How to use the WLRC Repository’s Activities: 1. Use the Activity as is: Before you begin: Most activities are 30 minutes in duration, unless otherwise specified. Be sure to read through the activity description, and review the list of required materials. You will notice that the activity materials are also highlighted in yellow throughout the activity instructions. If you have any suggestions about grammar, syntax, and content, please kindly contact amberhoye@boisestate.edu. 2. Remix for Your Language Classroom: When you are ready to begin remixing the activity, in order to adapt it for the needs of your language classroom, simply click the blue “Remix This Resource” button at the top of your screen. This will then take you to a screen with a NEW, editable version of this activity. The text provided in purple is a suggestion of what you might say to your students in the target language, and may be altered for different levels and age groups. All activities have “NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do” statements, a warm-up, a main activity, and a wrap-up. Many of the activities include printable cards and other instructional materials such as Google Slideshows. If you would like to make changes to these materials in Spanish, follow the instructions below: Google Slideshows: To begin, go to File -> Copy to create an editable version of the slideshow. Once finished with your changes, please complete the following steps to share: Click on Share Who Has Access Ensure link sharing is on and allow external access. Materials Saved as PDF: Please email WLRCLAR@gmail.com and we will provide you with an editable copy. Please allow up to two business days for a response. For YouTube videos and other websites, hyperlinks are provided. 3. Adapt for Another Language: See the linked English Version at the top of the activity (English Version may not be available for all activities) 학교와 직장/ School and Work Description: In this lab, students will try to explain a vocabulary or concepts without using a specific word. Students will utilize other vocabulary or description to communicate their message. Proficiency Level: Intermediate Mid Keywords: Taboo, job promotion, interview, graduate school, memory World Readiness Standards: STANDARD 1.1 Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions. STANDARD 1.2 Students understand and interpret written and spoken Korean on a variety of topics. STANDARD 1.3 Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics. STANDARD 3.2 Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through the Korean language and cultures. Idaho Content Standards for World Languages: COMM 1.1 - Interact and negotiate meaning (spoken, signed, written conversation) to share information, reactions, feelings, and opinions. COMM 2.1 - Understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics. CONN 1.2 - Relate information studied in other subjects to the target language and culture. COMT 1.1 - Participate in multilingual communities at home and around the world. NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can describe new concepts in my target language. I can use new vocabulary to gain a better understanding of the Korean culture. I can describe a job interview without using certain words, such as job and formal attire. Materials Needed: Taboo Cards Warm-up 1. Begin by introducing the Can-Dos for today’s activity 2. Students will discuss the following questions: 방학 동안에 어떤 활동을 할 건가요? What are you planning to do over the break? 방학이 끝나기 전에 이루고 싶은 목표가 있나요? Is there a goal that you want to achieve by the end of the break? Main Activity Place the taboo cards in the center of the table. A student will pick a card one at a time. Only the student who picked the card will be able to see the word or phrase written on the card. The student who looked at the word will describe the vocabulary without saying the word. 취업을 하고 싶으면 이 과정을 거쳐가야 돼요. You need to go through this process if you want to get hired. 이 시간에는 차가 많이 막혀요. There is a lot of traffic during this time. Students will repeat until they have completed all the cards. Wrap-up Discuss the following question to finish the lab: 1. 졸업 후에 어떤 일을 하고 싶나요? 이 일을 하기 위해서 어떤 것을 준비해야 될까요? What do you want to do after graduating? What do you need to do in order to do this work? End of lab: • Read Can-Do statements once more and have students evaluate their confidence. (Use thumbs up/thumbs down or download our student cards.) • Encourage students to be honest in their self-evaluation. • Pay attention, and try to use feedback for future labs NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements: I can describe new concepts in my target language. I can use new vocabulary to gain a better understanding of the Korean culture. I can describe a job interview without using certain words, such as job and formal attire.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.662435	Mimi Fahnstrom	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60433/overview", "title": "학교와 직장/ School and Work, Intermediate Mid, Korean 202, Lab 13", "author": "Daum Jung" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94751/overview	Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Textbook Overview This course teaches participants to communicate clearly and effectively in both speech and in writing, using conventional professional language and observing basic principles of etiquette in workplace conversations and correspondence. DILL Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Course Outcomes/ Competency Definitions You will communicate clearly and effectively in both speech and in writing, using conventional professional language and observing basic principles of etiquette in workplace conversations and correspondence. As a reader, you will understand technical documents that include unfamiliar vocabulary and conditional statements, distinguishing main ideas from details, tracking particular steps in an instructional process, and interpreting unique graphics with densely displayed information and multiple variables. By Holyoke Community College. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.680223	Textbook	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94751/overview", "title": "Pharmacy Tech Pre-Training English Textbook", "author": "Reading Informational Text" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67212/overview	A.A.S in Information Technology - Jobs Overview This assignment is intended to encourage students to explore relevant jobs in the Information Technology arena post the completion of their A.A.S degree. Am I able to secure a job after completing my Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S) in Information Technology at Stella and Charles Guttman Community College? An A.A.S degree in Information Technology is geared to position a graduate in landing a job upon completion. For this brief assignment, you are tasked with exploring three such job opportunities that may be of interest. Watch the video below for one career path: Information security and forensics analyst: What I do Explore three (3) other positions in the Information Technology sphere that may be of interest to you. For each position, include 1-2 paragraph(s) about the job title, description, qualification, job demand/outlook, and why this job is of interest to you.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.694517	Dalvin Hill	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67212/overview", "title": "A.A.S in Information Technology - Jobs", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67069/overview	Long and Short Hedging Lab Long Hedging Lab Margin Account Lab Short-Hedging Lab Understanding Hedging with Futures Contracts Overview This unit takes the ideas learned in Understanding Commodity Markets and Understanding Basis and digs deeper to explain how futures contracts are used to allow agricultural producers to hedge. Futures Markets Futures Markets Futures markets for commodities serve two primary functions that are vital and of extreme importance to farmers, ranchers and producers; price discovery and risk management. The link to the website below offers a video to watch and is a great example of how the CME Group performs both functions: The CME Group is the parent company to the two most famous futures markets in the world – the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). There are other futures markets – Minneapolis Grain Exchange (MGEX), Kansas City Board of Trade (KCBOT), New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), Intercontinental Exchange (ICE). Each exchange offers a market to trade (buy or sell) futures contracts for different commodities. For example, the MGEX offers a platform for hedgers and speculators to buy and sell futures contracts as well as options on futures contracts on hard red spring wheat, where the CBOT offers the market for soft red winter wheat and the KCBOT offers the market for hard red winter wheat. All three wheat classes have differing uses as well as differing growing regions. HRSW is primarily grown in the norther plains (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, northern Minnesota, and the Pacific Northwest), SRWW is primarily grown in the Midwest and upper Midwest (Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio), HRWW is primarily grown in the central plains (Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Texas, and Colorado). This doesn’t mean that HRWW cannot be grown in states like North Dakota, it is, however, the primary region is in the central plains. That is also why the major markets for the trading of those commodities are located in the cities that they are located in. Years ago, they became the major hubs for the grain to get processed into food products for consumption. What are Futures Contracts? One of the things that gets confused often is what exactly a futures contract is. Before we fully explain that concept lets focus on a cash contract. When a producer signs a cash contract (sells cash grain) they are promising to deliver a certain quantity of a certain grade of a commodity to a specific location by a certain date where they will receive an agreed upon price. Once the producer has delivered on that contract (hauled the specified quantity of the promised quality to the location agreed upon by the date agreed to) the buyer of the contract is obligated to settle the contract by paying the seller the agreed price. Futures contracts are not contracts made with your local cash purchaser. Futures contracts are actually much simpler. Take corn for example. If you want to sell a corn futures contract on the CBOT, you will be selling 5000 bushels of number 2 yellow dent corn, delivered to Chicago, IL by the expiration date of that contract. Which is why there are multiple months that corn futures contracts trade (March, May, July, September and December of each year). Say you sell a July futures contract today – May 19th 2020, since the contract already specifies that it is for 5000 bushels of #2 yellow dent corn delivered to Chicago by July 14th, 2020, the only other item that needs negotiated on the contract is the price. Negotiating price is why price discovery works in futures markets. Because thousands and thousands of contracts get traded each day on the CBOT in corn, we have an accurate representation of what the overall market feels is the correct price for corn in the US. Remember that the only negotiated component on a corn futures contract is the price! All of the other components of the contract are fixed. Click the link below to go to the current contract specifications for corn futures that are traded on the CBOT: https://www.cmegroup.com/trading/agricultural/grain-and-oilseed/corn_contract_specifications.html The delivery component to futures contract is generally where most people get hung up. Truth be told, delivery occurs in very few instances (less than 2% of contacts traded). How is this possible? To fully grasp this concept, try not to think of selling a futures contract as selling something right now at this moment, and focus more on making a “promise” to sell something in the future. Remember, when we sell July 2020 Corn today (May 19th, 2020) I am not actually selling any corn to anyone today, I’m selling a piece of paper – a contract – a futures contract (or a promise to deliver in the future) to someone that may or may not actually want those 5000 bushels in July. As long as I buy back the exact same contract – a July 2020 Corn futures at some point between now and July I remove my obligation to deliver corn to Chicago in July. That is why futures contracts get delivered on in less than 2% of traded contracts. Most sellers buy back their obligations to make a delivery and likewise most buyers sell their obligation to take delivery before the contract expires. The key is to think of futures contracts as pieces of paper that promise to make (sell) or take (buy) delivery of the commodity by a certain date. Rather than actually delivering or taking delivery of physical bushels in the cash market. This concept coupled with basis – the fact that futures and cash markets are linked together are what make the second purpose of futures markets possible –price risk management. Futures Markets Labels Futures markets use a system to label and abbreviate futures contracts. Since there are several commodities that are being traded on different exchanges and each commodity is trading in several different months, there needs to be a system that abbreviates the contracts so that they can be referred to easily and simply. The issue is that you almost need to work in the brokerage business to remember them. It is not expected that you will remember every single contract abbreviation, but you do need to know how to figure out what contract is being talked about. The following tables will help out: For the delivery month, refer to the table below: For commonly traded agricultural commodities, refer to the table below: Code \| Commodity \| MW \| Minneapolis Wheat – Hard Red Spring Wheat - HRSW \| C \| Corn \| S \| Soybeans \| ZW \| Chicago Wheat – Soft Red Winter Wheat - SRWW \| KW \| Kansas City Wheat – Hard Red Winter Wheat - HRWW \| M \| Soybean Meal \| L \| Soybean Oil \| GF \| Feeder Cattle – 700 lb steer \| GL \| Live Cattle – Fat steer ready for slaughter – over 1300 lbs \| H \| Lean Hogs – hog carcass – already slaughtered hanging on rail \| Again, you are not expected to memorize these contract codes. But when you work through the labs, often the futures contracts will be listed in there abbreviated codes, so you will need to be able to figure out what it is that you are working with. Referring to the “Contract Specifications” link above will help as well. Lab Activity – See “Futures Contract Specifications” below. Hedging – The Short Hedge Hedging – The Short Hedge We have talked about hedgers and hedging in previous units. Hedgers are traders that will have to buy or sell the physical commodity and are looking to “hedge” or lock in their prices in order to remove risk. At any point the producers might look at the price of December 2020 Corn futures and decide that they like the price being offered in the futures markets. They are able to “hedge” their position by taking an opposite position in the futures market as they have taken in the cash market. What position have they taken in the cash market – well the producer has bought the seed, the chemical, the fertilizer, paid the land rent, purchased the equipment and paid for all of the other input requirements to get the crop in the field so that they will be able to harvest corn in the fall, and then sell it in the cash market. The farmer is what is known as “long the cash”. Meaning they have bought the cash inputs and now need to sell the cash crop – corn. Since they are “long” in the cash market and the definition of hedging is taking the opposite position in the futures market, they would need to sell or “short” the futures market. Below is a table to illustrate what is occurring in this example: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00. Offered for forward contract with local buyer – Does NOT sell to local buyer \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50. Sells corn in the spot market to the local buyer. \| $3.00. Buys back December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| The basis for cash corn delivered to the local buyer in December of 2020 does not change during the course of this example. What does change is the December 2020 Corn futures price. In May it was trading at $3.50/bu. and in November it has traded down to $3.00/bu. Because of this the cash price offered to the farmer in December is now 50 cents less than they would have received if they had sold the forward contract back in May. Instead the farmer “short hedged” or sold December 2020 Corn futures at a price of $3.50/bu. In November the farmer is able to buy back the December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.00 – pocketing or profiting $0.50/bushel. Remember that a corn futures contract is 5000 bushels which means that the farmer profits a total of $2500. The farmer then sells the physical bushels in the cash market at the current cash price - $2.50/bu., but since they had short-hedged and earned a $0.50/bu. gain their “Net Sales Price” (NSP) is equivalent to $3.00/bu.: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| Now let’s see what happens when the basis changes or adjusts during the time of the problem. Let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at -$0.70 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.30 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.30 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $2.80 \| Now let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at -$0.10 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.90 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.90 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.40 \| Now let’s assume that basis for December delivery is at +$0.20 by the time the farmer delivers corn to the local buyer: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.20 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.20 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.20 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.70 \| One thing to note is how in all of the examples the Net Sales Price is always equal to the Futures price when the hedge was entered +/- the basis at the time the hedge is “lifted” (exited, bought back): \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.50 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.30 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.30 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $2.80 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.90 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.90 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.40 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.20 \| $3.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.20 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.20 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.70 \| Lab Activity – See “Short-Hedging Lab” below. Hedging – The Long Hedge Hedging – The Long Hedge The buyers of the commodities often times need protection as well, only this time from higher prices that might occur in the future. Assume that an ethanol plant needs to buy corn to process into ethanol in September. It could purchase corn in the spot market today and store it until it is needed, but that costs money to store grain, and they might not have enough storage available to hold that much corn. They could also forward contract the purchase for delivery when it is needed. Or they can long hedge their purchases. Remember that hedging is taking an opposite position in the futures market as you currently hold in the cash market. The ethanol plant is “short” the cash market. They will need corn in the future, but currently do not have it available to them. Since the are “short the cash” they will hedge that cash position by taking a long position in the futures market. To do so they go and buy September 2020 Corn futures today at $3.25/bu. Below is a table that illustrates what is occurring in this example: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00. Offered for forward contract with local seller – Does NOT buy from local buyer \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50. Buys corn in the spot market from the local seller. \| $2.75. Buys back December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| The basis between May and September for a September delivery forward contract does not change and remains at 25 under. What does change in this example is that the September 2020 Corn futures price drops between May and September. This is actually not good for the buyer of corn. As you will see in the following table, they lose money in the futures as a result of this long hedge position: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.00 \| One tricky part to this problem is how we handle the loss on the futures position. You might notice that we had to pay $2.50/bu. to buy the cash corn in the spot market. We also lost $0.50/bu. in the futures market. So how in the world do we end up with a $3.00/bu. net purchase price? Shouldn’t we subtract the 50-cent loss? That is what we would have done in the short hedge problem! The answer is no. In all of these problems you need to focus on the direction of the money flow. In this problem, the ethanol plant has to pay their corn supplier for the corn that they are purchasing - $2.50/bu. They also lose $0.50/bu. in their futures account. Technically both amounts are negative cash flows. Both the $2.50/bu. paid for cash corn and the $0.50/bu. futures loss is paid to someone else, which means the “Net” of the transactions is a loss of $3.00/bu. for the ethanol plant. Now, it is NOT a loss, as they gain corn, an ingredient that is vital to the production of ethanol. And while it is true, they would have been better off to not hedge and just purchase the corn in the spot market when they needed it, markets don’t always do what we want them to do. That is why it is called price risk management. For the purchaser of commodities, the risk is that the price could go up, so to remove that risk they long-hedge. Removing the price risk but creating a scenario where the price could go lower and they would miss out on it. For the seller of commodities, the risk is that the price could go down, so to remove that risk they short hedge. Removing price risk but creating a scenario where the price could go higher, and they miss out on the higher prices. Now lets see what happens when the basis changes or adjusts during the time of the problem. Let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at -$0.70 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $2.55 \| Now let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at -$0.10 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.65 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.65 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.15 \| Now let’s assume that basis for September delivery is at +$0.30 by the time the ethanol plant buys corn from the local supplier: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $3.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.30 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $3.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.55 \| Again one thing to note is how in all of the examples the Net Purchase Price is always equal to the Futures price when the hedge was entered +/- the basis at the time the hedge is “lifted” (exited, bought back): \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.50 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.00 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.70 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $2.55 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $2.65 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.10 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $2.65 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.15 \| \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – September Forward Contract \| $3.25. Buys September 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.25 \| September 2020 \| $3.05 \| $2.75. Sells September 2020 Corn futures \| +$0.30 \| \| \| Cash Price Paid \| $3.05 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Purchase Price \| $3.55 \| Lab Activity – See “Long Hedging Lab” below. Hedging – Locking in Prices Hedging – Locking in Prices Often times you will hear hedging referred to as locking in prices. And essentially that is what you are doing. Remember that your cash price that you receive if selling grain or pay if buying grain is always a function of the futures market. That is the local cash price is derived somehow from the futures price that is quoted every second of the trading day. The only thing that we are not able to hedge is the basis. When we place a hedge, we are subject to the basis changing between the date we place the hedge and the date we lift the hedge and buy or sell the physical commodity in the cash market. Thus, hedging transfers all of the price risk from the futures market to the basis market. In all four of the examples for both the short-hedge and the long-hedge the price that we entered the futures hedge at remained constant, the only thing that changed the Net Price was the basis. That is why hedging is known as “locking in prices”. Essentially the buyer or seller decides that they can live with that price, places the hedge, and if the market moves against their position, they are OK with the futures loss because the cash market is offsetting the loss. In the case of the short hedger, as the futures price increases, they are suffering a loss in the futures market. However, since the cash market is derived from that same futures price, their cash price is increasing and offsetting the loss they are incurring in the futures market. See example below: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $3.50 \| $4.00. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $3.50 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| Had the farmer in the example above done nothing, they would be selling cash corn at $3.50/bu. Since the farmer hedged, they lost 50 cents in the futures market. While that stinks, the farmer made a calculated decision that they were “good with” selling $3.00 corn (given an expected -50 basis). Had the market moved the opposite way, the farmer would have felt like a genius: \| Cash Market \| Futures Market \| Basis \| May 2020 \| $3.00 – December Forward Contract \| $3.50. Sells December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| November 2020 \| $2.00 \| $2.50. Buys December 2020 Corn futures \| -$0.50 \| \| \| Cash Price Received \| $2.00 \| \| \| Gain/Loss on Futures \| +$1.00 \| \| \| Net Sales Price \| $3.00 \| In this example the market drops placing the hedge in a profitable position. This keeps the farmer from having to sell $2.00/bu. cash corn, and instead they are able add an additional $1.00/bu. to their selling price by having the hedge in place. Lab Activity – See “Long and Short Hedging Lab” below. Futures Accounts – Margin Futures Accounts – Margin We have talked about what futures markets are and what they do. We have examined how short-hedgers and long-hedgers can use them to manage price risk. But, where does the gain or the loss come from on the futures transaction? The answer to that is pretty easy. However, fairly complicated! In essence, if you gain $0.50/bu. in the futures market, that means that someone else had to lose $0.50/bu. Futures gains and losses are a zero-sum game. Which means if you add up the winners and losers together you would get 0. But there is a way that this works so that it is efficient, and you never need to worry about the other side of your transaction failing to pay – “margin requirements”! In order to trade futures, you first need to open a brokerage account through a Futures Broker: Once you have an account opened up, you will be able to place trades with your broker. In order to place the trades, you will need to have enough money in your brokerage account to cover the maximum amount that you can lose in one day – the price limits. Price limits exist for two primary reasons; 1) as a circuit breaker for market (simply put if the price moves by too much, the amount of the limit, the market shuts down for the day allowing the market to determine if the prices should have moved that much) and 2) to allow time for brokers to collect enough margin money from account holders with positions in the market to cover the next days possible losses. In other words, buying and selling futures does not cost you anything up front (except the brokerage commission charged by your broker), you are required to cover any losses to your account as they happen. That is why limits are so important. The price limits are set by the exchanges and are subject to change, so I don’t like to tell you what they are. Instead here is the link to the current posting for the CME Group: https://www.cmegroup.com/trading/price-limits.html#agricultural If you click on the link, you will see that corn currently as of 5/19/2020 has a 25-cent limit. That means that the price can only increase or decrease by 25 cents from the closing price of the previous day. Since corn futures contracts are for 5000 bushels, the maximum amount that you can make or lose in one day is 5000 bushels X 25 cents/bushel = $1250/contract. In other words, to place a trade, either long or short, in the corn futures, you must have at least $1250/contract traded in your account at the time you enter the market. Let’s assume you place $1500 into your brokerage account and then instruct your broker to sell 1 December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.25/bu. The order fills and you are now short 1 December Corn futures contract at $3.25. If during the day the market goes up by 10 cents to $3.35, you will have $500 deducted from your brokerage account - $0.10/bu. * 5000 bushels = $500/contract. Your account balance will decrease to $1000, resulting in a “margin call” of $250. Essentially what will happen is that your broker will have to call you to collect $250 into your account. Why $250? Remember to trade corn you need to maintain at least a $1250 margin account (brokerage account) balance. When the clearinghouse (the arm of the exchange that handles the transfers of gains and losses between traders) debited your brokerage account for $500, you fell below the minimum threshold of $1250 or the limit per contract. By placing the $250 into your account, you are able to remain in your futures position. Now imagine the next day the market goes back up $0.10/bu. This time your margin account is credited $500. As a result, you now have $1750 in your margin account. Of which you could if you wanted to, withdraw $500 immediately, as long as you keep the required minimum of $1250 in your account. This process will go on for as long as you hold a position in the market. Assume that on May, 20, 2020 you buy (go long) 1 December 2020 Corn futures contract at $3.30/bu., place the minimum margin into your account and hold that position for 10 days. The daily gain/loss and resulting daily balance would look like the following given the price movements indicated in the table: Date \| Price as of Close Today \| Change from Previous Close \| Change in Margin Account \| Margin Call \| Margin Account Balance \| 5/20/20 \| $3.35 \| +$0.05 (from entry) \| +$250 \| - \| $1500 \| 5/21/20 \| $3.45 \| +$0.10 \| +$500 \| - \| $2000 \| 5/22/20 \| $3.64 \| +$0.20 \| +$1000 \| - \| $3000 \| 5/26/20 \| $3.50 \| -$0.15 \| -$750 \| - \| $2250 \| 5/27/20 \| $3.30 \| -$0.20 \| -$1000 \| - \| $1250 \| 5/28/20 \| $3.10 \| -$0.20 \| -$1000 \| $1000 \| $1250 \| 5/29/20 \| $3.00 \| -$0.10 \| -$500 \| $500 \| $1250 \| 6/1/20 \| $3.05 \| +$0.05 \| +$250 \| - \| $1500 \| 6/2/20 \| $3.30 \| +0.25 \| +$1250 \| - \| $2750 \| 6/3/20 \| Sell at $3.40 \| +0.10 \| +$500 \| - \| $3250 \| At the end of 10 days when the long position is exited, the trader has an account balance of $3250. However, they initially placed $1250 of initial margin in the account and then made $1500 worth of margin calls. In total $2750 in their brokerage account is their own money. So take the balance of $3250 – the $2750 that they contributed to their account = $500 gain. $500/5000 bu. = $0.10 per bushel. That happens to be the difference between the price that the trader entered the futures in the long position of $3.30 and the price that they exited the futures of $3.40. This concept of margin and adjusting daily is known as “marked to the market” and it means that daily gains and losses are credited to the winner’s brokerage accounts and debited from the loser’s accounts for that day. This is why in the video that I recommended you watch at the beginning of this unit talks about how there is no counter-party risk involved in trading futures contracts. Counter-party risk refers to the risk that when you sell grain to a buyer, there is a risk that you may NOT get paid. There have been several recent examples of this in North Dakota and all over the US. It does happen. It does NOT happen in futures markets, because of the margin requirements. I MUST have the amount that I could lose for the day posted to an account before I can stay in the market. If I receive a “margin call” and I do NOT put the money into my account to cover potential losses, I can have my position liquidated by my broker. That simply means the exit me from my trade so that I do not fail on my counter-party risk. Lab Activity – See “Margin Account Lab” below. Futures Contracts – Closing Futures Contracts – Closing The use of futures creates an ability for producers to become price makers, rather than often-cited price-taker mentality of many producers. To start with and for this course, we focus on the use of futures as a static tool. Meaning we put a hedge on and leave it until it is time to either buy or sell in the cash market depending on what type of a hedger we are. In practice though, hedging offers a lot of flexibility as well as the opportunity to add value to sales. It does carry additional risk, however. When we hedge remember we must be willing to say that we are OK with the current prices, and we are willing to give up some of the gain on the top. Futures do NOT make marketing grain easier, but the do offer a lot of tools to help the producers maximize their profitability.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.895114	Primary Source	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67069/overview", "title": "Understanding Hedging with Futures Contracts", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95445/overview	Extrema: Calculus 1 project by Chukwudumebi Okonkwo Overview This Project has been completed as part of a standard 10 weeks Calculus 1 face to face course during Summer 2022 semester at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA. Summary Author: Chukwudumebi Okonkwo Instructor: Igor V Baryakhtar Subject: Calculus 1 Course number: MA 200-007 Course type: Face-to-face Semester: Summer 2022, 10 weeks College: MassBay Comminity College, MA Tags: Calculus, Project, Active Learning Language: English Media Format: Microsoft Word License: CC-BY 4.0 All project content created by Chukwudumebi Okonkwo Content added to OER Commons by Igor V Baryakhtar Project description We have a critical point of a function when its derivative is equal to zero, because the line tangent at that point is horizontal. When the graph of the derivative is negative the function is decreasing because the rate of change of the function would be negative; the opposite is true if the graph of the derivative is positive. In my video I wanted to show how we can use the first derivative of a function to find any local extrema of the given function because of what the graph of the derivative can tell us. I created this animated video using a python based program called Manim. The video gives a visual representation of how this works. It’s one thing to be told that it works, it is another to see how it really works. I hope it was interesting and helped deepen your understanding of calculus. Sources Manim Community \| Documentation. 2022. Quickstart. [online] Available at: <https://docs.manim.community/en/stable/tutorials/quickstart.html> [Accessed 18 July 2022]. Video	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.912369	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95445/overview", "title": "Extrema: Calculus 1 project by Chukwudumebi Okonkwo", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79851/overview	Archival Preservation Handouts Overview In this resource, you will find five archival preservation handouts and one handout addressing arrangement and description. These handouts will quickly help a user understand how to best preserve different types of materials at their home. There are both full-color and black and white versions of each of these handouts. The handouts are licensed under CC, by 4.0. You can download these handouts by clicking the "PDF" or "download" buttons below this text.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.928625	05/03/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79851/overview", "title": "Archival Preservation Handouts", "author": "Marissa Ajamian Grossman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74096/overview	HS+ Contemporary World Problems, Environmental Science & English (2020) Overview This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Environmental Science and Contemporary World Problems. This course meets the statutory requirement for lab science in Washington State. This competency-based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn possible high school completion English, Lab Science, Contemporary World Problems and/or elective credits. About this Course This theme-based English course integrates reading, writing, listening, speaking, and critical thinking skills around assignments and activities focusing on Environmental Science and Contemporary World Problems. Topics include: - Global History And Interdependence - Survey And Analysis Of Global Issues - Environmental Justice - Focus Issues Of Water, Food System And Waste This course meets the statutory requirement for lab science in Washington State. This competency based class allows students to work at their own pace, exit at a level appropriate to demonstrated skills and knowledge, and earn possible high school completion English, Lab Science, Contemporary World Problems and/or elective credits. Culturally Responsive Approach This course was intentionally developed to align with the Washington State Board for Community and Technical College’s vision, mission, values, and strategic plan. The Culturally Responsive Scorecard, developed by NYU Steinhardt, was a guiding document in the development of this course. Sincere efforts were made to develop a culturally responsive curriculum that is inclusive of all students, with particular emphasis on highlighting the histories, experiences, and strengths of historically underserved populations. Faculty planning to teach this course should review modules thoroughly prior to presenting material to students. The HS+ Instructor Resource Guide provides resources and strategies that may be a useful starting place for faculty to address gaps in knowledge and confidence. Course Outcomes - Evaluate information scientifically in the context of his/her own life. - Identify and evaluate instances where population growth and humans' use of resources impacts the natural environment. - Actively participate in solutions to environmental problems. - Interpret and explain basic scientific data represented in graphs and charts. - Utilize academic research skills; such as evaluate the quality/credibility of information from various kinds of sources. - Narrow topics and discern the most important information from texts. - Employ strategies to build and retain vocabulary. - Identify how authors organize text both written and oral and use vocabulary for specific purposes and audiences. - Utilize the writing process to write academic essays. - Improve sentence clarity and structure by addressing errors in the context of their own writing. - Assess options for individual and collective action to address local, regional, or global problems by engaging in self-reflection, strategy identification, and complex causal reasoning. - Investigate global themes rooted in environmental issues, economic development, human rights, and civic action and responsibility College and Career Readiness Standards Throughout the course students demonstrate the following: - Reading anchor standard 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words. - Writing Anchor Standard 1: Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence. - Writing anchor standard 5: Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. - Writing anchor standard 6: Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others. - Speaking and Listening anchor standard 4: Present information, findings, and supporting evidence such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.944086	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74096/overview", "title": "HS+ Contemporary World Problems, Environmental Science & English (2020)", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79926/overview	Blood Type Compatibility Exercise Overview This worksheet provides a video reviewing blood types and compatibility as well as assessment questions to determine comprehension. Watch the video below on blood types and compatibility and then test your comprehension using the worksheet below. Source: “Blood Typing Video” by Dr. Bruce Forciea is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Blood Type Review Questions - Circle the antigens that would exist on red blood cells if a person was type AB- blood. A antigen B antigen Rh antigen - Circle the antibodies that would exist in blood plasma if a person was type AB- blood. A antibody B antibody Rh antibody - Which blood type would only have Rh and A antigens on the surface of red blood cells? A+ A- B+ B- AB+ AB- O+ O- - Which blood type would have no Rh antigens, but only have B antigens on the surface of red blood cells? A+ A- B+ B- AB+ AB- O+ O- - Which blood type would only have Rh and B antibodies flowing through blood plasma? A+ A- B+ B- AB+ AB- O+ O- - Maxwell has lost a lot of blood and needs a transfusion. Doctors at the hospital have identified that he has A- blood type, which means he also has B and Rh antibodies in his plasma. Circle blood types that he can safely receive. A+ A- B+ B- AB+ AB- O+ O- - A person who has B+ blood and Rh antigen on their red blood cells wishes to donate their blood. Circle the blood types that CAN receive B+ blood in a transfusion.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.968155	Sara Sanders	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79926/overview", "title": "Blood Type Compatibility Exercise", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89734/overview	Abraham Lincoln, First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas at Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858, Excerpts Overview Lincoln, Abraham. 1858. "First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas." Excerpts of speech delivered at Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858. https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debate1.htm HIST 2010 Election of 1860 - Sectional Tensions/Pre Civil War Contains Lincoln’s ideas about slavery.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:04.986034	Christopher Gilliland	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89734/overview", "title": "Abraham Lincoln, First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas at Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858, Excerpts", "author": "Susan Jennings" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108182/overview	House-Rules Municipal Court SenateRules88 Texas Constitution Texas Government Overview Texas Government OER textbook. Written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado. Originally written in Fall 2017, reformatted May 2022. This EBook is the first OER Texas Government textbook ever written in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, this textbook, written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado, is CC BY 2.0 license. The textbook content was produced by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license, except for the following changes and additions, which are (CC BY 2.0 license) 2023 by Daniel Brown and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license. Overview Overview Texas Government OER textbook. Written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado. Originally written in Fall 2017, reformatted May 2022. This EBook is the first OER Texas Government textbook ever written in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, this textbook, written by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado, is CC BY 2.0 license. The textbook content was produced by Dr. Daniel M. Regalado and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license, except for the following changes and additions, which are (CC BY 2.0 license) 2023 by Daniel Brown and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 license. Chapter 1 Added image credit to Figures 1.1 through 1.6 Added additional information to explain the reason for the Gonzales engagement in 1835. Added critical information to portions of the Texas Constitutions Fixed URL's within text of document Added a Key Words list Chapter 2 Added image credit to Figures 2.1 through 2.6 Added an explanation of coercive federalism Fixed URL's within text of document Updated the Texas Local Government Tax revenue Added a Key Words list Chapter 3 Added the Legislative process in Texas Added "Process for Senate Bills" diagram Added "Process for House Bills" diagram Added Key Word list Chapter 4 Added history of the Texas Governor Added the Texas Bureaucracy Added Key Word list Chapter 5 Added Structure of the Texas Court System Added section on Municipal Courts Added Figure 5.3 Court Structure of Texas Added County and Municipal Judges Education Act Added Key Word list Chapter 7 Added additional information regarding Local Governments Added Glossary of Terms Added the Texas Constitution updated as of 2021 Contents CONTENTS - Texas History and Culture - Independence for Texas - The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 - The Constitutions of Texas - Civil Liberties and Civil Rights - State Political Culture - Federalism - Division of Powers - The Evolution of Federalism - The Texas Legislature - Qualifications and Organization - How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas - The Executive Branch - The Governor - The Texas Plural Executive - The Texas Justice System - Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges - Court Organization - Texas Criminal Justice Process - Political Participation - Voting - Elections - Public Opinion - The Media - Political Parties - Interest Groups - Texas Policy - Texas Budget and Revenue - Local Governments 1. Texas History and Culture Assessment Questions for Chapter 1 1 American political culture generally highlights which values? A democracy, freedom, happiness B* liberty, equality, democracy C democracy, equality, happiness D liberty, freedom, happiness 2 States that exhibit a distinctive culture that is the “product of their entire history” are an example of A political behavior B* political culture C politics D state's rights 3 Which of the following types of political culture stresses the importance of the individual and private initiative? A* individualistic B traditionalistic C moralistic D socialistic 4. Which of the following makes it difficult to classify Texas as having one unified political culture? A* its size and diversity B its one party dominance C its religious history D its rural traditions 5. Traditionalistic political cultures, according to Daniel Elazar, are typically found in the A Nortjwest B West C* South D Midwest 6. Political culture is a term used to describe A the level of education and learning in a particular state B the degree of public support for the arts C* the broadly shared values and beliefs about government D the amount of partisan bickering in a state 7. Approximately how long did one-party Democratic rule last in Texas? A 10 Years B 50 Years C* 100 Years D 150 Years 8. State constitutions are designed to perform which of the following functions? A to establish the mechanisms through which school districts determine grade-appropriate curricula B to ensure that power is concentrated in a unitary executive branch C to ensure that free, fair, and frequent elections are conducted by the federal government D* to prevent abuse of power by the government by establishing and protecting civil liberties 9. Thinking about the constitutions of Texas and the United States, both are based upon which fundamental idea? A* Political power is derived from the people B Political power is divided into two separate parts and placed in separate branches of government C the idea of community rights D the subordinate role that Texas has in the federal system 10. The Constitution of 1845 forbid anyone from freeing slaves, to include the Legislature. FALSE* TRUE 11. According to the __________________, the U.S. Constitution takes precedence over the Texas Constitution A* supremacy clause B separation of powers clause C necessary and proper clause D delegate powers 12. Texas became an independent republic in ________ and became part of the United States in ________. A 1827; 1861 B 1827; 1869 C* 1836; 1845 D 1845; 1876 13. The Constitution of 1869 created A* a strong governor’s office B strong local government C a unicameral legislature D the election of judges 14. In what year was Texas’s current constitution ratified? A 1828 B* 1876 C 1888 D 1969 15. Both the Texas and U.S. Constitutions require voter approval for any proposed amendments to take effect TRUE FALSE* 16. The Texas Bill of Rights guarantees the right to a republican form of government TRUE* FALSE 17. The current Texas Constitution has been amended more than 400 times. TRUE 18. Amendments to the Texas Constitution can address technical issues faced by state agencies and local governments. TRUE* FALSE 19. There are rights guaranteed to Texans in Article 1 of the Texas Constitution that go far beyond those of the U.S. Constitution. TRUE* FALSE 1. TEXAS HISTORY AND CULTURE INDEPENDENCE FOR TEXAS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| As the incursions of the earlier filibusters into Texas demonstrated, American expansionists had desired this area of Spain’s empire in America for many years. After the 1819 Adams-Onís treaty established the boundary between Mexico and the United States, more American expansionists began to move into the northern portion of Mexico’s province of Coahuila y Texas. Following Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821, American settlers immigrated to Texas in even larger numbers, intent on taking the land from the new and vulnerable Mexican nation in order to create a new American slave state. AMERICAN SETTLERS MOVE TO TEXAS After the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 defined the U.S.-Mexico boundary, Spain began actively encouraging Americans to settle their northern province. Texas was sparsely settled, and the few Mexican farmers and ranchers who lived there were under constant threat of attack by hostile Indian tribes, especially the Comanche, who supplemented their hunting with raids in pursuit of horses and cattle. To increase the non-Indian population in Texas and provide a buffer zone between its hostile tribes and the rest of Mexico, Spain began to recruit empresarios . An empresario was someone who brought settlers to the region in exchange for generous grants of land. Moses Austin, a once-prosperous entrepreneur reduced to poverty by the Panic of 1819, requested permission to settle three hundred English-speaking American residents in Texas. Spain agreed on the condition that the resettled people convert to Roman Catholicism. On his deathbed in 1821, Austin asked his son Stephen to carry out his plans, and Mexico, which had won independence from Spain the same year, allowed Stephen to take control of his father’s grant. Like Spain, Mexico also wished to encourage settlement in the state of Coahuila y Texas and passed colonization laws to encourage immigration. Thousands of Americans, primarily from slave states, flocked to Texas and quickly came to outnumber the Tejanos, the Mexican residents of the region. The soil and climate offered good opportunities to expand slavery and the cotton kingdom. Land was plentiful and offered at generous terms. Unlike the U.S. government, Mexico allowed buyers to pay for their land in installments and did not require a minimum purchase. Furthermore, to many whites, it seemed not only their God-given right but also their patriotic duty to populate the lands beyond the Mississippi River, bringing with them American slavery, culture, laws, and political traditions. (Figure 1.2) THE TEXAS WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE Figure 1.1 By the early 1830s, all the lands east of the Mississippi River had been settled and admitted to the Union as states. The land west of the river, though in this contemporary map united with the settled areas in the body of an eagle symbolizing the territorial ambitions of the United States, remained largely unsettled by white Americans. Texas (just southwest of the bird’s tail feathers) remained outside the U.S. border. Image Credit: Moore, I. W., Carey & Hart & Churchman, J. (1833) The eagle map of the United States. [Philadelphia: E.L. Carey & A. Hart, 1833] [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Many Americans who migrated to Texas at the invitation of the Mexican government did not completely shed their identity or loyalty to the United States. They brought American traditions and expectations with them (including, for many, the right to own slaves). For instance, the majority of these new settlers were Protestant, and though they were not required to attend the Catholic mass, Mexico’s prohibition on the public practice of other religions upset them and they routinely ignored it. Accustomed to representative democracy, jury trials, and the defendant’s right to appear before a judge, the Anglo-American settlers in Texas also disliked the Mexican legal system, which provided for an initial hearing by an alcalde , an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. The alcalde sent a written record of the proceeding to a judge in Saltillo, the state capital, who decided the outcome. Settlers also resented that at most two Texas representatives were allowed in the state legislature. Their greatest source of discontent, though, was the Mexican government’s 1829 abolition of slavery. Most American settlers were from southern states, and many had brought slaves with them. Mexico tried to accommodate them by maintaining the fiction that the slaves were indentured servants. But American slaveholders in Texas distrusted the Mexican government and wanted Texas to be a new U.S. slave state. The dislike of most for Roman Catholicism (the prevailing religion of Mexico) and a widely held belief in American racial superiority led them generally to regard Mexicans as dishonest, ignorant, and backward. \| Belief in their own superiority inspired some Texans to try to undermine the power of the Mexican government. When empresario Haden Edwards attempted to evict people who had settled his land grant before he gained title to it, the Mexican government nullified its agreement with him. Outraged, Edwards and a small party of men took prisoner the alcalde of Nacogdoches. The Mexican army marched to the town, and Edwards and his troops then declared the formation of the Republic of Fredonia between the Sabine and Rio Grande Rivers. To demonstrate loyalty to their adopted country, a force led by Stephen Austin hastened to Nacogdoches to support the Mexican army. Edwards’s revolt collapsed, and the revolutionaries fled Texas. The growing presence of American settlers in Texas, their reluctance to abide by Mexican law, and their desire for independence caused the Mexican government to grow wary. In 1830, it. forbade future U.S. immigration and increased its military presence in Texas. Settlers continued to stream illegally across the long border; by 1835, after immigration resumed, there were twenty thousand Anglo-Americans in Texas. Figure 1.2 This 1833 map shows the extent of land grants made by Mexico to American settlers in Texas. Nearly all are in the eastern portion of the state, one factor that led to war with Mexico in 1846. Image credit: Holley (Armstrong & Plaskitt), Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Fifty-five delegates from the Anglo-American settlements gathered in 1831 to demand the suspension of customs duties, the resumption of immigration from the United States, better protection from Indian tribes, the granting of promised land titles, and the creation of an independent state of Texas separate from Coahuila. Ordered to disband, the delegates reconvened in early April 1833 to write a constitution for an independent Texas. Surprisingly, Mexico’s new president, agreed to all demands, except the call for statehood. Coahuila y Texas made provisions for jury trials, increased Texas’s representation in the state legislature, and removed restrictions on commerce. Texans’ hopes for independence were quashed in 1834, however, when Santa Anna dismissed the Mexican Congress and abolished all state governments, including that of Coahuila y Texas. In January 1835, reneging on earlier promises, he dispatched troops to the town of Anahuac to collect customs duties. Lawyer and soldier William B. Travis and a small force marched on Anahuac in June, and the fort surrendered. Learning that the town of Gonzales was given a cannon to protect against Indian attacks, the Army was ordered to go and retrieve it. On October 2, Anglo-American forces met Mexican troops at the town of Gonzales; after a short skirmish the Mexican troops fled and the Americans moved on to take San Antonio. Now more cautious, delegates to the Consultation of 1835 at San Felipe de Austin voted against declaring independence, instead drafting a statement, which became known as the Declaration of Causes, promising continued loyalty if Mexico returned to a constitutional form of government. They selected Henry Smith, leader of the Independence Party, as governor of Texas and placed Sam Houston, a former soldier who had been a congressman and governor of Tennessee, in charge of its small military force. REMEMBER THE ALAMO! Mexico had no intention of losing its northern province. Santa Anna and his army of four thousand had besieged San Antonio in February 1836. Hopelessly outnumbered, its two hundred defenders, under Travis, fought fiercely from their refuge in an old mission known as the Alamo. After ten days, however, the mission was taken and all but a few of the defenders were dead, including Travis and James Bowie, the famed frontiersman who was also a land speculator and slave trader. A few male survivors, possibly including the frontier legend and former Tennessee congressmen, Davey Crockett, were led outside the walls and executed. The bodies of the slain defenders were piled into the center of the Alamo and burned. The few women and children inside the mission were allowed to leave with the only adult male survivor, a slave owned by Travis who was then freed by the Mexican Army. Santa Anna would only guarantee safe passage through his Army's lines and no further, terrified at what they witnessed inside, they fled. (Figure 1.3) Figure 1.3 The Fall of the Alamo, painted by Theodore Gentilz fewer than ten years after this pivotal moment in hundred men the Texas Revolution, depicts the 1836 assault on the Alamo complex. Image Credit: Theodore Gentilz, Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Although hungry for revenge, the Texas forces under Sam Houston nevertheless withdrew across Texas, gathering recruits as they went. Coming upon Santa Anna’s encampment on the banks of San Jacinto River on April 21, 1836, they waited as the Mexican troops settled for an afternoon nap. Assured by Houston that “Victory is certain!” and told to “Trust in God and fear not!” the seven descended on a sleeping force nearly twice their number with cries of “Remember the Alamo!” Within fifteen minutes the S a i was over. Approximately half the Mexican troops were killed, and the survivors, including Santa Anna, taken prisoner. Santa Anna grudgingly signed a peace treaty and was sent to Washington, where he met with President Andrew Jackson and, under pressure, agreed to recognize an independent Texas with the Rio Grande River as its southwestern border. By the time the agreement had been signed, however, Santa Anna had been removed from power in Mexico. For that reason, the Mexican Congress refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and continued to insist that the renegade territory still belonged to Mexico. THE LONE STAR REPUBLIC In September 1836, military hero Sam Houston was elected president of Texas, and, following the relentless logic of U.S. expansion, Texans voted in favor of annexation to the United States. This had been the dream of many settlers in Texas all along. They wanted to expand the United States west and saw Texas as the next logical step. Slaveholders there, such as Sam Houston, William Travis and James Bowie (the latter two of whom died at the Alamo), believed too in the destiny of slavery. Mindful of the vicious debates over Missouri that had led to talk of disunion and war, American politicians were reluctant to annex Texas or, indeed, even to recognize it as a sovereign nation. Annexation would almost certainly mean war with Mexico, and the admission of a state with a large slave population, though permissible under the Missouri Compromise, would bring the issue of slavery once again to the fore. Texas had no choice but to organize itself as the independent Lone Star Republic. To protect itself from Mexican attempts to reclaim it, Texas sought and received recognition from France, Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The United States did not officially recognize Texas as an independent nation until March 1837, nearly a year after the final victory over the Mexican army at San Jacinto Uncertainty about its future did not discourage Americans committed to expansion, especially slaveholders, from rushing to settle in the, however. Between 1836 and 1846, its population nearly tripled. By 1840, nearly twelve thousand enslaved Africans had been brought to Texas by American slaveholders. Many new settlers had suffered financial losses in the severe financial depression of 1837 and hoped for a new start in the new nation. According to folklore, across the United States, homes and farms were deserted overnight, and curious neighbors found notes reading only “GTT” (“Gone to Texas”). Many Europeans, especially Germans, also immigrated to Texas during this period. In keeping with the program of ethnic cleansing and white racial domination, as illustrated by the image at the beginning of this chapter, Americans in Texas generally treated both Tejano and Indian residents with utter contempt, eager to displace and dispossess them. Anglo-American leaders failed to return the support their Tejano neighbors had extended during the rebellion and repaid them by seizing their lands. In 1839, the republic’s militia attempted to drive out the Cherokee and Comanche. The impulse to expand did not lay dormant, and Anglo-American settlers and leaders in the newly formed Texas republic soon cast their gaze on the Mexican province of New Mexico as well. Repeating the tactics of earlier filibusters, a Texas force set out in 1841 intent on taking Santa Fe. Its members encountered an army of New Mexicans and were taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City. On Christmas Day, 1842, Texans avenged a Mexican assault on San Antonio by attacking the Mexican town of Mier. In August, another Texas army was sent to attack Santa Fe, but Mexican troops forced them to retreat. Clearly, hostilities between Texas and Mexico had not ended simply because Texas had declared its independence. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR, 1846–1848 \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Tensions between the United States and Mexico rapidly deteriorated in the 1840s as American expansionists eagerly eyed Mexican land to the west, including the lush northern Mexican province of California. Indeed, in 1842, a U.S. naval fleet, incorrectly believing war had broken out, seized Monterey, California, a part of Mexico. Monterey was returned the next day, but the episode only added to the uneasiness with which Mexico viewed its northern neighbor. The forces of expansion, however, could not be contained, and American voters elected in 1844 because he promised to deliver more lands. President Polk fulfilled his promise by gaining Oregon and, most spectacularly, provoking a war with Mexico that ultimately fulfilled the wildest fantasies of expansionists. By 1848, the United States encompassed much of North America, a republic that stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific. JAMES K. POLK AND THE TRIUMPH OF EXPANSION Figure 1.4 This map of the Oregon territory during the period of joint occupation by the United States and Great Britain shows the area whose ownership was contested by the two powers. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. A fervent belief in expansion gripped the United States in the 1840s. In 1845, a New York newspaper editor, John O’Sullivan, introduced the concept of “manifest destiny” to describe the popular idea of the special role of the United States in overspreading the continent—the divine right and duty of white Americans to seize and settle the American West, thus spreading Protestant, democratic values. In this climate of opinion, voters in 1844 elected James K. Polk, a slaveholder from Tennessee, because he vowed to annex Texas as a new slave state and take Oregon. Annexing Oregon was an important objective for U.S. foreign policy because it appeared to be an area rich in commercial possibilities. Northerners favored U.S. control of Oregon because ports in the Pacific Northwest would be gateways for trade with Asia. Southerners hoped that, in exchange for their support of expansion into the northwest, northerners would not oppose plans for expansion into the southwest. President Polk—whose campaign slogan in 1844 had been “Fifty-four forty or fight! asserted tje US' right to gain full control of what was known as Oregon Country, from its southern border at 42° latitude (the current boundary with California) to its northern border at 54° 40′ latitude. According to an 1818 agreement, Great Britain and the United States held joint ownership of this territory, but the 1827 Treaty of Joint Occupation opened the land to settlement by both countries. Realizing that the British were not willing to cede all claims to the territory, Polk proposed the land be divided at 49° latitude (the current border between Washington and Canada). The British, however, denied U.S. claims to land north of the Columbia River (Oregon’s current northern border). Indeed, the British foreign secretary refused even to relay Polk’s proposal to London. However, reports of the difficulty Great Britain would face defending Oregon in the event of a U.S. attack, combined with concerns over affairs at home and elsewhere in its empire, quickly changed the minds of the British, and in June 1846, Queen Victoria’s government agreed to a division at the forty-ninth parallel. In contrast to the diplomatic solution with Great Britain over Oregon, when it came to Mexico, Polk and the American people proved willing to use force to wrest more land for the United States. In keeping with voters’ expectations, President Polk set his sights on the Mexican state of California. After the mistaken capture of Monterey, negotiations about purchasing the port of San Francisco from Mexico broke off until September 1845. Then, following a revolt in California that left it divided in two, Polk attempted to purchase Upper California and New Mexico as well. These efforts went nowhere. The Mexican government, angered by U.S. actions, refused to recognize the independence of Texas. Finally, after nearly a decade of public clamoring for the annexation of Texas, in December 1845 Polk officially agreed to the annexation of the former Mexican state, making the Lone Star Republic an additional slave state. Incensed that the United States had annexed Texas, however, the Mexican government refused to discuss the matter of selling land to the United States. Indeed, Mexico refused even to acknowledge Polk’s emissary, John Slidell, who had been sent to Mexico City to negotiate. Not to be deterred, Polk encouraged Thomas O. Larkin, the U.S. consul in Monterey, to assist any American settlers and any Californios, the Mexican residents of the state, who wished to proclaim their independence from Mexico. By the end of 1845, having broken diplomatic ties with the United States over Texas and having grown alarmed by American actions in California, the Mexican government warily anticipated the next move. It did not have long to wait. WAR WITH MEXICO, 1846–1848 Figure 1.5 In 1845, when Texas joined the United States, Mexico insisted the United States had a right only to the territory northeast of the Nueces River. The United States argued in turn that it should have title to all land between the Nueces and the Rio Grande as well. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license, Expansionistic fervor propelled the United States to war against Mexico in 1846. The United States had long argued that the d was the border between Mexico and the United States, and at the end of the Texas war for independence Santa Anna had been pressured to agree. Mexico, however, refused to be bound by Santa Anna’s promises and insisted the border lay farther north, at the Nueces River. To set it at the Rio Grande would, in effect, allow the United States to control land it had never occupied. In Mexico’s eyes, therefore, President Polk violated its sovereign territory when he ordered U.S. troops into the disputed lands in 1846. From the Mexican perspective, it appeared the United States had invaded their nation. In January 1846, the U.S. force that was ordered to the banks of the Rio Grande to build a fort on the “American” side encountered a Mexican cavalry unit on patrol. Shots rang out, and sixteen U.S. soldiers were killed or wounded. Angrily declaring that Mexico “has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil,” President Polk demanded the United States declare war on Mexico. On May 12, Congress obliged. The small but vocal antislavery faction decried the decision to go to war, arguing that Polk had deliberately provoked hostilities so the United States could annex more slave territory. Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln and other members of Congress issued the “Spot Resolutions” in which they demanded to know the precise spot on U.S. soil where American blood had been spilled. Many Whigs also denounced the war. Democrats, however, supported Polk’s decision, and volunteers for the army came forward in droves from every part of the country except New England, the seat of abolitionist activity. Enthusiasm for the war was aided by the widely held belief that Mexico was a weak, impoverished country and that the Mexican people, perceived as ignorant, lazy, and controlled by a corrupt Roman Catholic clergy, would be easy to defeat. U.S. military strategy had three main objectives: 1) Take control of northern Mexico, including New Mexico; 2) seize California; and 3) capture Mexico City. General Zachary Taylor and his Army of the Center were assigned to accomplish the first goal, and with superior weapons they soon captured the Mexican city of Monterrey. Taylor quickly became a hero in the eyes of the American people, and Polk appointed him commander of all U.S. forces. General Stephen Watts Kearny, commander of the Army of the West, accepted the surrender of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and moved on to take control of California, leaving Colonel Sterling Price in command. Despite Kearny’s assurances that New Mexicans need not fear for their lives or their property, and in fact the region’s residents rose in revolt in January 1847 in an effort to drive the Americans away. Although Price managed to put an end to the rebellion, tensions remained high. Figure 1.6 Anti-Catholic sentiment played an important role in the Mexican-American War. The American public widely regarded Roman Catholics as cowardly and vice-ridden, like the clergy in this ca. 1846 lithograph who are shown fleeing the Mexican town of Matamoros accompanied by pretty women and baskets. Image Credit: Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Kearney in California to find it already in American hands through the joint efforts of California settlers, U.S. naval commander John D. Sloat, and John C. Fremont, a former army captain and son-in-law of Missouri senator Thomas Benton. Sloat, at anchor off the coast of Mazatlan, learned that war had begun and quickly set sail for California. He seized the town of Monterey in July 1846, less than a month after a group of American settlers led by William B. Ide had taken control of Sonoma and declared California a republic. A week after the fall of Monterey, the navy took San Francisco with no resistance. Although some Californios staged a short-lived rebellion in September 1846, many others submitted to the U.S. takeover. Thus Kearny had little to do other than take command of California as its governor. Leading the Army of the South was General Winfield Scott. Both Taylor and Scott were potential competitors for the presidency, and believing—correctly—that whoever seized Mexico City would become a hero, Polk assigned Scott the campaign to avoid elevating the more popular Taylor, who was affectionately known as “Old Rough and Ready." Scott captured in March 1847, and moving in a northwesterly direction from there (much as Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés had done in 1519), he slowly closed in on the capital. Every step of the way was a hard-fought victory, however, and Mexican soldiers and civilians both fought bravely to save their land from the American invaders. Mexico City’s defenders, including young military cadets, fought to the end. According to legend, cadet Juan Escutia’s last act was to save the Mexican flag, and he leapt from the city’s walls with it wrapped around his body. On September 14, 1847, Scott entered Mexico City’s central plaza; the city had fallen. While Polk and other expansionists called for “all Mexico,” the Mexican government and the United States negotiated for peace in 1848, resulting in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \| The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, was a triumph for American expansionism under which Mexico ceded nearly half its land to the United States. The Mexican Cession, as the conquest of land west of the Rio Grande was called, included the current states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico also recognized the Rio Grande as the border with the United States. Mexican citizens in the ceded territory were promised U.S. citizenship in the future when the territories they were living in became states. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $3.35 million worth of Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens, paid Mexico $15 million for the loss of its land, and promised to guard the residents of the Mexican Cession from Indian raids. As extensive as the Mexican Cession was, some argued the United States should not be satisfied until it had taken all of Mexico. Many who were opposed to this idea weresoutherners who, while desiring the annexation of more slave territory, did not want to make Mexico’s large mestizo (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) population part of the United States. Others did not want to absorb a large group of Roman Catholics. These expansionists could not accept the idea of new U.S. territory filled with mixed-race, Catholic populations. Figure 1.7 In General Scott’s Entrance into Mexico (1851), Carl Nebel depicts General Winfield Scott on a white horse entering Mexico City’s Plaza de la Constitución as anxious residents of the city watch. One woman peers furtively from behind the curtain of an upstairs window. On the left, a man bends down to pick up a paving stone to throw at the invaders. Image Credit: Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.1 The Constitutions of Texas THE CONSTITUTIONS OF TEXAS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas Constitutions of Texas Texas has been governed by multiple constitutions. - The Mexican Constitution of 1824 ◦ Texas was part of Mexico ◦ Called for an official religion (Catholicism) - The Constitution of Coahuila and Texas, 1827 ◦ First state constitutions under Mexican rule - The Texas Constitution of 1836 ◦ Texas gains their independence, becomes their own country (Republic of Texas) ◦ Three branches of Government ◦ Slavery allowed ◦ Citizenship except for "Africans, the descendants of Africans, and Indians" ◦ Four-Tier Judiciary - Justice of the Peace, County, District and Supreme Courts, where District is most important - The Texas Constitution of 1845 ◦ US Annexation of Texas ◦ Texas is pre-approved to split up in to as much as 5 states ◦ Must get Legislative approval before you can free any slave - The Texas Constitution of 1861 ◦ Texas secedes from the Union and joins the Confederate States of America ◦ A clause providing for emancipation of slaves was eliminated, and the freeing of slaves was declared illegal. - The Texas Constitution of 1866 ◦ Adopted as a condition for readmission to the United States of America - The Texas Constitution of 1869 ◦ State constitution rewritten to abide by Reconstruction policies ◦ Created a powerful Texas Governor - The Texas Constitution of 1876 ◦ current state constitution Texas Constitution of 1876 Texas Democrats gained control of Congress in 1873 and decided it was time to draft a new constitution for Texas. The Texas Constitutional Convention of 1875 met in Austin with the purpose of replacing the Constitution of 1869- it was believed that the new constitution should restrict the state government and hand the power back to the people. Some examples of how the government was restricted were: - Legislative sessions moved from annual to biennial sessions - Creation of a plural executive - Mandated a balanced budget - State Judges would be elected by the people - The people would vote on the ratification of amendments The structure of the current constitution of Texas (Constitution of 1876) is a Preamble, 17 Articles, and 517 Amendments (Since 2022) (Note: https://www.tlc.texas.gov/docs/legref/TxConst.pdf). The Texas Constitution is the second longest state constitution in America (2nd only to Alabama’s). - Article 1: Bill of Rights ◦ Similar civil liberties and civil rights as in the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights - Article 2: The Powers of the Government ◦ Establishes three branches of government with separation of powers - Article 3: Legislative Department ◦ Specifics about the Texas Legislator - Article 4: Executive Department ◦ Specifics about the plural executive - Article 5: Judicial Department ◦ Specifics about the Texas Judicial system - Article 6: Suffrage ◦ Forbids the following from voting: ▪ any non US citizen ▪ any non-registered Texas voter ▪ any convicted felon who has not completed their sentence ▪ any person deemed mentally incompetent by the courts - Article 7: Education ◦ Mandates an “efficient” free public school system ◦ Established the Permanent School Fund - Article 8: Taxation and Revenue ◦ Places limits on the raising and spending of public funds - Article 9: Counties ◦ Authorizes the Texas Legislature to create county governments - Article 10: Railroads ◦ Regulated the railroad system - Article 11: Municipal Corporations ◦ Specifics regarding local governments, including empowering them to tax, and how to charter cities - Article 12: Private Corporations ◦ Specifics regarding private businesses, including how they would be regulated - Article 13: Spanish and Mexican Land Titles ◦ Specifics on what which land with previous claims would become state property - Article 14: Public Lands and Land Office ◦ Established the Land Office which regulated land titles • Article 15: Impeachment ◦ Specifics on how to remove a public official from office - Article 16: General Provisions ◦ Miscellaneous regulations i.e. forbid Congress from printing money, forbid U.S. public officials from holding a state office - Article 17: Mode of Amending the Constitution of this State ◦ 2/3rds proposal from Congress ◦ Registered voters vote on approval, and with a majority vote the amendment is ratified The entire Texas Constitution can be accessed at http://www.constitution.legis.state.tx.us/ • \| Constitutions of Texas. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.2 Civil Liberties and Civil Rights CIVIL LIBERTIES AND CIVIL RIGHTS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Define civil liberties and civil rights \| Defining Civil Liberties and Civil Rights Defining Civil Liberties and Civil Rights To be more precise in their language, political scientists and legal experts make a distinction between civil liberties and civil rights, even though the Constitution has been interpreted to protect both. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/austincc-texasgovernment/chapter/civil-liberties-and-civil-rights/ Civil liberties We typically envision civil liberties as being limitations on government power, intended to protect freedoms that governments may not legally intrude on. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 6 denies the government the power to prohibit “the freedom of worship” of religion; the states and the national government cannot forbid people to follow a religion of their choice, even if politicians and judges think the religion is misguided, blasphemous, or otherwise inappropriate. You are free to create your own religion and recruit followers to it (subject to the U.S. Supreme Court deeming it a religion), even if both society and government disapprove of its tenets. That said, the way you practice your religion may be regulated if it impinges on the rights of others. Similarly, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 states the government cannot impose “cruel and unusual punishments” on individuals for their criminal acts. Although the definitions of cruel and unusual have expanded over the years, as we will see later in this chapter, the courts have generally and consistently interpreted this provision as making it unconstitutional for government officials to torture suspects. (Note: http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/SOTWDocs/CN/htm/CN.1.htm) Civil Rights Civil Rights on the other hand, are guarantees that government officials will treat people equally and that decisions will be made on the basis of merit rather than race, gender, or other personal characteristics. Because of the Constitution’s civil rights guarantee, it is unlawful for a school or university run by a state government to treat students differently based on their race, ethnicity, age, sex, or national origin. In the 1960s and 1970s, many states had separate schools where only students of a certain race or gender were able to study. However, the courts decided that these policies violated the civil rights of students who could not be admitted because of those rules. (Note: Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, 391 U.S. 430 (1968); Allen v. Wright , 468 U.S. 737 (1984).) Civil Rights are, at the most fundamental level, guarantees by the government that it will treat people equally, particularly people belonging to groups that have historically been denied the same rights and opportunities as others. The proclamation that “all men are created equal” appears in the Declaration of Independence, the due process clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 3a requires that the federal government treat people equally. According to Chief Justice Earl Warren in the Supreme Court case of Bolling v. Sharpe (1954), “discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process.” (Note: Bolling v. Sharpe , 347 U.S. 497 (1954).) We can contrast civil rights with civil liberties, which are limitations on government power designed to protect our fundamental freedoms. For example, the Texas Constitution’s Article 1 Section 13 the application of “cruel and unusual punishments” to those convicted of crimes, a limitation on government power. As another example, the guarantee of equal protection means the laws and the Constitution must be applied on an equal basis, limiting the government’s ability to discriminate or treat some people differently, unless the unequal treatment is based on a valid reason, such as age. A law that imprisons Asian Americans twice as long as Latinos for the same offense, or a law that says people with disabilities don’t have the right to contact members of Congress while other people do, would treat some people differently from others for no valid reason and might well be unconstitutional. According to the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause, “all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike.” (Note: Phyler v. Doe , 457 U.S. 202 (1982); F. S. Royster Guano v. Virginia, 253 U.S. 412 (1920).) • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 1.2 State Political Culture STATE POLITICAL CULTURE Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Compare Daniel Elazar’s three forms of political culture - Describe how cultural differences between the states can shape attitudes about the role of government and citizen participation - Discuss the main criticisms of Daniel Elazar’s theory Some states, such as Alaska, are endowed with natural resources. They can use their oil or natural gas reserves to their advantage to fund education or reduce taxes. Other states, like Florida, are favored with a climate that attracts tourists and retirees each winter, drawing in revenues to support infrastructure improvements throughout the state. These differences can lead to strategic advantages in the economic fortunes of a state, which can translate into differences in the levels of taxes that must be collected from citizens. But their economic fortunes are only one component of what makes individual states unique. Theorists have long proposed that states are also unique as a function of their differing political cultures, or their attitudes and beliefs about the functions and expectations of the government. In the book, American Federalism: A View from the States , Daniel first theorized in 1966 that the United States could be divided into three distinct political cultures: moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic. The diffusion of these cultures throughout the United States is attributed to the migratory patterns of immigrants who settled in and spread out across the country from the east to the west coast. These settlers had distinct political and religious values that influenced their beliefs about the proper role of government, the need for citizen involvement in the democratic process, and the role of political parties. Figure 1.7 Daniel Elazar posited that the United States can be divided geographically into three types of political cultures—individualistic, moralistic, and traditionalistic—which spread with the migratory patterns of immigrants across the country. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Moralistic Political Culture In Elazar’s framework, states with a moralistic political culture see the government as a means to better society and promote the general welfare. They expect political officials to be honest in their dealings with others, put the interests of the people they serve above their own, and commit to improving the area they represent. The political process is seen in a positive light and not as a vehicle tainted by corruption. In fact, citizens in moralistic cultures have little patience for corruption and believe that politicians should be motivated by a desire to benefit the community rather than by a need to profit financially from service. Moralistic states thus tend to support an expanded role for government. They are more likely to believe government should promote the general welfare by allocating funds to programs that will benefit the poor. In addition, they see it as the duty of public officials to advocate for new programs that will benefit marginal citizens or solve public policy problems, even when public pressure to do so is nonexistent. The moralistic political culture developed among the Puritans in upper New England. After several generations, these settlers moved westward, and their values diffused across the top of the United States to the upper Great Lakes. In the middle of the 1800s, Scandinavians and Northern Europeans joined this group of settlers and reinforced the Puritans’ values. Together, these groups pushed further west through the northern portion of the Midwest and West and then along the West Coast. (Note: Daniel Elazar. 1972. American Federalism: A View from the States , 2nd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.) States that identify with this culture value citizen engagement and desire citizen participation in all forms of political affairs. In Elazar’s model, citizens from moralistic states should be more likely to donate their time and/or resources to political campaigns and to vote. This occurs for two main reasons. First, state law is likely to make it easier for residents to register and to vote because mass participation is valued. Second, citizens who hail from moralistic states should be more likely to vote because elections are truly contested. In other words, candidates will be less likely to run unopposed and more likely to face genuine competition from a qualified opponent. According to Elazar, the heightened competition is a function of individuals’ believing that public service is a worthwhile endeavor and an honorable profession. Individualistic Political Culture States that align with Elazar’s individualistic political culture see the government as a mechanism for addressing issues that matter to individual citizens and for pursuing individual goals. People in this culture interact with the government, in the same manner, they would interact with a marketplace. They expect the government to provide goods and services they see as essential, and the public officials and bureaucrats who provide them expect to be compensated for their efforts. The focus is on meeting individual needs and private goals rather than on serving the best interests of everyone in the community. New policies will be enacted if politicians can use them to garner support from voters or other interested stakeholders, or if there is great demand for these services on the part of individuals. According to Elazar, the individualist political culture originated with settlers from non-Puritan England and Germany. The first settlements were in the mid-Atlantic region of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey and diffused into the middle portion of the United States in a fairly straight line from Ohio to Wyoming. Given their focus on pursuing individual objectives, states with an individualistic mindset will tend to advance tax breaks as a way of trying to boost a state’s economy or as a mechanism for promoting individual initiative and entrepreneurship. For instance, New Jersey governor Chris Christie made headlines in 2015 when discussing the incentives he used to attract businesses to the state. Christie encouraged a number of businesses to move to Camden, where unemployment has risen to almost 14 percent, by providing them with hundreds of millions of dollars in tax breaks. (Note: Dean DeChiaro, "$830M in Tax Breaks Later, Christie Says His Camden Plan Won’t Work for America," U.S. News and World Report , 19 August 2015. http://www.usnews.com/news/ articles/2015/08/ 19/830m-in-tax-breaks-later-christie-says-his-camden-plan-wont-work-for-america.) The governor hopes these corporate incentives will spur job creation for citizens who need employment in an economically depressed area of the state. Since this theoretical lens assumes that the objective of politics and the government is to advance individual interests, Elazar argues that individuals are motivated to become engaged in politics only if they have a personal interest in this area or wish to be in charge of the provision of government benefits. They will tend to remain involved if they get enjoyment from their participation or rewards in the form of patronage appointments or financial compensation. As a result of these personal motivations, citizens in individualistic states will tend to be more tolerant of corruption among their political leaders and less likely to see politics as a noble profession in which all citizens should engage. Finally, Elazar argues that in individualistic states, electoral competition does not seek to identify the candidate with the best ideas. Instead it pits against each other political parties that are well organized and compete directly for votes. Voters are loyal to the candidates who hold the same party affiliation they do. As a result, unlike the case in moralistic cultures, voters do not pay much attention to the personalities of the candidates when deciding how to vote and are less tolerant of third-party candidates. Traditionalistic Political Culture Given the prominence of slavery in its formation, a traditionalistic political culture, in Elazar’s argument, sees the government as necessary to maintaining the existing social order, the status quo. Only elites belong in the political enterprise, and as a result, new public policies will be advanced only if they reinforce the beliefs and interests of those in power. Elazar associates traditionalistic political culture with the southern portion of the United States, where it developed in the upper regions of Virginia and Kentucky before spreading to the Deep South and the Southwest. Like the individualistic culture, the traditionalistic culture believes in the importance of the individual. But instead of profiting from corporate ventures, settlers in traditionalistic states tied their economic fortunes to the necessity of slavery on plantations throughout the South. When elected officials do not prioritize public policies that benefit them, those on the social and economic fringes of society can be plagued by poverty and pervasive health problems. For example, although the map below shows that poverty is a problem across the entire United States, the South has the highest incidence. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "the South (36.3%) had the highest prevalence of obesity, followed by the Midwest (35.4%), the Northeast (29.9%), and the West (28.7%). (Note: "Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity: Data, Trends and Maps," https:// www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/prevalence-maps.html (Sept. 27, 2022).) These statistics present challenges for lawmakers not only in the short term but also in the long term, because they must prioritize fiscal constraints in the face of growing demand for services. Figure 1.8 While the greatest percentage of those living below the poverty line in the United States is found in the South, migration and immigration patterns over the past fifty years have resulted in a significant increase in the percentage of the nation’s poor being located in the West. Public Domain. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. While moralistic cultures expect and encourage political participation by all citizens, traditionalistic cultures are more likely to see it as a privilege reserved for only those who meet the qualifications. As a result, voter participation will generally be lower in a traditionalistic culture, and there will be more barriers to participation (e.g., a requirement to produce a photo ID at the voting booth). Conservatives argue that these laws reduce or eliminate fraud on the part of voters, while liberals believe they dis-proportionally disenfranchise the poor and minorities and constitute a modern-day poll tax. Finally, under a traditionalistic political culture, Elazar argues that party competition will tend to occur between factions within a dominant party. Historically, the Democratic Party dominated the political structure in the South before realignment during the civil rights era. Today, depending on the office being sought, the parties are more likely to compete for voters. Texas Political Culture and Elazar’s Theory Elazar’s Theory claims that Texas is a mixture of traditional and individualistic political cultures. As a result, the voter turnout in Texas is lower than most other American states, with the argument that Texans view political participation as an economic perk versus the value of contributing to society. Critiques of Elazar’s Theory Several critiques have come to light since Elazar first introduced his theory of state political culture fifty years ago. The original theory rested on the assumption that new cultures could arise with the influx of settlers from different parts of the world; however, since immigration patterns have changed over time, it could be argued that the three cultures no longer match the country’s current reality. Today’s immigrants are less likely to come from European countries and are more likely to originate in Latin American and Asian countries. (Note: Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova. 26 February 2015. "Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States," http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-unitedstates.) In addition, advances in technology and transportation have made it easier for citizens to travel across state lines and to relocate. Therefore, the pattern of diffusion on which the original theory rests may no longer be accurate, because people are moving around in more, and often unpredictable, directions. It is also true that people migrate for more reasons than simple economics. They may be motivated by social issues such as widespread unemployment, urban decay, or low-quality health care of schools. Such trends may aggravate existing differences, for example the difference between urban and rural lifestyles (e.g., the city of Atlanta vs. other parts of Georgia, which are not accounted for in Elazar’s classification. Finally, unlike economic or demographic characteristics that lend themselves to more precise measurement, culture is a comprehensive concept that can be difficult to quantify. This can limit its explanatory power in political science research. KEY TERMS: alcalde empresario individualistic political culture mestizo moralistic political culture Tejanos traditionalistic political culture • \| Revision and Adaptation. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| • \| Texas Political Culture and Elazar's Theory. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution Key Terms Daniel Brown : CC BY: Attribution \| 2. Federalism, Division of Powers 2. FEDERALISM DIVISION OF POWERS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the concept of federalism - Discuss the constitutional logic of federalism - Identify the powers and responsibilities of federal, state, and local governments Modern democracies divide governmental power in two general ways; some, like the United States, use a combination of both structures. The first and more common mechanism shares power among three branches of government—the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The second, federalism, apportions power between two levels of government: national and subnational. In the United States, the term federal government refers to the government at the national level, while the term states means governments at the subnational level. Federalism Defined and Contrasted Fedarlism is an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on behalf of the people with the authority granted to it by the national constitution. (Note: See John Kincaid. 1975. "Federalism." In Civitas: A Framework for Civil Education, eds.Charles Quigley and Charles Bahmueller. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 391–392; William S. Riker. 1975. "Federalism." In Handbook of Political Science, eds. Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley, 93–172.) Although today’s federal systems vary in design, five structural characteristics are common to the United States and other federal systems around the world, including Germany and Mexico. First, all federal systems establish two levels of government, with both levels being elected by the people and each level assigned different functions. The national government is responsible for handling matters that affect the country as a whole, for example, defending the nation against foreign threats and promoting national economic prosperity. Subnational, or state governments, are responsible for matters that lie within their regions, which include ensuring the well-being of their people by administering education, health care, public safety, and other public services. By definition, a system like this requires that different levels of government cooperate, because the institutions at each level form an interacting network. In the U.S. federal system, all national matters are handled by the federal government, which is led by the president and members of Congress, all of whom are elected by voters across the country. All matters at the subnational level are the responsibility of the fifty states, each headed by an elected governor and legislature. Thus, there is a separation of functions between the federal and state governments, and voters choose the leader at each level. (Note: Garry Willis, ed. 1982. The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. New York: Bantam Books, 237.) The second characteristic common to all federal systems is a written national constitution that cannot be changed without the substantial consent of subnational governments. In the American federal system, the twenty-seven amendments added to the Constitution since its adoption were the result of an arduous process that required approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and three-fourths of the states. The main advantage of this supermajority requirement is that no changes to the Constitution can occur unless there is broad support within Congress and among states. The potential drawback is that numerous national amendment initiatives—such as the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which aims to guarantee equal rights regardless of sex—have failed because they cannot garner sufficient consent among members of Congress or, in the case of the ERA, the states. Third, the constitutions of countries with federal systems formally allocate legislative, judicial, and executive authority to the two levels of government in such a way as to ensure each level some degree of autonomy from the other. Under the U.S. Constitution, the president assumes executive power, Congress exercises legislative powers, and the federal courts (e.g., U.S. district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court) assume judicial powers. In each of the fifty states, a governor assumes executive authority, a state legislature makes laws, and state-level courts (e.g., trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and supreme courts) possess judicial authority. While each level of government is somewhat independent of the others, a great deal of interaction occurs among them. In fact, the ability of the federal and state governments to achieve their objectives often depends on the cooperation of the other level of government. For example, the federal government’s efforts to ensure homeland security are bolstered by the involvement of law enforcement agents working at local and state levels. On the other hand, the ability of states to provide their residents with public education and health care is enhanced by the federal government’s financial assistance. Another common characteristic of federalism around the world is that national courts commonly resolve disputes between levels and departments of government. In the United States, conflicts between states and the federal government are adjudicated by federal courts, with the U.S. Supreme Court being the final arbiter. The resolution of such disputes can preserve the autonomy of one level of government, as illustrated recently when the Supreme Court ruled that states cannot interfere with the federal government’s actions relating to immigration. (Note: Arizona v. United States, 567 U.S. __ (2012).) In other instances, a Supreme Court ruling can erode that autonomy, as demonstrated in the 1940s when, in United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., the Court enabled the federal government to regulate commercial activities that occurred within states, a function previously handled exclusively by the states. (Note: United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U.S. 110 (1942).) Finally, subnational governments are always represented in the upper house of the national legislature, enabling regional interests to influence national lawmaking. (Note: Ronald L. Watts. 1999. Comparing Federal Systems, 2nd ed. Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen’s University, 6–7; Daniel J. Elazar. 1992. Federal Systems of the World: A Handbook of Federal, Confederal and Autonomy Arrangements. Harlow, Essex: Longman Current Affairs.) In the American federal system, the U.S. Senate functions as a territorial body by representing the fifty states: Each state elects two senators to ensure equal representation regardless of state population differences. Thus, federal laws are shaped in part by state interests, which senators convey to the federal policymaking process. Division of power can also occur via a unitary structure or confederation. In contrast to federalism, a unitary system makes subnational governments dependent on the national government, where significant authority is concentrated. Before the late 1990s, the United Kingdom’s unitary system was centralized to the extent that the national government held the most important levers of power. Since then, power has been gradually decentralized through a process of devolution, leading to the creation of regional governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as well as the delegation of specific responsibilities to them. Other democratic countries with unitary systems, such as France, Japan, and Sweden, have followed a similar path of decentralization. Figure 2.1. There are three general systems of government—unitary systems, federations, and confederations—each of which allocates power differently. Public Domain In a confederation, authority is decentralized, and the central government’s ability to act depends on the consent of the subnational governments. Under the Articles of Confederation (the first constitution of the United States), states were sovereign and powerful while the national government was subordinate and weak. Because states were reluctant to give up any of their power, the national government lacked authority in the face of challenges such as servicing the war debt, ending commercial disputes among states, negotiating trade agreements with other countries, and addressing popular uprisings that were sweeping the country. As the brief American experience with confederation clearly shows, the main drawback with this system of government is that it maximizes regional self-rule at the expense of effective national governance. Federalism and the Constitution The Constitution contains several provisions that direct the functioning of U.S. federalism. Some delineate the scope of national and state power, while others restrict it. The remaining provisions shape relationships among the states and between the states and the federal government. he enumerated powers of the national legislature are found in Article I, Section 8. These powers define the jurisdictional boundaries within which the federal government has authority. In seeking not to replay the problems that plagued the young country under the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution’s framers granted Congress specific powers that ensured its authority over national and foreign affairs. To provide for the general welfare of the populace, it can tax, borrow money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and protect property rights, for example. To provide for the common defense of the people, the federal government can raise and support armies and declare war. Furthermore, national integration and unity are fostered with the government’s powers over the coining of money, naturalization, postal services, and other responsibilities. The last clause of Article I, Section 8, commonly referred to as the elastic clause or the necessary and proper cause , enables Congress “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out its constitutional responsibilities. While the enumerated powers define the policy areas in which the national government has authority, the elastic clause allows it to create the legal means to fulfill those responsibilities. However, the open-ended construction of this clause has enabled the national government to expand its authority beyond what is specified in the Constitution, a development also motivated by the expansive interpretation of the commerce clause, which empowers the federal government to regulate interstate economic transactions. The powers of the state governments were never listed in the original Constitution. The consensus among the framers was that states would retain any powers not prohibited by the Constitution or delegated to the national government. (Note: Jack Rakove. 2007. James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic. New York: Pearson; Samuel H. Beer. 1998. To Make a Nation: The Rediscovery of American Federalism . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.) However, when it came time to ratify the Constitution, a number of states requested that an amendment be added explicitly identifying the reserved powers of the states. What these Anti-Federalists sought was further assurance that the national government’s capacity to act directly on behalf of the people would be restricted, which the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) provided. The 10th Amendment affirms the states’ reserved powers: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Indeed, state constitutions had bills of rights, which the first Congress used as the source for the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Some of the states’ reserved powers are no longer exclusively within state domain, however. For example, since the 1940s, the federal government has also engaged in administering health, safety, income security, education, and welfare to state residents. The boundary between intrastate and interstate commerce has become indefinable as a result of broad interpretation of the commerce clause. Shared and overlapping powers have become an integral part of contemporary U.S. federalism. These concurrent powers range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems. (Note: Elton E. Richter. 1929. "Exclusive and Concurrent Powers in the Federal Constitution," Notre Dame Law Review 4, No. 8: 513–542. http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4416&context=ndlr) Article I, Sections 9 and 10, along with several constitutional amendments, lay out the restrictions on federal and state authority. The most important restriction Section 9 places on the national government prevents measures that cause the deprivation of personal liberty. Specifically, the government cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal; pass a bill of attainder a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; or enact an ex post facto law which criminalizes an act retroactively. The Bill of Rights affirms and expands these constitutional restrictions, ensuring that the government cannot encroach on personal freedoms. Figure 2.2. Constitutional powers and responsibilities are divided between the U.S. federal and state governments. The two levels of government also share concurrent powers. Public Domain. The states are also constrained by the Constitution. Article I, Section 10, prohibits the states from entering into treaties with other countries, coining money, and levying taxes on imports and exports. Like the federal government, the states cannot violate personal freedoms by suspending the writ of habeas corpus, passing bills of attainder, or enacting ex post facto laws. Furthermore, the 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, prohibits the states from denying citizens the rights to which they are entitled by the Constitution, due process of law, or the equal protection of the laws. Lastly, three civil rights amendments—the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty Sixth—prevent both the states and the federal government from abridging citizens’ right to vote based on race, sex, and age. This topic remains controversial because states have not always ensured equal protection. The supremacy clause in Article VI of the Constitution regulates relationships between the federal and state governments by declaring that the Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land. This means that if a state law clashes with a federal law found to be within the national government’s constitutional authority, the federal law prevails. The intent of the supremacy clause is not to subordinate the states to the federal government; rather, it affirms that one body of laws binds the country. In fact, all national and state government officials are bound by oath to uphold the Constitution regardless of the offices they hold. Yet enforcement is not always that simple. In the case of marijuana use, which the federal government defines to be illegal, twenty-three states and the District of Columbia have nevertheless established medical marijuana laws, others have decriminalized its recreational use, and four states have completely legalized it. The federal government could act in this area if it wanted to. For example, in addition to the legalization issue, there is the question of how to treat the money from marijuana sales, which the national government designates as drug money and regulates under laws regarding its deposit in banks. The Distribution of Finances Federal, state, and local governments depend on different sources of revenue to finance their annual expenditures. "In FY 2023, total US government revenue, federal, state, and local, is “guesstimated” to be $8.59 trillion, with federal $4.8 trillion; state $2.18 trillion; local $1.61 trillion." (Note: Data reported by http://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/federal_revenue.) Two important developments have fundamentally changed the allocation of revenue since the early 1900s. First, the ratification of the 16th Amendment in 1913 authorized Congress to impose income taxes without apportioning it among the states on the basis of population, a burdensome provision that Article I, Section 9, had imposed on the national government. (Note: Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co., 158 U.S. 601 (1895).) With this change, the federal government’s ability to raise revenue significantly increased and so did its ability to spend. The second development regulates federal grants, that is, transfers of federal money to state and local governments. These transfers, which do not have to be repaid, are designed to support the activities of the recipient governments, but also to encourage them to pursue federal policy objectives they might not otherwise adopt. The expansion of the federal government’s spending power has enabled it to transfer more grant money to lower government levels, which has accounted for an increasing share of their total revenue.(Note: See Robert Jay Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments: A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Issues," Congressional Research Service, Report 40638, 22 May 2019. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40638) The sources of revenue for federal, state, and local governments are detailed in Figure 3. Although the data reflect 2013 results, the patterns we see in the figure give us a good idea of how governments have funded their activities in recent years. For the federal government, 47 percent of 2013 revenue came from individual income taxes and 34 percent from payroll taxes, which combine SS and Medicare tax. Figure 2.3. As these charts indicate, federal, state, and local governments raise revenue from different sources. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/year_revenue_2023USbs_24bs1n For state governments, 50 percent of revenue came from taxes, while 30 percent consisted of federal grants. Sales tax—which includes taxes on purchased food, clothing, alcohol, amusements, insurance, motor fuels, tobacco products, and public utilities, for example—accounted for about 47 percent of total tax revenue, and individual income taxes represented roughly 35 percent. Revenue from service charges (e.g., tuition revenue from public universities and fees for hospital-related services accounted for 11 percent. The tax structure of states varies. Alaska, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming do not have individual income taxes. Figure 2.4 illustrates yet another difference: Fuel tax across the United States. Fuel tax revenue is typically used to finance state highway transportation projects, although some states do use it to fund non-transportation projects. Figure 2.4. Fuel Taxes across states. Public Domain. By Wikideas1 - Own work https://www.taxadmin.org/assets/docs/Research/Rates/mf.pdfLiberationreport.com, CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. The most important sources of revenue for local governments in 2022 were taxes, federal and state grants, and service charges. Local governments in Texas rely heavily on property tax revenue to pay for salaries of police officers and firefighters, as well as for government services including roads, libraries and public schools. According to the comptroller’s office, property tax collections have risen more than 20% since 2017. Federal and state grants accounted for 37 percent of local government revenue. State grants made up 87 percent of total local grants. In 2019, state lawmakers passed two pieces of legislation to address rising property taxes and, they said, to create more transparency for Texas homeowners. The bills, which were signed into law by Gov. Greg Abbott, require taxing bodies such as counties and cities to win voter approval if they want to raise property tax revenues more than 3.5% from the previous year’s tax base. Under the new legislation, school districts are essentially limited to 2.5% growth in tax revenue each year. Prior to this the regulation only allow an increase of 1% without voter approval. Charges for hospital-related services, sewage and solid-waste management, public city university tuition, and airport services are important sources of general revenue for local governments, these are know as Municipal Utility Districts. The bulk of the stimulus funds apportioned to state and local governments was used to create and protect existing jobs through public works projects and to fund various public welfare programs such as unemployment insurance. (Note: James Feyrer and Bruce Sacerdote. 2011. "Did the Stimulus Stimulate? Real Time Estimates of the Effects of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" (Working Paper No. 16759), Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w16759.pdf) How are the revenues generated by our tax dollars, fees we pay to use public services and obtain licenses, and monies from other sources put to use by the different levels of government? A good starting point to gain insight on this question as it relates to the federal government is Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. Recall, for instance, that the Constitution assigns the federal government various powers that allow it to affect the nation as a whole. A look at the federal budget in 2014 shows that the three largest spending categories were Social Security (24 percent of the total budget); Medicare, Medicaid, the Children’s Health Insurance Program, and marketplace subsidies under the Affordable Care Act (24 percent); and defense and international security assistance (18 percent). The rest was divided among categories such as safety net programs (11 percent), including the Earned Income Tax Credit and Child Tax Credit, unemployment insurance, food stamps, and other low-income assistance programs; interest on federal debt (7 percent); benefits for federal retirees and veterans (8 percent); and transportation infrastructure (3 percent). (Note: Data reported by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 2015. "Policy Basics: Where Do Our Federal Tax Dollars Go?" March 11. http://www.cbpp.org/research/policybasics-where-do-our-federal-tax-dollars-go) It is clear from the 2022 federal budget that providing for the general welfare and national defense consumes much of the government’s resources—not just its revenue, but also its administrative capacity and labor power. Figure 2.5. CBO: U.S. Federal spending and revenue components for fiscal year 2023. Major expenditure categories are healthcare, Social Security, and defense; income and payroll taxes are the primary revenue sources. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentspending.com/us_fed_spending_pie_chart Figure 2.6 compares recent spending activities of local and state governments. Educational expenditures constitute a major category for both. However, whereas the states spend comparatively more than local governments on university education, local governments spend even more on elementary and secondary education. That said, nationwide, state funding for public higher education has declined as a percentage of university revenues; this is primarily because states have taken in lower amounts of sales taxes as Internet commerce has increased. Local governments allocate more funds to police protection, fire protection, housing and community development, and public utilities such as water, sewage, and electricity. And while state governments allocate comparatively more funds to public welfare programs, such as health care, income support, and highways, both local and state governments spend roughly similar amounts on judicial and legal services and correctional services. Figure 2.6. This list includes some of the largest expenditure items for state and local governments. Public Domain. https://www.usgovernmentspending.com/US_statelocal_spending_pie_chart Federalism is a system of government that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing authority granted to them by the national constitution. Federal systems like the one in the United States are different from unitary systems, which concentrate authority in the national government, and from confederations, which concentrate authority in subnational governments. The U.S. Constitution allocates powers to the states and federal government, structures the relationship between these two levels of government, and guides state-to-state relationships. Federal, state, and local governments rely on different sources of revenue to enable them to fulfill their public responsibilities. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 2.2 The Evolution of Federalism THE EVOLUTION OF FEDERALISM Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe how federalism has evolved in the United States - Compare different conceptions of federalism The Constitution sketches a federal framework that aims to balance the forces of decentralized and centralized governance in general terms; it does not flesh out standard operating procedures that say precisely how the states and federal governments are to handle all policy contingencies imaginable. Therefore, officials at the state and national levels have had some room to maneuver as they operate within the Constitution’s federal design. This has led to changes in the configuration of federalism over time, changes corresponding to different historical phases that capture distinct balances between state and federal authority. The Struggle Between National Power and State Power As George Washington’s secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795, Alexander championed legislative efforts to create a publicly chartered bank. For Hamilton, the establishment of the was fully within Congress’s authority, and he hoped the bank would foster economic development, print and circulate paper money, and provide loans to the government. Although Thomas , Washington’s secretary of state, staunchly opposed Hamilton’s plan on the constitutional grounds that the national government had no authority to create such an instrument, Hamilton managed to convince the reluctant president to sign the legislation. (Note: The Lehrman Institute. "The Founding Trio: Washington, Hamilton and Jefferson." http://lehrmaninstitute.org/ history/FoundingTrio.asp) When the bank’s charter expired in 1811, Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans prevailed in blocking its renewal. However, the fiscal hardships that plagued the government during the War of 1812, coupled with the fragility of the country’s financial system, convinced Congress and then-president James to create the 2nd Bank pf the US in 1816. Many states rejected the Second Bank, arguing that the national government was infringing upon the states’ constitutional jurisdiction. A political showdown between Maryland and the national government emerged when James McCulloch, an agent for the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank, refused to pay a tax that Maryland had imposed on all out-of-state chartered banks. The standoff raised two constitutional questions: Did Congress have the authority to charter a national bank? Were states allowed to tax federal property? In McCulloch v. Maryland, Chief Justice John h ll argued that Congress could create a national bank even though the Constitution did not expressly authorize it. (Note: McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).) Under the necessary and proper clause of Article 1, Section 8, the Supreme Court asserted that Congress could establish “all means which are appropriate” to fulfill “the legitimate ends” of the Constitution. In other words, the bank was an appropriate instrument that enabled the national government to carry out several of its enumerated powers, such as regulating interstate commerce, collecting taxes, and borrowing money. The period between 1819 and the 1860s demonstrated that the national government sought to establish its role within the newly created federal design, which in turn often provoked the states to resist as they sought to protect their interests. With the exception of the Civil War, the Supreme Court settled the power struggles between the states and national government. From a historical perspective, the national supremacy principle introduced during this period did not so much narrow the states’ scope of constitutional authority as restrict their encroachment on national powers. (Note: Joseph R. Marbach, Troy E. Smith, and Ellis Katz. 2005. Federalism in America: An Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.) Dual Federalism The late 1870s ushered in a new phase in the evolution of U.S. federalism. Under , the states and national government exercise exclusive authority in distinctly delineated spheres of jurisdiction. Like the layers of a cake, the levels of government do not blend with one another but rather are clearly defined. Two factors contributed to the emergence of this conception of federalism. First, several Supreme Court rulings blocked attempts by both state and federal governments to step outside their jurisdictional boundaries. Second, the prevailing economic philosophy at the time loathed government interference in the process of industrial development. Industrialization changed the socioeconomic landscape of the United States. One of its adverse effects was the concentration of market power. Because there was no national regulatory supervision to ensure fairness in market practices, collusive behavior among powerful firms emerged in several industries. (Note: Marc Allen Eisner. 2014. The American Political Economy: Institutional Evolution of Market and State. New York: Routledge.) The new federal regulatory regime was dealt a legal blow early in its existence. In 1895, in United States v. E. C. Knight, the Supreme Court ruled that the national government lacked the authority to regulate manufacturing. (Note: United States v. E. C. Knight, 156 U.S. 1 (1895).) The case came about when the government, using its regulatory power under the Sherman Act, attempted to override American Sugar’s purchase of four sugar refineries, which would give the company a commanding share of the industry. Distinguishing between commerce among states and the production of goods, the court argued that the national government’s regulatory authority applied only to commercial activities. If manufacturing activities fell within the purview of the commerce clause of the Constitution, then “comparatively little of business operations would be left for state control,” the court argued. Cooperative Federalism The Great Depression of the 1930s brought economic hardships the nation had never witnessed before. Between 1929 and 1933, the national unemployment rate reached 25 percent, industrial output dropped by half, stock market assets lost more than half their value, thousands of banks went out of business, and the gross domestic product shrunk by one-quarter. (Note: Nicholas Crafts and Peter Fearon. 2010. "Lessons from the 1930s Great Depression," Oxford Review of Economic Policy 26: 286–287; Gene Smiley. "The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Great Depression." http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html) Given the magnitude of the economic depression, there was pressure on the national government to coordinate a robust national response along with the states. While the era of cooperative federalism witnessed a broadening of federal powers in concurrent and state policy domains, it is also the era of a deepening coordination between the states and the federal government in Washington. Nowhere is this clearer than with respect to the social welfare and social insurance programs created during the New Deal and Great Society eras, most of which are administered by both state and federal authorities and are jointly funded. Thus, the era of cooperative federalism left two lasting attributes on federalism in the United States. First, a nationalization of politics emerged as a result of federal legislative activism aimed at addressing national problems such as marketplace inefficiencies, social and political inequality, and poverty. The nationalization process expanded the size of the federal administrative apparatus and increased the flow of federal grants to state and local authorities, which have helped offset the financial costs of maintaining a host of New Deal- and Great Society–era programs. The second lasting attribute is the flexibility that states and local authorities were given in the implementation of federal social welfare programs. One consequence of administrative flexibility, however, is that it has led to cross-state differences in the levels of benefits and coverage. (Note: R. Kent Weaver. 2000. Ending Welfare as We Know It. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.) New Federalism During the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon (1969–1974) and Ronald Reagan (1981–1989), attempts were made to reverse the process of nationalization—that is, to restore states’ prominence in policy areas into which the federal government had moved in the past. New federalism is premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves policy outcomes. However, Reagan’s track record in promoting new federalism was inconsistent. This was partly due to the fact that the president’s devolution agenda met some opposition from Democrats in Congress, moderate Republicans, and interest groups, preventing him from making further advances on that front. For example, his efforts to completely devolve Aid to Families With Dependent Children (a New Deal-era program) and food stamps (a Great Society-era program) to the states were rejected by members of Congress, who feared states would underfund both programs, and by members of the National Governors’ Association, who believed the proposal would be too costly for states. Reagan terminated general revenue sharing in 1986. (Note: Dilger, "Federal Grants to State and Local Governments," 30–31.) Several Supreme Court rulings also promoted new federalism by hemming in the scope of the national government’s power, especially under the commerce clause. For example, in United States v. Lopez , the court struck down the of 1990 Gun-Free School Zones Act, which banned gun possession in school zones. It argued that the regulation in question did not “substantively affect interstate commerce.” The ruling ended a nearly sixty-year period in which the court had used a broad interpretation of the commerce clause that by the 1960s allowed it to regulate numerous local commercial activities. (Note: United States v. Lopez , 514 U.S. 549 (1995).) he Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (Brady Bill) required "local chief law enforcement officers" (CLEOs) to perform background-checks on prospective handgun purchasers, until such time as the Attorney General establishes a federal system for this purpose. County sheriffs Jay Printz and Richard Mack, separately challenged the constitutionality of this interim provision of the Brady Bill on behalf of CLEOs in Montana and Arizona respectively. The Court concluded that the Necessary and Proper Clause does not empower th eCongress to compel state CLEOs to fulfill its federal tasks for it - even temporarily.(Note: See Printz v. United States , 521 U.S. 898 (1997).) Federalism in Action: Campus Carry On August 1, 1966, Charles Whitman climbed to the top of the clock tower at the University of Texas at Austin (UT Austin) and started shooting people in what is widely considered to be the first mass shooting in the United States. Exactly fifty years later, in 2016, a new law went into effect that required all public universities in Texas to allow individuals with concealed carry licenses to bring guns onto college campuses. The law, commonly referred to as campus carry, was passed in 2015 by the Texas Legislature. Among the issues in the campus carry debate is which level of government should pass laws relating to guns. The federal government has enacted several laws restricting guns, such as the National Firearms Act of 1934, mandating the registration and restricting the sale of certain types of firearms, and the Gun Control Act of 1968, regulating interstate commerce of firearms. Individual states have passed additional legislation, such as Texas’s campus carry law. The matter of gun legislation in Texas isn’t just one between the federal and state governments, however. Campus carry also involves a fight over elements of local control. The original campus carry legislation included a provision that allowed public universities to opt out, and several campuses across Texas indicated they would likely do that. But when the legislation was reintroduced in the 84th legislative session, that option was notably absent. In the Texas debate over campus carry, much of the pushback concerns the opt-out option. Cooperative Federalism versus New Federalism Morton Grodzins coined the cake analogy of federalism in the 1950s while conducting research on the evolution of American federalism. Until then most scholars had thought of federalism as a layer cake, but according to Grodzins the 1930s ushered in “marble-cake federalism”: “The American form of government is often, but erroneously, symbolized by a three-layer cake. A far more accurate image is the rainbow or marble cake, characterized by an inseparable mingling of differently colored ingredients, the colors appearing in vertical and diagonal strands and unexpected whirls. As colors are mixed in the marble cake, so functions are mixed in the American federal system.” (Note: Morton Grodzins. 2004. "The Federal System." In American Government Readings and Cases, ed. P. Woll. New York: Pearson Longman, 74–78.) Federalism in the United States has gone through several phases of evolution during which the relationship between the federal and state governments has varied. In the era of dual federalism, both levels of government stayed within their own jurisdictional spheres. During the era of cooperative federalism, the federal government became active in policy areas previously handled by the states. The 1970s ushered in an era of new federalism and attempts to decentralize policy management. The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015 made same-sex marriage legal in the United States and, in effect, overturned the Proposition 2 state constitutional ban in Texas by declaring that same-sex marriage is part of the fundamental right to marry and cannot be banned in the United States. Some states and municipalities responded with laws to protect state and local officials who do not wish to issue marriage licenses or perform civil marriage ceremonies for same-sex couples. Vertical Federalism and the Limits on Federal Commerce and Spending Power. Vertical federalism protects our liberties and makes us the envy of the world, first, because the states are an important counterbalance to the federal government. The framers used power to limit power. Second, because when the independent states go their independent ways they implement what the economists call the “wisdom of crowds.” States retain some reserved power that the federal government cannot reach. The term, “states’ rights” or “state sovereignty” became a code word of racial segregation in the 1940s and 1950s, when Southern politicians used it to justify “separate but equal.” We often forget that the original (and present) purpose of “states’ right” is not to protect states, as incorporeal entities. The purpose of states’ rights is to protect us, the people. James Madison wrote that our system of federalism provides “a double security . . . to the rights of the people.” The thirteen states then, and the fifty states now, are shields to protect individual rights. The most recent case demonstrating that there are limits to the federal power over commerce and the federal power to attach conditions to federal spending is National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius. Granted, the Court (5 to 4) upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act, popularly called Obamacare. However, to reach that result, the majority engaged in a creative reinterpretation of the statute— reading the law so that what the statute says is not a tax is really a tax. Later, the Court reinterpreted the law so that it read “state” to mean “state or federal”—again, to save the law. The Court’s multiple exercises in dramatic statutory reinterpretation should not mask the significant holding that a clear majority in Sebelius did embrace. First, the Court held (5 to 4) that Congress does not have the constitutional power under the Commerce Clause to regulate omissions (the failure to buy medical insurance) because an omission is not a commercial act. Omissions are not commerce and an omission is not an act; it is just an omission, the failure to act. Second, the Court held (6 to 2), for the first time, that Congress exceeded its power under the Spending Clause. (See Ronald D. Rotunda, Vertical Federalism, the New States’ Rights, and the Wisdom of Crowds, 11 FIU L. Rev. 307 pp.308-309 (2016). Coercive Federalism Coercive federalism is a period of American federalism that began in the late 1960's. It is characterized by substantial growth in the power of the federal government relative to the states and by the ability of the federal government to override state powers and impose policies on the states. The term refers to the predominant mode of federal-state relations, especially in policy making, and does not exclude elements of cooperative and dual federalism that still operate in the federal system. Coercive federalism has ten significant characteristics. One has been an unprecedented increase of policy conditions attached to grants-in-aid, conditions that enable the federal government to achieve national objectives that lie beyond Congress’s constitutionally enumerated powers and also to extract more spending on federal objectives from state and local governments. An example is the 21-year-old alcoholic-beverage purchase-age condition attached to federal highway aid in 1984. Any state that does not increase the drinking age to 21 will lose up to 10 percent of its federal highway funding per year. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this condition as being non-coercive in South Dakota v. Dole (1987). Only once has the Court struck down a condition of aid as being coercive (in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, 2012). Second, there was a sharp rise in congressional earmarking of specific projects in grants-in-aid, thus denying discretion to state and local officials. The number of earmarks increased from under 2,000 in 1998 to thousands more by 2011. Congress officially prohibited earmarking in 2011 due to public criticism of fiscal wastefulness; however, Congress revived earmarks in 2021. Third, federal aid has shifted substantially from places to persons; that is, almost three-quarters of federal aid is now dedicated for payments to individuals (i.e., social welfare). For example, Medicaid alone accounts for about 65 percent of all federal aid. As a result, place-oriented aid for such functions as infrastructure, economic development, criminal justice, and education has declined steeply, and increased aid for social welfare has locked state budgets into programs subject to rising federal regulation and matching state costs. On average, Medicaid is the single largest category of state spending. Mandates are a fourth characteristic of coercive federalism. Congress enacted one major mandate in 1931, one in 1940, none during 1941–63, nine during 1964–69, twenty-five during the 1970's, and twenty-seven in the 1980's. The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 sharply cut new expensive unfunded mandate enactments, but did not eliminate standing mandates and new less costly mandates. According to the Congressional Budget Office, Congress enacted 57 intergovernmental mandates in 1997-99, 240 in 2000-09, and 308 in 2010-19. Fifth, federal preemptions of state powers have risen to historically unprecedented levels. From 1970 to 2014, a period of 45 years, Congress enacted 522 explicit preemptions compared to 206 preemptions enacted from 1789 to 1969, a period of 181 years. No post-2014 count is available, but most observers agree that Congress continues to enact large numbers of preemptions. In turn, preemptions are frequently upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. A sixth feature of coercive federalism has been federal constraints on [tax competition\|state taxation and borrowing]], beginning especially with the enactment of limits on tax-exempt private activity bonds in 1984. Federal judicial and statutory prohibitions of state taxation of Internet services and sales are among the most prominent, current constraints. National Bellas Hess v. Department of Revenue of Illinois (1967) and Quill v. North Dakota (1992) prohibited states from requiring all out-of-state mail-order vendors to collect state and local sales taxes on purchases made by states’ residents. However, in South Dakota v. Wayfair (2018), the Court opened the door for such taxation. The Internet Tax Freedom Act (2015) permanently bans many forms of state and local taxation of the Internet. The ban had been initiated by temporary legislation in 1998 and renewed periodically. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 limited the state and local government tax deduction for federal taxpayers. This was the first time Congress limited this deduction since enactment of the first federal income-tax in 1862 and today’s income-tax in 1913. A seventh characteristic has been the federalization of state criminal law. There are now more than 4,500 federal criminal offenses, over half of which have been enacted since the mid-1960s. The number of federal prisoners increased from about 20,000 in 1981 to about 226,000 in 2019 after peaking at more than 219,000 in 2013, and the number of federal prosecutors jumped from 1,500 in 1981 to more than 7,000. Generally, federal criminal laws (e.g., drug laws) require longer prison sentences than comparable state laws and make prosecutions and convictions easier than under state laws. Coercive federalism has been marked, as well, by the demise of executive and congressional intergovernmental institutions established during the era of cooperative federalism to enhance cooperation. Most notable was the death of the U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR) in 1996 after thirty-seven years of operation. Ninth, there has been a decline in federal-state cooperation in major grant programs such as Medicaid and surface transportation, with Congress earmarking and altering programs more in response to national and regional interest groups than to elected state and local officials. Tenth, coercive federalism has been marked by unprecedented numbers of federal court orders and large numbers of lawsuits filed against state and local governments in federal courts. Although federal court orders dictating major and costly changes in such institutions as schools, prisons, and mental health facilities have declined since the early 1990's, state and local governments are subject to high levels of litigation in federal courts, with various interests often trying to block major state policy initiatives through litigation. The U.S. Supreme Court resurrected the Eleventh Amendment in the 1990's to restrain some types of such litigation, but the Court’s decisions have been quite limited. (See John Kincaid, “The Rise of Social Welfare and Onward March of Coercive Federalism,” Networked Governance: The Future of Intergovernmental Management, eds., Jack W. Meek and Kurt Thurmaier. Los Angeles: Sage/CQ Press, 2011, pp. 8-38; John Kincaid, “From Cooperation to Coercion in American Federalism: Housing, Fragmentation, and Preemption, 1780–1992,” Journal of Law and Politics 9 (Winter 1993): 333–433; John Kincaid, “From Cooperative to Coercive Federalism,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509 (May 1990): 139–52; and Congressional Budget Office’s annual report, Activities Under the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act.) KEY TERMS: bill of attainder bill of rights coercive federalism concurrent powers cooperative federalism devolution dual federalism elastic clause enumerated powers ex post facto law federalism new federalism reserved powers unitary systems writ of habeas corpus • • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| • \| Key Terms \| : Daniel Brown \| 3. The Texas Legislature, Qualifications and Organization 3. THE TEXAS LEGISLATURE QUALIFICATIONS AND ORGANIZATION \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Structure of Texas Legislature & Congressional Districts Article 3 of the Texas Constitution describes the legislative department (branch) of Texas. Texas Legislature utilizes a system with the Texas Senate being the upper house, and the Texas House of Representatives the lower house. There are a total of 181 members of the Texas Legislature: 31 Senators, and 150 members of the House. Texas uses “single-member districts,” meaning each member of the Texas Legislature represents one congressional district. Every ten years, after the U.S. census, the congressional districts are redrawn to maintain proportional representation (This is also called reapportionment). (Note: https://dvr.capitol.texas.gov/Senate/56/PLANS2168) (Note: https://dvr.capitol.texas.gov/House/56/PLANH2316) The redistricting process in Texas is as follows: 1. U.S. Census conducted every 10 years and data is delivered to the Texas Legislator no later than April 1st of the year following the census; 2. Texas Legislature begins to draw plans and enact a bill for the new state congressional district lines; 3. If Legislature cannot enact a new congressional district map during the first regular session after the census has been conducted, then the Legislative Redistricting Board (LRB) becomes responsible for reapportionment (Note: Texas Constitution, Article 3, Section 28 (1951) created the LRB). The LRB is made up of the: Lieutenant Governor, Speaker of the House, Attorney General, Comptroller, and Commission of the General Land Office. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/redist/process/LRB.html) Texas Legislature uses biennial sessions which means they meet every two years on odd-numbered years, for 140 days. The Governor has the power to call a special session outside of the “140 days.” Texas Legislature has two presiding officers: The Lieutenant Governor (currently Dan Patrick), who is elected by Texans, presides over the Texas Senate. The Speaker of the House (currently Dade Phelan, is elected by members of the Texas House of Representatives, presides over the lower house. The President pro tempore of the Texas Senate is Sen. Joan Huffman (Note: http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/). Qualifications to become a member of Texas Legislature The following are the legal requirements in order for someone to meet the qualifications to become a member of the Texas Legislature. The Texas Ethics Commission sets the Texas legislators annual salary at $7,200, plus a per diem for every day they are in session. The Lt. Governor's salary is also set by the Ethics Commission at $7,200 a year. (Note: http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/candidates/guide/qualifications.shtml#b) - Texas Senator ◦ U.S. Citizen ◦ 5 years as a resident of Texas ◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 26 years old ◦ 4 year terms with unlimited term limit - Texas Representative (House) ◦ U.S. Citizen ◦ 2 years as a resident of Texas ◦ 12 months as a resident of their District ◦ At least 21 years old ◦ 2 year terms with unlimited term limit • \| Qualifications and Organization. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 3.1 The Legislative Process in Texas The Legislative Process in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to explain how legislation is passed in the Texas Legislature. The Texas legislative process is governed by the Texas Constitution and applicable statutes (available on the Texas Constitution and Statutes web page) and by the rules of procedure of the Senate and House of Representatives that are adopted at the beginning of a regular session. This publication provides a general summary of the different phases of the legislative process. The process described specifies “bill,” although resolutions follow similar steps. See the subsequent discussion regarding the legislative process for joint resolutions, concurrent resolutions, and simple resolutions for differences specific to those documents. HOW A BILL ORIGINATES The bill is the most common type of legislative document and is the only means by which a law may be enacted, amended, or repealed. Only a legislator may introduce a bill into the legislative process, although the idea for a bill may originate from a source other than the legislator, such as an interested outside party or the findings of a committee study. The text of a bill may be drafted by the legislator personally (see the Texas Legislative Council Drafting Manual), by an interested outside party, or, as is often the case, by the professional staff of the Texas Legislative Council or another appropriate legislative entity. INTRODUCING A BILL A bill is first introduced by a legislator in the legislator’s own chamber, which is considered the bill’s originating chamber. Following the passage of the bill by that chamber, the bill moves to the opposite chamber for approval before proceeding to the governor. The steps in a bill’s progress are basically the same in each chamber, with many opportunities for the amendment or defeat of the bill. To introduce a bill, a legislator must file the bill with the chief clerk of the House or the secretary of the Senate, as appropriate. Bill filing for a regular legislative session begins the first Monday after the general election preceding the session and continues unrestricted through the first 60 calendar days of the session. After the 60-day deadline, the introduction of any bill, other than a local bill, an emergency appropriations bill, or a bill to address emergency matters submitted by the governor, requires the consent of at least four-fifths of those representatives present and voting if the bill is to be introduced in the House, or the consent of at least four-fifths of the members of the Senate if the bill is to be introduced in the Senate. THE ROLE OF COMMITTEES The size of the legislature and the volume of work confronting it each session make lengthy deliberation on all proposed measures by the entire membership a difficult task. For this reason, the basic business in both chambers is conducted according to the committee system. Each chamber’s rules provide for the creation of committees to consider introduced bills and advise on their disposition, and committees are formed at the beginning of each regular session. Although nearly all bills are referred to a committee, a large number of bills are never reported out of committee and are considered to have “died” in committee. For most House committees, membership is determined in part by seniority and in part by appointments by the speaker of the House. Each representative sits on at least one committee, while most sit on two or three. For Senate committees, membership is determined entirely by appointments by the lieutenant governor, and senators generally sit on four or five committees. REFERRAL TO A COMMITTEE When a bill is introduced or received from the opposite chamber for consideration, it is officially read into the record, using its caption only, and is referred by the speaker or lieutenant governor to an appropriate committee. In the House rules, each committee is assigned jurisdiction over a specific subject matter, and the speaker refers legislation to House committees based on those subject matter jurisdictions. While the Senate rules do not specify subject matter jurisdictions for Senate committees, the lieutenant governor is required to refer bills to a “proper” Senate committee, and in practice unofficial subject matter jurisdictions are usually followed. After a bill has been referred to a House committee, the committee chair must make a determination as to whether a fiscal note or other impact statement is required, and if so, the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) prepares the note or statement. For bills referred to Senate committees, fiscal notes are automatically prepared by the LBB, and other impact statements are prepared at the discretion of the LBB. Additionally, the House rules require the preparation of a bill analysis for bills considered in a committee meeting, and both the House and Senate rules require the preparation of a bill analysis for bills reported out of committee. These fiscal notes, impact statements, and bill analyses accompany a bill throughout the legislative process. COMMITTEE MEETINGS The chair of each committee decides when the committee will meet and which bills will be considered. The House rules permit a House committee or subcommittee to meet: • in a public hearing where testimony is heard and official action may be taken on bills, resolutions, or other matters; • in a formal meeting where the committee may discuss and take official action on bills, resolutions, or other matters without testimony; or • in a work session where the committee may discuss bills, resolutions, or other matters but take no formal action. Meetings of a House committee or subcommittee are generally required to be open to the public. The Senate rules do not explicitly provide for different types of meetings but do require that a public hearing allowing public testimony be held on a bill before it can be reported from the committee. Testimony may be heard and official action may be taken at any meeting of a Senate committee or subcommittee. A Senate committee or subcommittee must post notice of a meeting at least 24 hours before the meeting and a House committee or subcommittee must comply with the following notice requirements, unless the applicable rule is suspended by a vote of the members on the House floor: • for a public hearing held during a regular legislative session, notice must be posted at least five calendar days before the hearing; • for a public hearing held during a special session, notice must be posted at least 24 hours before the hearing; and • for a formal meeting or a work session, written notice must be posted and transmitted to each member of the committee two hours in advance of the meeting, or an announcement must be filed with the journal clerk and read in the House while the House is in session. COMMITTEE REPORTS After considering a bill, a committee may choose to take no action or may issue a report on the bill to the chamber at large. In a favorable report, the committee may recommend passage of the bill without amendments, recommend amendments to the bill, or substitute a new bill for the original bill. An unfavorable report generally kills the bill, but bills have rarely been reported unfavorably and are typically left pending in committee if they do not have enough support. A committee report includes: • the committee’s recommendations and vote regarding the bill; • the text of the bill as reported by the committee, which may be the introduced text or a substitute; • any proposed amendments; • a bill analysis; • a fiscal note or other impact statement; and • other attachments as necessary. In the House, all committee reports are referred to the committee coordinator. After printing, the chief clerk delivers a certified copy of a committee report to the appropriate calendars committee (the Committee on Calendars or, if recommended by the reporting committee, the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars) for placement of the bill on a calendar for consideration by the full House. Calendars committees are given wide discretion in scheduling bills for floor consideration. The Senate rules also require committee reports to be printed. After being printed, a copy of the Senate committee report printing is placed in the bill book on each senator’s desk in the Senate chamber. Bills reported out of committee are listed on the Senate’s regular order of business. Local and uncontested bills are referred to the Administration Committee for scheduling on a local and uncontested calendar. HOUSE CALENDARS AND LIST OF ITEMS ELIGIBLE FOR CONSIDERATION The House rules provide for four types of printed calendars: 1. the daily House calendar, which contains a list of new bills scheduled by the Committee on Calendars for consideration by the House, is sorted into the following categories in order of priority: » Emergency Calendar; » Major State Calendar; » Constitutional Amendments Calendar; » General State Calendar; and » Resolutions Calendar. 2. the supplemental House calendar, which is prepared by the Committee on Calendars and may contain: » bills passed to third reading on the previous legislative day; » bills on the daily House calendar for a previous calendar day that were not reached for consideration; » postponed business from a previous calendar day; » notice to call from the table a bill laid on the table subject to call on a previous legislative day; and » bills from a daily House calendar that will be eligible for consideration; 3. the local, consent, and resolutions calendar, which contains a list of local or noncontroversial bills scheduled by the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars for consideration by the House; and 4. the congratulatory and memorial calendar, which contains a list of congratulatory and memorial resolutions scheduled by the Committee on Resolutions Calendars for consideration by the House. The supplemental House calendar, because it includes bills listed on the daily House calendar, is generally the primary agenda followed by the House during its deliberations. The local, consent, and resolutions calendars and the congratulatory and memorial calendars are special calendars that are prepared approximately once a week during the last half of a regular session. The House normally considers all bills listed on its calendars before adjourning or recessing for the day, except during the latter part of the regular session, when calendars become especially lengthy. When the volume of legislation warrants it (normally during the last few weeks of a regular session), the chief clerk of the House prepares a list of items eligible for consideration on request of the speaker. The list contains: • House bills with Senate amendments eligible to be considered; • Senate bills for which the Senate has requested the appointment of a conference committee; and • conference committee reports eligible to be considered. Senate bills pending in the House follow the same procedures with regard to calendars as House bills, but Senate bills are required to be listed on the calendars separate from House bills. Wednesday and Thursday are designated as Senate bill days, which are the days on which Senate bills are considered in the House and have priority in the order of House business. SENATE REGULAR ORDER OF BUSINESS AND INTENT CALENDAR The Senate’s regular order of business lists all bills that have been reported from committee and are eligible for second reading consideration in the order in which they were reported. In practice, it functions more as a listing of reported bills than as the day’s agenda, since the Senate’s usual practice is to consider bills out of the regular order through the use of a blocker bill and the suspension of the regular order. Traditionally, a blocker bill is a bill that has been quickly passed out of committee at the beginning of a regular session but which the Senate has no intention of immediately addressing. Because Senate rules require bills to be considered on second reading in the order in which they were reported from committee and the blocker bill thus takes priority, a suspension of the rules by a vote of five-ninths of the members present is necessary for consideration of a bill other than the blocker bill by the full Senate. In order to suspend the regular order of business and take up a bill other than the blocker bill, a senator must first give prior notice to the secretary of the Senate for placement of the bill on the Intent Calendar. Bills on the Intent Calendar are not taken up in any particular order, and the Senate routinely considers only a portion of those measures listed on the Intent Calendar for a given day. The Senate also has a Local and Uncontested Calendar for the consideration of local and uncontested bills at times designated by the Senate. Wednesday and Thursday are designated as House bill days, which are the days on which House bills are considered in the Senate and have priority in the order of Senate business. FLOOR ACTION Floor consideration of a bill begins on the second reading when the bill is first subject to debate and amendment by the entire membership of a chamber. A bill may be amended on second reading by a simple majority of those members present and voting, and a separate vote is taken on each amendment proposed. After the bill is debated and amended, if applicable, the members vote on the bill for passage to the third reading, where the bill is then considered for final passage. A bill may be amended on the third reading, but adoption of an amendment at this stage requires a vote of a two-thirds majority of the members present. Although the Texas Constitution requires a bill to be read on three separate legislative days in each chamber before it can have the force of law, this constitutional rule may be suspended by a four-fifths vote of the members present and voting from the chamber in which the bill is pending. In such cases, the bill is given an immediate third reading following its passage from the second reading. The Senate routinely suspends the constitutional provision in order to give a bill an immediate third reading. The House, however, rarely suspends this provision, and the third reading consideration of a bill in the House normally occurs on the day following the second reading consideration. After a bill has been read a third time, a vote is taken for final passage. If the bill receives a simple majority vote, it is considered passed. When the bill is passed in the originating chamber, the bill is engrossed (all corrections and amendments are incorporated into it) and an exact and accurate copy of the engrossed bill is prepared and sent to the opposite chamber for consideration. CONSIDERATION OF LOCAL AND NONCONTROVERSIAL BILLS The House and Senate rules both provide for special calendars for the consideration of local and noncontroversial bills. The calendar used for consideration of these bills in the House is the local, consent, and resolutions calendar, which is set by the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars. Placement of a bill on the local, consent, and resolutions calendar requires the unanimous recommendation of the present and voting members of the committee from which the bill was reported. Normally local, consent, and resolutions calendars are prepared for consideration by the House once a week during the last half of the regular session. These calendars usually are lengthy, but consideration of them is expedited because debate and amendments are limited, and contested bills are removed from the calendar. The calendar used for consideration of local and noncontroversial bills in the Senate is the local and uncontested calendar, which is set by the Senate Committee on Administration. A bill may not be considered for placement on the local and uncontested calendar unless requested by the sponsor of the bill and the chair of the committee from which the bill was reported. Local and uncontested calendars normally are prepared for consideration by the Senate once or twice a week during the last half of the regular session. Measures on these calendars are considered without a suspension of the regular order of business, which generally is required for consideration of legislation in the Senate. As in the House, consideration of local and uncontested calendars in the Senate is expedited because the measures on these calendars usually are not debated, floor amendments to measures on these calendars are prohibited, and contested bills are removed from consideration. RETURN OF A BILL TO THE ORIGINATING CHAMBER After a bill has passed through committee and floor deliberation in the opposite chamber, the bill is sent back to the originating chamber. If the bill was not amended in the opposite chamber, or if it was amended and the originating chamber concurs with the changes, the bill is enrolled, signed by both presiding officers in the presence of their respective chambers, and sent to the governor. Any bill making an appropriation must be sent to the Comptroller of public accounts for certification before going to the governor. If a bill was amended in the opposite chamber and the originating chamber does not concur with the changes, the originating chamber may request the appointment of a conference committee to resolve the differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. CONFERENCE COMMITTEE If a conference committee is requested, the presiding officers each appoint five members from their respective chambers to serve on the committee. A conference committee’s charge is limited to reconciling differences between the two chambers, and the committee may not change, alter, amend, or omit text that is not in disagreement without the adoption of an “out of bounds” resolution by both chambers. The committee also may not add text on any matter that is not in disagreement or that is not included in either version of the bill in question without such a resolution. After the committee has reached an agreement, a report is prepared for submission to the House and Senate. The report must be approved by at least three conferees from each chamber and must contain the text of the bill as approved by the conference committee, a side-by-side analysis comparing the text of the compromise bill to both the House and the Senate versions, an updated fiscal note, and the signatures of those members of the conference committee who approved the report. A conference committee report is not subject to amendment by the House or Senate and must be accepted or rejected in its entirety. Should the proposed compromise remain unacceptable to either chamber, it may be returned to the same conference committee for further deliberation, with or without specific instructions, or the appointment of a new conference committee may be requested. Failure of the conference committee to reach an agreement kills the bill. If the conference committee report is acceptable to both chambers, the bill is enrolled, signed by both presiding officers in the presence of their respective chambers, and sent to the governor. GOVERNOR’S ACTION On receiving an enrolled bill, the governor has the option to sign it, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. The governor has 10 days in which to act unless the bill was sent to the governor within 10 days of final adjournment, in which case the governor has until 20 days after final adjournment to act. If the governor elects to veto the bill and the legislature is still in session, the bill is returned to the chamber in which it originated with an explanation of the governor’s objections. A two-thirds majority in each chamber is required to override the veto. If the governor neither vetoes nor signs the bill within the allotted time, the bill becomes law. EFFECTIVE DATE By default, if a bill does not specify an effective date, the bill becomes effective on the 91st day after the date of final adjournment of the session in which it was enacted. A bill may specify a different effective date, but in order to take effect before the default date, a bill must receive a vote of two-thirds of all the members elected to each chamber. If a bill specifying that it takes effect immediately receives the requisite two-thirds vote of the members, the bill takes effect on the date of the last action necessary for it to become law, which is: • the date the governor approves the bill; • the date the governor files the bill with the office of the secretary of state, having neither approved nor vetoed it; • the date the appropriate period for gubernatorial action expires, if the governor fails to act within that period; or • in the event of a veto, the date the veto is overridden. In addition, a bill may make its effective date contingent on an event, on the expiration of a specified period after an event takes place or on the adoption of a proposed constitutional amendment. Parts of a bill may take effect on different dates, or particular sections or applications of a bill may be delayed or accelerated. FILING AND PUBLICATION OF LAWS Once an enrolled bill is signed by the governor or the governor allows an enrolled bill to become law without a signature, the bill is forwarded to the secretary of state, where it is considered filed once the secretary of state signs it. The secretary of state is required to bind all enrolled bills into volumes and to electronically publish all enacted bills on the secretary of state’s website. The bound volumes are located at the Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Copies of enacted bills are compiled, certified, and sent to a publisher for inclusion in The General and Special Laws of Texas, also known as the session laws. The secretary of state assigns a session law chapter to each enacted bill based on the date the bill is filed with the secretary of state; bills that are filed on the same date are placed in chronological bill number order for chapter number assignment. OTHER LEGISLATION—RESOLUTIONS While the bill is the most common type of legislation, the legislature also uses three types of resolutions, which follow somewhat different processes. Resolutions are used to handle specific activities of the legislature and must be introduced, assigned numbers, and acted on by the legislature. The three types of legislative resolutions are joint resolutions, concurrent resolutions, and simple resolutions. Of these, only concurrent resolutions are subject to veto by the governor. JOINT RESOLUTIONS. Joint resolutions are used to propose amendments to the Texas Constitution, ratify proposed amendments to the U.S. Constitution, or request a constitutional convention to propose amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Joint resolutions proposing amendments to the Texas Constitution require a vote of two-thirds of the total membership of each chamber for adoption. Other joint resolutions require a simple majority vote in each chamber for adoption. A joint resolution follows the same course that a bill follows through both chambers and is like a bill in most respects, except that in the House, the resolution may be adopted on second reading if it receives the required number of votes. Three readings are required to adopt a joint resolution in the Senate. Joint resolutions adopted by the legislature are not submitted to the governor for signing but are filed directly with the secretary of state. An amendment to the Texas Constitution proposed by an adopted joint resolution requires approval by Texas voters at a general election. The secretary of state conducts a drawing to determine the order in which the proposed constitutional amendments will appear on the ballot. CONCURRENT RESOLUTIONS. A concurrent resolution is used when both chambers have an interest in a particular matter. Such resolutions may originate in either chamber but must be adopted by both. Concurrent resolutions may be used for matters affecting operations and procedures of the legislature, such as joint sessions or adjournment sine die. They are also used to petition the U.S. Congress, give directions to a state agency, board, or commission, express the views of the legislature, designate an official state symbol, adopt an official place or date designation, or express congratulations or condolences. Concurrent resolutions must be submitted to the governor for approval, except for those that pertain solely to procedural matters between the two chambers, and they are filed with the secretary of state. SIMPLE RESOLUTIONS. Simple resolutions pertain to matters considered by the originating chamber only. They are used to adopt or change rules of procedure, name a mascot, express congratulations or condolences, or petition the U.S. Congress. Simple resolutions may also express the views of a single chamber, initiate a study by that chamber, or urge a state agency, board, or commission to take action. They are not submitted to the governor for signing or filed with the secretary of state. Copies of this publication have been distributed in compliance with the state depository law (Subchapter G, Chapter 441, Government Code) and are available for public use through the Texas State Publications Depository Program at the Texas State Library and other state depository libraries. This publication can be found at https://www.tlc.texas.gov/publications. The Legislative Process in Texas : Daniel Brown : CC BY: Attribution 3.2 How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas HOW A BILL BECOMES LAW IN TEXAS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to explain how a bill becomes law in Texas \| \| How a Bill becomes Law in Texas How a Bill becomes Law in Texas \| 1. \| Introduction: Only a member of Texas Legislature can introduce a bill to their respective chamber. For example only a Texas Senator can introduce a bill in the Senate. The bill will also be assigned a number according to the order it was introduced (i.e. first bill introduced in the House would be HB-1). The bill must be introduced separately in both chambers and if increasing taxes or raising funds are required from the bill, it must begin in the House. Bills must be introduced the first 60 days of the regular session, after that introduction of the bill requires a four-fifths from either chamber, unless the Governor has declared an emergency and the bill pertains to that emergency. Once the bill is introduced a caption (short description of the bill) is read aloud, this is also considered the first reading, where after the presiding officer assigns the bill to a committee. \| 2. \| Committee Action: The Committee (Also called “Little Legislators") will hear testimony for or against the bill, and decide to take no action or issue a report on the bill. If no action is ever taken the bill dies; the Committee’s Report will include a record of how everyone voted, the recommendations regarding the bill. \| 3. \| Floor Action: Once a copy of the Committee’s Report is sent to all members of the Texas Legislature, the bill is read again by caption, then debated by Legislators. The members of that chamber then cast their votes, either through voice or a record voted, on the bill. The bill needs to obtain a majority vote in order for it to pass; once it passes it is sent to the other side of the chamber. \| 4. \| Conference Committee: A Conference Committee is only necessary if there are two different versions of the same bill. Conference Committees are made up of 5 members from each chamber, and at least 3 out of the 5 members from each chamber must approve the bill in order for it to be considered passing- If this occurs the bill is signed by the presiding officers of each chamber and sent to the Governor. \| 5. \| Governor's Desk: The Texas Governor has 4 options when a bill reaches his or her desk: a) Sign it into law; b) Not sign it, and if the Legislature is in session the bill becomes law within 10 days without his/her signature, or within 20 days if the Legislature is not in session; c) Veto the bill, which means it is denied, the veto can be overridden by a 2/3rds vote from the Legislature, but only if the Legislature is still in session; or d) line-item, which means the Governor eliminates certain parts of the bill without killing the entire document (this type of veto can only be used on state budget bill) \| Note: Proposed occur in joint resolutions, instead of bills, and need a 2/ 3rds vote from both chambers- if approved the joint resolution is sent to the where the people will decide the fate of the proposed amendment. (Note: http://www.tlc.state.tx.us/docs/ legref/gtli.pdf#page=7) KEY TERMS biennial session bill conference committee gerrymandering legislative budget redistricting single-member districts special sessions • \| Texas Capitol. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : Texas State Library and Archives Commission. : https://www.flickr.com/photos/tslac/8619251251/in/photolist-e8DV7cCQGfH-4EPD7T-an1UKq-aJPWjK-e13S9c-a5kCQy-atYGQu-7EJfYc-82beA1-7EN5WL-i3kPXv-67VwVM-ibHLrR-5sGTr9-aJPW3r-bkucK-5sGTq1-4HNWa7-nVYqiX-kQeQ7i-zjuf7N-qVCNnm-58k5dg-btnkhM-kidp7g-a8dQZg-9BPb1ra69Xrg-58mvch-bCj5Ne-oVCmTi-dT52gB-b5AXGX-51oSqh-7oLm68-9BP4qB-6uMPby-8nFLUC-bxLLWH-jvHg9-65PeeB-7SWsjL-7MWnb3-qNGs1V-6CuxRw-dek42u-bCstQr-6Cuxkh-e1cXnv. : Public Domain: No Known \| • \| How a Bill Becomes Law in Texas. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| 4. The Executive Branch, the Governor 4. THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH THE GOVERNOR \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Qualifications and Roles for Texas Governor The Governor of Texas is elected by Texans every four years with unlimited terms, with the following qualifications: - Must be at least 30 years old; - Resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election; - Must be a U.S. citizen. The roles and responsibilities of the Texas Governor are: - Signing or vetoing bills passed by the Legislature. - Serving as commander-in-chief of the state’s military forces. - Convening special sessions of the Legislature for specific purposes. - Delivering a report on the condition of the state to the Legislature at the beginning of each regular session. - Estimating of the amounts of money required to be raised by taxation. - Accounting for all public monies received and paid out by him and recommending a budget for the next two years. - Granting reprieves and commutations of punishment and pardons upon the recommendation of the Board of Pardons and Paroles and revoking conditional pardons. - Declaring special elections to fill vacancies in certain elected offices. - Filling judicial vacancies. - Appointing qualified Texans to state offices that carry out the laws and direct the policies of state government. Some of these offices are filled by appointment only. Others are ordinarily elected by the people, but the governor must occasionally appoint individuals to fill vacancies. The governor also appoints Texans to a wide range of advisory bodies and task forces that assist him with specific issues. (Note: http://gov.texas.gov/about/duties) The History of the Governor's Office in Texas: 1. Consistently, Texas governors have been conservative and, up until 1978, solidly Democratic. 2. Longest serving Governor was Rick Perry 2000 - 2014 3. Miriam A. “Ma” Ferguson was the first female governor of Texas, running as a proxy for her husband. - Appointed Emma G. Meharg, Texas’s first female Secretary of State. - Plagued by accusations of corruption, particularly with regard to a high volume of pardons. 4. Ann Richards was the second woman elected governor of Texas. - Decentralized education policy. - Encouraged economic growth. - Promoted women and minorities 5. Order of succession, high to low: - Lieutenant governor. - President pro tempore of Texas Senate. - Speaker of the Texas House. - Attorney general. 6. When the governor is out of state, the lieutenant governor serves as acting governor. 7. Governor makes about $153,000 a year. 8. Rule of 80 - Retirement is permitted under the “rule of eighty,” beginning when age + years of service total at least 80 years. 9. Perks for the Texas governor: - Travel allowance (state limousine, helicopter, and airplane travel). - Governor’s residence, plus a staff of 200–300. - Security detail for their own protection. 10. “Pa” Ferguson was the only governor to have been impeached; he wanted the University of Texas faculty fired and vetoed their appropriations when they denied his demand. 11. Texas governor’s weak enumerated powers are a direct result of the powerful centralized governorship of E.J. Davis. - Particularly that many believed his government did not represent Texans’ desires. - Resulted in limited appointment power, veto power, and budget power. 12. Governor directs state bureaucracy to administer laws passed by the state legislature. - May do so by appointing individuals, issuing executing orders or emergency declarations, and exerting influence on the state budget. 13. Plural executive: When traditional executive functions have been divided among several officeholders rather than residing in a single person, the governor. - Used in the 1876 Constitution to remove gubernatorial power. - If plural executives are from split parties, work becomes even more difficult. 14. The single most significant gubernatorial appointment is that of secretary of state, but a governor makes approximately 3000 appointments over four years. - Governor also appoints candidates to fill elected positions vacated before the holder’s term has expired. 15. Staggered terms: An arrangement whereby the terms of the members of a Texas board or agency do not expire at the same time, so only a third of the board is replaced in a given year. - Ensures only governors who secure a second term will be able to appoint a majority of any board/commission. 16. Recess appointment: An appointment made by the governor while the Texas Senate is not in session; requires Texas Senate approval within 10 days of the next legislative session. 17. Removal power: The power of the governor, with the consent of the Texas Senate, to remove his or her appointees. - Requires two-thirds support of the Texas Senate. - Cannot remove previous governor’s appointees. 18. Executive order: An order issued by the governor to direct existing agencies or coordinate the state’s response to address a particular issue or crisis. - Fine line between using executive orders to direct state bureaucracies (in order to execute the legislature’s laws) and using executive orders to pass laws. - Should not be used to circumvent the legislature. 19. Budget power: The executive’s ability to exert influence on the state’s budget process. - In Texas, the governor’s budget powers are remarkably weak. - Legislative Budget Board (LBB) was created in 1949 to seize budgetary power from the executive branch. 20. Line-item veto: The ability of the executive to selectively veto only some parts of a bill; in Texas, available only on appropriations bills. - In a practice previously ruled unconstitutional, Governor Abbott increased the power of line-item vetoes by striking out both appropriation items and the descriptive riders attached to them but went unchallenged. 21. Veto power: The formal power of the executive to reject bills that have been passed by the legislature; in Texas, a veto can be overridden only by a two-thirds vote in both houses. - Post-adjournment veto: A veto that occurs after the legislature has adjourned, leaving the legislature unable to overturn it. - One of the most important powers of a governor in terms of legislative influence. - Many vetoes can be seen as a sign of weakness. 22. In 1876, the framers of the Texas Constitution attempted to limit the governor’s power by making all state- and county-level judges elected posts. - However, the governor often makes many judicial appointments to fill vacancies in between elections—while it remains subject to senatorial approval. - Most incumbent judges in Texas win reelection, so these appointments are a source of power. 23. Pardon: To release from punishment in a criminal case; in Texas, the governor can grant a pardon only upon the recommendation of the state’s Board of Pardons and Paroles. - Governor’s power to pardon was curbed after Ma and Pa Ferguson were accused of selling pardons. 24. Governor is commander in chief of the Texas National Guard and the Texas State Guard. - Cam appoint the Adjutant General to command these units. - A governor’s power over the National Guard was restricted in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina; the president was permitted to take control of National Guard troops should the state authorities be incapable of maintaining public order. • \| The Governor. History of the Office of the Texas Governor \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| 4.1 The Texas Plural Executive and Bureaucracy in Texas. The Texas Plural Executive and Bureaucracy in Texas. \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Texas Plural Executive Article 4 of the Texas Constitution describes the executive department (branch) of Texas. Texas utilizes a “plural executive” which means the power of the Governor is limited and distributed amongst other government officials. In other words, there is not one government official in Texas that is solely responsible for the Texas Executive Branch. Below are some of the members of the Texas Plural Executive and their roles: - Lt. Governor- Serves as the presiding officer of the Texas Senate, first in the line of succession for Governor, member of the Legislative Redistricting Board, Chair of the Legislative Budget Board, elected to 4-year terms by the public with no term limits. (Note: https://www.ltgov.state.tx.us/) - Attorney General- Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4-year terms with no term limits. (Note:https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/) - The Texas Secretary of State is appointed by the Texas Governor and confirmed by the Texas Senate. The Secretary of State serves as the chief election officer (meaning the office ensures that county election rules), officially attests to the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. (Note:http://www.sos.state.tx.us/index.html) - The Commissioner of the General Land Office is elected by the people to one 4 year term. The Texas General Land Office manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution. (Note: http://www.glo.texas.gov/) - The Texas Comptroller and is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits. The Comptroller serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) - The Agriculture Commissioner is elected by the people to 4 years terms with no term limits. The Texas Agriculture Commissioner is charged to both promote and regulate Texas agriculture, which some perceive as a potential conflict. The Texas Department of Agriculture's duties include the regulation and inspection of all weights and measures devices, such as grocery store scales and retail price scanners, to ensure consumers are charged advertised prices. Regulates pesticide use and application from residential to commercial use. Certifies organically-produced products to help ensure consumers have a reliable supply of organic products. (https://www.texasagriculture.gov/) The Texas State Bureaucracy has numerous state boards, commissions, councils, and committees as well as major agencies. These include bodies that are: - Run by multimember boards - Led by single executives - Run by boards appointed by several persons - Run by multimember boards elected by the people 1. Governor Perry’s lengthy service gave him enormous influence; he is the only Texas governor in modern history to have made every appointment a governor can make. 2. Nearly 300 boards and commissions. - Some created in the constitution. - Others created by the legislature. - Some elected, others appointed. 3. Six of the most important state agencies are: - Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) - Texas Health and Human Services (THHS) - Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TJC) - Railroad Commission of Texas - State Board of Education (SBOE) - Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUC) 4. Texas Department of Transportation (https://www.txdot.gov/) - TxDOT is governed by the Texas Transportation Commission and an executive director selected by the commission. - TxDOT oversees construction/maintenance of roads inside Texas, including federal interstate highways and roadways within Texas borders. - Plans and makes policy for location, construction, and maintenance of roads. - Develops statewide transportation plan. - Awards state contracts. - Develops mass transit. 5. Texas Health and Human Services which includes the Texas Health and Human Services Commission and the Texas Department of State Health Services — has hundreds of programs and services that help more than 7.5 million Texans a month live better lives, and it’s our strong foundation of dedicated people who make it happen every single day. (https://www.hhs.texas.gov/) It is one of the largest agencies in Texas whose duties include: - Consumer affairs. - Border health. - Mental health. - Emergency preparedness. - Personnel issues. - Vital statistics on public health. - Epidemiological databases. - Licensing and overseeing hospitals and facilities. - Regulating food and drugs. - Overseeing tattooing, tanning, and body piercing. - Licensing of professions including athletic trainers, social workers, emergency medical technicians, midwives, opticians, social workers, and speech pathologists. 6. Texas Department of Criminal Justice - Oversees state corrections. - State prisons, jails, and other correctional facilities. - Supervises released offenders. - Nine-member board heads the department, appointed by the governor for staggered six-year terms. - Board hires an executive director, sets rules and policies, and serves as the board of trustees for the school district for juvenile offenders (Windham School District). 7. Railroad Commission of Texas - Created to regulate railroads, decrease corruption, and protect the agrarian population from railroad business practices. - First regulatory agency of Texas. - Three members, independently elected to serve overlapping six-year terms. - Subagencies oversee areas of energy policy: - Alternative energy. - Natural gas services. - Oil and gas. - Subagencies oversee areas of energy policy: 8. State Board of Education - Fifteen members, four-year terms. - Selected from single-member districts (SMDs). - Leadership and roles of SBOE. - Commissioner is appointed by the Governor, is the administrative head of the Texas Education Agency, and is an advisor to the SBOE. - Sets policy for Public Education (Pre-K - 12 grade that is supported by the Texas Government) - Approving state curriculum/texts. - Determining passing scores for state testing. - Managing Permanent School Fund (PSF). - Texas Education Agency (TEA) is responsible for enforcing the SBOE rules and regulations. 9. Public Utility Commission of Texas - Appointed regulatory commission. - Three members, six-year terms. - Oversee electric and telecommunication industries in Texas. - Protect customers from unreasonable rates. 10. Sunset review process requires that most commissions/agencies be reviewed every 12 years. - A formal assessment of the effectiveness of all statutory boards, commissions, and state agencies. - It is comprised of Twelve members: - Five from House, appointed by the Speaker. - Five from Senate, appointed by the lieutenant governor. - Two public members, one appointed each by Speaker and lieutenant governor. - Requires examinations every twelve years consisting of self-evaluation, its own reports, and public hearings, which conclude agency should be: - Continued - Reorganized - Merged - If no action is taken, the sun sets on that agency. 11. Sunshine laws: Laws designed to make government transparent and accessible. - Citizens have access to government records. - Governmental bodies must notify the public of scheduled meetings, opening them to the public. 12. To sum it up the Texas Government employs over 313,000 Texans KEY TERMS appointment attorney general bureaucracy comptroller land commissioner lieutenant governor line-item veto plural executive secretary of state sunshine laws veto • \| The Texas Plural Executive. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 5. The Texas Justice System- Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges 5. THE TEXAS JUSTICE SYSTEM JURISDICTION, TYPES OF LAW, AND THE SELECTION OF JUDGES \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Types of Jurisdictions Every court system has jurisdiction over certain cases, from enforcing traffic laws to hearing capital murder charges. There are three types of jurisdictions: - Origianl jurisdiction– the court that gets to hear the case first. For example Municipal courts typically have original jurisdiction over traffic offenses the occur within city limits. - Appellate jurisdiction– the power for a higher court to review a lower courts decision. For example, the Texas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over the District Courts (See the hierarchy of Texas Court Structure in this Unit). - Exclusive Jurisdiction– only that court can hear a specific case. For example only the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Court can hear appeals for death penalty sentences. Types of Law There are two basic types of law in any legal system- Civil and Criminal. Below is a table differentiating the two: There are two types of crime: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are considered minor crimes, and felonies are defined as major crimes. (Note: Texas Penal Code http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/?link=PE) Selection of Judges There are two basic methods used to select judges: 1. election 2. merit plan. Sometimes the merit plan is referred to as the Missouri Plan, and consists of an individual selected to become a judge based on their qualifications and/or experience. Texas elects their judges (except at some of the municipal levels), and the table below depicts the specifics for each level of court. (Note: http://courts.state.tx.us/) Selection and Qualification of Texas Judges Judicial federalism is a system in which judicial authority is shared between levels of government. The United States Supreme Court’s jurisdiction is spelled out in the Constitution—Article III, Sec. 1 "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office." Article III, Sec 2 "The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority" The Justices on the Supreme Court serve for life once they have been confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Texas Court System is spelled out in the Texas Constitution - Article V, Sec. 1 "JUDICIAL POWER VESTED IN COURTS; LEGISLATIVE POWER REGARDING COURTS. The judicial power of this State shall be vested in one Supreme Court, in one Court of Criminal Appeals, in Courts of Appeals, in District Courts, in County Courts, in Commissioners Courts, in Courts of Justices of the Peace, and in such other courts as may be provided by law." Under Sec. 1a the length of service is spelled out, "The office of every such Justice and Judge shall become vacant on the expiration of the term during which the incumbent reaches the age of seventy-five (75) years or such earlier age, not less than seventy (70) years, as the Legislature may prescribe..." Section 1a goes on to explain the Commission on Judicial Conduct, an agency created by the Texas Legislature to investigate the Judicial Branch should it be required. "The State Commission on Judicial Conduct consists of thirteen (13) members, to wit: (i) one (1) Justice of a Court of Appeals; (ii) one (1) District Judge; (iii) two (2) members of the State Bar, who have respectively practiced as such for over ten (10) consecutive years next preceding their selection; (iv) five (5) citizens, at least thirty (30) years of age, not licensed to practice law nor holding any salaried public office or employment; (v) one (1) Justice of the Peace; (vi) one (1) Judge of a Municipal Court; (vii) one (1) Judge of a County Court at Law; and (viii) one (1) Judge of a Constitutional County Court... Commissioners of classes (i), (ii), (vii), and (viii) above shall be chosen by the Supreme Court with advice and consent of the Senate, those of class (iii) by the Board of Directors of the State Bar under regulations to be prescribed by the Supreme Court with advice and consent of the Senate, those of class (iv) by appointment of the Governor with advice and consent of the Senate, and the commissioners of classes (v) and (vi) by appointment of the Supreme Court as provided by law, with the advice and consent of the Senate." Article V, Sec. 2 SUPREME COURT; JUSTICES gives the requirements to hold the position of Supreme Court Justice within the State of Texas. Sec. 2 (a) The Supreme Court shall consist of the Chief Justice and eight Justices, any five of whom shall constitute a quorum, and the concurrence of five shall be necessary to a decision of a case; provided, that when the business of the court may require, the court may sit in sections as designated by the court to hear argument of causes and to consider applications for writs of error or other preliminary matters. (b) No person shall be eligible to serve in the office of Chief Justice or Justice of the Supreme Court unless the person: - (1) is licensed to practice law in the State of Texas; - (2) is, at the time of election, a citizen of the United States and a resident of the State of Texas; - (3) has attained the age of thirty-five years; - (4) has been either: - (A) a practicing lawyer licensed in the State of Texas for at least ten years; or - (B) a practicing lawyer licensed in the State of Texas and judge of a state court or county court established by the Legislature by statute for a combined total of at least ten years; and - (5) during the time required by Subdivision (4) of this subsection has not had the person’s license to practice law revoked, suspended, or subject to a probated suspension. - (c) Said Justices shall be elected (three of them each two years) by the qualified voters of the state at a general election; shall hold their offices six years; and shall each receive such compensation as shall be provided by law." Article V, Sec. 4. COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEALS; JUDGES. (a) The Court of Criminal Appeals shall consist of eight Judges and one Presiding Judge. The Judges shall have the same qualifications and receive the same salaries as the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Presiding Judge shall have the same qualifications and receive the same salary as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The Presiding Judge and the Judges shall be elected by the qualified voters of the state at a general election and shall hold their offices for a term of six years. (b) For the purpose of hearing cases, the Court of Criminal Appeals may sit in panels of three Judges, the designation thereof to be under rules established by the court. In a panel of three Judges, two Judges shall constitute a quorum and the concurrence of two Judges shall be necessary for a decision. The Presiding Judge, under rules established by the court, shall convene the court en banc for the transaction of all other business and may convene the court en banc for the purpose of hearing cases. The court must sit en banc during proceedings involving capital punishment and other cases as required by law. When convened en banc, five Judges shall constitute a quorum and the concurrence of five Judges shall be necessary for a decision. Article V, Sec. 6. COURTS OF APPEALS; JUSTICES; JURISDICTION. (a) The state shall be divided into courts of appeals districts, with each district having a Chief Justice, two or more other Justices, and such other officials as may be provided by law. The Justices shall have the qualifications prescribed for Justices of the Supreme Court. The Court of Appeals may sit in sections as authorized by law. The concurrence of a majority of the judges sitting in a section is necessary to decide a case. Said Court of Appeals shall have appellate jurisdiction co-extensive with the limits of their respective districts, which shall extend to all cases of which the District Courts or County Courts have original or appellate jurisdiction, under such restrictions and regulations as may be prescribed by law Article V, Sec. 7. JUDICIAL DISTRICTS; DISTRICT JUDGES; TERMS OR SESSIONS; ABSENCE, DISABILITY, OR DISQUALIFICATION OF DISTRICT JUDGE. (a) The State shall be divided into judicial districts, with each district having one or more Judges as may be provided by law or by this Constitution. (b) Each district judge shall be elected by the qualified voters at a General Election. To be eligible for appointment or election as a district judge, a person must: (1) be a citizen of the United States and a resident of this State; (2) be licensed to practice law in this State; (3) have been a practicing lawyer or a Judge of a Court in this State, or both combined, for eight years next preceding the judge’s election, during which time the judge’s license to practice law has not been revoked, suspended, or subject to a probated suspension; (4) have resided in the district in which the judge was elected for two years next preceding the election; and (5) reside in the district during the judge’s term of office. (c) A district judge shall hold the office for the term of four years and shall receive for the judge’s services an annual salary to be fixed by the Legislature. (d) A District Court shall conduct its proceedings at the county seat of the county in which the case is pending, except as otherwise provided by law. The Court shall hold the regular terms at the County Seat of each County in the Court’s district in such manner as may be prescribed by law. The Legislature shall have power by General or Special Laws to make such provisions concerning the terms or sessions of each District Court as it may deem necessary. (e) The Legislature shall also provide for the holding of the District Court when the Judge thereof is absent or is from any cause disabled or disqualified from presiding. Article V, Sec. 8. JURISDICTION OF DISTRICT COURTS. District Court jurisdiction consists of exclusive, appellate, and original jurisdiction of all actions, proceedings, and remedies, except in cases where exclusive, appellate, or original jurisdiction may be conferred by this Constitution or other law on some other court, tribunal, or administrative body. District Court judges shall have the power to issue writs necessary to enforce their jurisdiction. Article V, Sec. 13. GRAND AND PETIT JURIES IN DISTRICT COURTS: COMPOSITION AND VERDICT. Grand and petit juries in the District Courts shall be composed of twelve persons, except that petit juries in a criminal case below the grade of felony shall be composed of six persons; but nine members of a grand jury shall be a quorum to transact business and present bills. In trials of civil cases in the District Courts, nine members of the jury, concurring, may render a verdict, but when the verdict shall be rendered by less than the whole number, it shall be signed by every member of the jury concurring in it. When, pending the trial of any case, one or more jurors not exceeding three, may die, or be disabled from sitting, the remainder of the jury shall have the power to render the verdict; provided, that the Legislature may change or modify the rule authorizing less than the whole number of the jury to render a verdict. Texas has two types of county-level courts: Those mandated in the Texas Constitution (Constitutional County Courts) and those generated through a specific piece of legislation (County Courts at Law and Statutory Probate Courts). County courts are both original and appellate jurisdictions. Criminal and civil jurisdiction at this level are permitted to be more serious and have more significant punishments compared to municipal and JP levels. The jurisdiction of statutory courts varies considerably, depending on the specific legislation that created each court. Article V, Sec. 15. COUNTY COURT; COUNTY JUDGE. There shall be established in each county in this State a County Court, which shall be a court of record; and there shall be elected in each county, by the qualified voters, a County Judge, who shall be well informed in the law of the State; shall be a conservator of the peace, and shall hold his office for four years, and until his successor shall be elected and qualified. He shall receive as compensation for his services such fees and perquisites as may be prescribed by law. Exclusive, original jurisdiction over misdemeanors where fines exceed $500 and jail time may be imposed (Class A or Class B). Extends to $200–$20,000 cases concurrently with JP courts and district courts. In larger counties, it is primarily an administrative role. So for these counties, additional county-level courts called “county courts at law” for judicial work were authorized. The County Judge is also the Head the County Commissioners Court and Exercise's administrative duties over the county government. County Courts at Law and Statutory Probate Courts Created by statute, not constitution, there are approximately 248 spread amid larger counties. Jurisdiction varies but is generally similar to the jurisdiction of constitutional county courts; Civil, criminal, probate, or all. Civil jurisdiction extends up to $200,000, which is concurrent with jurisdiction of district courts. Nineteen statutory probate courts in 10 of the state’s largest metro areas as of January 2021. Article V, Sec. 18. DIVISION OF COUNTIES INTO PRECINCTS; JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND CONSTABLES; COUNTY COMMISSIONERS AND COUNTY COMMISSIONERS COURT. (a) Each county in the State with a population of 50,000 or more, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be divided into not less than four and not more than eight precincts. Each county in the State with a population of 18,000 or more but less than 50,000, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be divided into not less than two and not more than eight precincts. Each county in the State with a population of less than 18,000, according to the most recent federal census, from time to time, for the convenience of the people, shall be designated as a single precinct or, if the Commissioners Court determines that the county needs more than one precinct, shall be divided into not more than four precincts. A division or designation under this subsection shall be made by the Commissioners Court provided for by this Constitution. Except as provided by this section, in each such precinct there shall be elected one Justice of the Peace and one Constable, each of whom shall hold his office for four years and until his successor shall be elected and qualified; provided that in a county with a population of less than 150,000, according to the most recent federal census, in any precinct in which there may be a city of 18,000 or more inhabitants, there shall be elected two Justices of the Peace, and in a county with a population of 150,000 or more, according to the most recent federal census, each precinct may contain more than one Justice of the Peace Court. (b) Each county shall, in the manner provided for justice of the peace and constable precincts, be divided into four commissioners precincts in each of which there shall be elected by the qualified voters thereof one County Commissioner, who shall hold his office for four years and until his successor shall be elected and qualified. The County Commissioners so chosen, with the County Judge as presiding officer, shall compose the County Commissioners Court, which shall exercise such powers and jurisdiction over all county business, as is conferred by this Constitution and the laws of the State, or as may be hereafter prescribed. Article V, Sec. 19. JURISDICTION OF JUSTICE OF THE PEACE COURTS; EX OFFICIO NOTARIES PUBLIC. Justice of the peace courts shall have original jurisdiction in criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only, $200 or less. Exclusive jurisdiction in civil matters where the amount in controversy is $10,000 or less, and such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law. Justices of the peace shall be ex officio notaries public. The JP acts as a coroner in counties without medical examiners, currently only 84 counties in Texas have a Medical Examiner. Criminal jurisdiction involves mostly traffic cases and appeals from this court are heard de novo at the County Court. According to txcourt.gov, about 8% of the current serving Justices of the Peace were licensed lawyers. Requirements for this office are that you must be a U.S. Citizen, 18 years or older, have lived in your precinct for 6 months, and lived in Texas for 1 year. Article V, Sec. 21. COUNTY ATTORNEYS; DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. A County Attorney, for counties in which there is not a resident Criminal District Attorney, shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county, who shall be commissioned by the Governor, and hold his office for the term of four years. In case of vacancy the Commissioners Court of the county shall have the power to appoint a County Attorney until the next general election. The County Attorneys shall represent the State in all cases in the District and inferior courts in their respective counties; but if any county shall be included in a district in which there shall be a District Attorney, the respective duties of District Attorneys and County Attorneys shall in such counties be regulated by the Legislature. The Legislature may provide for the election of District Attorneys in such districts, as may be deemed necessary, and make provision for the compensation of District Attorneys and County Attorneys. District Attorneys shall hold office for a term of four years, and until their successors have qualified. Article V, Sec. 23. SHERIFFS. There shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county a Sheriff, who shall hold his office for the term of four years, whose duties, qualifications, perquisites, and fees of office, shall be prescribed by the Legislature, and vacancies in whose office shall be filled by the Commissioners Court until the next general election. Article V, Sec. 30. TERM OF OFFICE OF JUDGES OF COUNTY-WIDE COURTS AND OF CRIMINAL DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. The Judges of all Courts of county-wide jurisdiction heretofore or hereafter created by the Legislature of this State, and all Criminal District Attorneys now or hereafter authorized by the laws of this State, shall be elected for a term of four years, and shall serve until their successors have qualified. Judicial Removal There are three strategies to removing a Justice from the Court. 1. Most common strategy is not reelecting incumbent or for Municipal Judges, renewing their contract. 2. Impeachment and trial requires two-thirds vote of Texas Senate. 3. If appointed by the Governor, can be removed by the Governor. Under special circumstances the Removal by the State Supreme Court or by recommendation of the Commission on Judicial Conduct: 1. Supreme Court of Texas may remove district judges for incompetence, official misconduct, or negligence. 2. A thirteen-member organization, the Commission on Judicial Conduct, investigates allegations. - Willful or persistent violations of Supreme Court rules. - Incompetence in performing office’s duties. - Willful violation of Code of Judicial Conduct. - Willful or persistent conduct inconsistent with proper performance or the dignity of the judiciary. • \| Jurisdiction, Types of Law, and the Selection of Judges. Selection and Qualification of Texas Judges \| : Daniel M. Regalado. Daniel Brown \| 5.1 Texas Court Organization COURT ORGANIZATION \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System \| Structure of the Texas Court System The current structure of the court system of Texas was established by an 1891 amendment to the Texas Constitution of 1876. The amendment established the Supreme Court as the highest state appellate court for civil matters, and the Court of Criminal Appeals as the highest state appellate court in criminal matters. The amendment also established courts of appeals that exercise intermediate appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases.(1) District courts are the state’s trial courts of general jurisdiction. The geographical area served by each district court is established by the specific statute creating the court. Note that Juvenile Courts fall under the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. In addition to these state courts, the Texas Constitution provides for a county court in each county, presided over by the county judge. The county judge also serves as head of the county commissioners' court, the governing body of the county. To aid the constitutional county court with its judicial functions, the Legislature has established statutory county courts, generally designated as county courts at law or statutory probate courts, in the more populous counties. The Texas Constitution also authorizes not less than one nor more than 16 justices of the peace in each county. The justice courts generally have exclusive jurisdiction of civil matters when the amount in controversy does not exceed $200 and concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts when the amount in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $20,000. These courts also have jurisdiction in misdemeanor cases where punishment upon conviction may be by fine only. By statute, the Legislature has created municipal courts in each incorporated city in the state. These courts have original jurisdiction over violations of municipal ordinances and concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts over misdemeanor state law violations, limited to the geographical confines of the municipality. Municipal courts also have civil jurisdiction limited to a few specific types of cases. https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/GV/htm/GV.29.htm Trials in the justice courts and most municipal courts are not of record and appeals therefrom are by new trial (“trial de novo”) to the county court, except in certain counties, where the appeal is to a county court at law or to a district court. When an appeal is by trial de novo, the case is tried again in the higher court, just as if the original trial had not occurred. Jurisdiction of the various levels of courts is established by constitutional provision and by statute. Statutory jurisdiction is established by general statutes providing jurisdiction for all courts on a particular level, as well as by the statutes establishing individual courts. Thus, to determine the jurisdiction of a particular court, one must examine the Constitution; the general statutes establishing jurisdiction for that level of court; the specific statute authorizing the establishment of the particular court in question; the statutes creating other courts in the same county (whose jurisdictional provisions may affect the court in question); and the statutes dealing with specific subject matter (such as the Family Code, which requires, for example, that judges who are lawyers hear appeals from cases heard by non-lawyer judges in juvenile cases). (1)The courts of appeals were given appellate criminal jurisdiction in 1981. https://www.txcourts.gov/media/1454127/fy-21-annual-statistical-report-final.pdf Municipal Courts GOVERNMENT CODE, TITLE 2. JUDICIAL BRANCH. SUBTITLE A. COURTS, CHAPTER 29. MUNICIPAL COURTS SUBCHAPTER A. GENERAL PROVISIONS Sec. 29.001. DEFINITION. In this chapter, "municipality" means an incorporated city, town, or village. Acts 1985, 69th Leg., ch. 480, Sec. 1, eff. Sept. 1, 1985. Sec. 29.002. CREATION. A municipal court is created in each municipality. A reference in state law to a "corporation court" means a "municipal court." Acts 1985, 69th Leg., ch. 480, Sec. 1, eff. Sept. 1, 1985. Sec. 29.003. JURISDICTION. (a) A municipal court, including a municipal court of record, shall have exclusive original jurisdiction within the municipality's territorial limits and property owned by the municipality located in the municipality's extraterritorial jurisdiction in all criminal cases that: (1) arise under: (A) the ordinances of the municipality; or (B) a resolution, rule, or order of a joint board operating an airport under Section 22.074, Transportation Code; and (2) are punishable by a fine not to exceed: (A) $2,000 in all cases arising under municipal ordinances or resolutions, rules, or orders of a joint board that govern fire safety, zoning, or public health and sanitation, other than the dumping of refuse; (B) $4,000 in cases arising under municipal ordinances that govern the dumping of refuse; or (C) $500 in all other cases arising under a municipal ordinance or a resolution, rule, or order of a joint board. (b) The municipal court has concurrent jurisdiction with the justice court of a precinct in which the municipality is located in all criminal cases arising under state law that arise within the municipality's territorial limits or property owned by the municipality located in the municipality's extraterritorial jurisdiction and that: (1) are punishable only by a fine, as defined in Subsection (c); or (2) arise under Chapter 106, Alcoholic Beverage Code, and do not include confinement as an authorized sanction. (c) In this section, an offense which is punishable by "fine only" is defined as an offense that is punishable by fine and such sanctions, if any, as authorized by statute not consisting of confinement in jail or imprisonment. (d) The fact that a conviction in a municipal court has as a consequence the imposition of a penalty or sanction by an agency or entity other than the court, such as a denial, suspension, or revocation of a privilege, does not affect the original jurisdiction of the municipal court. (e) The municipal court has jurisdiction in the forfeiture and final judgment of all bail bonds and personal bonds taken in criminal cases of which the court has jurisdiction. (f) This section does not affect the powers given exclusively to a joint board operating an airport under Section 22.074(d), Transportation Code. (g) Repealed by Acts 2019, 86th Leg., R.S., Ch. 372 (H.B. 1631), Sec. 6(1), eff. June 2, 2019. (h) A municipality with a population of 1.19 million or more and another municipality contiguous to that municipality may enter into an agreement providing concurrent jurisdiction for the municipal courts of either jurisdiction for all criminal cases arising from offenses under state law that are: (1) committed on the boundary of those municipalities or in one or both of the following areas: (A) within 200 yards of that boundary; or (B) within 2.25 miles of that boundary on a segment of highway in the state highway system that traverses a major water supply reservoir; and (2) punishable by fine only. (i) A municipality may enter into an agreement with a contiguous municipality or a municipality with boundaries that are within one-half mile of the municipality seeking to enter into the agreement to establish concurrent jurisdiction of the municipal courts in the municipalities and provide original jurisdiction to a municipal court in which a case is brought as if the municipal court were located in the municipality in which the case arose, for: (1) all cases in which either municipality has jurisdiction under Subsection (a) or (b); and (2) cases that arise under Section 821.022, Health and Safety Code, or Section 65.003(a), Family Code. Damon Allen Act and Educational Requirements for County and Municipal Judges The Texas Legislature passed Senate Bill 6 (known as the Damon Allen Act for a trooper killed in the line of duty in 2017) during the second special session of the 2021 legislative session. The bill was signed into law by Gov. Greg Abbott on Sept. 13, 2021. This bill significantly changes the process for setting bail by giving magistrates additional information about defendants, including their criminal history and any required bond conditions, prohibiting the release of a defendant on a personal bond in certain situations, and increasing educational requirements for magistrates. The bill includes the development, use and training stages of the Public Safety Report System (PSRS), which must be created by the Office of Court Administration by April 1, 2022. Additionally, Government Code Section 72.038 mandates that a bail form containing certain information must be submitted to the OCA through the PSRS every time that bail is set under Chapter 17 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS UNDER SB 6: Important note: Training requirements of Article 17.024 are applicable to all judges exercising authority over criminal matters. For all county judges serving on April 1, 2022: Those who make decisions regarding bail must be in compliance with educational requirements. These include an eight-hour course on magistrate duties by Dec, 1, 2022, for judges in office on April 1, 2022, including a Department of Public Safety course on accessing criminal history records. Additionally, two hours of education on a magistrate’s duties must be completed each subsequent state fiscal biennium (the two-year period beginning on Sept. 1 in odd-numbered years, such as Sept. 1, 2023-Aug. 31, 2025). Code of Criminal Procedure Articles 17.023, 17.024. For all new county judges taking office after April 1, 2022: They will need an eight-hour course on magistrate duties within 90 days of taking office, including a DPS course on accessing criminal history records (see the FAQ below for more details). Additionally, a two-hour course on a magistrate’s duties must be completed each subsequent state fiscal biennium (the two-year period beginning on Sept. 1 in odd-numbered years, such as Sept. 1, 2023-Aug. 31, 2025). Code of Criminal Procedure Articles 17.023, 17.024. https:// www.tjctc.org/bail.html https://www.txcourts.gov/media/1454127/fy-21-annual-statistical-report-final.pdf Key Terms: appellate jurisdiction arraignment capital case civil law complaint courts of appeal criminal law defendant de novo District courts due process exclusive jurisdiction felony hierarchical justice of the peace courts juvenile courts misdemeanor municipal courts original jurisdiction plaintiff plea bargaining precedent probate courts Texas Supreme Court • \| Court Organization. Structure of the Texas Court System. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| 5.2 Texas Criminal Justice Process TEXAS CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process \| Texas Criminal Justice Process The Texas court systems have two conflicting goals: they must protect the people and the accused. Therefore the state of Texas must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters- this is known as due process. The steps in the Texas criminal justice process are: 1. Arrest, 2. Indictment, 3. Plea bargaining, 4. Trial, and 5. Post-trial. - Arrest. One aspect pertinent to arrest are the Miranda Rights. Miranda Rights derived from the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona (1966). During the Miranda case the question was whether or not procedures must be utilized by law enforcement officials to ensure that an individual’s 5th Amendment Self-incrimination rights are not violated. The United States Supreme Court ruled that a person must be made aware of their rights prior to being questioned. (Note: http://www.uscourts.gov/ educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-miranda-v-arizona) Once an arrest is made, the defendant is arraigned and bond is set. Arraignment is when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. After this the defendant may receive bail, although bail is not guaranteed (Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 11 & 11a-b). - Indictment. If the charge is a felony then an indictment must occur for the process to continue. A grand jury is in charge of determining whether there is enough evidence to move forward with the charge- 9 out of 12 grand jury members must agree that the process can move forward. If this occurs it is known as a "true bill" (indictment), if not it is known as a “no bill.” - Plea bargaining. Due to the fact that there are overcrowded dockets, plea bargaining is the mostcommon method for resolving criminal cases in Texas. Plea bargaining is when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial- the concept is that this saves time and money. - Trial. If the case reaches trial, the defendant may choose to have a trial by jury (guaranteed by the Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 15); or waive that right and choose trial by a presiding judge. Texas utilizes an adversary system, which means the two sides will attempt to convince the jury or judge why they are correct. - Post Trial. Post trial is the final step where the defendant, if found guilty, will receive a form of rehabilitation or punishment. Some examples of rehabilitation or punishment are prison time, probation, parole, house arrest, and fines. • \| Texas Criminal Justice Process. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6. Political Participation, Voting 6. POLITICAL PARTICIPATION VOTING Learning Objectives By the end of this section you will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision Before most voters are allowed to cast a ballot, they must register to vote in their state. This process may be as simple as checking a box on a driver’s license application or as difficult as filling out a long form with complicated questions. Registration allows governments to determine which citizens are allowed to vote and, in some cases, from which list of candidates they may select a party nominee. Ironically, while government wants to increase voter turnout, the registration process may prevent various groups of citizens and non-citizens from participating in the electoral process. Voter Registration Across the United States Elections are state-by-state contests. They include general elections for president and statewide offices (e.g., governor and U.S. senator), and they are often organized and paid for by the states. Because political cultures vary from state to state, the process of voter registration similarly varies. For example, suppose an 85-year-old retiree with an expired driver’s license wants to register to vote. He or she might be able to register quickly in California or Florida, but a current government ID might be required prior to registration in Texas or Indiana. The varied registration and voting laws across the United States have long caused controversy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, southern states enacted literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other requirements intended to disenfranchise black voters in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more blacks required to take them than whites. (Note: Stephen Medvic. 2014. Campaigns and Elections: Players and Processes, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.) Poll Taxes required voters to pay a fee to vote. Grandfather clauses exempted individuals from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if they or their fathers or grandfathers had been permitted to vote prior to a certain point in time. While the Supreme Court determined that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional in 1915, states continued to use poll taxes and literacy tests to deter potential voters from registering. (Note: Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915).) States also ignored instances of violence and intimidation against African Americans wanting to register or vote. (Note: Medvic, Campaigns and Elections.) 1939 Harris County poll tax receipt number 38861 for John J. Herrera. It includes demographic information about Herrera and is signed by the deputy of the Harris County Assessor and Collector of Taxes. The dates of elections are listed on the back. Public Domain The ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Amendment (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation. (Note: Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. ___ (2013).) The Voting Rights Act (a) was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson (b, left) on August 6, 1965, in the presence of major figures of the civil rights movement, including Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. (b, center). The effects of the VRA were visible almost immediately. In Mississippi, only 6.7 percent of blacks were registered to vote in 1965; however, by the fall of 1967, nearly 60 percent were registered. Alabama experienced similar effects, with African American registration increasing from 19.3 percent to 51.6 percent. Voter turnout across these two states similarly increased. Mississippi went from 33.9 percent turnout to 53.2 percent, while Alabama increased from 35.9 percent to 52.7 percent between the 1964 and 1968 presidential elections. (Note: Bernard Grofman, Lisa Handley, and Richard G. Niemi. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 25.) Following the implementation of the VRA, many states have sought other methods of increasing voter registration. Several states make registering to vote relatively easy for citizens who have government documentation. Oregon has few requirements for registering and registers many of its voters automatically. North Dakota has no registration at all. In 2002, Arizona was the first state to offer online voter registration, which allowed citizens with a driver’s license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct. Citizens without a driver’s license still need to file a paper application. More than eighteen states have moved to online registration or passed laws to begin doing so. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimates, however, that adopting an online voter registration system can initially cost a state between $250,000 and $750,000. (Note: "The Canvass," April 2014, Issue 48, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/states-and-election-reform-the-canvass-april-2014.aspx.) Other states have decided against online registration due to concerns about voter fraud and security. Legislators also argue that online registration makes it difficult to ensure that only citizens are registering and that they are registering in the correct precincts. As technology continues to update other areas of state recordkeeping, online registration may become easier and safer. In some areas, citizens have pressured the states and pushed the process along. A bill to move registration online in Florida stalled for over a year in the legislature, based on security concerns. With strong citizen support, however, it was passed and signed in 2015, despite the governor’s lingering concerns. In other states, such as Texas, both the government and citizens are concerned about identity fraud, so traditional paper registration is still preferred. How Does Someone Register to Vote? The National Commission on Voting Rights completed a study in September 2015 that found state registration laws can either raise or reduce voter turnout rates, especially among citizens who are young or whose income falls below the poverty line. States with simple voter registration had more registered citizens. (Note: Tova Wang and Maria Peralta. 22 September 2015. "New Report Released by National Commission on Voting Rights: More Work Needed to Improve Registration and Voting in the U.S." http://votingrightstoday.org/ncvr/resources/ electionadmin.) In all states except North Dakota, a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residency address, and in many cases party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often 30 days. Beyond these requirements, there may be an oath administered or more questions asked, such as felony convictions. If the application is completely online and the citizen has government documents (e.g., driver’s license or state identification card), the system will compare the application to other state records and accept an online signature or affidavit if everything matches up correctly. Citizens who do not have these state documents are often required to complete paper applications. States without online registration often allow a citizen to fill out an application on a website, but the citizen will receive a paper copy in the mail to sign and mail back to the state. Another aspect of registering to vote is the timeline. States may require registration to take place as much as thirty days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. Maine first implemented in 1973. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver’s license or utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas), require registration forms to be mailed thirty days before an election. Moving means citizens must reregister or update addresses. College students, for example, may have to re-register or update addresses each year as they move. States that use same-day registration had a 4 percent higher voter turnout in the 2012 presidential election than states that did not. (Note: Ibid.) Moving requires a voter to re-register or update his or her address in the system. Depending on the state, this notification can sometimes be completed through the Department of Motor Vehicles, as in California. Some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout. (Note: Royce Crocker, "The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R40609, September 18, 2013, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf.) In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly. (Note: "National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789–Present," http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (November 4, 2015).) It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent. (Note: John B. Holbein, D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2015. "Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout." American Journal of Political Science (March). doi:10.1111/ajps.12177.) In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout. (Note: Russell Berman, "Should Voter Registration Be Automatic?" Atlantic, 20 March 2015; Maria L. La Ganga, "Under New Oregon Law, All Eligible Voters are Registered Unless They Opt Out," Los Angeles Times, 17 March 2015.) Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls. (Note: "'Unusable' Voter Rolls," Wall Street Journal, 7 November 2000.) Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health. (Note: "Voter List Accuracy,"11 February 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-list-accuracy.aspx) Who Is Allowed to Register? In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen, resident, and eighteen years old. But states often place additional requirements on the right to vote. The most common requirement is that voters must be mentally competent and not currently serving time in jail. Some states enforce more stringent or unusual requirements on citizens who have committed crimes. Florida and Kentucky permanently bar felons and ex-felons from voting unless they obtain a pardon from the governor, while Mississippi and Nevada allow former felons to apply to have their voting rights restored. (Note: "Felon Voting Rights," 15 July 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/ research/elections-and-campaigns/felon-voting-rights.aspx.) On the other end of the spectrum, Vermont does not limit voting based on incarceration unless the crime was election fraud. (Note: Wilson Ring, "Vermont, Maine Only States to Let Inmates Vote," Associated Press, 22 October 2008.) Maine citizens serving in Maine prisons also may vote in elections. Beyond those jailed, some citizens have additional expectations placed on them when they register to vote. Wisconsin requires that voters “not wager on an election,” and Vermont citizens must recite the “Voter’s Oath” before they register, swearing to cast votes with a conscience and “without fear or favor of any person.” (Note: "Voter’s Qualifications and Oath," https://votesmart.org/elections/ballot-measure/1583/voters-qualifications-andoath#.VjQOJH6rS00 (November 12, 2015).) Voter Decision Making When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts. One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization. Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision. Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote, because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat. Voters in Michigan can use straight-ticket voting. To fill out their ballot, they select one box at the top to give a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70 percent of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54 percent voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court. (Note: "Presidential Electors," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/ general/president.html (July 15, 2015); "Judicial Retention–Supreme Court," http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/ elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/retention/supremeCourt.html (July 15, 2015).) Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features. (Note: Lasse Laustsen. 2014. "Decomposing the Relationship Between Candidates’ Facial Appearance and Electoral Success," Political Behavior 36, No. 4: 777–791.) They may also vote based on gender or race, because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year, because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president. (Note: Alan Silverleib. 15 June 2008. "Analysis: Age an Issue in the 2008 Campaign?" http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/ 06/15/mccain.age/index.html?iref=newssearch.) Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win. (Note: Laustsen. "Decomposing the Relationship," 777–791.) Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways. Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals, when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting. In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or thirdchoice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat. (Note: R. Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler. 2000. "A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections," British Journal of Political Science 30, No. 1: 57–75.) In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly. (Note: Nathan Thomburgh, "Could Third-Party Candidates Be Spoilers?" Time, 3 November 2008.) One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose. Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member—congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them. (Note: Matthew E. Glassman, "Congressional Franking Privilege: Background and Current Legislation," Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22771, December 11, 2007, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22771.pdf.) Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers. Another incumbent advantage is gerrymandering, the drawing of district lines to guarantee a desired electoral outcome. Every ten years, following the U.S. Census, the number of House of Representatives members allotted to each state is determined based on a state’s population. If a state gains or loses seats in the House, the state must redraw districts to ensure each district has an equal number of citizens. States may also choose to redraw these districts at other times and for other reasons. (Note: League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006).) If the district is drawn to ensure that it includes a majority of Democratic or Republican Party members within its boundaries, for instance, then candidates from those parties will have an advantage. Gerrymandering helps local legislative candidates and members of the House of Representatives, who win reelection over 90 percent of the time. Senators and presidents do not benefit from gerrymandering because they are not running in a district. Presidents and senators win states, so they benefit only from war chests and name recognition. This is one reason why senators running in 2014, for example, won reelection only 82 percent of the time. (Note: "Reelection Rates of the Years," https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/reelect.php (November 2, 2015).) Texas Voter Requirements Texas voter requirements are: (Note: http://www.votetexas.gov/register-to-vote/need-id) - Must be a U.S. citizen - Must be a resident of the county - Must be at least 18 years old (a person may register to vote at 17 years and 10 months) - Not a convicted felon (Eligible to vote once the person’s sentence, to include probation and restitution are complete) - Not declared mentally incapacitated by a court of law - Must present an acceptable form of photo identification Texas also has (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election). • \| Revision and Adaptation. : Daniel M. Regalado. : CC BY: Attribution \| \| • \| Texas Voter Requirements. : Daniel M. Regalado. CC BY: Attribution \| \| 6.1 Elections ELECTIONS \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Primary Election versus Caucus The most common method of picking a party nominee for state, local, and presidential contests is the primary. Party members use a ballot to indicate which candidate they desire for the party nominee. Despite the ease of voting using a ballot, have a number of rules and variations that can still cause confusion for citizens. In a closed primary, only members of the political party selecting nominees may vote. A registered Green Party member, for example, is not allowed to vote in the Republican or Democratic primary. Parties prefer this method, because it ensures the nominee is picked by voters who legitimately support the party. An open primary allows all voters to vote. In this system, a Green Party member is allowed to pick either a Democratic or Republican ballot when voting. Despite the common use of the primary system, at least five states (Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Colorado, and Iowa) regularly use caucuses for presidential, state, and local-level nominations. A caucus is a meeting of party members in which nominees are selected informally. Caucuses are less expensive than primaries because they rely on voting methods such as dropping marbles in a jar, placing names in a hat, standing under a sign bearing the candidate’s name, or taking a voice vote. Volunteers record the votes and no poll workers need to be trained or compensated. The party members at the caucus also help select delegates, who represent their choice at the party’s state- or national-level nominating convention.The caucus has its proponents and opponents. Many argue that it is more interesting than the primary and brings out more sophisticated voters, who then benefit from the chance to debate the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. The caucus system is also more transparent than ballots. The local party members get to see the election outcome and pick the delegates who will represent them at the national convention. There is less of a possibility for deception or dishonesty. Opponents point out that caucuses take two to three hours and are intimidating to less experienced voters. These factors, they argue, lead to lower voter turnout. And they have a point—voter turnout for a caucus is generally 20 percent lower than for a primary. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data. (November 3, 2015).) Regardless of which nominating system the states and parties choose, states must also determine which day they wish to hold their nomination. When the nominations are for state-level office, such as governor, the state legislatures receive little to no input from the national political parties. In presidential election years, however, the national political parties pressure most states to hold their primaries or caucuses in March or later. Only Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina are given express permission by the national parties to hold presidential primaries or caucuses in January or February. Both political parties protect the three states’ status as the first states to host caucuses and primaries, due to tradition and the relative ease of campaigning in these smaller states. Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses three types of elections: 1. Primaries, 2. General, and 3. Special. - Primary Elections in Texas are open-primaries, although if a majority vote is not reached a run off election is required. Run off elections are closed-primaries. The goal of Texas primary elections is to choose the best candidate to represent their political party. - General, or regular, elections will determine a winner and a plurality vote is required. The goal of a general election is to win office. - Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature and are typically used for constitutional amendments or filling vacant offices. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| \| • \| Types of Elections in Texas. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.2 Public Opinion PUBLIC OPINION Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| The collection of public opinion through polling and interviews is a part of American political culture. Politicians want to know what the public thinks. Campaign managers want to know how citizens will vote. Media members seek to write stories about what Americans want. Every day, polls take the pulse of the people and report the results. And yet we have to wonder: Why do we care what people think? What Is Public Opinion? Public opinion is a collection of popular views about something, perhaps a person, a local or national event, or a new idea. For example, each day, a number of polling companies call Americans at random to ask whether they approve or disapprove of the way the president is guiding the economy. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Gallup Daily: Obama Job Approval." Gallup. June 6, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/113980/Gallup-Daily-Obama-JobApproval.aspx (February 17, 2016); Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports June 6, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/obama_administration/ daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Roper Center. 2015. "Obama Presidential Approval." Roper Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/polls/presidential-approval/ (February 17, 2016).) When situations arise internationally, polling companies survey whether citizens support U.S. intervention in places like Syria or Ukraine. These individual opinions are collected together to be analyzed and interpreted for politicians and the media. The analysis examines how the public feels or thinks, so politicians can use the information to make decisions about their future legislative votes, campaign messages, or propaganda. But where do people’s opinions come from? Most citizens base their political opinions on their beliefs (Note: V. O. Key, Jr. 1966. The Responsible Electorate. Harvard University: Belknap Press.) and their attitudes, both of which begin to form in childhood. Beliefs are closely held ideas that support our values and expectations about life and politics. For example, the idea that we are all entitled to equality, liberty, freedom, and privacy is a belief most people in the United States share. We may acquire this belief by growing up in the United States or by having come from a country that did not afford these valued principles to its citizens. Our attitudes are also affected by our personal beliefs and represent the preferences we form based on our life experiences and values. A person who has suffered racism or bigotry may have a skeptical attitude toward the actions of authority figures, for example. Over time, our beliefs and our attitudes about people, events, and ideas will become a set of norms, or accepted ideas, about what we may feel should happen in our society or what is right for the government to do in a situation. In this way, attitudes and beliefs form the foundation for opinions. Political Socialization At the same time that our beliefs and attitudes are forming during childhood, we are also being socialized; that is, we are learning from many information sources about the society and community in which we live and how we are to behave in it. Political socialization is the process by which we are trained to understand and join a country’s political world, and, like most forms of socialization, it starts when we are very young. We may first become aware of politics by watching a parent or guardian vote, for instance, or by hearing presidents and candidates speak on television or the Internet, or seeing adults honor the American flag at an event. As socialization continues, we are introduced to basic political information in school. We recite the Pledge of Allegiance and learn about the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the two major political parties, the three branches of government, and the economic system. Political socialization begins early. Hans Enoksen, former prime minister of Greenland, receives a helping hand at the polls from five-year-old Pipaluk Petersen (a). Intelligence Specialist Second Class Tashawbaba McHerrin (b) hands a U.S. flag to a child visiting the USS Enterprise during Fleet Week in Port Everglades, Florida. (credit a: modification of work by Leiff Josefsen; credit b: modification of work by Matthew Keane, U.S. Navy) By the time we complete school, we have usually acquired the information necessary to form political views and be contributing members of the political system. A young man may realize he prefers the Democratic Party because it supports his views on social programs and education, whereas a young woman may decide she wants to vote for the Republican Party because its platform echoes her beliefs about economic growth and family values. Accounting for the process of socialization is central to our understanding of public opinion, because the beliefs we acquire early in life are unlikely to change dramatically as we grow older. (Note: John Zaller. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Our political ideology, made up of the attitudes and beliefs that help shape our opinions on political theory and policy, is rooted in who we are as individuals. Our ideology may change subtly as we grow older and are introduced to new circumstances or new information, but our underlying beliefs and attitudes are unlikely to change very much, unless we experience events that profoundly affect us. For example, family members of 9/11 victims became more Republican and more political following the terrorist attacks. (Note: Eitan Hersh. 2013. "Long-Term Effect of September 11 on the Political Behavior of Victims’ Families and Neighbors." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (52): 20959–63.) Similarly, young adults who attended political protest rallies in the 1960s and 1970s were more likely to participate in politics in general than their peers who had not protested. (Note: M. Kent Jennings. 2002. "Generation Units and the Student Protest Movement in the United States: An Intra- and Intergenerational Analysis." Political Psychology 23 (2): 303–324.) If enough beliefs or attitudes are shattered by an event, such as an economic catastrophe or a threat to personal safety, ideology shifts may affect the way we vote. During the 1920s, the Republican Party controlled the House of Representatives and the Senate, sometimes by wide margins. (Note: United States Senate. 2015. "Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present," United States Senate. June 5, 2015. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/ history/one_item_and_teasers/partydiv.htm (February 17, 2016). History, Art & Archives. 2015. "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives: 1789–Present." United States House of Representatives. June 5, 2015. http://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ (February 17, 2016).) After the stock market collapsed and the nation slid into the Great Depression, many citizens abandoned the Republican Party. In 1932, voters overwhelmingly chose Democratic candidates, for both the presidency and Congress. The Democratic Party gained registered members and the Republican Party lost them. (Note: V. O. Key Jr. 1955. "A Theory of Critical Elections." Journal of Politics 17 (1): 3–18.) Citizens’ beliefs had shifted enough to cause the control of Congress to change from one party to the other, and Democrats continued to hold Congress for several decades. Another sea change occurred in Congress in the 1994 elections when the Republican Party took control of both the House and the Senate for the first time in over forty years. Today, polling agencies have noticed that citizens’ beliefs have become far more polarized, or widely opposed, over the last decade. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2014. "Political Polarization in the American Public." Pew Research Center. June 12, 2014. http://www.people-press.org/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-americanpublic/ (February 17, 2016).) To track this polarization, Pew Research conducted a study of Republican and Democratic respondents over a twenty-five-year span. Every few years, Pew would poll respondents, asking them whether they agreed or disagreed with statements. These statements are referred to as “value questions” or “value statements,” because they measure what the respondent values. Examples of statements include “Government regulation of business usually does more harm than good,” “Labor unions are necessary to protect the working person,” and “Society should ensure all have equal opportunity to succeed.” After comparing such answers for twenty-five years, Pew Research found that Republican and Democratic respondents are increasingly answering these questions very differently. This is especially true for questions about the government and politics. In 1987, 58 percent of Democrats and 60 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement that the government controlled too much of our daily lives. In 2012, 47 percent of Democrats and 77 percent of Republicans agreed with the statement. This is an example of polarization, in which members of one party see government from a very different perspective than the members of the other party. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2015. "American Values Survey." Pew Research Center. http://www.people-press.org/values-questions/ (February 17, 2016).) Over the years, Democrats and Republicans have moved further apart in their beliefs about the role of government. In 1987, Republican and Democratic answers to forty-eight values questions differed by an average of only 10 percent, but that difference has grown to 18 percent over the last twenty-five years. Political scientists noted this and other changes in beliefs following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States, including an increase in the level of trust in government (Note: Virginia Chanley. 2002. "Trust in Government in the Aftermath of 9/11: Determinants and Consequences." Political Psychology 23 (3): 469–483.) and a new willingness to limit liberties for groups or citizens who “[did] not fit into the dominant cultural type.” (Note: Deborah Schildkraut. 2002. "The More Things Change... American Identity and Mass and Elite Responses to 9/11." Political Psychology 23 (3): 532.) According to some scholars, these shifts led partisanship to become more polarized than in previous decades, as more citizens began thinking of themselves as conservative or liberal rather than moderate. (Note: Joseph Bafumi and Robert Shapiro. 2009. "A New Partisan Voter." The Journal of Politics 71 (1): 1–24.) Some believe 9/11 caused a number of citizens to become more conservative overall, although it is hard to judge whether such a shift will be permanent. (Note: Liz Marlantes, "After 9/11, the Body Politic Tilts to Conservatism," Christian Science Monitor, 16 January 2002.) Socialization Agents An agent of political socialization is a source of political information intended to help citizens understand how to act in their political system and how to make decisions on political matters. The information may help a citizen decide how to vote, where to donate money, or how to protest decisions made by the government. The most prominent agents of socialization are family and school. Other influential agents are social groups, such as religious institutions and friends, and the media. Political socialization is not unique to the United States. Many nations have realized the benefits of socializing their populations. China, for example, stresses nationalism in schools as a way to increase national unity. (Note: Liping Weng. 2010. "Shanghai Children’s Value Socialization and Its Change: A Comparative Analysis of Primary School Textbooks." China Media Research 6 (3): 36–43.) In the United States, one benefit of socialization is that our political system enjoys diffuse support, which is support characterized by a high level of stability in politics, acceptance of the government as legitimate, and a common goal of preserving the system. (Note: David Easton. 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley.) These traits keep a country steady, even during times of political or social upheaval. But diffuse support does not happen quickly, nor does it occur without the help of agents of political socialization. For many children, family is the first introduction to politics. Children may hear adult conversations at home and piece together the political messages their parents support. They often know how their parents or grandparents plan to vote, which in turn can socialize them into political behavior such as political party membership. (Note: Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes. 2008. The American Voter: Unabridged Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.) Children who accompany their parents on Election Day in November are exposed to the act of voting and the concept of civic duty, which is the performance of actions that benefit the country or community. Families active in community projects or politics make children aware of community needs and politics. Introducing children to these activities has an impact on their future behavior. Both early and recent findings suggest that children adopt some of the political beliefs and attitudes of their parents. (Note: Russell Dalton. 1980. "Reassessing Parental Socialization: Indicator Unreliability versus Generational Transfer." American Political Science Review 74 (2): 421–431.) Children of Democratic parents often become registered Democrats, whereas children in Republican households often become Republicans. Children living in households where parents do not display a consistent political party loyalty are less likely to be strong Democrats or strong Republicans, and instead are often independents. (Note: Michael S. Lewis-Beck, William G. Jacoby, Helmut Norpoth, and Herbert F. Weisberg. 2008. American Vote Revisited. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.) A parent’s political orientation often affects the political orientation of his or her child. While family provides an informal political education, schools offer a more formal and increasingly important one. The early introduction is often broad and thematic, covering explorers, presidents, victories, and symbols, but generally the lessons are idealized and do not discuss many of the specific problems or controversies connected with historical figures and moments. George Washington’s contributions as our first president are highlighted, for instance, but teachers are unlikely to mention that he owned slaves. Lessons will also try to personalize government and make leaders relatable to children. A teacher might discuss Abraham Lincoln’s childhood struggle to get an education despite the death of his mother and his family’s poverty. Children learn to respect government, follow laws, and obey the requests of police, firefighters, and other first responders. The Pledge of Allegiance becomes a regular part of the school day, as students learn to show respect to our country’s symbols such as the flag and to abstractions such as liberty and equality. As students progress to higher grades, lessons will cover more detailed information about the history of the United States, its economic system, and the workings of the government. Complex topics such as the legislative process, checks and balances, and domestic policymaking are covered. Introductory economics classes teach about the various ways to build an economy, explaining how the capitalist system works. Many high schools have implemented civic volunteerism requirements as a way to encourage students to participate in their communities. Many offer Advanced Placement classes in U.S. government and history, or other honors-level courses, such as International Baccalaureate or dual-credit courses. These courses can introduce detail and realism, raise controversial topics, and encourage students to make comparisons and think critically about the United States in a global and historical context. College students may choose to pursue their academic study of the U.S. political system further, become active in campus advocacy or rights groups, or run for any of a number of elected positions on campus or even in the local community. Each step of the educational system’s socialization process will ready students to make decisions and be participating members of political society. We are also socialized outside our homes and schools. When citizens attend religious ceremonies, as 70 percent of Americans in a recent survey claimed, (Note: Michael Lipka. 2013. "What Surveys Say about Workshop Attendance—and Why Some Stay Home." Pew Research Center. September 13, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/13/what-surveys-say-about-worship-attendance-and-why-somestay-home/ (February 17, 2016).) they are socialized to adopt beliefs that affect their politics. Religion leaders often teach on matters of life, death, punishment, and obligation, which translate into views on political issues such as abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, and military involvement abroad. Political candidates speak at religious centers and institutions in an effort to meet like-minded voters. For example, Senator Ted Cruz (R-TX) announced his 2016 presidential bid at Liberty University, a fundamentalist Christian institution. This university matched Cruz’s conservative and religious ideological leanings and was intended to give him a boost from the faith-based community. Friends and peers too have a socializing effect on citizens. Communication networks are based on trust and common interests, so when we receive information from friends and neighbors, we often readily accept it because we trust them. (Note: Arthur Lupia and Mathew D. McCubbins. 1998. The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? New York: Cambridge University Press. John Barry Ryan. 2011. "Social Networks as a Shortcut to Correct Voting." American Journal of Political Science 55 (4): 753–766.) Information transmitted through social media like Facebook is also likely to have a socializing effect. Friends “like” articles and information, sharing their political beliefs and information with one another. Media—newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet—also socialize citizens through the information they provide. For a long time, the media served as gatekeepers of our information, creating reality by choosing what to present. If the media did not cover an issue or event, it was as if it did not exist. With the rise of the Internet and social media, however, traditional media have become less powerful agents of this kind of socialization. Another way the media socializes audiences is through framing, or choosing the way information is presented. Framing can affect the way an event or story is perceived. Candidates described with negative adjectives, for instance, may do poorly on Election Day. Consider the recent demonstrations over the deaths of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland. Both deaths were caused by police actions against unarmed African American men. Brown was shot to death by an officer on August 9, 2014. Gray died from spinal injuries sustained in transport to jail in April 2015. Following each death, family, friends, and sympathizers protested the police actions as excessive and unfair. While some television stations framed the demonstrations as riots and looting, other stations framed them as protests and fights against corruption. The demonstrations contained both riot and protest, but individuals’ perceptions were affected by the framing chosen by their preferred information sources. (Note: Sarah Bowen. 2015. "A Framing Analysis of Media Coverage of the Rodney King Incident and Ferguson, Missouri, Conflicts." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 6 (1): 114–124.) Images of protestors from the Baltimore “uprising” (a) and from the Baltimore “riots” (b) of April 25, 2015. (credit a: modification of work by Pete Santilli Live Stream/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by “Newzulu”/YouTube) Finally, media information presented as fact can contain covert or overt political material. Covert content is political information provided under the pretense that it is neutral. A magazine might run a story on climate change by interviewing representatives of only one side of the policy debate and downplaying the opposing view, all without acknowledging the one-sided nature of its coverage. In contrast, when the writer or publication makes clear to the reader or viewer that the information offers only one side of the political debate, the political message is overt content. Political commentators like Rush Limbaugh and publications like Mother Jones openly state their ideological viewpoints. While such overt political content may be offensive or annoying to a reader or viewer, all are offered the choice whether to be exposed to the material. Socialization and Ideology The socialization process leaves citizens with attitudes and beliefs that create a personal ideology. Ideologies depend on attitudes and beliefs, and on the way we prioritize each belief over the others. Most citizens hold a great number of beliefs and attitudes about government action. Many think government should provide for the common defense, in the form of a national military. They also argue that government should provide services to its citizens in the form of free education, unemployment benefits, and assistance for the poor. When asked how to divide the national budget, Americans reveal priorities that divide public opinion. Should we have a smaller military and larger social benefits, or a larger military budget and limited social benefits? This is the guns versus butter debate, which assumes that governments have a finite amount of money and must choose whether to spend a larger part on the military or on social programs. The choice forces citizens into two opposing groups. Divisions like these appear throughout public opinion. Assume we have four different people named Garcia, Chin, Smith, and Dupree. Garcia may believe that the United States should provide a free education for every citizen all the way through college, whereas Chin may believe education should be free only through high school. Smith might believe children should be covered by health insurance at the government’s expense, whereas Dupree believes all citizens should be covered. In the end, the way we prioritize our beliefs and what we decide is most important to us determines whether we are on the liberal or conservative end of the political spectrum, or somewhere in between. Ideologies and the Ideological Spectrum One useful way to look at ideologies is to place them on a spectrum that visually compares them based on what they prioritize. Liberal ideologies are traditionally put on the left and conservative ideologies on the right. (This placement dates from the French Revolution and is why liberals are called left-wing and conservatives are called right-wing.) The ideologies at the ends of the spectrum are the most extreme; those in the middle are moderate. Thus, people who identify with left- and right-wing ideologies identify with beliefs to the left and right ends of the spectrum, while moderates balance the beliefs at the extremes of the spectrum. In the United States, ideologies at the right side of the spectrum prioritize government control over personal freedoms. They range from fascism to authoritarianism to conservatism. Ideologies on the left side of the spectrum prioritize equality and range from communism to socialism to liberalism. Moderate ideologies fall in the middle and try to balance the two extremes. People who espouse left-wing ideologies in the United States identify with beliefs on the left side of the spectrum that prioritize equality, whereas those on the right side of the spectrum emphasize control. Fascism promotes total control of the country by the ruling party or political leader. This form of government will run the economy, the military, society, and culture, and often tries to control the private lives of its citizens. Authoritarian leaders control the politics, military, and government of a country, and often the economy as well. Conservative governments attempt to hold tight to the traditions of a nation by balancing individual rights with the good of the community. Traditional conservatism supports the authority of the monarchy and the church, believing government provides the rule of law and maintains a society that is safe and organized. Modern conservatism differs from traditional conservatism in assuming elected government will guard individual liberties and provide laws. Modern conservatives also prefer a smaller government that stays out of the economy, allowing the market and business to determine prices, wages, and supply. Classical liberalism believes in individual liberties and rights. It is based on the idea of free will, that people are born equal with the right to make decisions without government intervention. It views government with suspicion, since history includes many examples of monarchs and leaders who limited citizens’ rights. Today, modern liberalism focuses on equality and supports government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality. Liberals expect government to provide basic social and educational programs to help everyone have a chance to succeed. Under socialism, the government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality within the country. Socialists believe government should provide everyone with expanded services and public programs, such as health care, subsidized housing and groceries, childhood education, and inexpensive college tuition. Socialism sees the government as a way to ensure all citizens receive both equal opportunities and equal outcomes. Citizens with more wealth are expected to contribute more to the state’s revenue through higher taxes that pay for services provided to all. Socialist countries are also likely to have higher minimum wages than non-socialist countries. In theory, communism promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials. This means that the government, or states, should own the property, farms, manufacturing, and businesses. By controlling these aspects of the economy, Communist governments can prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society. Extreme inequality of income, in which some citizens earn millions of dollars a year and other citizens merely hundreds, is prevented by instituting wage controls or by abandoning currency altogether. Communism presents a problem, however, because the practice differs from the theory. The theory assumes the move to communism is supported and led by the proletariat, or the workers and citizens of a country. (Note: Frederick Engels. 1847. The Principles of Communism. Trans. Paul Sweezy. https://www.marxists.org/archive/ marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm (February 17, 2016).) Human rights violations by governments of actual Communist countries make it appear the movement has been driven not by the people, but by leadership. We can characterize economic variations on these ideologies by adding another dimension to the ideological spectrum above—whether we prefer that government control the state economy or stay out of it. The extremes are a command economy, such as existed in the former Soviet Russia, and a laissez-faire (“leave it alone”) economy, such as in the United States prior to the 1929 market crash, when banks and corporations were largely unregulated. Communism prioritizes control of both politics and economy, while libertarianism is its near-opposite. Libertarians believe in individual rights and limited government intervention in private life and personal economic decisions. Government exists to maintain freedom and life, so its main function is to ensure domestic peace and national defense. Libertarians also believe the national government should maintain a military in case of international threats, but that it should not engage in setting minimum wages or ruling in private matters, like same-sex marriage or the right to abortion. (Note: Libertarian Party. 2014. "Libertarian Party Platform." June. http://www.lp.org/platform (February 17, 2016).) The point where a person’s ideology falls on the spectrum gives us some insight to his or her opinions. Though people can sometimes be liberal on one issue and conservative on another, a citizen to the left of liberalism, near socialism, would likely be happy with the passage of the Raise the Wage Act of 2015, which would eventually increase the minimum wage from $7.25 to $12 an hour. A citizen falling near conservatism would believe the Patriot Act is reasonable, because it allows the FBI and other government agencies to collect data on citizens’ phone calls and social media communications to monitor potential terrorism. A citizen to the right of the spectrum is more likely to favor cutting social services like unemployment and Medicaid. Public opinion on a given issue may differ dramatically depending on the political ideology or party of those polled. Taking a Poll Most public opinion polls aim to be accurate, but this is not an easy task. is a science. From design to implementation, polls are complex and require careful planning and care. Mitt Romney’s campaign polls are only a recent example of problems stemming from polling methods. Our history is littered with examples of polling companies producing results that incorrectly predicted public opinion due to poor survey design or bad polling methods. In 1936, Literary Digest continued its tradition of polling citizens to determine who would win the presidential election. The magazine sent opinion cards to people who had a subscription, a phone, or a car registration. Only some of the recipients sent back their cards. The result? Alf Landon was predicted to win 55.4 percent of the popular vote; in the end, he received only 38 percent. (Note: Arthur Evans, "Predict Landon Electoral Vote to be 315 to 350," Chicago Tribune, 18 October 1936.) Franklin D. Roosevelt won another term, but the story demonstrates the need to be scientific in conducting polls. A few years later, Thomas Dewey lost the 1948 presidential election to Harry Truman, despite polls showing Dewey far ahead and Truman destined to lose. More recently, John Zogby, of Zogby Analytics, went public with his prediction that John Kerry would win the presidency against incumbent president George W. Bush in 2004, only to be proven wrong on election night. These are just a few cases, but each offers a different lesson. In 1948, pollsters did not poll up to the day of the election, relying on old numbers that did not include a late shift in voter opinion. Zogby’s polls did not represent likely voters and incorrectly predicted who would vote and for whom. These examples reinforce the need to use scientific methods when conducting polls, and to be cautious when reporting the results. Polling process errors can lead to incorrect predictions. On November 3, the day after the 1948 presidential election, a jubilant Harry S. Truman triumphantly displays the inaccurate headline of the Chicago Daily Tribune announcing Thomas Dewey’s supposed victory (credit: David Erickson/Flickr). Most polling companies employ statisticians and methodologists trained in conducting polls and analyzing data. A number of criteria must be met if a poll is to be completed scientifically. First, the methodologists identify the desired population, or group, of respondents they want to interview. For example, if the goal is to project who will win the presidency, citizens from across the United States should be interviewed. If we wish to understand how voters in Colorado will vote on a proposition, the population of respondents should only be Colorado residents. When surveying on elections or policy matters, many polling houses will interview only respondents who have a history of voting in previous elections, because these voters are more likely to go to the polls on Election Day. Politicians are more likely to be influenced by the opinions of proven voters than of everyday citizens. Once the desired population has been identified, the researchers will begin to build a sample that is both random and representative. A sample consists of a limited number of people from the overall population, selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen. In the early years of polling, telephone numbers of potential respondents were arbitrarily selected from various areas to avoid regional bias. While landline phones allow polls to try to ensure randomness, the increasing use of cell phones makes this process difficult. Cell phones, and their numbers, are portable and move with the owner. To prevent errors, polls that include known cellular numbers may screen for zip codes and other geographic indicators to prevent regional bias. A representative sample consists of a group whose demographic distribution is similar to that of the overall population. For example, nearly 51 percent of the U.S. population is female. (Note: United States Census Bureau. 2012. "Age and Sex Composition in the United States: 2012." United States Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/population/age/data/2012comp.html (February 17, 2016).) To match this demographic distribution of women, any poll intended to measure what most Americans think about an issue should survey a sample containing slightly more women than men. Pollsters try to interview a set number of citizens to create a reasonable sample of the population. This will vary based on the size of the population being interviewed and the level of accuracy the pollster wishes to reach. If the poll is trying to reveal the opinion of a state or group, such as the opinion of Wisconsin voters about changes to the education system, the sample size may vary from five hundred to one thousand respondents and produce results with relatively low error. For a poll to predict what Americans think nationally, such as about the White House’s policy on greenhouse gases, the sample size should be larger. The sample size varies with each organization and institution due to the way the data are processed. Gallup often interviews only five hundred respondents, while Rasmussen Reports and Pew Research often interview one thousand to fifteen hundred respondents. (Note: Rasmussen Reports. 2015. "Daily Presidential Tracking Poll." Rasmussen Reports. September 27, 2015. http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/ obama_administration/daily_presidential_tracking_poll (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) Academic organizations, like the American National Election Studies, have interviews with over twenty-five-hundred respondents. (Note: American National Election Studies Data Center. 2016. http://electionstudies.org/studypages/download/datacenter_all_NoData.php (February 17, 2016).) A larger sample makes a poll more accurate, because it will have relatively fewer unusual responses and be more representative of the actual population. Pollsters do not interview more respondents than necessary, however. Increasing the number of respondents will increase the accuracy of the poll, but once the poll has enough respondents to be representative, increases in accuracy become minor and are not cost-effective. (Note: Michael W. Link and Robert W. Oldendick. 1997. "Good" Polls / "Bad" Polls—How Can You Tell? Ten Tips for Consumers of Survey Research." South Carolina Policy Forum. http://www.ipspr.sc.edu/publication/Link.htm (February 17, 2016); Pew Research Center. 2015. "Sampling." Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/ methodology/u-s-survey-research/sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) When the sample represents the actual population, the poll’s accuracy will be reflected in a lower margin of error. The margin of error is a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population of citizens. The lower the margin of error, the more predictive the poll. Large margins of error are problematic. For example, if a poll that claims Hillary Clinton is likely to win 30 percent of the vote in the 2016 New York Democratic primary has a margin of error of +/-6, it tells us that Clinton may receive as little as 24 percent of the vote (30 – 6) or as much as 36 percent (30 + 6). A lower of margin of error is clearly desirable because it gives us the most precise picture of what people actually think or will do. With many polls out there, how do you know whether a poll is a good poll and accurately predicts what a group believes? First, look for the numbers. Polling companies include the margin of error, polling dates, number of respondents, and population sampled to show their scientific reliability. Was the poll recently taken? Is the question clear and unbiased? Was the number of respondents high enough to predict the population? Is the margin of error small? It is worth looking for this valuable information when you interpret poll results. While most polling agencies strive to create quality polls, other organizations want fast results and may prioritize immediate numbers over random and representative samples. For example, instant polling is often used by news networks to quickly assess how well candidates are performing in a debate. Technology and Polling The days of randomly walking neighborhoods and phone book cold-calling to interview random citizens are gone. Scientific polling has made interviewing more deliberate. Historically, many polls were conducted in person, yet this was expensive and yielded problematic results. In some situations and countries, face-to-face interviewing still exists. Exit polls, focus groups, and some public opinion polls occur in which the interviewer and respondents communicate in person. Exit polls are conducted in person, with an interviewer standing near a polling location and requesting information as voters leave the polls. Focus groups often select random respondents from local shopping places or pre-select respondents from Internet or phone surveys. The respondents show up to observe or discuss topics and are then surveyed. On November 6, 2012, the Connect2Mason.com team conducts exit surveys at the polls on the George Mason University campus. (credit: Mason Votes/Flickr). When organizations like Gallup or Roper decide to conduct face-to-face public opinion polls, however, it is a timeconsuming and expensive process. The organization must randomly select households or polling locations within neighborhoods, making sure there is a representative household or location in each neighborhood. (Note: "Roper Center. 2015. "Polling Fundamentals – Sampling." Roper. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/support/pollingfundamentals-sampling/ (February 17, 2016).) Then it must survey a representative number of neighborhoods from within a city. At a polling location, interviewers may have directions on how to randomly select voters of varied demographics. If the interviewer is looking to interview a person in a home, multiple attempts are made to reach a respondent if he or she does not answer. Gallup conducts face-to-face interviews in areas where less than 80 percent of the households in an area have phones, because it gives a more representative sample. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "How Does the Gallup World Poll Work?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/178667/gallup-world-poll-work.aspx (February 17, 2016).) News networks use face-to-face techniques to conduct exit polls on Election Day. Most polling now occurs over the phone or through the Internet. Some companies, like Harris Interactive, maintain directories that include registered voters, consumers, or previously interviewed respondents. If pollsters need to interview a particular population, such as political party members or retirees of a specific pension fund, the company may purchase or access a list of phone numbers for that group. Other organizations, like Gallup, use random-digit-dialing (RDD), in which a computer randomly generates phone numbers with desired area codes. Using RDD allows the pollsters to include respondents who may have unlisted and cellular numbers. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Does Gallup Call Cellphones?" Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/110383/does-gallup-call-cellphones.aspx (February 17, 2016).) Questions about ZIP code or demographics may be asked early in the poll to allow the pollsters to determine which interviews to continue and which to end early. The interviewing process is also partly computerized. Many polls are now administered through computerassisted telephone interviewing (CATI) or through robo-polls. A CATI system calls random telephone numbers until it reaches a live person and then connects the potential respondent with a trained interviewer. As the respondent provides answers, the interviewer enters them directly into the computer program. These polls may have some errors if the interviewer enters an incorrect answer. The polls may also have reliability issues if the interviewer goes off the script or answers respondents’ questions. Robo-polls are entirely computerized. A computer dials random or pre-programmed numbers and a prerecorded electronic voice administers the survey. The respondent listens to the question and possible answers and then presses numbers on the phone to enter responses. Proponents argue that respondents are more honest without an interviewer. However, these polls can suffer from error if the respondent does not use the correct keypad number to answer a question or misunderstands the question. Robo-polls may also have lower response rates, because there is no live person to persuade the respondent to answer. There is also no way to prevent children from answering the survey. Lastly, the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (1991) made automated calls to cell phones illegal, which leaves a large population of potential respondents inaccessible to robo-polls. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "The Case for Robo-Pollsters: Automated Interviewers Have Their Drawbacks, But Fewer Than Their Critics Suggest," National Journal, 14 September 2009.) The latest challenges in telephone polling come from the shift in phone usage. A growing number of citizens, especially younger citizens, use only cell phones, and their phone numbers are no longer based on geographic areas. The millennial generation (currently aged 18–33) is also more likely to text than to answer an unknown call, so it is harder to interview this demographic group. Polling companies now must reach out to potential respondents using email and social media to ensure they have a representative group of respondents. Yet, the technology required to move to the Internet and handheld devices presents further problems. Web surveys must be designed to run on a varied number of browsers and handheld devices. Online polls cannot detect whether a person with multiple email accounts or social media profiles answers the same poll multiple times, nor can they tell when a respondent misrepresents demographics in the poll or on a social media profile used in a poll. These factors also make it more difficult to calculate response rates or achieve a representative sample. Yet, many companies are working with these difficulties, because it is necessary to reach younger demographics in order to provide accurate data. (Note: Mark Blumenthal, "Is Polling As We Know It Doomed?" National Journal, 10 August 2009.) Problems in Polling For a number of reasons, polls may not produce accurate results. Two important factors a polling company faces are timing and human nature. Unless you conduct an exit poll during an election and interviewers stand at the polling places on Election Day to ask voters how they voted, there is always the possibility the poll results will be wrong. The simplest reason is that if there is time between the poll and Election Day, a citizen might change his or her mind, lie, or choose not to vote at all. Timing is very important during elections, because surprise events can shift enough opinions to change an election result. Of course, there are many other reasons why polls, even those not time-bound by elections or events, may be inaccurate. Polls begin with a list of carefully written questions. The questions need to be free of framing, meaning they should not be worded to lead respondents to a particular answer. For example, take two questions about presidential approval. Question 1 might ask, “Given the high unemployment rate, do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Question 2 might ask, “Do you approve of the job President Obama is doing?” Both questions want to know how respondents perceive the president’s success, but the first question sets up a frame for the respondent to believe the economy is doing poorly before answering. This is likely to make the respondent’s answer more negative. Similarly, the way we refer to an issue or concept can affect the way listeners perceive it. The phrase “estate tax” did not rally voters to protest the inheritance tax, but the phrase “death tax” sparked debate about whether taxing estates imposed a double tax on income. (Note: Frank Luntz. 2007. Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear. New York: Hyperion.) Many polling companies try to avoid leading questions, which lead respondents to select a predetermined answer, because they want to know what people really think. Some polls, however, have a different goal. Their questions are written to guarantee a specific outcome, perhaps to help a candidate get press coverage or gain momentum. These are called push polls. In the 2016 presidential primary race, MoveOn tried to encourage Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) to enter the race for the Democratic nomination. Its poll used leading questions for what it termed an “informed ballot,” and, to show that Warren would do better than Hillary Clinton, it included ten positive statements about Warren before asking whether the respondent would vote for Clinton or Warren. (Note: Aaron Blake, "This terrible polls shows Elizabeth Warren beating Hillary Clinton," Washington Post, 11 February 2015.) The poll results were blasted by some in the media for being fake. Senator Elizabeth Warren (a) poses with Massachusetts representatives Joseph P. Kennedy III (left) and Barney Frank (right) at the 2012 Boston Pride Parade. Senator Hillary Clinton (b) during her 2008 presidential campaign in Concord, New Hampshire (credit a: modification of work by “ElizabethForMA”/Flickr; credit b: modification of work by Marc Nozell) Sometimes lack of knowledge affects the results of a poll. Respondents may not know that much about the polling topic but are unwilling to say, “I don’t know.” For this reason, surveys may contain a quiz with questions that determine whether the respondent knows enough about the situation to answer survey questions accurately. A poll to discover whether citizens support changes to the Affordable Care Act or Medicaid might first ask who these programs serve and how they are funded. Polls about territory seizure by the Islamic State (or ISIS) or Russia’s aid to rebels in Ukraine may include a set of questions to determine whether the respondent reads or hears any international news. Respondents who cannot answer correctly may be excluded from the poll, or their answers may be separated from the others. People may also feel social pressure to answer questions in accordance with the norms of their area or peers. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19." FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).) If they are embarrassed to admit how they would vote, they may lie to the interviewer. In the 1982 governor’s race in California, Tom Bradley was far ahead in the polls, yet on Election Day he lost. This result was nicknamed the Bradley effect, on the theory that voters who answered the poll were afraid to admit they would not vote for a black man because it would appear politically incorrect and racist. In 2010, Proposition 19, which would have legalized and taxed marijuana in California, met with a new version of the Bradley effect. Nate Silver, a political blogger, noticed that polls on the marijuana proposition were inconsistent, sometimes showing the proposition would pass and other times showing it would fail. Silver compared the polls and the way they were administered, because some polling companies used an interviewer and some used robo-calling. He then proposed that voters speaking with a live interviewer gave the socially acceptable answer that they would vote against Proposition 19, while voters interviewed by a computer felt free to be honest. (Note: Nate Silver. 2010. "The Broadus Effect? Social Desirability Bias and California Proposition 19." FiveThirtyEightPolitics. July 27, 2010. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/broadus-effect-social-desirability-bias/ (February 18, 2016).) While this theory has not been proven, it is consistent with other findings that interviewer demographics can affect respondents’ answers. African Americans, for example, may give different responses to interviewers who are white than to interviewers who are black. (Note: D. Davis. 1997. "The Direction of Race of Interviewer Effects among African-Americans: Donning the Black Mask." American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 309–322.) In 2010, polls about California’s Proposition 19 were inconsistent, depending on how they were administered, with voters who spoke with a live interviewer declaring they would vote against Proposition 19 and voters who were interviewed via a computer declaring support for the legislation. The measure was defeated on Election Day. Push Polls One of the newer byproducts of polling is the creation of push polls, which consist of political campaign information presented as polls. A respondent is called and asked a series of questions about his or her position or candidate selections. If the respondent’s answers are for the wrong candidate, the next questions will give negative information about the candidate in an effort to change the voter’s mind. In 2014, a fracking ban was placed on the ballot in a town in Texas. Fracking, which includes injecting pressurized water into drilled wells, helps energy companies collect additional gas from the earth. It is controversial, with opponents arguing it causes water pollution, sound pollution, and earthquakes. During the campaign, a number of local voters received a call that polled them on how they planned to vote on the proposed fracking ban. (Note: Kate Sheppard, "Top Texas Regulator: Could Russia be Behind City’s Proposed Fracking Ban?" Huffington Post, 16 July 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/16/fracking-ban-denton-russia_n_5592661.html (February 18, 2016).) If the respondent was unsure about or planned to vote for the ban, the questions shifted to provide negative information about the organizations proposing the ban. One question asked, “If you knew the following, would it change your vote . . . two Texas railroad commissioners, the state agency that oversees oil and gas in Texas, have raised concerns about Russia’s involvement in the anti-fracking efforts in the U.S.?” The question played upon voter fears about Russia and international instability in order to convince them to vote against the fracking ban. These techniques are not limited to issue votes; candidates have used them to attack their opponents. The hope is that voters will think the poll is legitimate and believe the negative information provided by a “neutral” source. Public Opinion and Elections Elections are the events on which opinion polls have the greatest measured effect. Public opinion polls do more than show how we feel on issues or project who might win an election. The media use public opinion polls to decide which candidates are ahead of the others and therefore of interest to voters and worthy of interview. From the moment President Obama was inaugurated for his second term, speculation began about who would run in the 2016 presidential election. Within a year, potential candidates were being ranked and compared by a number of newspapers. (Note: Paul Hitlin. 2013. "The 2016 Presidential Media Primary Is Off to a Fast Start." Pew Research Center. October 3, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/10/03/the-2016-presidentialmedia-primary-is-off-to-a-fast-start/ (February 18, 2016).) The speculation included favorability polls on Hillary Clinton, which measured how positively voters felt about her as a candidate. The media deemed these polls important because they showed Clinton as the frontrunner for the Democrats in the next election. (Note: Pew Research Center, 2015. "Hillary Clinton’s Favorability Ratings over Her Career." Pew Research Center. June 6, 2015. http://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/themes/pewresearch/ static/hillary-clintons-favorability-ratings-over-her-career/ (February 18, 2016).) During presidential primary season, we see examples of the bandwagon effect, in which the media pays more attention to candidates who poll well during the fall and the first few primaries. Bill Clinton was nicknamed the “Comeback Kid” in 1992, after he placed second in the New Hampshire primary despite accusations of adultery with Gennifer Flowers. The media’s attention on Clinton gave him the momentum to make it through the rest of the primary season, ultimately winning the Democratic nomination and the presidency. Polling is also at the heart of horserace coverage, in which, just like an announcer at the racetrack, the media calls out every candidate’s move throughout the presidential campaign. Horserace coverage can be neutral, positive, or negative, depending upon what polls or facts are covered. During the 2012 presidential election, the Pew Research Center found that both Mitt Romney and President Obama received more negative than positive horserace coverage, with Romney’s growing more negative as he fell in the polls. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Winning the Media Campaign." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/ 11/02/winning-media-campaign-2012/ (February 18, 2016).) Horserace coverage is often criticized for its lack of depth; the stories skip over the candidates’ issue positions, voting histories, and other facts that would help voters make an informed decision. Yet, horserace coverage is popular because the public is always interested in who will win, and it often makes up a third or more of news stories about the election. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2012. "Fewer Horserace Stories-and Fewer Positive Obama Stories-Than in 2008." Pew Research Center. November 2, 2012. http://www.journalism.org/2012/11/01/ press-release-6/ (February 18, 2016).) Exit polls, taken the day of the election, are the last election polls conducted by the media. Announced results of these surveys can deter voters from going to the polls if they believe the election has already been decided. In 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump became the center of the media’s horserace coverage. As the field winnowed from over twenty candidates down to three, the media incessantly compared everyone else in the field to Trump. (credit: Max Goldberg) Public opinion polls also affect how much money candidates receive in campaign donations. Donors assume public opinion polls are accurate enough to determine who the top two to three primary candidates will be, and they give money to those who do well. Candidates who poll at the bottom will have a hard time collecting donations, increasing the odds that they will continue to do poorly. This was apparent in the run-up to the 2016 presidential election. Bernie Sanders, Hillary Clinton, and Martin O’Malley each campaigned in the hope of becoming the Democratic presidential nominee. In June 2015, 75 percent of Democrats likely to vote in their state primaries said they would vote for Clinton, while 15 percent of those polled said they would vote for Sanders. Only 2 percent said they would vote for O’Malley. (Note: Patrick O’Connor. 2015. "WSJ/NBC Poll Finds Hillary Clinton in a Strong Position." Wall Street Journal. June 23, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/new-poll-finds-hillaryclinton-tops-gop-presidential-rivals-1435012049.) During this same period, Clinton raised $47 million in campaign donations, Sanders raised $15 million, and O’Malley raised $2 million. (Note: Federal Elections Commission. 2015. "Presidential Receipts." http://www.fec.gov/press/summaries/2016/tables/presidential/presreceipts_2015_q2.pdf (February 18, 2016).) By September 2015, 23 percent of likely Democratic voters said they would vote for Sanders, (Note: Susan Page and Paulina Firozi, "Poll: Hillary Clinton Still Leads Sanders and Biden But By Less," USA Today, 1 October 2015.) and his summer fundraising total increased accordingly. (Note: Dan Merica, and Jeff Zeleny. 2015. "Bernie Sanders Nearly Outraises Clinton, Each Post More Than $20 Million." CNN. October 1, 2015. http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/30/politics/bernie-sanders-hillary-clinton-fundraising/index.html?eref=rss_politics (February 18, 2016).) Presidents running for reelection also must perform well in public opinion polls, and being in office may not provide an automatic advantage. Americans often think about both the future and the past when they decide which candidate to support. (Note: Robert S. Erikson, Michael B. MacKuen, and James A. Stimson. 2000. "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval." Electoral Studies 19: 295–312.) They have three years of past information about the sitting president, so they can better predict what will happen if the incumbent is reelected. That makes it difficult for the president to mislead the electorate. Voters also want a future that is prosperous. Not only should the economy look good, but citizens want to know they will do well in that economy. (Note: Erikson et al, "Bankers or Peasants Revisited: Economic Expectations and Presidential Approval.) For this reason, daily public approval polls sometimes act as both a referendum of the president and a predictor of success. Public Opinion and Government The relationship between public opinion polls and government action is murkier than that between polls and elections. Like the news media and campaign staffers, members of the three branches of government are aware of public opinion. But do politicians use public opinion polls to guide their decisions and actions? The short answer is “sometimes.” The public is not perfectly informed about politics, so politicians realize public opinion may not always be the right choice. Yet many political studies, from the American Voter in the 1920s to the American Voter Revisited in the 2000s, have found that voters behave rationally despite having limited information. Individual citizens do not take the time to become fully informed about all aspects of politics, yet their collective behavior and the opinions they hold as a group make sense. They appear to be informed just enough, using preferences like their political ideology and party membership, to make decisions and hold politicians accountable during an election year. Overall, the collective public opinion of a country changes over time, even if party membership or ideology does not change dramatically. As James Stimson’s prominent study found, the public’s mood, or collective opinion, can become more or less liberal from decade to decade. While the initial study on public mood revealed that the economy has a profound effect on American opinion, (Note: Michael B. MacKuen, Robert S. Erikson, and James A. Stimson. 1989. "Macropartisanship." American Political Science Review 83 (4): 1125–1142.) further studies have gone beyond to determine whether public opinion, and its relative liberalness, in turn affect politicians and institutions. This idea does not argue that opinion never affects policy directly, rather that collective opinion also affects the politician’s decisions on policy. (Note: James A. Stimson, Michael B. Mackuen, and Robert S. Erikson. 1995. "Dynamic Representation." American Political Science Review 89 (3): 543–565.) Individually, of course, politicians cannot predict what will happen in the future or who will oppose them in the next few elections. They can look to see where the public is in agreement as a body. If public mood changes, the politicians may change positions to match the public mood. The more savvy politicians look carefully to recognize when shifts occur. When the public is more or less liberal, the politicians may make slight adjustments to their behavior to match. Politicians who frequently seek to win office, like House members, will pay attention to the long- and short-term changes in opinion. By doing this, they will be less likely to lose on Election Day. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Presidents and justices, on the other hand, present a more complex picture. Public opinion of the president is different from public opinion of Congress. Congress is an institution of 535 members, and opinion polls look at both the institution and its individual members. The president is both a person and the head of an institution. The media pays close attention to any president’s actions, and the public is generally well informed and aware of the office and its current occupant. Perhaps this is why public opinion has an inconsistent effect on presidents’ decisions. As early as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration in the 1930s, presidents have regularly polled the public, and since Richard Nixon’s term (1969–1974), they have admitted to using polling as part of the decision-making process. Presidential responsiveness to public opinion has been measured in a number of ways, each of which tells us something about the effect of opinion. One study examined whether presidents responded to public opinion by determining how often they wrote amicus briefs and asked the court to affirm or reverse cases. It found that the public’s liberal (or non-liberal) mood had an effect, causing presidents to pursue and file briefs in different cases. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") But another author found that the public’s level of liberalness is ignored when conservative presidents, such as Ronald Reagan or George W. Bush, are elected and try to lead. In one example, our five most recent presidents’ moods varied from liberal to non-liberal, while public sentiment stayed consistently liberal. (Note: Dan Wood. 2009. Myth of Presidential Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 96-97.) While the public supported liberal approaches to policy, presidential action varied from liberal to non-liberal. Overall, it appears that presidents try to move public opinion towards personal positions rather than moving themselves towards the public’s opinion. (Note: Wood, Myth of Presidential Representation.) If presidents have enough public support, they use their level of public approval indirectly as a way to get their agenda passed. Immediately following Inauguration Day, for example, the president enjoys the highest level of public support for implementing campaign promises. This is especially true if the president has a mandate, which is more than half the popular vote. Barack Obama’s recent 2008 victory was a mandate with 52.9 percent of the popular vote and 67.8 percent of the Electoral College vote. (Note: U.S. Election Atlas. 2015. "United States Presidential Election Results." U.S. Election Atlas. June 22, 2015. http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/ (February 18, 2016).) When presidents have high levels of public approval, they are likely to act quickly and try to accomplish personal policy goals. They can use their position and power to focus media attention on an issue. This is sometimes referred to as the bully pulpit approach. The term “bully pulpit” was coined by President Theodore Roosevelt, who believed the presidency commanded the attention of the media and could be used to appeal directly to the people. Roosevelt used his position to convince voters to pressure Congress to pass laws. Increasing partisanship has made it more difficult for presidents to use their power to get their own preferred issues through Congress, however, especially when the president’s party is in the minority in Congress. (Note: Richard Fleisher, and Jon R. Bond. 1996. "The President in a More Partisan Legislative Arena." Political Research Quarterly 49 no. 4 (1996): 729–748.) For this reason, modern presidents may find more success in using their popularity to increase media and social media attention on an issue. Even if the president is not the reason for congressional action, he or she can cause the attention that leads to change. (Note: George C. Edwards III, and B. Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the Media." American Political Science Review 93 (2): 327–344.) Presidents may also use their popularity to ask the people to act. In October 2015, following a shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon, President Obama gave a short speech from the West Wing of the White House. After offering his condolences and prayers to the community, he remarked that prayers and condolences were no longer enough, and he called on citizens to push Congress for a change in gun control laws. President Obama had proposed gun control reform following the 2012 shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary in Connecticut, but it did not pass Congress. This time, the president asked citizens to use gun control as a voting issue and push for reform via the ballot box. In the wake of a shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon in October 2015, President Obama called for a change in gun control laws (credit: The White House). In some instances, presidents may appear to directly consider public opinion before acting or making decisions. In 2013, President Obama announced that he was considering a military strike on Syria in reaction to the Syrian government’s illegal use of sarin gas on its own citizens. Despite agreeing that this chemical attack on the Damascan suburbs was a war crime, the public was against U.S. involvement. Forty-eight percent of respondents said they opposed airstrikes, and only 29 percent were in favor. Democrats were especially opposed to military intervention. (Note: Pew Research Center. 2013. "Public Opinion Runs Against Syrian Airstrikes." Pew Research Center. September 4, 2013. http://www.people-press.org/2013/09/03/public-opinion-runs-against-syrian-airstrikes/ (February 18, 2016).) President Obama changed his mind and ultimately allowed Russian president Vladimir Putin to negotiate Syria’s surrender of its chemical weapons. However, further examples show that presidents do not consistently listen to public opinion. After taking office in 2009, President Obama did not order the closing of Guantanamo Bay prison, even though his proposal to do so had garnered support during the 2008 election. President Bush, despite growing public disapproval for the war in Iraq, did not end military support in Iraq after 2006. And President Bill Clinton, whose White House pollsters were infamous for polling on everything, sometimes ignored the public if circumstances warranted. (Note: Paul Bedard. 2013. "Poll-Crazed Clinton Even Polled on His Dog’s Name." Washington Examiner. April 30, 2013. http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/poll-crazed-bill-clinton-even-polled-on-his-dogs-name/article/2528486.) In 1995, despite public opposition, Clinton guaranteed loans for the Mexican government to help the country out of financial insolvency. He followed this decision with many speeches to help the American public understand the importance of stabilizing Mexico’s economy. Individual examples like these make it difficult to persuasively identify the direct effects of public opinion on the presidency. While presidents have at most only two terms to serve and work, members of Congress can serve as long as the public returns them to office. We might think that for this reason public opinion is important to representatives and senators, and that their behavior, such as their votes on domestic programs or funding, will change to match the expectation of the public. In a more liberal time, the public may expect to see more social programs. In a nonliberal time, the public mood may favor austerity, or decreased government spending on programs. Failure to recognize shifts in public opinion may lead to a politician’s losing the next election. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") House of Representatives members, with a two-year term, have a more difficult time recovering from decisions that anger local voters. And because most representatives continually fundraise, unpopular decisions can hurt their campaign donations. For these reasons, it seems representatives should be susceptible to polling pressure. Yet one study, by James Stimson, found that the public mood does not directly affect elections, and shifts in public opinion do not predict whether a House member will win or lose. These elections are affected by the president on the ticket, presidential popularity (or lack thereof) during a midterm election, and the perks of incumbency, such as name recognition and media coverage. In fact, a later study confirmed that the incumbency effect is highly predictive of a win, and public opinion is not. (Note: Suzanna De Boef, and James A. Stimson. 1995. "The Dynamic Structure of Congressional Elections." Journal of Politics 57 (3): 630–648.) In spite of this, we still see policy shifts in Congress, often matching the policy preferences of the public. When the shifts happen within the House, they are measured by the way members vote. The study’s authors hypothesize that House members alter their votes to match the public mood, perhaps in an effort to strengthen their electoral chances. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") The Senate is quite different from the House. Senators do not enjoy the same benefits of incumbency, and they win reelection at lower rates than House members. Yet, they do have one advantage over their colleagues in the House: Senators hold six-year terms, which gives them time to engage in fence-mending to repair the damage from unpopular decisions. In the Senate, Stimson’s study confirmed that opinion affects a senator’s chances at reelection, even though it did not affect House members. Specifically, the study shows that when public opinion shifts, fewer senators win reelection. Thus, when the public as a whole becomes more or less liberal, new senators are elected. Rather than the senators shifting their policy preferences and voting differently, it is the new senators who change the policy direction of the Senate. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Beyond voter polls, congressional representatives are also very interested in polls that reveal the wishes of interest groups and businesses. If AARP, one of the largest and most active groups of voters in the United States, is unhappy with a bill, members of the relevant congressional committees will take that response into consideration. If the pharmaceutical or oil industry is unhappy with a new patent or tax policy, its members’ opinions will have some effect on representatives’ decisions, since these industries contribute heavily to election campaigns. There is some disagreement about whether the Supreme Court follows public opinion or shapes it. The lifetime tenure the justices enjoy was designed to remove everyday politics from their decisions, protect them from swings in political partisanship, and allow them to choose whether and when to listen to public opinion. More often than not, the public is unaware of the Supreme Court’s decisions and opinions. When the justices accept controversial cases, the media tune in and ask questions, raising public awareness and affecting opinion. But do the justices pay attention to the polls when they make decisions? Studies that look at the connection between the Supreme Court and public opinion are contradictory. Early on, it was believed that justices were like other citizens: individuals with attitudes and beliefs who would be affected by political shifts. (Note: Benjamin Cardozo. 1921. The Nature of the Judicial Process. New Haven: Yale University Press.) Later studies argued that Supreme Court justices rule in ways that maintain support for the institution. Instead of looking at the short term and making decisions day to day, justices are strategic in their planning and make decisions for the long term. (Note: Jack Knight, and Lee Epstein. 1998. The Choices Justices Make. Washington DC: CQ Press.) Other studies have revealed a more complex relationship between public opinion and judicial decisions, largely due to the difficulty of measuring where the effect can be seen. Some studies look at the number of reversals taken by the Supreme Court, which are decisions with which the Court overturns the decision of a lower court. In one study, the authors found that public opinion slightly affects cases accepted by the justices. (Note: Kevin T. Mcguire, Georg Vanberg, Charles E Smith, and Gregory A. Caldeira. 2009. "Measuring Policy Content on the U.S. Supreme Court." Journal of Politics 71 (4): 1305–1321.) In a study looking at how often the justices voted liberally on a decision, a stronger effect of public opinion was revealed. (Note: Kevin T. McGuire, and James A. Stimson. 2004. "The Least Dangerous Branch Revisited: New Evidence on Supreme Court Responsiveness to Public Preferences." Journal of Politics 66 (4): 1018–1035.) Whether the case or court is currently in the news may also matter. A study found that if the majority of Americans agree on a policy or issue before the court, the court’s decision is likely to agree with public opinion. (Note: Thomas Marshall. 1989. Public Opinion and the Supreme Court. Boston: Unwin Hyman.) A second study determined that public opinion is more likely to affect ignored cases than heavily reported ones. (Note: Christopher J. Casillas, Peter K. Enns, and Patrick C. Wohlfarth. 2011. "How Public Opinion Constrains the U.S. Supreme Court." American Journal of Political Science 55 (1): 74–88.) In these situations, the court was also more likely to rule with the majority opinion than against it. For example, in Town of Greece v. Galloway (2014), a majority of the justices decided that ceremonial prayer before a town meeting was not a violation of the Establishment Clause. (Note: Town of Greece v. Galloway 572 U.S. ___ (2014).) The fact that 78 percent of U.S. adults recently said religion is fairly to very important to their lives Gallup. 2015. (Note: "Religion." Gallup. June 18, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1690/Religion.aspx (February 18, 2016).) and 61 percent supported prayer in school (Note: Rebecca Riffkin. 2015. "In U.S., Support for Daily Prayer in Schools Dips Slightly." Gallup. September 25, 2015. http://www.gallup.com/poll/177401/support-dailyprayer-schools-dips-slightly.aspx.) may explain why public support for the Supreme Court did not fall after this decision. (Note: Gallup. 2015. "Supreme Court." Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/4732/supreme-court.aspx (February 18, 2016).) Overall, however, it is clear that public opinion has a less powerful effect on the courts than on the other branches and on politicians. (Note: Stimson et al, "Dynamic Representation.") Perhaps this is due to the lack of elections or justices’ lifetime tenure, or perhaps we have not determined the best way to measure the effects of public opinion on the Court. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.3 The Media THE MEDIA Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Ours is an exploding media system. What started as print journalism was subsequently supplemented by radio coverage, then network television, followed by cable television. Now, with the addition of the Internet, blogs and social media—a set of applications or web platforms that allow users to immediately communicate with one another—give citizens a wide variety of sources for instant news of all kinds. The Internet also allows citizens to initiate public discussion by uploading images and video for viewing, such as videos documenting interactions between citizens and the police, for example. Provided we are connected digitally, we have a bewildering amount of choices for finding information about the world. In fact, some might say that compared to the tranquil days of the 1970s, when we might read the morning newspaper over breakfast and take in the network news at night, there are now too many choices in today’s increasingly complex world of information. This reality may make the news media all the more important to structuring and shaping narratives about U.S. politics. Or the proliferation of competing information sources like blogs and social media may actually weaken the power of the news media relative to the days when news media monopolized our attention. Media Basics The term media defines a number of different communication formats from television media, which share information through broadcast airwaves, to print media, which rely on printed documents. The collection of all forms of media that communicate information to the general public is called mass media, including television, print, radio, and Internet. One of the primary reasons citizens turn to the media is for news. We expect the media to cover important political and social events and information in a concise and neutral manner. To accomplish its work, the media employs a number of people in varied positions. Journalists and reporters are responsible for uncovering news stories by keeping an eye on areas of public interest, like politics, business, and sports. Once a journalist has a lead or a possible idea for a story, he or she researches background information and interviews people to create a complete and balanced account. Editors work in the background of the newsroom, assigning stories, approving articles or packages, and editing content for accuracy and clarity. Publishers are people or companies that own and produce print or digital media. They oversee both the content and finances of the publication, ensuring the organization turns a profit and creates a high-quality product to distribute to consumers. Producers oversee the production and finances of visual media, like television, radio, and film. The work of the news media differs from public relations, which is communication carried out to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates for office. Public relations is not a neutral information form. While journalists write stories to inform the public, a public relations spokesperson is paid to help an individual or organization get positive press. Public relations materials normally appear as press releases or paid advertisements in newspapers and other media outlets. Some less reputable publications, however, publish paid articles under the news banner, blurring the line between journalism and public relations. Media Types Each form of media has its own complexities and is used by different demographics. (currently aged 18–33) are more likely to get news and information from social media, such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook, while (currently aged 50–68) are most likely to get their news from television, either national broadcasts or local news. Age greatly influences the choice of news sources. Baby boomers are more likely to get news and information from television, while members of generation X and millennials are more likely to use social media. Television alone offers viewers a variety of formats. Programming may be scripted, like dramas or comedies. It may be unscripted, like game shows or reality programs, or informative, such as news programming. Although most programs are created by a television production company, national networks—like CBS or NBC—purchase the rights to programs they distribute to local stations across the United States. Most local stations are affiliated with a national network corporation, and they broadcast national network programming to their local viewers. Before the existence of cable and fiber optics, networks needed to own local affiliates to have access to the local station’s transmission towers. Towers have a limited radius, so each network needed an affiliate in each major city to reach viewers. While cable technology has lessened networks’ dependence on aerial signals, some viewers still use antennas and receivers to view programming broadcast from local towers. Affiliates, by agreement with the networks, give priority to network news and other programming chosen by the affiliate’s national media corporation. Local affiliate stations are told when to air programs or commercials, and they diverge only to inform the public about a local or national emergency. For example, ABC affiliates broadcast the popular television show Once Upon a Time at a specific time on a specific day. Should a fire threaten homes and businesses in a local area, the affiliate might preempt it to update citizens on the fire’s dangers and return to regularly scheduled programming after the danger has ended. Most affiliate stations will show local news before and after network programming to inform local viewers of events and issues. Network news has a national focus on politics, international events, the economy, and more. Local news, on the other hand, is likely to focus on matters close to home, such as regional business, crime, sports, and weather. (Note: Jeremy Lipschultz and Michael Hilt. 2003. "Race and Local Television News Crime Coverage," Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education 3, No. 4: 1–10.) The NBC Nightly News, for example, covers presidential campaigns and the White House or skirmishes between North Korea and South Korea, while the NBC affiliate in Los Angeles (KNBC-TV) and the NBC affiliate in Dallas (KXAS-TV) report on the governor’s activities or weekend festivals in the region. Cable programming offers national networks a second method to directly reach local viewers. As the name implies, cable stations transmit programming directly to a local cable company hub, which then sends the signals to homes through coaxial or fiber optic cables. Because cable does not broadcast programming through the airwaves, cable networks can operate across the nation directly without local affiliates. Instead they purchase broadcasting rights for the cable stations they believe their viewers want. For this reason, cable networks often specialize in different types of programming. The Cable News Network (CNN) was the first news station to take advantage of this specialized format, creating a 24-hour news station with live coverage and interview programs. Other news stations quickly followed, such as MSNBC and FOX News. A viewer might tune in to Nickelodeon and catch family programs and movies or watch ESPN to catch up with the latest baseball or basketball scores. The Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, known better as C-SPAN, now has three channels covering Congress, the president, the courts, and matters of public interest. Cable and satellite providers also offer on-demand programming for most stations. Citizens can purchase cable, satellite, and Internet subscription services (like Netflix) to find programs to watch instantly, without being tied to a schedule. Initially, on-demand programming was limited to rebroadcasting old content and was commercial-free. Yet many networks and programs now allow their new programming to be aired within a day or two of its initial broadcast. In return they often add commercials the user cannot fast-forward or avoid. Thus networks expect advertising revenues to increase. (Note: Lucas Shaw, "TV Networks Offering More On Demand to Reduce AdSkipping," Bloomberg Technology, 24 September 2014.) The on-demand nature of the Internet has created many opportunities for news outlets. While early media providers were those who could pay the high cost of printing or broadcasting, modern media require just a URL and ample server space. The ease of online publication has made it possible for more niche media outlets to form. The websites of the New York Times and other newspapers often focus on matters affecting the United States, while channels like BBC America present world news. FOX News presents political commentary and news in a conservative vein, while the Internet site Daily Kos offers a liberal perspective on the news. Politico.com is perhaps the leader in niche journalism. Unfortunately, the proliferation of online news has also increased the amount of poorly written material with little editorial oversight, and readers must be cautious when reading Internet news sources. Sites like Buzzfeed allow members to post articles without review by an editorial board, leading to articles of varied quality and accuracy. The Internet has also made publication speed a consideration for professional journalists. No news outlet wants to be the last to break a story, and the rush to publication often leads to typographical and factual errors. Even large news outlets, like the Associated Press, have published articles with errors in their haste to get a story out. The Internet also facilitates the flow of information through social media, which allows users to instantly communicate with one another and share with audiences that can grow exponentially. Facebook and Twitter have millions of daily users. Social media changes more rapidly than the other media formats. While people in many different age groups use sites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, other sites like Snapchat and Yik Yak appeal mostly to younger users. The platforms also serve different functions. Tumblr and Reddit facilitate discussion that is topic-based and controversial, while Instagram is mostly social. A growing number of these sites also allow users to comment anonymously, leading to increases in threats and abuse. The site 4chan, for example, was linked to the 2015 shooting at an Oregon community college. (Note: Daniel Marans, "Did the Oregon Shooter Warn of His Plans on 4chan?" Huffington Post, 1 October 2015.) Regardless of where we get our information, the various media avenues available today, versus years ago, make it much easier for everyone to be engaged. The question is: Who controls the media we rely on? Most media are controlled by a limited number of conglomerates. A conglomerate is a corporation made up of a number of companies, organizations, and media networks. In the 1980s, more than fifty companies owned the majority of television and radio stations and networks. Now, only six conglomerates control most of the broadcast media in the United States: CBS Corporation, Comcast, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox (formerly News Corporation), Viacom, and The Walt Disney Company. (Note: Vanna Le, "Global 2000: The World’s Largest Media Companies of 2014," Forbes, 7 May 2014.) The Walt Disney Company, for example, owns the ABC Television Network, ESPN, A&E, and Lifetime, in addition to the Disney Channel. Viacom owns BET, Comedy Central, MTV, Nickelodeon, and Vh2. Time Warner owns Cartoon Network, CNN, HBO, and TNT, among others. While each of these networks has its own programming, in the end, the conglomerate can make a policy that affects all stations and programming under its control. In 1983, fifty companies owned 90 percent of U.S. media. By 2012, just six conglomerates controlled the same percentage of U.S. media outlets. Conglomerates can create a monopoly on information by controlling a sector of a market. When a media conglomerate has policies or restrictions, they will apply to all stations or outlets under its ownership, potentially limiting the information citizens receive. Conglomerate ownership also creates circumstances in which censorship may occur. iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel Media) owns music, radio, and billboards throughout the United States, and in 2010, the company refused to run several billboard ads for the St. Pete Pride Festival and Promenade in St. Petersburg, Florida. The festival organizers said the content of two ads, a picture of same-sex couples in close contact with one another, was the reason the ads were not run. Because iHeartMedia owns most of the billboards in the area, this limitation was problematic for the festival and decreased awareness of the event. Those in charge of the festival viewed the refusal as censorship. (Note: Stephanie Hayes, "Clear Channel Rejects St. Pete Pride Billboards, Organizers Say," Tampa Bay Times, 11 June 2010.) Newspapers too have experienced the pattern of concentrated ownership. Gannett Company, while also owning television media, holds a large number of newspapers and news magazines in its control. Many of these were acquired quietly, without public notice or discussion. Gannett’s 2013 acquisition of publishing giant A.H. Belo Corporation caused some concern and news coverage, however. The sale would have allowed Gannett to own both an NBC and a CBS affiliate in St. Louis, Missouri, giving it control over programming and advertising rates for two competing stations. The U.S. Department of Justice required Gannett to sell the station owned by Belo to ensure market competition and multi-ownership in St. Louis. (Note: Meg James, "DOJ Clears Gannett-Belo Deal but Demands Sale of St. Louis TV Station," Los Angeles Times, 16 December 2013.) These changes in the format and ownership of media raise the question whether the media still operate as an independent source of information. Is it possible that corporations and CEOs now control the information flow, making profit more important than the impartial delivery of information? The reality is that media outlets, whether newspaper, television, radio, or Internet, are businesses. They have expenses and must raise revenues. Yet at the same time, we expect the media to entertain, inform, and alert us without bias. They must provide some public services, while following laws and regulations. Reconciling these goals may not always be possible. Functions of the Media The media exist to fill a number of functions. Whether the medium is a newspaper, a radio, or a television newscast, a corporation behind the scenes must bring in revenue and pay for the cost of the product. Revenue comes from advertising and sponsors, like McDonald’s, Ford Motor Company, and other large corporations. But corporations will not pay for advertising if there are no viewers or readers. So all programs and publications need to entertain, inform, or interest the public and maintain a steady stream of consumers. In the end, what attracts viewers and advertisers is what survives. The media are also of society and of public officials. Some refer to the media as the fourth estate, with the branches of government being the first three estates and the media equally participating as the fourth. This role helps maintain democracy and keeps the government accountable for its actions, even if a branch of the government is reluctant to open itself to public scrutiny. As much as social scientists would like citizens to be informed and involved in politics and events, the reality is that we are not. So the media, especially journalists, keep an eye on what is happening and sounds an alarm when the public needs to pay attention. (Note: John Zaller. 2003. "A New Standard of News Quality: Burglar Alarms for the Monitorial Citizen," Political Communication 20, No. 2: 109–130.) The media also engages in agenda setting, which is the act of choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion. For example, in the early 1980s, famine in Ethiopia drew worldwide attention, which resulted in increased charitable giving to the country. Yet the famine had been going on for a long time before it was discovered by western media. Even after the discovery, it took video footage to gain the attention of the British and U.S. populations and start the aid flowing. (Note: Suzanne Ranks, "Ethiopian Famine: How Landmark BBC Report Influenced Modern Coverage," Guardian, 22 October 2014.) Today, numerous examples of agenda setting show how important the media are when trying to prevent further emergencies or humanitarian crises. In the spring of 2015, when the Dominican Republic was preparing to exile Haitians and undocumented (or under documented) residents, major U.S. news outlets remained silent. However, once the story had been covered several times by Al Jazeera, a state-funded broadcast company based in Qatar, ABC, the New York Times, and other network outlets followed. (Note: Hisham Aidi, "Haitians in the Dominican Republic in Legal Limbo," Al Jazeera, 10 April 2015.) With major network coverage came public pressure for the U.S. government to act on behalf of the Haitians. (Note: "Pressure the Government of the Dominican Republic to Stop its Planned ‘Cleaning’ of 250,000 Black Dominicans," https://petitions.whitehouse.gov/petition/pressuregovernment-dominican-republic-stop-its-planned-cleaning-250000-black-dominicans (November 26, 2015); Led Black, "Prevent Humanitarian Tragedy in Dominican Republic," CNN, 23 June 2015.) Before the Internet, traditional media determined whether citizen photographs or video footage would become “news.” In 1991, a private citizen’s camcorder footage showed four police officers beating an African American motorist named Rodney King in Los Angeles. After appearing on local independent television station, KTLA-TV, and then the national news, the event began a national discussion on police brutality and ignited riots in Los Angeles. (Note: Erik Ortiz, "George Holliday, Who Taped Rodney King Beating, Urges Others to Share Videos," NBC, 9 June 2015.) The agenda-setting power of traditional media has begun to be appropriated by social media and smartphones, however. Tumblr, Facebook, YouTube, and other Internet sites allow witnesses to instantly upload images and accounts of events and forward the link to friends. Some uploads go viral and attract the attention of the mainstream media, but large network newscasts and major newspapers are still more powerful at initiating or changing a discussion. The media also promote the public good by offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness. Network news informs the electorate about national issues, elections, and international news. The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, NBC Nightly News, and other outlets make sure voters can easily find out what issues affect the nation. Is terrorism on the rise? Is the dollar weakening? The network news hosts national debates during presidential elections, broadcasts major presidential addresses, and interviews political leaders during times of crisis. Cable news networks now provide coverage of all these topics as well. Local news has a larger job, despite small budgets and fewer resources. Local government and local economic policy have a strong and immediate effect on citizens. Is the city government planning on changing property tax rates? Will the school district change the way Common Core tests are administered? When and where is the next town hall meeting or public forum to be held? Local and social media provide a forum for protest and discussion of issues that matter to the community. Meetings of local governance, such as this meeting of the Independence City Council in Missouri, are rarely attended by more than gadflies and journalists. (credit: “MoBikeFed”/Flickr) While journalists reporting the news try to present information in an unbiased fashion, sometimes the public seeks opinion and analysis of complicated issues that affect various populations differently, like healthcare reform and the Affordable Care Act. This type of coverage may come in the form of editorials, commentaries, Op-Ed columns, and blogs. These forums allow the editorial staff and informed columnists to express a personal belief and attempt to persuade. If opinion writers are trusted by the public, they have influence. Walter Cronkite, reporting from Vietnam, had a loyal following. In a broadcast following the Tet Offensive in 1968, Cronkite expressed concern that the United States was mired in a conflict that would end in a stalemate. (Note: "Walter Cronkite’s ‘We Are Mired in Stalemate’ Broadcast, February 27, 1968" Digital History, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/vietnam/cronkite.cfm (November 29, 2015).) His coverage was based on opinion after viewing the war from the ground. (Note: Joel Achenbach, "Cronkite and Vietnam," Washington Post, 18 May 2012.) Although the number of people supporting the war had dwindled by this time, Cronkite’s commentary bolstered opposition. Like editorials, commentaries contain opinion and are often written by specialists in a field. Larry Sabato, a prominent political science professor at the University of Virginia, occasionally writes his thoughts for the New York Times. These pieces are based on his expertise in politics and elections. (Note: Larry Sabato, "Our Leaders, Surprise, Have Strong Views," New York Times, 23 February 2009.) Blogs offer more personalized coverage, addressing specific concerns and perspectives for a limited group of readers. Nate Silver’s blog, FiveThirtyEight, focuses on elections and politics. Media Effects and Bias Concerns about the effects of media on consumers and the existence and extent of media bias go back to the 1920s. Reporter and commentator Walter Lippmann noted that citizens have limited personal experience with government and the world and posited that the media, through their stories, place ideas in citizens’ minds. These ideas become part of the citizens’ frame of reference and affect their decisions. Lippmann’s statements led to the hypodermic theory, which argues that information is “shot” into the receiver’s mind and readily accepted. (Note: Walter Lippmann. 1922. Public Opinion. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/Lippman/contents.html (August 29, 2015).) Yet studies in the 1930s and 1940s found that information was transmitted in two steps, with one person reading the news and then sharing the information with friends. People listened to their friends, but not to those with whom they disagreed. The newspaper’s effect was thus diminished through conversation. This discovery led to the minimal effects theory, which argues the media have little effect on citizens and voters. (Note: Bernard Berelson, Paul Lazarsfeld, and William McPhee. 1954. Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.) By the 1970s, a new idea, the cultivation theory, hypothesized that media develop a person’s view of the world by presenting a perceived reality. (Note: George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, Nancy Signorielli, and Marilyn Jackson-Beeck. 1979. "The Demonstration of Power: Violence Profile," Journal of Communication 29, No.10: 177–196.) What we see on a regular basis is our reality. Media can then set norms for readers and viewers by choosing what is covered or discussed. In the end, the consensus among observers is that media have some effect, even if the effect is subtle. This raises the question of how the media, even general newscasts, can affect citizens. One of the ways is through framing: the creation of a narrative, or context, for a news story. The news often uses frames to place a story in a context so the reader understands its importance or relevance. Yet, at the same time, framing affects the way the reader or viewer processes the story. Episodic framing occurs when a story focuses on isolated details or specifics rather than looking broadly at a whole issue. Thematic framing takes a broad look at an issue and skips numbers or details. It looks at how the issue has changed over a long period of time and what has led to it. For example, a large, urban city is dealing with the problem of an increasing homeless population, and the city has suggested ways to improve the situation. If journalists focus on the immediate statistics, report the current percentage of homeless people, interview a few, and look at the city’s current investment in a homeless shelter, the coverage is episodic. If they look at homelessness as a problem increasing everywhere, examine the reasons people become homeless, and discuss the trends in cities’ attempts to solve the problem, the coverage is thematic. Episodic frames may create more sympathy, while a thematic frame may leave the reader or viewer emotionally disconnected and less sympathetic. Civil war in Syria has led many to flee the country, including this woman living in a Syrian refugee camp in Jordan in September 2015. Episodic framing of the stories of Syrian refugees, and their deaths, turned government inaction into action. (credit: Enes Reyhan) Framing can also affect the way we see race, socioeconomics, or other generalizations. For this reason, it is linked to priming: when media coverage predisposes the viewer or reader to a particular perspective on a subject or issue. If a newspaper article focuses on unemployment, struggling industries, and jobs moving overseas, the reader will have a negative opinion about the economy. If then asked whether he or she approves of the president’s job performance, the reader is primed to say no. Readers and viewers are able to fight priming effects if they are aware of them or have prior information about the subject. Coverage Effects on Governance and Campaigns When it is spotty, the media’s coverage of campaigns and government can sometimes affect the way government operates and the success of candidates. In 1972, for instance, the McGovern-Fraser reforms created a votercontrolled primary system, so party leaders no longer pick the presidential candidates. Now the media are seen as kingmakers and play a strong role in influencing who will become the Democratic and Republican nominees in presidential elections. They can discuss the candidates’ messages, vet their credentials, carry sound bites of their speeches, and conduct interviews. The candidates with the most media coverage build momentum and do well in the first few primaries and caucuses. This, in turn, leads to more media coverage, more momentum, and eventually a winning candidate. Thus, candidates need the media. In the 1980s, campaigns learned that tight control on candidate information created more favorable media coverage. In the presidential election of 1984, candidates Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush began using an issue-of-the-day strategy, providing quotes and material on only one topic each day. This strategy limited what journalists could cover because they had only limited quotes and sound bites to use in their reports. In 1992, both Bush’s and Bill Clinton’s campaigns maintained their carefully drawn candidate images by also limiting photographers and television journalists to photo opportunities at rallies and campaign venues. The constant control of the media became known as the “bubble,” and journalists were less effective when they were in the campaign’s bubble. Reporters complained this coverage was campaign advertising rather than journalism, and a new model emerged with the 1996 election. (Note: Elizabeth A. Skewes. 2007. Message Control: How News Is Made on the Presidential Campaign Trail. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 79.) Campaign coverage now focuses on the spectacle of the season, rather than providing information about the candidates. Colorful personalities, strange comments, lapse of memories, and embarrassing revelations are more likely to get air time than the candidates’ issue positions. Candidate Donald Trump may be the best example of shallower press coverage of a presidential election. Some argue that newspapers and news programs are limiting the space they allot to discussion of the campaigns. (Note: Stephen Farnsworth and S. Robert Lichter. 2012. "Authors’ Response: Improving News Coverage in the 2012 Presidential Campaign and Beyond," Politics & Policy 40, No. 4: 547–556.) Others argue that citizens want to see updates on the race and electoral drama, not boring issue positions or substantive reporting. (Note: "Early Media Coverage Focuses on Horse Race," PBS News Hour, 12 June 2007.) It may also be that journalists have tired of the information games played by politicians and have taken back control of the news cycles. (Note: Stephen Ansolabehere, Roy Behr, and Shanto Iyengar. 1992. The Media Game: American Politics in the Television Age. New York: Macmillan.) All these factors have likely led to the shallow press coverage we see today, sometimes dubbed pack journalism because journalists follow one another rather than digging for their own stories. Television news discusses the strategies and blunders of the election, with colorful examples. Newspapers focus on polls. In an analysis of the 2012 election, Pew Research found that 64 percent of stories and coverage focused on campaign strategy. Only 9 percent covered domestic issue positions; 6 percent covered the candidates’ public records; and, 1 percent covered their foreign policy positions. (Note: "Frames of Campaign Coverage," Pew Research Center, 23 April 2012, http://www.journalism.org/2012/04/23/frames-campaign-coverage.) For better or worse, coverage of the candidates’ statements get less air time on radio and television, and sound bites, or clips, of their speeches have become even shorter. In 1968, the average sound bite from Richard Nixon was 42.3 seconds, while a recent study of television coverage found that sound bites had decreased to only eight seconds in the 2004 election. (Note: Kiku Adatto. May 28, 1990. "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," New Republic 202, No. 22: 20–23.) The clips chosen to air were attacks on opponents 40 percent of the time. Only 30 percent contained information about the candidate’s issues or events. The study also found the news showed images of the candidates, but for an average of only twenty-five seconds while the newscaster discussed the stories. (Note: Erik Bucy and Maria Elizabeth Grabe. 2007. "Taking Television Seriously: A Sound and Image Bite Analysis of Presidential Campaign Coverage, 1992–2004," Journal of Communication 57, No. 4: 652–675.) This study supports the argument that shrinking sound bites are a way for journalists to control the story and add their own analysis rather than just report on it. (Note: Craig Fehrman, "The Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite," Boston Globe, 2 January 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/01/02/the_incredible_shrinking_sound_bite/.) Candidates are given a few minutes to try to argue their side of an issue, but some say television focuses on the argument rather than on information. In 2004, Jon Stewart of Comedy Central’s The Daily Show began attacking the CNN program Crossfire for being theater, saying the hosts engaged in reactionary and partisan arguing rather than true debating. (Note: "Crossfire: Jon Stewart’s America," CNN, 15 October 2004, http://www.cnn.com/ TRANSCRIPTS/0410/15/cf.01.html.) Some of Stewart’s criticisms resonated, even with host Paul Begala, and Crossfire was later pulled from the air. (Note: Paul Begala, "Begala: The day Jon Stewart blew up my show," CNN, 12 February 2015.) The media’s discussion of campaigns has also grown negative. Although biased campaign coverage dates back to the period of the partisan press, the increase in the number of cable news stations has made the problem more visible. Stations like FOX News and MSNBC are overt in their use of bias in framing stories. During the 2012 campaign, seventy-one of seventy-four MSNBC stories about Mitt Romney were highly negative, while FOX News’ coverage of Obama had forty-six out of fifty-two stories with negative information. The major networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC—were somewhat more balanced, yet the overall coverage of both candidates tended to be negative. (Note: Pew Research Center: Journalism & Media Staff, "Coverage of the Candidates by Media Sector and Cable Outlet," 1 November 2012.) Media coverage of campaigns is increasingly negative, with cable news stations demonstrating more bias in their framing of stories during the 2012 campaign. Due in part to the lack of substantive media coverage, campaigns increasingly use social media to relay their message. Candidates can create their own sites and pages and try to spread news through supporters to the undecided. In 2012, both Romney and Obama maintained Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube accounts to provide information to voters. Yet, on social media, candidates still need to combat negativity, from both the opposition and supporters. Stories about Romney that appeared in the mainstream media were negative 38 percent of the time, while his coverage in Facebook news was negative 62 percent of the time and 58 percent of the time on Twitter. (Note: "Winning the Media Campaign 2012," Pew Research Center, 2 November 2012.) Once candidates are in office, the chore of governing begins, with the added weight of media attention. Historically, if presidents were unhappy with their press coverage, they used personal and professional means to change its tone. Franklin D. Roosevelt, for example, was able to keep journalists from printing stories through gentleman’s agreements, loyalty, and the provision of additional information, sometimes off the record. The journalists then wrote positive stories, hoping to keep the president as a source. John F. Kennedy hosted press conferences twice a month and opened the floor for questions from journalists, in an effort to keep press coverage positive. (Note: Fred Greenstein. 2009. The Presidential Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.) When presidents and other members of the White House are not forthcoming with information, journalists must press for answers. Dan Rather, a journalist for CBS, regularly sparred with presidents in an effort to get information. When Rather interviewed Richard Nixon about Vietnam and Watergate, Nixon was hostile and uncomfortable. (Note: "Dan Rather versus Richard Nixon, 1974," YouTube video, :46, from the National Association of Broadcasters annual convention in Houston on March 19,1974, posted by "thecelebratedmisterk," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGBLAKq8xwc (November 30, 2015); "‘A Conversation With the President,’ Interview With Dan Rather of the Columbia Broadcasting System," The American Presidency Project, 2 January 1972, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3351.) In a 1988 interview with then-vice president George H. W. Bush, Bush accused Rather of being argumentative about the possible cover-up of a secret arms sale with Iran: Rather: I don’t want to be argumentative, Mr. Vice President. Bush: You do, Dan. Rather: No—no, sir, I don’t. Bush: This is not a great night, because I want to talk about why I want to be president, why those 41 percent of the people are supporting me. And I don’t think it’s fair to judge my whole career by a rehash of Iran. How would you like it if I judged your career by those seven minutes when you walked off the set in New York? (Note: Wolf Blitzer, "Dan Rather’s Stand," CNN, 10 September 2004.) Cabinet secretaries and other appointees also talk with the press, sometimes making for conflicting messages. The creation of the position of press secretary and the White House Office of Communications both stemmed from the need to send a cohesive message from the executive branch. Currently, the White House controls the information coming from the executive branch through the Office of Communications and decides who will meet with the press and what information will be given. But stories about the president often examine personality, or the president’s ability to lead the country, deal with Congress, or respond to national and international events. They are less likely to cover the president’s policies or agendas without a lot of effort on the president’s behalf. (Note: Matthew Eshbaugh-Soha and Jeffrey Peake. 2011. Breaking Through the Noise: Presidential Leadership, Public Opinion, and the News Media. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.) When Obama first entered office in 2009, journalists focused on his battles with Congress, critiquing his leadership style and inability to work with Representative Nancy Pelosi, then Speaker of the House. To gain attention for his policies, specifically the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), Obama began traveling the United States to draw the media away from Congress and encourage discussion of his economic stimulus package. Once the ARRA had been passed, Obama began travelling again, speaking locally about why the country needed the Affordable Care Act and guiding media coverage to promote support for the act. (Note: Ibid.) Congressional representatives have a harder time attracting media attention for their policies. House and Senate members who use the media well, either to help their party or to show expertise in an area, may increase their power within Congress, which helps them bargain for fellow legislators’ votes. Senators and high-ranking House members may also be invited to appear on cable news programs as guests, where they may gain some media support for their policies. Yet, overall, because there are so many members of Congress, and therefore so many agendas, it is harder for individual representatives to draw media coverage. (Note: Gary Lee Malecha and Daniel J. Reagan. 2011. The Public Congress: Congressional Deliberation in a New Media Age. New York: Routledge.) It is less clear, however, whether media coverage of an issue leads Congress to make policy, or whether congressional policymaking leads the media to cover policy. In the 1970s, Congress investigated ways to stem the number of drug-induced deaths and crimes. As congressional meetings dramatically increased, the press was slow to cover the topic. The number of hearings was at its highest from 1970 to 1982, yet media coverage did not rise to the same level until 1984. (Note: Frank R. Baumgartner, Bryan D. Jones, and Beth L. Leech. 1997. "Media Attention and Congressional Agendas," In Do The Media Govern? Politicians, Voters, and Reporters in America, eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.) Subsequent hearings and coverage led to national policies like DARE and First Lady Nancy Reagan’s “Just Say No” campaign. First Lady Nancy Reagan speaks at a “Just Say No” rally in Los Angeles on May 13, 1987 (a). The Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) is an anti-drug, anti-gang program founded in 1983 by a joint initiative of the Los Angeles Police Department and the Los Angeles Unified School District. Later studies of the media’s effect on both the president and Congress report that the media has a stronger agenda-setting effect on the president than on Congress. What the media choose to cover affects what the president thinks is important to voters, and these issues were often of national importance. The media’s effect on Congress was limited, however, and mostly extended to local issues like education or child and elder abuse. (Note: George Edwards and Dan Wood. 1999. "Who Influences Whom? The President, Congress, and the Media," American Political Science Review 93, No 2: 327–344; Yue Tan and David Weaver. 2007. "AgendaSetting Effects Among the Media, the Public, and Congress, 1946–2004," Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 84, No. 4: 729–745.) If the media are discussing a topic, chances are a member of Congress has already submitted a relevant bill, and it is waiting in committee. Coverage Effects on Society The media choose what they want to discuss. This agenda setting creates a reality for voters and politicians that affects the way people think, act, and vote. Even if the crime rate is going down, for instance, citizens accustomed to reading stories about assault and other offenses still perceive crime to be an issue. (Note: Ally Fogg, "Crime Is Falling. Now Let’s Reduce Fear of Crime," Guardian, 24 April 24 2013.) Studies have also found that the media’s portrayal of race is flawed, especially in coverage of crime and poverty. One study revealed that local news shows were more likely to show pictures of criminals when they were African American, so they overrepresented blacks as perpetrators and whites as victims. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs: Understanding the Relationship between Local News Viewing and Perceptions of African Americans and Crime," Journal of Communication 58, No. 1: 106–125.) A second study found a similar pattern in which Latinos were underrepresented as victims of crime and as police officers, while whites were overrepresented as both. (Note: Travis Dixon. 2015. "Good Guys Are Still Always in White? Positive Change and Continued Misrepresentation of Race and Crime on Local Television News," Communication Research, doi:10.1177/0093650215579223.) Voters were thus more likely to assume that most criminals are black and most victims and police officers are white, even though the numbers do not support those assumptions. Network news similarly misrepresents the victims of poverty by using more images of blacks than whites in its segments. Viewers in a study were left believing African Americans were the majority of the unemployed and poor, rather than seeing the problem as one faced by many races. (Note: Travis L. Dixon. 2008. "Network News and Racial Beliefs: Exploring the Connection between National Television News Exposure and Stereotypical Perceptions of African Americans," Journal of Communication 58, No. 2: 321–337.) The misrepresentation of race is not limited to news coverage, however. A study of images printed in national magazines, like Time and Newsweek, found they also misrepresented race and poverty. The magazines were more likely to show images of young African Americans when discussing poverty and excluded the elderly and the young, as well as whites and Latinos, which is the true picture of poverty. (Note: Martin Gilens. 1996. "Race and Poverty in America: Public Misperceptions and the American News Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 60, No. 4: 515–541.) ia f a , even if unintentional, affects perceptions and policies. If viewers are continually presented with images of African Americans as criminals, there is an increased chance they will perceive members of this group as violent or aggressive. (Note: Dixon. "Crime News and Racialized Beliefs.") The perception that most recipients of welfare are working-age African Americans may have led some citizens to vote for candidates who promised to reduce welfare benefits. (Note: Gilens. "Race and Poverty in America.") When survey respondents were shown a story of a white unemployed individual, 71 percent listed unemployment as one of the top three problems facing the United States, while only 53 percent did so if the story was about an unemployed African American. (Note: Shanto Iyengar and Donald R. Kinder. 1987. News That Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.) W oi e may also have a priming effect. News organizations like the Los Angeles Times and the Associated Press no longer use the phrase “illegal immigrant” to describe undocumented residents. This may be due to the desire to create a “sympathetic” frame for the immigration situation rather than a “threat” frame. (Note: Daniel C. Hallin. 2015. "The Dynamics of Immigration Coverage in Comparative Perspective," American Behavioral Scientist 59, No. 7: 876–885.) Media coverage of women has been similarly biased. Most journalists in the early 1900s were male, and women’s issues were not part of the newsroom discussion. As journalist Kay Mills put it, the women’s movement of the 1960s and 1970s was about raising awareness of the problems of equality, but writing about rallies “was like trying to nail Jell-O to the wall.” (Note: Kay Mills. 1996. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?" In Women, the Media and Politics, ed. Pippa Norris. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 43.) Most politicians, business leaders, and other authority figures were male, and editors’ reactions to the stories were lukewarm. The lack of women in the newsroom, politics, and corporate leadership encouraged silence. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn and Edie N. Goldenberg. 1997. "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?" In Do the Media Govern? eds. Shanto Iyengar and Richard Reeves. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.) In 1976, journalist Barbara Walters became the first female coanchor on a network news show, The ABC Evening News. She was met with great hostility from her coanchor Harry Reasoner and received critical coverage from the press. (Note: Barbara Walters, "Ms. Walters Reflects," Vanity Fair, 31 May 2008. http://www.vanityfair.com/ culture/2008/06/walters_excerpt200806) On newspaper staffs, women reported having to fight for assignments to well-published beats, or to be assigned areas or topics, such as the economy or politics, that were normally reserved for male journalists. Once female journalists held these assignments, they feared writing about women’s issues. Would it make them appear weak? Would they be taken from their coveted beats? (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?") This apprehension allowed poor coverage of women and the women’s movement to continue until women were better represented as journalists and as editors. Strength of numbers allowed them to be confident when covering issues like health care, childcare, and education. (Note: Mills. "What Difference Do Women Journalists Make?") The media’s historically uneven coverage of women continues in its treatment of female candidates. Early coverage was sparse. The stories that did appear often discussed the candidate’s viability, or ability to win, rather than her stand on the issues. (Note: Kahn and Goldenberg, "The Media: Obstacle or Ally of Feminists?") Women were seen as a novelty rather than as serious contenders who needed to be vetted and discussed. Modern media coverage has changed slightly. One study found that female candidates receive more favorable coverage than in prior generations, especially if they are incumbents. (Note: Kim Fridkin Kahn. 1994. "Does Gender Make a Difference? An Experimental Examination of Sex Stereotypes and Press Patterns in Statewide Campaigns," American Journal of Political Science 38, No. 1: 162–195.) Yet a different study found that while there was increased coverage for female candidates, it was often negative. (Note: John David Rausch, Mark Rozell, and Harry L. Wilson. 1999. "When Women Lose: A Study of Media Coverage of Two Gubernatorial Campaigns," Women & Politics 20, No. 4: 1–22.) And it did not include Latina candidates. (Note: Sarah Allen Gershon. 2013. "Media Coverage of Minority Congresswomen and Voter Evaluations: Evidence from an Online Experimental Study," Political Research Quarterly 66, No. 3: 702–714.) Without coverage, they are less likely to win. The historically negative media coverage of female candidates has had another concrete effect: Women are less likely than men to run for office. One common reason is the effect negative media coverage has on families. (Note: Jennifer Lawless and Richard Logan Fox. 2005. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) Many women do not wish to expose their children or spouses to criticism. (Note: Brittany L. Stalsburg, "Running with Strollers: The Impact of Family Life on Political Ambition," Eagleton Institute of Politics, Spring 2012, Unpublished Paper, http://www.eagleton.rutgers.edu/research/ documents/Stalsburg-FamilyLife-Political-Ambition.pdf (August 28, 2015).) In 2008, the nomination of Sarah as Republican candidate John McCain’s running mate validated this concern. Some articles focused on her qualifications to be a potential future president or her record on the issues. But others questioned whether she had the right to run for office, given she had young children, one of whom has developmental disabilities. (Note: Christina Walker, "Is Sarah Palin Being Held to an Unfair Standard?" CNN, 8 September 2008.) Her daughter, Bristol, was criticized for becoming pregnant while unmarried. (Note: Dana Bash, "Palin’s Teen Daughter is Pregnant," CNN, 1 September 2008.) Her husband was called cheap for failing to buy her a high-priced wedding ring. (Note: Jimmy Orr, "Palin Wardrobe Controversy Heightens - Todd is a Cheapo!" Christian Science Monitor, 26 October 2008.) Even when candidates ask that children and families be off-limits, the press rarely honors the requests. So women with young children may wait until their children are grown before running for office, if they choose to run at all. When Sarah Palin found herself on the national stage at the Republican Convention in September 2008, media coverage about her selection as John McCain’s running mate included numerous questions about her ability to serve based on personal family history. Attacks on candidates’ families lead many women to postpone or avoid running for office. (credit: Carol Highsmith) • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.4 Political Parties POLITICAL PARTIES Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals. This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters. Political Parties as Unique Organizations In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may The party platform adopted at the first national convention of the Progressive Party in 1912. Among other items, this platform called for disclosure requirements for campaign contributions, an eight-hour workday, a federal income tax, and women’s suffrage. find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. How Political Parties Formed National political parties as we understand them today did not really exist in the United States during the early years of the republic. Most politics during the time of the nation’s founding were local in nature and based on elite politics, limited suffrage (or the ability to vote in elections), and property ownership. Residents of the various colonies, and later of the various states, were far more interested in events in their state legislatures than in those occurring at the national level or later in the nation’s capital. To the extent that national issues did exist, they were largely limited to collective security efforts to deal with external rivals, such as the British or the French, and with perceived internal threats, such as conflicts with Native Americans. Soon after the United States emerged from the Revolutionary War, however, a rift began to emerge between two groups that had very different views about the future direction of U.S. politics. Thus, from the very beginning of its history, the United States has had a system of government dominated by two different philosophies. Federalists, who were largely responsible for drafting and ratifying the U.S. Constitution, generally favored the idea of a stronger, more centralized republic that had greater control over regulating the economy. (Note: Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151.) Anti-Federalists preferred a more confederate system built on state equality and autonomy. (Note: Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press, 11.) The Federalist faction, led by Alexander Hamilton, largely dominated the government in the years immediately after the Constitution was ratified. Included in the Federalists was President George Washington, who was initially against the existence of parties in the United States. When Washington decided to exit politics and leave office, he warned of the potential negative effects of parties in his farewell address to the nation, including their potentially divisive nature and the fact that they might not always focus on the common good but rather on partisan ends. However, members of each faction quickly realized that they had a vested interest not only in nominating and electing a president who shared their views, but also in winning other elections. Two loosely affiliated party coalitions, known as the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, soon emerged. The Federalists succeeded in electing their first leader, John Adams, to the presidency in 1796, only to see the Democratic-Republicans gain victory under Thomas Jefferson four years later in 1800. Growing regional tensions eroded the Federalist Party’s ability to coordinate elites, and it eventually collapsed following its opposition to the War of 1812. (Note: James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80.) The Democratic-Republican Party, on the other hand, eventually divided over whether national resources should be focused on economic and mercantile development, such as tariffs on imported goods and government funding of internal improvements like roads and canals, or on promoting populist issues that would help the “common man,” such as reducing or eliminating state property requirements that had prevented many men from voting. (Note: Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books.) In the election of 1824, numerous candidates contended for the presidency, all members of the DemocraticRepublican Party. Andrew Jackson won more popular votes and more votes in the Electoral College than any other candidate. However, because he did not win the majority (more than half) of the available electoral votes, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, as required by the Twelfth Amendment. The Twelfth Amendment limited the House’s choice to the three candidates with the greatest number of electoral votes. Thus, Andrew Jackson, with 99 electoral votes, found himself in competition with only John Quincy Adams, the second place finisher with 84 electoral votes, and William H. Crawford, who had come in third with 41. The fourth-place finisher, Henry Clay, who was no longer in contention, had won 37 electoral votes. Clay strongly disliked Jackson, and his ideas on government support for tariffs and internal improvements were similar to those of Adams. Clay thus gave his support to Adams, who was chosen on the first ballot. Jackson considered the actions of Clay and Adams, the son of the Federalist president John Adams, to be an unjust triumph of supporters of the elite and referred to it as “the corrupt bargain.” (Note: R. R. Stenberg, "Jackson, Buchanan, and the "Corrupt Bargain" Calumny," The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85.) This marked the beginning of what historians call the Second Party System (the first parties had been the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans), with the splitting of the Democratic-Republicans and the formation of two new political parties. One half, called simply the Democratic Party, was the party of Jackson; it continued to advocate for the common people by championing westward expansion and opposing a national bank. The branch of the Democratic-Republicans that believed that the national government should encourage economic (primarily industrial) development was briefly known as the National Republicans and later became the Whig Party. (Note: 2009. "Democratic-Republican Party," In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; "Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America," http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016).) In the election of 1828, Democrat Andrew Jackson was triumphant. Three times as many people voted in 1828 as had in 1824, and most cast their ballots for him. (Note: Virginia Historical Society. "Elections from 1789–1828." http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidentialcampaign-0 (March 11, 2016).) The formation of the Democratic Party marked an important shift in U.S. politics. Rather than being built largely to coordinate elite behavior, the Democratic Party worked to organize the electorate by taking advantage of state-level laws that had extended suffrage from male property owners to nearly all white men. (Note: William G. Shade. 1983. "The Second Party System." In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111.) This change marked the birth of what is often considered the first modern political party in any democracy in the world. (Note: Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3.) It also dramatically changed the way party politics was, and still is, conducted. For one thing, this new party organization was built to include structures that focused on organizing and mobilizing voters for elections at all levels of government. The party also perfected an existing spoils system, in which support for the party during elections was rewarded with jobs in the government bureaucracy after victory. (Note: Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34.) Many of these positions were given to party bosses and their friends. These men were the leaders of political machines, organizations that secured votes for the party’s candidates or supported the party in other ways. Perhaps more importantly, this election-focused organization also sought to maintain power by creating a broader coalition and thereby expanding the range of issues upon which the party was constructed. (Note: Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton.) The Democratic Party emphasized personal politics, which focused on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues. This party dominated national politics from Andrew Jackson’s presidential victory in 1828 until the mid-1850s, when regional tensions began to threaten the nation’s very existence. The growing power of industrialists, who preferred greater national authority, combined with increasing tensions between the northern and southern states over slavery, led to the rise of the Republican Party and its leader Abraham Lincoln in the election of 1860, while the Democratic Party dominated in the South. Like the Democrats, the Republicans also began to utilize a mass approach to party design and organization. Their opposition to the expansion of slavery, and their role in helping to stabilize the Union during Reconstruction, made them the dominant player in national politics for the next several decades. (Note: Calvin Jillson. 1994. "Patterns and Periodicity." In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41.) The Democratic and Republican parties have remained the two dominant players in the U.S. party system since the Civil War (1861–1865). That does not mean, however, that the system has been stagnant. Every political actor and every citizen has the ability to determine for him- or herself whether one of the two parties meets his or her needs and provides an appealing set of policy options, or whether another option is preferable. At various points in the past 170 years, elites and voters have sought to create alternatives to the existing party system. Political parties that are formed as alternatives to the Republican and Democratic parties are known as h d pa ies, or minor parties. In 1892, a third party known as the Populist Party formed in reaction to what its constituents perceived as the domination of U.S. society by big business and a decline in the power of farmers and rural communities. The Populist Party called for the regulation of railroads, an income tax, and the popular election of U.S. senators, who at this time were chosen by state legislatures and not by ordinary voters. (Note: Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12.) The party’s candidate in the 1892 elections, James B. Weaver, did not perform as well as the two main party candidates, and, in the presidential election of 1896, the Populists supported the Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan. Bryan lost, and the Populists once again nominated their own presidential candidates in 1900, 1904, and 1908. The party disappeared from the national scene after 1908, but its ideas were similar to those of the Progressive Party, a new political party created in 1912. Various third parties, also known as minor parties, have appeared in the United States over the years. Some, like the Socialist Party, still exist in one form or another. Others, like the Anti-Masonic Party, which wanted to protect the United States from the influence of the Masonic fraternal order and garnered just under 8 percent of the popular vote in 1832, are gone. In 1912, former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt attempted to form a third party, known as the Progressive Party, as an alternative to the more business-minded Republicans. The Progressives sought to correct the many problems that had arisen as the United States transformed itself from a rural, agricultural nation into an increasingly urbanized, industrialized country dominated by big business interests. Among the reforms that the Progressive Party called for in its 1912 platform were women’s suffrage, an eight-hour workday, and workers’ compensation. The party also favored some of the same reforms as the Populist Party, such as the direct election of U.S. senators and an income tax, although Populists tended to be farmers while the Progressives were from the middle class. In general, Progressives sought to make government more responsive to the will of the people and to end political corruption in government. They wished to break the power of party bosses and political machines, and called upon states to pass laws allowing voters to vote directly on proposed legislation, propose new laws, and recall from office incompetent or corrupt elected officials. The Progressive Party largely disappeared after 1916, and most members returned to the Republican Party. (Note: 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388.) The party enjoyed a brief resurgence in 1924, when Robert “Fighting Bob” La Follette ran unsuccessfully for president under the Progressive banner. In 1948, two new third parties appeared on the political scene. Henry A. Wallace, a vice president under Franklin Roosevelt, formed a new Progressive Party, which had little in common with the earlier Progressive Party. Wallace favored racial desegregation and believed that the United States should have closer ties to the Soviet Union. Wallace’s campaign was a failure, largely because most people believed his policies, including national healthcare, were too much like those of communism, and this party also vanished. The other third party, the States’ Rights Democrats, also known as the Dixiecrats, were white, southern Democrats who split from the Democratic Party when Harry Truman, who favored civil rights for African Americans, became the party’s nominee for president. The Dixiecrats opposed all attempts by the federal government to end segregation, extend voting rights, prohibit discrimination in employment, or otherwise promote social equality among races. (Note: "Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party," http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016).) They remained a significant party that threatened Democratic unity throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Other examples of third parties in the United States include the American Independent Party, the Libertarian Party, United We Stand America, the Reform Party, and the Green Party. None of these alternatives to the two major political parties had much success at the national level, and most are no longer viable parties. All faced the same fate. Formed by charismatic leaders, each championed a relatively narrow set of causes and failed to gain broad support among the electorate. Once their leaders had been defeated or discredited, the party structures that were built to contest elections collapsed. And within a few years, most of their supporters were eventually pulled back into one of the existing parties. To be sure, some of these parties had an electoral impact. For example, the Progressive Party pulled enough votes away from the Republicans to hand the 1912 election to the Democrats. Thus, the third-party rival’s principal accomplishment was helping its least-preferred major party win, usually at the short-term expense of the very issue it championed. In the long run, however, many third parties have brought important issues to the attention of the major parties, which then incorporated these issues into their platforms. Understanding why this is the case is an important next step in learning about the issues and strategies of the modern Republican and Democratic parties. In the next section, we look at why the United States has historically been dominated by only two political parties. The Party-in-the-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties. (Note: "Party Affiliation," http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016).) Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other. (Note: Jeffrey L. Jones, "Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows," http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/ democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016).) As the chart reveals, generation affects party identification. Millennials (ages 18–34) are more likely to identify as or lean towards the Democratic Party and less likely to favor Republicans than are their baby boomer parents and grandparents (born between 1946 and 1964). Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. Political parties are bottom-up structures, with lower levels often responsible for selecting delegates to higher-level offices or conventions. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million. (Note: Russ Choma, "Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed," 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016).) While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the allimportant general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Caucus-goers gather at a Democratic precinct caucus on January 3, 2008, in Iowa City, Iowa. Caucuses are held every two years in more than 1650 Iowa precincts. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.” (Note: Elizabeth Lehman, "Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues," http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennialsmore-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016).) Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012. (Note: "Voter Turnout," http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016).) People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country. (Note: Abdullah Halimah, "Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About," 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016).) National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In August 2012, Clint Eastwood—actor, director, and former mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California—spoke at the Republican National Convention accompanied by an empty chair representing the Democratic incumbent president Barack Obama. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half. (Note: "Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates," http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventionscandidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016).) National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have becoming increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004. (Note: Timothy Zick, "Speech and Spatial Tactics," Texas Law Review February (2006): 581.) With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours. (Note: Thomas E. Patterson, "Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?" http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016).) One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence. (Note: Todd Leopold, "The Day America Met Barack Obama," http://www.cnn.com/ 2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016).) The Party-in-Government One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate, because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures. (Note: Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27.) Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an office holder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it. (Note: Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, "What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act," 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016).) A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished, because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. The Problem of Divided Government The problem of majority versus minority politics is particularly acute under conditions of divided government. Divided government occurs when one or more houses of the legislature are controlled by the party in opposition to the executive. Unified government occurs when the same party controls the executive and the legislature entirely. Divided government can pose considerable difficulties for both the operations of the party and the government as a whole. It makes fulfilling campaign promises extremely difficult, for instance, since the cooperation (or at least the agreement) of both Congress and the president is typically needed to pass legislation. Furthermore, one party can hardly claim credit for success when the other side has been a credible partner, or when nothing can be accomplished. Party loyalty may be challenged too, because individual politicians might be forced to oppose their own party agenda if it will help their personal reelection bids. Divided government can also be a threat to government operations, although its full impact remains unclear. (Note: David R. Mayhew. 1991. Divided We Govern. New Haven: Yale University Press; George C. Edwards, Andrew Barrett and Jeffrey S. Peake, "The Legislative Impact of Divided Government," American Journal of Political Science 41, no. 2 (1997): 545–563.) For example, when the divide between the parties is too great, government may shut down. A 1976 dispute between Republican president Gerald Ford and a Democratcontrolled Congress over the issue of funding for certain cabinet departments led to a ten-day shutdown of the government (although the federal government did not cease to function entirely). But beginning in the 1980s, the interpretation that Republican president Ronald Reagan’s attorney general gave to a nineteenth-century law required a complete shutdown of federal government operations until a funding issue was resolved. (Note: Dylan Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended," The Washington Post, 25 September 2013.) Clearly, the parties’ willingness to work together and compromise can be a very good thing. However, the past several decades have brought an increased prevalence of divided government. Since 1969, the U.S. electorate has sent the president a Congress of his own party in only seven of twenty-three congressional elections, and during George W. Bush’s first administration, the Republican majority was so narrow that a combination of resignations and defections gave the Democrats control before the next election could be held. Over the short term, however, divided government can make for very contentious politics. A well-functioning government usually requires a certain level of responsiveness on the part of both the executive and the legislative branches. This responsiveness is hard enough if government is unified under one party. During the presidency of Democrat Jimmy Carter (1977–1980), despite the fact that both houses of Congress were controlled by Democratic majorities, the government was shut down on five occasions because of conflict between the executive and legislative branches. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.") Shutdowns are even more likely when the president and at least one house of Congress are of opposite parties. During the presidency of Ronald Reagan, for example, the federal government shut down eight times; on seven of those occasions, the shutdown was caused by disagreements between Reagan and the Republican-controlled Senate on the one hand and the Democrats in the House on the other, over such issues as spending cuts, abortion rights, and civil rights. (Note: Matthews, "Here is Every Previous Government Shutdown, Why They Happened and How They Ended.") More such disputes and government shutdowns took place during the administrations of George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama, when different parties controlled Congress and the presidency. For the first few decades of the current pattern of divided government, the threat it posed to the government appears to have been muted by a high degree of bipartisanship, or cooperation through compromise. Many pieces of legislation were passed in the 1960s and 1970s with reasonably high levels of support from both parties. Most members of Congress had relatively moderate voting records, with regional differences within parties that made bipartisanship on many issues more likely. In the early 1980s, Republican president Ronald Reagan (left) and Democratic Speaker of the House Tip O’Neil (right) worked together to pass key pieces of legislation, even though they opposed each other on several issues. (credit: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum) For example, until the 1980s, northern and midwestern Republicans were often fairly progressive, supporting racial equality, workers’ rights, and farm subsidies. Southern Democrats were frequently quite socially and racially conservative and were strong supporters of states’ rights. Cross-party cooperation on these issues was fairly frequent. But in the past few decades, the number of moderates in both houses of Congress has declined. This has made it more difficult for party leadership to work together on a range of important issues, and for members of the minority party in Congress to find policy agreement with an opposing party president. The Implications of Polarization The past thirty years have brought a dramatic change in the relationship between the two parties as fewer conservative Democrats and liberal Republicans have been elected to office. As political moderates, or individuals with ideologies in the middle of the ideological spectrum, leave the political parties at all levels, the parties have grown farther apart ideologically, a result called party polarization. In other words, at least organizationally and in government, Republicans and Democrats have become increasingly dissimilar from one another. In the party-ingovernment, this means fewer members of Congress have mixed voting records; instead they vote far more consistently on issues and are far more likely to side with their party leadership. (Note: Drew Desilver, "The Polarized Congress of Today Has Its Roots in the 1970s," 12 June 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ 2014/06/12/polarized-politics-in-congress-began-in-the-1970s-and-has-been-getting-worse-ever-since/ (March 16, 2016).) It also means a growing number of moderate voters aren’t participating in party politics. Either they are becoming independents, or they are participating only in the general election and are therefore not helping select party candidates in primaries. The number of moderates has dropped since 1973 as both parties have moved toward ideological extremes. What is most interesting about this shift to increasingly polarized parties is that it does not appear to have happened as a result of the structural reforms recommended by APSA. Rather, it has happened because moderate politicians have simply found it harder and harder to win elections. There are many conflicting theories about the causes of polarization, some of which we discuss below. But whatever its origin, party polarization in the United States does not appear to have had the net positive effects that the APSA committee was hoping for. With the exception of providing voters with more distinct choices, positives of polarization are hard to find. The negative impacts are many. For one thing, rather than reducing interparty conflict, polarization appears to have only amplified it. For example, the Republican Party (or the GOP, standing for Grand Old Party) has historically been a coalition of two key and overlapping factions: pro-business rightists and social conservatives. The GOP has held the coalition of these two groups together by opposing programs designed to redistribute wealth (and advocating small government) while at the same time arguing for laws preferred by conservative Christians. But it was also willing to compromise with pro-business Democrats, often at the expense of social issues, if it meant protecting long-term business interests. Recently, however, a new voice has emerged that has allied itself with the Republican Party. Born in part from an older third-party movement known as the Libertarian Party, the Tea Party is more hostile to government and views government intervention in all forms, and especially taxation and the regulation of business, as a threat to capitalism and democracy. It is less willing to tolerate interventions in the market place, even when they are designed to protect the markets themselves. Although an anti-tax faction within the Republican Party has existed for some time, some factions of the Tea Party movement are also active at the intersection of religious liberty and social issues, especially in opposing such initiatives as same-sex marriage and abortion rights. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion," 23 February 2011, http://www.pewforum.org/2011/02/23/tea-party-and-religion/ (March 16, 2016).) The Tea Party has argued that government, both directly and by neglect, is threatening the ability of evangelicals to observe their moral obligations, including practices some perceive as endorsing social exclusion. Although the Tea Party is a movement and not a political party, 86 percent of Tea Party members who voted in 2012 cast their votes for Republicans. (Note: "The Tea Party and Religion.") Some members of the Republican Party are closely affiliated with the movement, and before the 2012 elections, Tea Party activist Grover Norquist exacted promises from many Republicans in Congress that they would oppose any bill that sought to raise taxes. (Note: Paul Waldman, "Nearly All the GOP Candidates Bow Down to Grover Norquist, The Washington Post, 13 August 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2015/08/13/nearly-all-the-gop-candidates-bowdown-to-grover-norquist/ (March 1, 2016).) The inflexibility of Tea Party members has led to tense floor debates and was ultimately responsible for the 2014 primary defeat of Republican majority leader Eric Cantor and the 2015 resignation of the sitting Speaker of the House John Boehner. In 2015, Chris Christie, John Kasich, Ben Carson, Marco Rubio, and Ted Cruz, all of whom were Republican presidential candidates, signed Norquist’s pledge as well. Vying for the Republican nomination, 2016 presidential candidates Ted Cruz (a) and John Kasich (b), like many other Republicans, signed a pledge not to raise taxes if elected. Movements on the left have also arisen. The Occupy Wall Street movement was born of the government’s response to the Great Recession of 2008 and its assistance to endangered financial institutions, provided through the Troubled Asset Relief Program, TARP. The Occupy Movement believed the recession was caused by a failure of the government to properly regulate the banking industry. The Occupiers further maintained that the government moved swiftly to protect the banking industry from the worst of the recession but largely failed to protect the average person, thereby worsening the growing economic inequality in the United States. On September 30, 2011, Occupy Wall Street protesters marched to the headquarters of the New York Police Department to protest police brutality that occurred in response to the movement’s occupation of Zuccotti Park in Lower Manhattan. (credit: modification of work by David Shankbone) While the Occupy Movement itself has largely fizzled, the anti-business sentiment to which it gave voice continues within the Democratic Party, and many Democrats have proclaimed their support for the movement and its ideals, if not for its tactics. (Note: Beth Fouhy, "Occupy Wall Street and Democrats Remain Wary of Each Other," Huffington Post, 17 November 2011.) Champions of the left wing of the Democratic Party, however, such as presidential candidate Senator Bernie Sanders and Massachusetts Senator Elizabeth Warren, have ensured that the Occupy Movement’s calls for more social spending and higher taxes on the wealthy remain a prominent part of the national debate. Their popularity, and the growing visibility of race issues in the United States, have helped sustain the left wing of the Democratic Party. Bernie Sanders’ presidential run made these topics and causes even more salient, especially among younger voters. To date, however, the Occupy Movement has had fewer electoral effects than has the Tea Party. Yet, as manifested in Sanders’ candidacy, it has the potential to affect races at lower levels in the 2016 national elections. Unfortunately, party factions haven’t been the only result of party polarization. By most measures, the U.S. government in general and Congress in particular have become less effective in recent years. Congress has passed fewer pieces of legislation, confirmed fewer appointees, and been less effective at handling the national purse than in recent memory. If we define effectiveness as legislative productivity, the 106th Congress (1999–2000) passed 463 pieces of substantive legislation (not including commemorative legislation, such as bills proclaiming an official doughnut of the United States). The 107th Congress (2000–2001) passed 294 such pieces of legislation. By 2013–2014, the total had fallen to 212. (Note: Drew Desilver, "In Late Spurt of Activity, Congress Avoids ‘Least Productive’ Title," 29 December 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/29/in-latespurt-of-activity-congress-avoids-least-productive-title/ (March 16, 2016).) Perhaps the clearest sign of Congress’ ineffectiveness is that the threat of government shutdown has become a constant. Shutdowns occur when Congress and the president are unable to authorize and appropriate funds before the current budget runs out. This is now an annual problem. Relations between the two parties became so bad that financial markets were sent into turmoil in 2014 when Congress failed to increase the government’s line of credit before a key deadline, thus threatening a U.S. government default on its loans. While any particular trend can be the result of multiple factors, the decline of key measures of institutional confidence and trust suggest the negative impact of polarization. Public approval ratings for Congress have been near single digits for several years, and a poll taken in February 2016 revealed that only 11 percent of respondents thought Congress was doing a “good or excellent job.” (Note: "Congressional Performance," http://www.rasmussenreports.com/ public_content/politics/mood_of_america/congressional_performance (March 16, 2016).) President Obama’s average approval rating has remained low, despite an overall trend of economic growth since the end of the 2008 recession. (Note: "Presidential Approval Ratings – Barack Obama," http://www.gallup.com/poll/116479/barackobama-presidential-job-approval.aspx (March 16, 2016).) Typically, economic conditions are a significant driver of presidential approval, suggesting the negative effect of partisanship on presidential approval. The Causes of Polarization Scholars agree that some degree of polarization is occurring in the United States, even if some contend it is only at the elite level. But they are less certain about exactly why, or how, polarization has become such a mainstay of American politics. Several conflicting theories have been offered. The first and perhaps best argument is that polarization is a party-in-government phenomenon driven by a decades-long sorting of the voting public, or a change in party allegiance in response to shifts in party position. (Note: Morris Fiorina, "Americans Have Not Become More Politically Polarized," The Washington Post, 23 June 2014.) According to the sorting thesis, before the 1950s, voters were mostly concerned with state-level party positions rather than national party concerns. Since parties are bottom-up institutions, this meant local issues dominated elections; it also meant national-level politicians typically paid more attention to local problems than to national party politics. But over the past several decades, voters have started identifying more with national-level party politics, and they began to demand their elected representatives become more attentive to national party positions. As a result, they have become more likely to pick parties that consistently represent national ideals, are more consistent in their candidate selection, and are more willing to elect office-holders likely to follow their party’s national agenda. One example of the way social change led to party sorting revolves around race. The Democratic Party returned to national power in the 1930s largely as the result of a coalition among low socioeconomic status voters in northern and midwestern cities. These new Democratic voters were religiously and ethnically more diverse than the mostly white, mostly Protestant voters who supported Republicans. But the southern United States (often called the “Solid South”) had been largely dominated by Democratic politicians since the Civil War. These politicians agreed with other Democrats on most issues, but they were more evangelical in their religious beliefs and less tolerant on racial matters. The federal nature of the United States meant that Democrats in other parts of the country were free to seek alliances with minorities in their states. But in the South, African Americans were still largely disenfranchised well after Franklin Roosevelt had brought other groups into the Democratic tent. The Democratic alliance worked relatively well through the 1930s and 1940s when post-Depression politics revolved around supporting farmers and helping the unemployed. But in the late 1950s and early 1960s, social issues became increasingly prominent in national politics. Southern Democrats, who had supported giving the federal government authority for economic redistribution, began to resist calls for those powers to be used to restructure society. Many of these Democrats broke away from the party only to find a home among Republicans, who were willing to help promote smaller national government and greater states’ rights. (Note: Ian Haney-Lopez, "How the GOP Became the ‘White Man’s Party,’" 22 December 2013, https://www.salon.com/2013/12/22/ how_the_gop_became_the_white_mans_party/ (March 16, 2016).) This shift was largely completed with the rise of the evangelical movement in politics, when it shepherded its supporters away from Jimmy Carter, an evangelical Christian, to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election. At the same time social issues were turning the Solid South towards the Republican Party, they were having the opposite effect in the North and West. Moderate Republicans, who had been champions of racial equality since the time of Lincoln, worked with Democrats to achieve social reform. These Republicans found it increasing difficult to remain in their party as it began to adjust to the growing power of the small government–states’ rights movement. A good example was Senator Arlen Specter, a moderate Republican who represented Pennsylvania and ultimately switched to become a Democrat before the end of his political career. A second possible culprit in increased polarization is the impact of technology on the public square. Before the 1950s, most people got their news from regional newspapers and local radio stations. While some national programming did exist, most editorial control was in the hands of local publishers and editorial boards. These groups served as a filter of sorts as they tried to meet the demands of local markets. As described in detail in the media chapter, the advent of television changed that. Television was a powerful tool, with national news and editorial content that provided the same message across the country. All viewers saw the same images of the women’s rights movement and the war in Vietnam. The expansion of news coverage to cable, and the consolidation of local news providers into big corporate conglomerates, amplified this nationalization. Average citizens were just as likely to learn what it meant to be a Republican from a politician in another state as from one in their own, and national news coverage made it much more difficult for politicians to run away from their votes. The information explosion that followed the heyday of network TV by way of cable, the Internet, and blogs has furthered this nationalization trend. A final possible cause for polarization is the increasing sophistication of gerrymandering, or the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate. According to the gerrymandering thesis, the more moderate or heterogeneous a voting district, the more moderate the politician’s behavior once in office. Taking extreme or one-sided positions on a large number of issues would be hazardous for a member who needs to build a diverse electoral coalition. But if the district has been drawn to favor a particular group, it now is necessary for the elected official to serve only the portion of the constituency that dominates. This cartoon, which inspired the term gerrymander, was printed in the Boston Gazette on March 26, 1812, after the Massachusetts legislature redistricted the state to favor the party of the sitting governor, Elbridge Gerry. Gerrymandering is a centuries-old practice. There has always been an incentive for legislative bodies to draw districts in such a way that sitting legislators have the best chance of keeping their jobs. But changes in law and technology have transformed gerrymandering from a crude art into a science. The first advance came with the introduction of the “one-person-one-vote” principle by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1962. Before then, it was common for many states to practice redistricting, or redrawing of their electoral maps, only if they gained or lost seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. This can happen once every ten years as a result of a constitutionally mandated reapportionment process, in which the number of House seats given to each state is adjusted to account for population changes. But if there was no change in the number of seats, there was little incentive to shift district boundaries. After all, if a legislator had won election based on the current map, any change to the map could make losing seats more likely. Even when reapportionment led to new maps, most legislators were more concerned with protecting their own seats than with increasing the number of seats held by their party. As a result, some districts had gone decades without significant adjustment, even as the U.S. population changed from largely rural to largely urban. By the early 1960s, some electoral districts had populations several times greater than those of their more rural neighbors. However, in its one-person-one-vote decision in Reynolds v. Simms (1964), the Supreme Court argued that everyone’s vote should count roughly the same regardless of where they lived. (Note: Reynolds v. Simms, 379 U.S. 870 (1964).) Districts had to be adjusted so they would have roughly equal populations. Several states therefore had to make dramatic changes to their electoral maps during the next two redistricting cycles (1970–1972 and 1980–1982). Map designers, no longer certain how to protect individual party members, changed tactics to try and create safe seats so members of their party could be assured of winning by a comfortable margin. The basic rule of thumb was that designers sought to draw districts in which their preferred party had a 55 percent or better chance of winning a given district, regardless of which candidate the party nominated. Of course, many early efforts at post-Reynolds gerrymandering were crude since map designers had no good way of knowing exactly where partisans lived. At best, designers might have a rough idea of voting patterns between precincts, but they lacked the ability to know voting patterns in individual blocks or neighborhoods. They also had to contend with the inherent mobility of the U.S. population, which meant the most carefully drawn maps could be obsolete just a few years later. Designers were often forced to use crude proxies for party, such as race or the socio-economic status of a neighborhood. Some maps were so crude they were ruled unconstitutionally discriminatory by the courts. Examples of gerrymandering in Texas, where the Republican-controlled legislature redrew House districts to reduce the number of Democratic seats by combining voters in Austin with those near the border, several hundred miles away. Today, Austin is represented by six different congressional representatives. Proponents of the gerrymandering thesis point out that the decline in the number of moderate voters began during this period of increased redistricting. But it wasn’t until later, they argue, that the real effects could be seen. A second advance in redistricting, via computer-aided map making, truly transformed gerrymandering into a science. Refined computing technology, the ability to collect data about potential voters, and the use of advanced algorithms have given map makers a good deal of certainty about where to place district boundaries to best predetermine the outcomes. These factors also provided better predictions about future population shifts, making the effects of gerrymandering more stable over time. Proponents argue that this increased efficiency in map drawing has led to the disappearance of moderates in Congress. According to political scientist Nolan McCarty, there is little evidence to support the redistricting hypothesis alone. First, he argues, the Senate has become polarized just as the House of Representatives has, but people vote for Senators on a statewide basis. There are no gerrymandered voting districts in elections for senators. Research showing that more partisan candidates first win election to the House before then running successfully for the Senate, however, helps us understand how the Senate can also become partisan. (Note: Sean Theriault. 2013. The Gingrich Senators: The Roots of Partisan Warfare in Congress. New York: Oxford University Press.) Furthermore, states like Wyoming and Vermont, which have only one Representative and thus elect House members on a statewide basis as well, have consistently elected people at the far ends of the ideological spectrum. (Note: Nolan McCarty, "Hate Our Polarized Politics? Why You Can’t Blame Gerrymandering," The Washington Post, 26 October 2012.) Redistricting did contribute to polarization in the House of Representatives, but it took place largely in districts that had undergone significant change. (Note: Jamie L. Carson et al., "Redistricting and Party Polarization in the U.S. House of Representatives," American Politics Research 35, no. 6 (2007): 878–904.) Furthermore, polarization has been occurring throughout the country, but the use of increasingly polarized district design has not. While some states have seen an increase in these practices, many states were already largely dominated by a single party (such as in the Solid South) but still elected moderate representatives. Some parts of the country have remained closely divided between the two parties, making overt attempts at gerrymandering difficult. But when coupled with the sorting phenomenon discussed above, redistricting probably is contributing to polarization, if only at the margins. • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 6.5 Interest Groups INTEREST GROUPS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| While the term interest group is not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution, the framers were aware that individuals would band together in an attempt to use government in their favor. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison warned of the dangers of “factions,” minorities who would organize around issues they felt strongly about, possibly to the detriment of the majority. But Madison believed limiting these factions was worse than facing the evils they might produce, because such limitations would violate individual freedoms. Instead, the natural way to control factions was to let them flourish and compete against each other. The sheer number of interests in the United States suggests that many have, indeed, flourished. They compete with similar groups for membership, and with opponents for access to decision-makers. Some people suggest there may be too many interests in the United States. Others argue that some have gained a disproportionate amount of influence over public policy, whereas many others are underrepresented. Madison’s definition of factions can apply to both interest groups and political parties. But unlike political parties, interest groups do not function primarily to elect candidates under a certain party label or to directly control the operation of the government. Political parties in the United States are generally much broader coalitions that represent a significant proportion of citizens. In the American two-party system, the Democratic and Republican Parties spread relatively wide nets to try to encompass large segments of the population. In contrast, while interest groups may support or oppose political candidates, their goals are usually more issue-specific and narrowly focused on areas like taxes, the environment, and gun rights or gun control, or their membership is limited to specific professions. They may represent interests ranging from well-known organizations, such as the Sierra Club, IBM, or the American Lung Association, to obscure ones, such as the North Carolina Gamefowl Breeders Association. Thus, with some notable exceptions, specific interest groups have much more limited membership than do political parties. Political parties and interest groups both work together and compete for influence, although in different ways. While interest group activity often transcends party lines, many interests are perceived as being more supportive of one party than the other. The American Conservative Union, Citizens United, the National Rifle Association, and National Right to Life are more likely to have relationships with Republican lawmakers than with Democratic ones. Americans for Democratic Action, Moveon.org, and the Democratic Governors Association all have stronger relationships with the Democratic Party. Parties and interest groups do compete with each other, however, often for influence. At the state level, we typically observe an inverse relationship between them in terms of power. Interest groups tend to have greater influence in states where political parties are comparatively weaker. What Are Interest Groups and What Do They Want? Definitions abound when it comes to interest groups, which are sometimes referred to as special interests, interest organizations, pressure groups, or just interests. Most definitions specify that interest group indicates any formal association of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and/ or the making of public policy. Often, this influence is exercised by a lobbyist or a lobbying firm. Formally, a lobbyist is someone who represents the interest organization before government, is usually compensated for doing so, and is required to register with the government in which he or she lobbies, whether state or federal. The lobbyist’s primary goal is usually to influence policy. Most interest organizations engage in lobbying activity to achieve their objectives. As you might expect, the interest hires a lobbyist, employs one internally, or has a member volunteer to lobby on its behalf. For present purposes, we might restrict our definition to the relatively broad one in the Lobbying Disclosure Act. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes. 2013. Interest Groups in American Politics. Routledge: New York.) This act requires the registration of lobbyists representing any interest group and devoting more than 20 percent of their time to it. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) Clients and lobbying firms must also register with the federal government based on similar requirements. Moreover, campaign finance laws require disclosure of campaign contributions given to political candidates by organizations. Lobbying is not limited to Washington, DC, however, and many interests lobby there as well as in one or more states. Each state has its own laws describing which individuals and entities must register, so the definitions of lobbyists and interests, and of what lobbying is and who must register to do it, also vary from state to state. Therefore, while a citizen contacting a lawmaker to discuss an issue is generally not viewed as lobbying, an organization that devotes a certain amount of time and resources to contacting lawmakers may be classified as lobbying, depending on local, state, or federal law. Largely for this reason, there is no comprehensive list of all interest groups to tell us how many there are in the United States. Estimates of the number vary widely, suggesting that if we use a broad definition and include all interests at all levels of government, there may be more than 200,000. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) Following the passage of the Lobbying Disclosure Act in 1995, we had a much better understanding of the number of interests registered in Washington, DC; however, it was not until several years later that we had a complete count and categorization of the interests registered in each of the fifty states. (Note: Jennifer Wolak, Adam J. Newmark, Todd McNoldy, David Lowery, and Virginia Gray, "Much of Politics is Still Local: Multistate Representation in State Interest Communities," Legislative Studies Quarterly 27 (2002): 527–555.) Political scientists have categorized interest groups in a number of ways. (Note: Anthony J. Nownes and Adam J. Newmark. 2013. "Interest Groups in the States." In Politics in the American States. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 105–131.) First, interest groups may take the form of membership organizations, which individuals join voluntarily and to which they usually pay dues. Membership groups often consist of people who have common issues or concerns, or who want to be with others who share their views. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a membership group consisting of members who promote gun rights. For those who advocate greater regulation of access to firearms, such as background checks prior to gun purchases, the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence is a membership organization that weighs in on the other side of the issue. (Note: The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence was founded by James and Sarah Brady, after James Brady was permanently disabled by a gunshot following an assassination attempt on then-president Ronald Reagan. At the time of the shooting, Brady was Reagan’s press secretary. http://www.bradycampaign.org/jim-and-sarah-brady (March 1, 2016).) A Florida member of the NRA proudly displays his support of gun rights (a). In December 2012, CREDO, a San Francisco telecommunications company that supports progressive causes, called on the NRA to stop blocking Congress from passing gun control legislation (b). (credit a: modification of work by Daniel Oines; credit b: modification of work by Josh Lopez) Interest groups may also form to represent companies, corporate organizations, and governments. These groups do not have individual members but rather are offshoots of corporate or governmental entities with a compelling interest to be represented in front of one or more branches of government. Verizon and Coca-Cola will register to lobby in order to influence policy in a way that benefits them. These corporations will either have one or more inhouse lobbyists, who work for one interest group or firm and represent their organization in a lobbying capacity, and/or will hire a contract lobbyist, individuals who work for firms that represent a multitude of clients and are often hired because of their resources and their ability to contact and lobby lawmakers, to represent them before the legislature. Governments such as municipalities and executive departments such as the Department of Education register to lobby in an effort to maximize their share of budgets or increase their level of autonomy. These government institutions are represented by a legislative liaison, whose job is to present issues to decision-makers. For example, a state university usually employs a lobbyist, legislative liaison, or government affairs person to represent its interests before the legislature. This includes lobbying for a given university’s share of the budget or for its continued autonomy from lawmakers and other state-level officials who may attempt to play a greater oversight role. In 2015, thirteen states had their higher education budgets cut from the previous year, and nearly all states have seen some cuts to higher education funding since the recession began in 2008. (Note: Michael Mitchell and Michael Leachman, "Years of Cuts Threaten to Put College Out of Reach for More Students," Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 13 May 2015, http://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/years-of-cuts-threaten-toput-college-out-of-reach-for-more-students.) In 2015, as in many states, universities and community colleges in Mississippi lobbied the legislature over pending budget cuts. (Note: Robert Davidson, "Higher Ed Lobbies for More Funds," http://www.wcbi.com/local-news/higher-ed-lobbies-for-more-funds/ (November 3, 2015).) These examples highlight the need for universities and state university systems to have representation before the legislature. On the federal level, universities may lobby for research funds from government departments. For example, the Departments of Defense and Homeland Security may be willing to fund scientific research that might better enable them to defend the nation. Interest groups also include associations, which are typically groups of institutions that join with others, often within the same trade or industry (trade associations), and have similar concerns. The American Beverage Association (Note: http://www.ameribev.org/ (March 1, 2016).) includes Coca-Cola, Red Bull North America, ROCKSTAR, and Kraft Foods. Despite the fact that these companies are competitors, they have common interests related to the manufacturing, bottling, and distribution of beverages, as well as the regulation of their business activities. The logic is that there is strength in numbers, and if members can lobby for tax breaks or eased regulations for an entire industry, they may all benefit. These common goals do not, however, prevent individual association members from employing in-house lobbyists or contract lobbying firms to represent their own business or organization as well. Indeed, many members of associations are competitors who also seek representation individually before the legislature. Finally, sometimes individuals volunteer to represent an organization. They are called amateur or volunteer lobbyists, and are typically not compensated for their lobbying efforts. In some cases, citizens may lobby for pet projects because they care about some issue or cause. They may or may not be members of an interest group, but if they register to lobby, they are sometimes nicknamed “hobbyists.” Lobbyists representing a variety of organizations employ different techniques to achieve their objectives. One method is inside lobbying or direct lobbying, which takes the interest group’s message directly to a government official such as a lawmaker. (Note: Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") Inside lobbying tactics include testifying in legislative hearings and helping to draft legislation. Numerous surveys of lobbyists have confirmed that the vast majority rely on these inside strategies. For example, nearly all report that they contact lawmakers, testify before the legislature, help draft legislation, and contact executive agencies. Trying to influence government appointments or providing favors to members of government are somewhat less common insider tactics. Many lobbyists also use outside lobbying or indirect lobbying tactics, whereby the interest attempts to get its message out to the public. (Note: Ken Kollman. 1998. Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Groups Strategies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.) These tactics include issuing press releases, placing stories and articles in the media, entering coalitions with other groups, and contacting interest group members, hoping that they will individually pressure lawmakers to support or oppose legislation. An environmental interest group like the Sierra Club, for example, might issue a press release or encourage its members to contact their representatives in Congress about legislation of concern to the group. It might also use outside tactics if there is a potential threat to the environment and the group wants to raise awareness among its members and the public. Members of Congress are likely to pay attention when many constituents contact them about an issue or proposed bill. Many interest groups, including the Sierra Club, will use a combination of inside and outside tactics in their lobbying efforts, choosing whatever strategy is most likely to help them achieve their goals. In February 2013, members of the Sierra Club joined a march on Los Angeles City Hall to demand action on climate change and protest the development of the Keystone pipeline. (credit: Charlie Kaijo) The primary goal of most interests, no matter their lobbying approach, is to influence decision-makers and public policies. For example, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, lobbies to encourage government to enact laws that restrict abortion access, while NARAL Pro-Choice America lobbies to promote the right of women to have safe choices about abortion. Environmental interests like the Sierra Club lobby for laws designed to protect natural resources and minimize the use of pollutants. On the other hand, some interests lobby to reduce regulations that an organization might view as burdensome. Air and water quality regulations designed to improve or protect the environment may be viewed as onerous by industries that pollute as a byproduct of their production or manufacturing process. Other interests lobby for budgetary allocations; the farm lobby, for example, pressures Congress to secure new farm subsidies or maintain existing ones. Farm subsidies are given to some farmers because they grow certain crops and to other farmers so they will not grow certain crops. (Note: "Milking Taxpayers," The Economist, 14 February 2015, http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21643191-cropprices-fall-farmers-grow-subsidies-instead-milking-taxpayers.) As expected, any bill that might attempt to alter these subsidies raises the antennae of many agricultural interests. Interest Group Functions While influencing policy is the primary goal, interest groups also monitor government activity, serve as a means of political participation for members, and provide information to the public and to lawmakers. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, by November 2015, thirty-six states had laws requiring that voters provide identification at the polls. (Note: http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id.aspx (November 78, 2015).) A civil rights group like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) will keep track of proposed voter-identification bills in state legislatures that might have an effect on voting rights. This organization will contact lawmakers to voice approval or disapproval of proposed legislation (inside lobbying) and encourage group members to take action by either donating money to it or contacting lawmakers about the proposed bill (outside lobbying). Thus, a member of the organization or a citizen concerned about voting rights need not be an expert on the legislative process or the technical or legal details of a proposed bill to be informed about potential threats to voting rights. Other interest groups function in similar ways. For example, the NRA monitors attempts by state legislatures to tighten gun control laws. Interest groups facilitate political participation in a number of ways. Some members become active within a group, working on behalf of the organization to promote its agenda. Some interests work to increase membership, inform the public about issues the group deems important, or organize rallies and promote get-out-the-vote efforts. Sometimes groups will utilize events to mobilize existing members or encourage new members to join. For example, following Barack Obama’s presidential victory in 2008, the NRA used the election as a rallying cry for its supporters, and it continues to attack the president on the issue of guns, despite the fact that gun rights have in some ways expanded over the course of the Obama presidency. Interest groups also organize letter-writing campaigns, stage protests, and sometimes hold fundraisers for their cause or even for political campaigns. Some interests are more broadly focused than others. AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) has approximately thirty-seven million members and advocates for individuals fifty and over on a variety of issues including health care, insurance, employment, financial security, and consumer protection. (Note: http://www.aarp.org/about-aarp/ (October 3, 2015).) This organization represents both liberals and conservatives, Democrats and Republicans, and many who do not identify with these categorizations. On the other hand, the Association of Black Cardiologists is a much smaller and far-narrower organization. Over the last several decades, some interest groups have sought greater specialization and have even fragmented. As you may imagine, the Association of Black Cardiologists is more specialized than the American Medical Association, which tries to represent all physicians regardless of race or specialty. Health care is an important concern for AARP and its members, so the organization makes sure to maintain connections with key policymakers in this area, such as Katherine Sebelius, secretary of Health and Human Services from 2009 to 2014, shown here with John Rother, director of legislation and public policy for AARP. (credit: modification of work by Chris Smith, HHS) Public vs. Private Interest Groups Interest groups and organizations represent both private and public interests in the United States. Private interests usually seek particularized benefits from government that favor either a single interest or a narrow set of interests. For example, corporations and political institutions may lobby government for tax exemptions, fewer regulations, or favorable laws that benefit individual companies or an industry more generally. Their goal is to promote private goods. Private goods are items individuals can own, including corporate profits. An automobile is a private good; when you purchase it, you receive ownership. Wealthy individuals are more likely to accumulate private goods, and they can sometimes obtain private goods from governments, such as tax benefits, government subsidies, or government contracts. On the other hand, public interest groups attempt to promote public, or collective, goods. Such collective goods are benefits—tangible or intangible—that help most or all citizens. These goods are often produced collectively, and because they may not be profitable and everyone may not agree on what public goods are best for society, they are often underfunded and thus will be underproduced unless there is government involvement. The Tennessee Valley Authority, a government corporation, provides electricity in some places where it is not profitable for private firms to do so. Other examples of collective goods are public safety, highway safety, public education, and environmental protection. With some exceptions, if an environmental interest promotes clean air or water, most or all citizens are able to enjoy the result. So if the Sierra Club encourages Congress to pass legislation that improves national air quality, citizens receive the benefit regardless of whether they are members of the organization or even support the legislation. Many environmental groups are public interest groups that lobby for and raise awareness of issues that affect large segments of the population. (Note: Jeffrey M. Berry and Clyde Wilcox. 2009. The Interest Group Society. New York: Pearson.) As the clean air example above suggests, collective goods are generally nonexcludable, meaning all or most people are entitled to the public good and cannot be prevented from enjoying it. Furthermore, collective goods are generally not subject to crowding, so that even as the population increases, people still have access to the entire public good. Thus, the military does not protect citizens only in Texas and Maryland while neglecting those in New York and Idaho, but instead it provides the collective good of national defense equally to citizens in all states. As another example, even as more cars use a public roadway, under most circumstances, additional drivers still have the option of using the same road. (High-occupancy vehicle lanes may restrict some lanes of a highway for drivers who do not car pool.) Influence in Elections Interest groups support candidates who are sympathetic to their views in hopes of gaining access to them once they are in office. (Note: John R. Wright. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon; Mark J. Rozell, Clyde Wilcox, and Michael M. Franz. 2012. Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering. New York: Oxford University Press.) For example, an organization like the NRA will back candidates who support Second Amendment rights. Both the NRA and the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence (an interest group that favors background checks for firearm purchases) have grading systems that evaluate candidates and states based on their records of supporting these organizations. (Note: https://www.nrapvf.org/grades/; http://www.bradycampaign.org/ 2013-state-scorecard (March 1, 2016).) To garner the support of the NRA, candidates must receive an A+ rating for the group. In much the same way, Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal interest group, and the American Conservative Union, a conservative interest group, both rate politicians based on their voting records on issues these organizations view as important. (Note: http://www.adaction.org/pages/publications/voting-records.php; http://acuratings.conservative.org/ (March 1, 2016).) These ratings, and those of many other groups, are useful for interests and the public in deciding which candidates to support and which to oppose. Incumbents have electoral advantages in terms of name recognition, experience, and fundraising abilities, and they often receive support because interest groups want access to the candidate who is likely to win. Some interest groups will offer support to the challenger, particularly if the challenger better aligns with the interest’s views or the incumbent is vulnerable. Sometimes, interest groups even hedge their bets and give to both major party candidates for a particular office in the hopes of having access regardless of who wins. Some interests groups form political action committees (PACs), groups that collect funds from donors and distribute them to candidates who support their issues. As the chart below makes apparent, many large corporations like Honeywell International, AT&T, and Lockheed Martin form PACs to distribute money to candidates. (Note: https://www.opensecrets.org/pacs/ (March 1, 2016).) Other PACs are either politically or ideologically oriented. For example, the MoveOn.org PAC is a progressive group that formed following the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton, whereas GOPAC is a Republican PAC that promotes state and local candidates of that party. PACs are limited in the amount of money that they can contribute to individual candidates or to national party organizations; they can contribute no more than $5,000 per candidate per election and no more than $15,000 a year to a national political party. Individual contributions to PACs are also limited to $5,000 a year. Corporations and associations spend large amounts of money on elections via affiliated PACs. This chart reveals the amount donated to Democratic (blue) and Republican (red) candidates by the top ten PACs during the most recent election cycle. PACs through which corporations and unions can spend virtually unlimited amounts of money on behalf of political candidates are called super PACs. (Note: Conor M. Dowling and Michael G. Miller. 2014. Super PAC! Money, Elections, and Voters after Citizens United. New York: Routledge.) As a result of a 2010 Supreme Court decision, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, there is no limit to how much money unions or corporations can donate to super PACs. Unlike PACs, however, super PACs cannot contribute money directly to individual candidates. If the 2014 elections were any indication, super PACs will continue to spend large sums of money in an attempt to influence future election results. Influencing Governmental Policy Interest groups support candidates in order to have access to lawmakers once they are in office. Lawmakers, for their part, lack the time and resources to pursue every issue; they are policy generalists. Therefore, they (and their staff members) rely on interest groups and lobbyists to provide them with information about the technical details of policy proposals, as well as about fellow lawmakers’ stands and constituents’ perceptions. These voting cues give lawmakers an indication of how to vote on issues, particularly those with which they are unfamiliar. But lawmakers also rely on lobbyists for information about ideas they can champion and that will benefit them when they run for reelection. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence.) Interest groups likely cannot target all 535 lawmakers in both the House and the Senate, nor would they wish to do so. There is little reason for the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence to lobby members of Congress who vehemently oppose any restrictions on gun access. Instead, the organization will often contact lawmakers who are amenable to some restrictions on access to firearms. Thus, interest groups first target lawmakers they think will consider introducing or sponsoring legislation. Second, they target members of relevant committees. (Note: Richard L. Hall and Frank W. Wayman, "Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees," American Political Science Review 84.3 (1990): 797-820.) If a company that makes weapons systems wants to influence a defense bill, it will lobby members of the Armed Services Committees in the House and the Senate or the House and Senate appropriations committees if the bill requires new funding. Many members of these committees represent congressional districts with military bases, so they often sponsor or champion bills that allow them to promote policies popular with their districts or state. Interest groups attempt to use this to their advantage. But they also conduct strategic targeting because legislatures function by respectfully considering fellow lawmakers’ positions. Since lawmakers cannot possess expertise on every issue, they defer to their trusted colleagues on issues with which they are unfamiliar. So targeting committee members also allows the lobbyist to inform other lawmakers indirectly. Third, interest groups target lawmakers when legislation is on the floor of the House and/or Senate, but again, they rely on the fact that many members will defer to their colleagues who are more familiar with a given issue. Finally, since legislation must past both chambers in identical form, interest groups may target members of the conference committees whose job it is to iron out differences across the chambers. At this negotiation stage, a 1 percent difference in, say, the corporate income tax rate could mean millions of dollars in increased or decreased revenue or taxation for various interests. Interest groups also target the budgetary process in order to maximize benefits to their group. In some cases, their aim is to influence the portion of the budget allocated to a given policy, program, or policy area. For example, interests for groups that represent the poor may lobby for additional appropriations for various welfare programs; those interests opposed to government assistance to the poor may lobby for reduced funding to certain programs. It is likely that the legislative liaison for your university or college spends time trying to advocate for budgetary allocations in your state. Interest groups also try to defeat legislation that may be detrimental to their views. For example, when Congress considers legislation to improve air quality, it is not unusual for some industries to oppose it if it requires additional regulations on factory emissions. In some cases, proposed legislation may serve as a disturbance, resulting in group formation or mobilization to help defeat the bill. For example, a proposed tax increase may result in the formation or mobilization of anti-tax groups that will lobby the legislature and try to encourage the public to oppose the proposed legislation. Prior to the election in 2012, political activist Grover Norquist, the founder of Americans for Tax Reform (ATR), asked all Republican members of Congress to sign a “Taxpayer Protection Pledge” that they would fight efforts to raise taxes or to eliminate any deductions that were not accompanied by tax cuts. Ninety-five percent of the Republicans in Congress signed the pledge. (Note: Sean Lengell, "Boehner: Grover Norquist Just a ‘Random’ Guy," Washington Times, 3 November 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/blog/ inside-politics/2011/nov/3/boehner-grover-norquist-just-random-guy/.) Some interests arise solely to defeat legislation and go dormant after they achieve their immediate objectives. Once legislation has been passed, interest groups may target the executive branch of government, whose job is to implement the law. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has some leeway in providing care for military veterans, and interests representing veterans’ needs may pressure this department to address their concerns or issues. Other entities within the executive branch, like the Securities and Exchange Commission, which maintains and regulates financial markets, are not designed to be responsive to the interests they regulate, because to make such a response would be a conflict of interest. Interest groups may lobby the executive branch on executive, judicial, and other appointments that require Senate confirmation. As a result, interest group members may be appointed to positions in which they can influence proposed regulation of the industry of which they are a part. In addition to lobbying the legislative and executive branches of government, many interest groups also lobby the judicial branch. Lobbying the judiciary takes two forms, the first of which was mentioned above. This is lobbying the executive branch about judicial appointments the president makes and lobbying the Senate to confirm these appointments. The second form of lobbying consists of filing amicus briefs, which are also known as “friend of the court” briefs. These documents present legal arguments stating why a given court should take a case and/or why a court should rule a certain way. In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the Supreme Court case that legalized samesex marriage nationwide, numerous interest groups filed amicus briefs. (Note: Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. ___ (2015).) For example, the Human Rights Campaign filed a brief arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process and equal protection clauses required that same-sex couples be afforded the same rights to marry as oppositesex couples. In a 5–4 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed. Members of the Human Rights Campaign, an interest that supports LGBT rights, march toward the Supreme Court on June 26, 2015, the day that the Obergefell v. Hodges decision is announced. (credit: modification of work by Matt Popovich) Measuring the effect of interest groups’ influence is somewhat difficult because lobbyists support lawmakers who would likely have supported them in the first place. Thus, National Right to Life, an anti-abortion interest group, does not generally lobby lawmakers who favor abortion rights; instead, it supports lawmakers and candidates who have professed “pro-life” positions. While some scholars note that lobbyists sometimes try to influence those on the fence or even their enemies, most of the time, they support like-minded individuals. Thus, contributions are unlikely to sway lawmakers to change their views; what they do buy is access, including time with lawmakers. The problem for those trying to assess whether interest groups influence lawmakers, then, is that we are uncertain what would happen in the absence of interest group contributions. For example, we can only speculate what the ACA might have looked like had lobbyists from a host of interests not lobbied on the issue. How are lobbying and interest group activity regulated? As we noted earlier in the chapter, James Madison viewed factions as a necessary evil and thought preventing people from joining together would be worse than any ills groups might cause. The First Amendment guarantees, among other things, freedom of speech, petition, and assembly. However, people have different views on how far this freedom extends. For example, should freedom of speech as afforded to individuals in the U.S. Constitution also apply to corporations and unions? To what extent can and should government restrict the activities of lobbyists and lawmakers, limiting who may lobby and how they may do it? Interest Groups and Free Speech Most people would agree that interest groups have a right under the Constitution to promote a particular point of view. What people do not necessarily agree upon, however, is the extent to which certain interest group and lobbying activities are protected under the First Amendment. In addition to free speech rights, the First Amendment grants people the right to assemble. We saw above that pluralists even argued that assembling in groups is natural and that people will gravitate toward others with similar views. Most people acknowledge the right of others to assemble to voice unpopular positions, but this was not always the case. At various times, groups representing racial and religious minorities, communists, and members of the LGBT community have had their First Amendment rights to speech and assembly curtailed. And as noted above, organizations like the ACLU support free speech rights regardless of whether the speech is popular. Today, the debate about interest groups often revolves around whether the First Amendment protects the rights of individuals and groups to give money, and whether government can regulate the use of this money. In 1971, the Federal Election Campaign Act was passed, setting limits on how much presidential and vice-presidential candidates and their families could donate to their own campaigns. (Note: Wright, Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence; Rozell, Wilcox, and Franz, Interest Groups in American Campaigns: The New Face of Electioneering.) The law also allowed corporations and unions to form PACs and required public disclosure of campaign contributions and their sources. In 1974, the act was amended in an attempt to limit the amount of money spent on congressional campaigns. The amended law banned the transfer of union, corporate, and trade association money to parties for distribution to campaigns. In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court upheld Congress’s right to regulate elections by restricting contributions to campaigns and candidates. However, at the same time, it overturned restrictions on expenditures by candidates and their families, as well as total expenditures by campaigns. (Note: Buckley v. Valeo, 75-436, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).) In 1979, an exemption was granted to get-out-the vote and grassroots voter registration drives, creating what has become known as the soft-money loophole; soft money was a way in which interests could spend money on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law. To close this loophole, Senators John McCain and Russell Feingold sponsored the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002 to ban parties from collecting and distributing unregulated money. Some continued to argue that campaign expenditures are a form of speech, a position with which two recent Supreme Court decisions are consistent. The Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (Note: Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 08-205, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).) and the McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (Note: McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission, 12-536, 572 U.S. ___ (2014).) cases opened the door for a substantially greater flow of money into elections. Citizens United overturned the soft money ban of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections. Essentially, the Supreme Court argued in a 5–4 decision that these entities had free speech rights, much like individuals, and that free speech included campaign spending. The McCutcheon decision further extended spending allowances based on the First Amendment by striking down aggregate contribution limits. These limits put caps on the total contributions allowed and some say have contributed to a subsequent increase in groups and lobbying activities. With his Harper’s Weekly cartoon of William “Boss” Tweed with a moneybag for a head, Thomas Nast provided an enduring image of the corrupting power of money on politics. Some denounce “fat cat” lobbyists and the effects of large sums of money in lobbying, while others suggest that interests have every right to spend money to achieve their objectives. Regulating Lobbying and Interest Group Activity While the Supreme Court has paved the way for increased spending in politics, lobbying is still regulated in many ways. (Note: Adam J. Newmark, "Measuring State Legislative Lobbying Regulation, 1990–2003." State Politics and Policy Quarterly 5 (2005): 182–191; Nownes and Newmark, "Interest Groups in the States.") The 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act defined who can and cannot lobby, and requires lobbyists and interest groups to register with the federal government. (Note: Nownes, Interest Groups in American Politics.) The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 further increased restrictions on lobbying. For example, the act prohibited contact between members of Congress and lobbyists who were the spouses of other Congress members. The laws broadened the definition of lobbyist and require detailed disclosure of spending on lobbying activity, including who is lobbied and what bills are of interest. In addition, President Obama’s Executive Order 13490 prohibited appointees in the executive branch from accepting gifts from lobbyists and banned them from participating in matters, including the drafting of any contracts or regulations, involving the appointee’s former clients or employer for a period of two years. The states also have their own registration requirements, with some defining lobbying broadly and others more narrowly. Second, the federal and state governments prohibit certain activities like providing gifts to lawmakers and compensating lobbyists with commissions for successful lobbying. Many activities are prohibited to prevent accusations of vote buying or currying favor with lawmakers. Some states, for example, have strict limits on how much money lobbyists can spend on lobbying lawmakers, or on the value of gifts lawmakers can accept from lobbyists. According to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, lobbyists must certify that they have not violated the law regarding gift giving, and the penalty for knowingly violating the law increased from a fine of $50,000 to one of $200,000. Also, revolving door laws also prevent lawmakers from lobbying government immediately after leaving public office. Members of the House of Representatives cannot register to lobby for a year after they leave office, while senators have a two-year “cooling off” period before they can officially lobby. Former cabinet secretaries must wait the same period of time after leaving their positions before lobbying the department of which they had been the head. These laws are designed to restrict former lawmakers from using their connections in government to give them an advantage when lobbying. Still, many former lawmakers do become lobbyists, including former Senate majority leader Trent Lott and former House minority leader Richard Gephardt. Third, governments require varying levels of disclosure about the amount of money spent on lobbying efforts. The logic here is that lawmakers will think twice about accepting money from controversial donors. The other advantage to disclosure requirements is that they promote transparency. Many have argued that the public has a right to know where candidates get their money. Candidates may be reluctant to accept contributions from donors affiliated with unpopular interests such as hate groups. This was one of the key purposes of the Lobbying Disclosure Act and comparable laws at the state level. Finally, there are penalties for violating the law. Lobbyists and, in some cases, government officials can be fined, banned from lobbying, or even sentenced to prison. While state and federal laws spell out what activities are legal and illegal, the attorneys general and prosecutors responsible for enforcing lobbying regulations may be understaffed, have limited budgets, or face backlogs of work, making it difficult for them to investigate or prosecute alleged transgressions. While most lobbyists do comply with the law, exactly how the laws alter behavior is not completely understood. We know the laws prevent lobbyists from engaging in certain behaviors, such as by limiting campaign contributions or preventing the provision of certain gifts to lawmakers, but how they alter lobbyists’ strategies and tactics remains unclear. The need to strictly regulate the actions of lobbyists became especially relevant after the activities of lobbyist Jack Abramoff were brought to light. A prominent lobbyist with ties to many of the Republican members of Congress, Abramoff used funds provided by his clients to fund reelection campaigns, pay for trips, and hire the spouses of members of Congress. Between 1994 and 2001, Abramoff, who then worked as a lobbyist for a prominent law firm, paid for eighty-five members of Congress to travel to the Northern Mariana Islands, a U.S. territory in the Pacific. The territory’s government was a client of the firm for which he worked. At the time, Abramoff was lobbying Congress to exempt the Northern Mariana Islands from paying the federal minimum wage and to allow the territory to continue to operate sweatshops in which people worked in deplorable conditions. In 2000, while representing Native American casino interests who sought to defeat anti-gambling legislation, Abramoff paid for a trip to Scotland for Tom DeLay, the majority whip in the House of Representatives, and an aide. Shortly thereafter, DeLay helped to defeat anti-gambling legislation in the House. He also hired DeLay’s wife Christine to research the favorite charity of each member of Congress and paid her $115,000 for her efforts. (Note: Geov Parrish, "Making Sense of the Abramoff Scandal," 19 December 2005 http://www.alternet.org/story/29827/ making_sense_of_the_abramoff_scandal (March 1, 2016).) In 2008, Jack Abramoff was sentenced to four years in prison for tax evasion, fraud, and corruption of public officials. (Note: Neil A. Lewis, "Abramoff Gets 4 Years in Prison for Corruption," New York Times, 4 September 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/05/washington/ 05abramoff.html?_r=0.) He was released early, in December 2010. Jack Abramoff (center) began his lifetime engagement in politics with his involvement in the 1980 presidential campaign of Ronald Reagan (left) while an undergraduate at Brandeis University and continued it with his election to chair of the College Republican National Committee in a campaign managed by Grover Norquist (right). Abramoff thus gained unique access to influential politicians, upon which he capitalized in his later work as a DC lobbyist. Since his release from federal prison in 2010 after being convicted for illegal lobbying activity, Abramoff has become an outspoken critic of the lobbying industry.[footnote]http://gawker.com/5856082/corrupt-lobbyist-jack-abramoffs-plan-to-endcorrupt-lobbying (March 1, 2016).[/footnote] • \| Revision and Adaptation. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 7. Texas Policy, Texas Budget and Revenue 7. TEXAS POLICY TEXAS BUDGET AND REVENUE \| By the end of this section, you will be able to: \| Taxation Any government relies on a variety of taxes in order to make revenue to spend on public services.There are different types of taxes: - Income tax– taxes collected from an individual’s income (There is no state income tax in Texas); - General sales tax – based on taxes collected from retail prices of items; - Excise taxes– taxes collected on specific products such as tobacco and gasoline; - Ad valorem tax– taxes based according to the value of the property. The federal government’s number one tax source for revenue is income tax- The 16th Amendment of the United States Constitution authorized an income tax. The state of Texas’ main revenue source are from sales tax. Article 8 of the Texas Constitution describes the “Taxation and Revenue” specifics. Local governments heavily rely on property taxes as their main source of tax revenue. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) Other Revenue Sources There are also no tax revenue sources that the state of Texas receives from various sources such as: - Federal grants in aid– these types of funds come from the federal government to aid state or local governments, and sometimes require matching monies from the receiving government and/or are to be used for a specific use. - Borrowing– The Texas Constitution does allow for the state or local governments to borrow funds through bonds. There are two types of bonds: ◦ General-obligation bonds: Bonds repaid from taxes, usually approved by taxpayers through vote; ◦ Revenue bonds: Typically paid through the revenue made from the projects created by the bond i.e. sports facilities, public college dorms. (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/) - Economic Stablization Fund– The “Rainy Day Fund” is a type of savings account for the state of Texas. Since 1990, any surplus from previous budget cycles, and collections from oil and gas production are deposited in to this account- the Texas Constitution limits the balance of the Rainy Day Fund to no more than 10% of the general revenue deposited during the preceding budget cycle. At the end of fiscal year 2016, Texas’ Rainy Day Fund was approximately $9.7 billion dollars. The Texas Constitution authorizes the Legislature to utilize monies from the Rainy Day Fund for a budget deficit, projected revenue shortfall, or any other purpose they choose. ◦ “Appropriations for the first two circumstances require approval by three-fifths of the Legislature, while a general-purpose appropriation needs a two-thirds majority for passage. The Legislature has made seven appropriations totaling $10.6 billion from the ESF since its inception, most recently in 2013. All were approved by two-thirds votes. The purposes for these appropriations have included water projects, disaster relief, public education, economic development and health and human services. Only one appropriation—$3.2 billion in 2011, representing 34 percent of the fund balance at that time—was made to cover a budget gap (for fiscal 2011).” (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/economy/fiscal-notes/2016/september/rainy-day.php) Texas Budgetary Process The budget process for Texas is outlined below (Note: https://www.comptroller.texas.gov/transparency/revenue/): - Request for Funds. On even numbered years all government agencies submit a strategic planrequesting funds to the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and the Governor’s Office of Budget, Planning and Policy (GOBPP). The strategic plans’ request for funds must adhere to Texas’s mission statement provided by the Governor and the LBB. The instructions and forms to submit the request for funds are prepared by the LBB. - Analysis of Requests. The requests for funds and strategic plans are then reviewed by the LBB and the GOBPP. The LBB is made up of ten members from the Texas Senate and Texas House and Co-Chaired by the Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House. The GOBPP is an agency in the Executive Branch that answers to the Governor. - Budget proposal sent to Legislature. The LBB and Governor then submit their budget proposals tothe Texas Legislature. The Texas Legislature then reviews the proposals through the Senate and House Finance Committees. After both chambers approve an appropriations bill, then the bill is sent to each respective chamber for a vote . - Comptroller Verfiesi. Once the Texas Legislature has approved the appropriations bill, then the Texas State Comptroller must certify that enough tax revenue will be generated to fund the budget. The Texas Constitution mandates a balance budget (Article 3, Section 49). If the Comptroller cannot certify the appropriations bill, then the Texas Legislature has the option to vote on allowing the state to go in to debt by a 4/5ths vote from each chamber. - Governor. Once the Comptroller certifies the appropriations bill, then the Governor is allowed to sign the bill in to law. The Governor of Texas also has the power of line item veto, where only parts of the budget are rejected. Texas Revenue The tax revenue of Texas for 2016-2017 biennium (Note: http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf) The estimated total state revenue for the 2016-2017 biennium is $214 billion dollars. The percentage breakdown for certain line items is: 34% will come from federal funds; 28% will be derived from sales taxes; 8% from licenses, fees, fines and penalties; 2.4% from cigarette, tobacco, and alcohol taxes; and 1.8% from the lottery. Texas Budget Expenditures The state of Texas spends over half of their budget on Health and Human Services & Education. 36.8% of the state’s budget is spent on Health and Human Services, and 36.7 was spent on Education. Health and Human Services includes Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), Medicaid, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Department of Aging and Disability Services. Education is split in to two categories: Public education, and Higher education. (Note: [footnote]http://www.lbb.state.tx.us/Documents/Publications/ Fiscal_SizeUp/Fiscal_SizeUp.pdf)[/footnote] • \| Texas Budget and Revenue. \| : Daniel M. Regalado. \| 7.1 Local Governments LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: • \| Identify the differences between county and municipal governments in terms of their responsibilities and funding sources \| • \| Describe the two primary types of municipal government and the three basic types of county government \| Local governments generally include two tiers: counties, also known as boroughs in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana, and municipalities, or cities/towns. In some States, counties are divided into townships. Municipalities can be structured in many ways, as defined by State constitutions, and are called, variously, townships, villages, boroughs, cities, or towns. Various kinds of districts also provide functions in local government outside county or municipal boundaries, such as school districts or fire protection districts. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-whitehouse/our-government/state-local-government/) Municipal governments—those defined as cities, towns, boroughs (except in Alaska), villages, and townships—are generally organized around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the few hundred people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/) Municipalities generally take responsibility for parks and recreation services, police and fire departments, housing services, emergency medical services, municipal courts, transportation services (including public transportation), and public works (streets, sewers, snow removal, signage, and so forth). Whereas the Federal Government and State governments share power in countless ways, a local government must be granted power by the State. In general, mayors, city councils, and other governing bodies are directly elected by the people. (https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/state-local-government/) County and city governments make up an important component of the overall structure of the government. Not only do they affect citizens directly; it is also easier for citizens to interact with local government officials because their offices and the community’s school board or city council meetings are often close by. Despite this fact, voter turnout in local elections tends to be lower than in state and national elections. Municipal and county governments differ in structure and purpose in several ways. County Government County governments serve a larger geographical area than cities and towns, but a smaller area than states. They are created by the state government and typically operate under provisions set out in the state constitution. As such, they are essentially administrative units of the state. Census estimates from 2017 indicate that there are approximately 90,000 state and local governments that includes approximately 3,000 counties and 35,000 cities and towns, 13,000 independent school districts, and 39,000 special districts. County systems usually take one of three basic forms: the commission system, the council-administrator system, and the council-elected executive system. The most common form of county government is the commission system. Under this structure, an elected commission, which generally consists of a small number of commissioners, serves as the governing body within the county, performing all legislative and executive functions. These include adopting a budget, passing county resolutions, and hiring and firing county officials. (Note: Frank Coppa. 2000. County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.) Under the council-adminstrator system, the voters elect council members to serve for a specified period of time, and the council in turn appoints an administrator to oversee the operation of the government. The administrator serves at the directive of the council and can be terminated by the council. The goal of this arrangement is to divide administrative and policymaking responsibilities between the elected council and the appointed administrator. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government .) Under a council-elected executive system, the voters elect both the members of the council and the executive. The executive performs functions similar to those of the state governor. For instance, he or she can veto the actions of the council, draft a budget, and provide suggestions regarding public policy.(Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government.) Although the tasks they perform can vary from state to state, most counties have a courthouse that houses county officials, such as the sheriff, the county clerk, the assessor, the treasurer, the coroner, and the engineer. These officials carry out a variety of important functions and oversee the responsibilities of running a county government. For instance, the county coroner investigates the cause of death when suspicious circumstances are present. The county clerk oversees the registration of voters and also certifies election results for the county. In addition, this officeholder typically keeps the official birth, death, and marriage records. The county treasurer oversees the collection and distribution of funds within the county, while the county assessor conducts property tax evaluations and informs individual citizens or business owners of their right to contest the appraised value of their property. Finally, a county engineer will oversee the maintenance and construction of county infrastructure. (Note: Coppa, County Government: A Guide to Efficient and Accountable Government .) In short, counties help to maintain roads and bridges, courthouses and jails, parks and pools, and public libraries, hospitals, and clinics. (Note: http:// www.naco.org/counties (March 14, 2016).) To provide these services, county governments typically rely on property tax revenue, a portion of sales tax receipts, and funds from intergovernmental transfers by way of federal or state grants. City Government The authority of a Texas city to enact and enforce ordinances is conditioned on the type of city. An ordinance is defined as “a local law of a municipal corporation, duly enacted by the proper authorities, prescribing general, uniform, and permanent rules of conduct relating the corporate affairs of the municipality.” In other words, an ordinance is the equivalent of a municipal statute, passed by the city council, governing matters not already covered by federal or state law. Municipal governments oversee the operation and functions of cities and towns. The vast majority of municipal governments operate on one of two governing models: a mayor-council system or a council-manager system. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) The Different Forms of Government in Texas Cities are the General Law Cities and Home Rule Cities. Every city starts out as a General Law City and there are three types of General Law Cities, Type A, B, and C. A home rule city may do anything authorized by its charter that is not specifically prohibited or preempted by the Texas Constitution or state or federal law. A general law city has no charter and may only exercise those powers that are specifically granted or implied by statute. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Type A general law cities operate under the aldermanic form of government. The term “alderman” is often used interchangeably with the term city council, and the modern name of the board of aldermen is the city council. The size of the council is determined by whether the city is divided into wards (e.g., special districts). In cities where there are no wards (which includes most Type A cities), the council is made up of the mayor and five council members. If the city has been divided into wards, the council is made up of a mayor and two council members from each ward. Type B general law cities operate under the aldermanic form of government in which the “board of aldermen” is the governing body of the city. The board contains a mayor and five aldermen, all of whom are elected at-large. The governing body must elect one alderman to serve as mayor pro tem for a term of one year at the first meeting of each new governing body. The mayor is the president of the governing body. The aldermen, mayor, and marshal serve one year terms unless the governing body passes an ordinance allowing for staggered two year terms. Type C general law cities operate under the commission form of government and the governing body is known as the “commission.” The commission always consists of a mayor and two commissioners. The commissioners and the mayor have a two-year term of office unless a longer term of office of up to four years is adopted by election under the Texas Constitution. Any general law city that is not divided into wards and elects its aldermen at large may provide by ordinance for the election of aldermen under a place system, if the ordinance is adopted at least 60 days before the regular election. A home rule city may adopt and operate under any form of government, including aldermanic or commission form. Id. § 26.021. The city may create officers, determine the method of selecting officers, and prescribe qualifications, duties, and tenure of office for officers. Id. § 26.041. Home rule cities can extend an officer’s term from two to four years with a charter amendment. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) A Type B or C city may change to a Type A city once it has reached 600 inhabitants or gains a manufacturing facility. To change to a Type A city, a city must follow Section 6.012 of the Local Government Code, which provides that: (1) there must be an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the city council; (2) a record taken and signed by the mayor; and (3) the record must be filed and recorded in the county clerk’s office. A city can change its designation from “town” to “city” by ordinance once it becomes Type A. Once a city changes to Type A, it continues to retain its powers, rights, immunities, privileges and franchises, as well as any rights it had to impose fines, penalties or be involved in causes of action, it had before the change. The boundaries of the city also remain the same after changing to Type A. Once a general law city gains inhabitants over 5,000, it may change to the home rule form of government by adopting a charter through an election. The city’s governing body, through a two-thirds vote, may order an election to create a charter commission to write a charter, or the governing body must create a charter commission if asked to do so by at least ten percent of the city’s qualified voters. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Under the mayor-council system voters elect both a mayor and members of the city council. The city council performs legislative functions and the mayor the executive functions. Under this system, the mayor may be given a great deal of authority or only limited powers. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government," http:// www.nlc.org/buildskills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-structures/forms-of-municipal-government (March 14, 2016).) Under a strong mayor system, the mayor will be able to veto the actions of the council, appoint and fire the heads of city departments, and produce a budget. Under a weak mayor system, the mayor has little authority compared to the council and acts in a ceremonial capacity as a spokesperson for the city. (Note: "Mayoral Powers," http://www.nlc.org/build-skills-and-networks/resources/cities-101/city-officials/mayoral-powers (March 14, 2016).) In a council-manager system of government, either the members of the city council are elected by voters along with a mayor who presides over the council, or the voters elect members of the city council and the mayor is chosen from among them. In either case, the city council will then appoint a city manager to carry out the administrative functions of the municipal government. This frees the city council to address political functions such as setting policy and formulating the budget. (Note: "Forms of Municipal Government.") Any general law city with less than 5,000 population may adopt the city manager form of government under Chapter 25 of the Local Government Code. The city manager is the budget officer for the city. The governing body by ordinance may delegate to the city manager any additional powers or duties the governing body considers proper for the efficient administration of city affairs. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) Municipal governments are responsible for providing clean water as well as sewage and garbage disposal. They must maintain city facilities, such as parks, streetlights, and stadiums. In addition, they address zoning and building regulations, promote the city’s economic development, and provide law enforcement, public transportation, and fire protection. Municipal governments typically rely on property tax revenue, user fees from trash collection and the provision of water and sewer services, a portion of sales tax receipts, and taxes on business. (Texas Municipal League. www.tml.org) • \| Revision and Adaptation. Local Government Revision \| : Daniel M. Regalado. : Daniel Brown \| Glossary Glossary: alcalde: an administrator who often combined the duties of mayor, judge, and law enforcement officer. Agriculture Commissioner: a member of the Plural Executive, is elected to both promote and regulate Texas agriculture, administers the Texas Agriculture Department, whose duties include weights and measures - including gasoline. appellate jurisdiction: The authority to hear an appeal from a lower court that has already rendered a decision; reviews the court record from the original trial and does not hear new evidence. appointment: the power of the chief executive, whether the president of the United States or the governor of the state, to appoint persons to office. arraignment: when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. Attorney General: Serves as the lawyer for the state of Texas, including representing the state on civil matters, and responsible for the interpretation of the constitutionality of laws. The Attorney General is elected by the people to 4 year terms with no term limits. biennial sessions: In Texas, legislative sessions meet once every odd-numbered year, for 140 days. bill: a proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of the legislature and submitted to the clerk of the House or Senate. bill of attainder: a legislative action declaring someone guilty without a trial; prohibited under the Constitution. bill of rights: a list of the most important rights to the citizens found in Artcle I of the Texas Constitution. bureaucracy: the complex structure of offices, tasks, rules, and principles of organization that is employed by all large-scale institutions to coordinate the work of their personnel. capital case: a criminal case in which the death penalty is a possible punishment. civil case: A case in which an aggrieved party sues for damages claiming that he or she has been wronged by another individual. civil law: a branch of law that deals with disputes, usually between private individual over relationships, obligations, and responsibility. civil liberties: limitations on the power of government, designed to ensure personal freedoms. civil rights: guarantees of equal treatment by government authorities. coercive federalism: federal policies that force states to change their policies to achieve national goals. Commissioner of the General Land Office: runs the Texas General Land Office, which manages and administers mineral leases and state lands. Even though this office is part of the Executive Branch, the Office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized by Article 14, Section 1 of the Texas Constitution. Texas Court of Criminal Appeals: the highest appeals court in the state for criminal cases. Exclusive jurisdiction over automatic appeals of the death penalty. courts of appeal: the 14 intermediate-level appellate courts that hear appeals from district and county courts to determine whether the decisions of these lower courts followed legal principles and court procedures. complaint: the presentation of a grievance by the plaintiff in a civil case. Comptroller of Public Accounts: a member of the Plural Executive, serves as the chief tax collector and accounting officer. This office is also responsible for certifying the biennial budget of the state. concurrent jurisdiction: A system in which different levels of courts have overlapping jurisdiction or authority to try the same type of case. concurrent powers: shared state and federal powers that range from taxing, borrowing, and making and enforcing laws to establishing court systems. constituent: a person living in the district from which an official is elected. constitution: the legal structure of a government which establishes its power and authority, as well as the limits on that power. cooperative federalism: a type of federalism existing since the New Deal era in which grants-in-aid have been used to encourage states and localities (without commanding them) to pursue nationally defined goals; also known as "intergovernmental cooperation". criminal case: A case in which an individual is charged by the state with violating the law, and the state brings the suit. criminal law: the branch of law that regulates the conduct of individuals, defines crimes, and specifies punishments for criminal acts. de novo: When a court hears a case “de novo,” or sometimes called "Trial de novo" it is deciding the issues without reference to any legal conclusion or assumption made by the previous court to hear the case. defendant: an individual, company, or institution sued or accused in a court of law. devolution: a process in which powers from the central government in a unitary system are delegated to subnational units. distributive policy: a policy that collects payments or resources broadly but concentrates direct benefits on relatively few. district courts: the major trial courts in Texas, which usually have general jurisdiction over a broad range of civil and criminal cases. dual federalism: the system of government that prevailed in the U.S. from 1789 to 1937, during which most fundamental governmental powers were strictly separated between the federal and state governments. exclusive jurisdiction: A particular court given the sole right to hear a specific type of case. ex post facto law: a law that criminalizes an act retroactively; prohibited under the Constitution. due process: in the Texas criminal justice system, the state must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters. elastic clause: the last clause of Article I, Section 8, which enables the national government “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying” out all its constitutional responsibilities. empresario: a person who brought new settlers to Texas in exchange for a grant of land. federalism: an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government, each possessing the capacity to act directly on the people with authority granted by the national constitution. felony: a serious criminal offense, punishable by a prison sentence or a fine; a capital felony is punishable by death or a life sentence. full faith and credit: clause found in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution, this clause requires states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states; also referred to as the comity provision. gerrymandering: the process in which voting districts are redrawn in a way to favor one party during elections. grandfather clause: Part of the system of Jim Crow in southern states used to enforce segregation in primary elections. In its typical usage, a voter could vote in Democratic primary elections if his grandfather had been able to vote in Democratic primaries. Blacks whose ancestors had been slaves were thereby excluded but whites were made eligible, even poor whites who might otherwise be disenfranchised by the burden of a poll tax or by literacy requirements. hierarchical: In the Texas court system, cases start in local trial courts, then work their way up to appeals courts. individualistic political culture: the belief that government should limit its role to providing order in society so that citizens can pursue their economic self-interests. Jim Crow Laws: This term, which came to be used to designate any law requiring racial segregation, was borrowed from a racially stereotyped black character in a common nineteenth-century song-and-dance act. justice of the peace courts: local trial courts with limited jurisdiction over small claims and very minor criminal misdemeanors. juvenile courts: in Texas, a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. Juvenile courts preside in the District Courts. land commissioner: an elected state official that acts as the manager of the most publicly-owned lands. legislative budget: the state budget that is prepared and submitted by the Legislative Budget Board (LBB) and that is fully considered by the House and Senate. lieutenant governor: a member of the Plural Executive and the second-highest elected official in the state and president of the state senate. line-item veto: the power of executive authority to nullify or cancel specific provisions of a bill, usually a budget appropriations bill, without vetoing the entire legislative package. Not available at the Federal Level. literacy test: A test of a voter's ability to read and understand and hence vote intelligently, typically used in a discriminatory manner in some states until Congress suspended the use of such tests in the Voting Rights Acts of 1970 and 1975. mestizo: people of mixed Indian and European ancestry. misdemeanor: a minor criminal offense usually punishable by a small fine or short jail sentence. moralistic political culture: the belief that government should be active in promoting the public good and that citizens should participate in politics and civic activities to ensure that good. municipal courts: local trial courts with limited jurisdiction over violations of city ordinances and very minor criminal misdemeanors new federalism: is premised on the idea that the decentralization of policies enhances administrative efficiency, reduces overall public spending, and improves policy outcomes. Origin: Specified in the constitution: JP courts, county courts, district courts, appellate courts, and two high courts. Created by state legislature: municipal courts, statutory county courts, probate courts, and specialized courts. Original jurisdiction: The authority to hear the initial case; evidence is submitted to establish the facts of the case. plaintiff: the party who initiates a lawsuit (also known as an action) before a court in order to seek a legal remedy. plea bargaining: occurs when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial. plural executive: a group of officers or major officials that functions in making current decisions or in giving routine orders typically the responsibility of an individual executive officer or official. In Texas, the power of the Governor is limited and distributed amongst other government officials. poll tax: a state tax imposed on voters as a prerequisite for voting; poll taxes were determined unconstitutional in national elections by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment, and in state elections by the Supreme Court in 1966. precedent: in common law legal systems, a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. privileges and immunities clause: found in Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution, this clause prohibits states from discriminating against out-of-state residents by denying such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, and property and travel rights. probate courts: handle wills and estates for deceased persons in Texas’ largest counties. re-distributive policy: a policy in which costs are born by a relatively small number of groups or individuals, but benefits are expected to be enjoyed by a diﬀerent group in society. redistricting: the process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives in the Texas House, Texas Senate, and U.S. House. Redistricting typically occurs every 10 years to reflect shifts in population or in response to legal challenges in existing districts. Secretary of State: appointed by the governor and a member of the Plural Executive, serves as the chief election officer, officially attests the signature of the Texas Governor on official documents, and advises the Governor on Texas border and Mexican affairs. separation of powers: the division of governmental power among several institutions that must cooperate in decision making. single-member district: a district in which one official is elected rather than multiple officials. special session: a legislative session called by the governor that addresses an agenda set by him or her; lasts no longer than 30 days. states: governments at the subnational level. suffrage: term referring to the right to vote. Tejanos: Mexican residents of Texas. Texas Supreme Court: the highest civil court in Texas; consists of nine justices and has final state appellate authority over civil cases. traditionalistic political culture: the belief that government should be dominated by political elites and guided by tradition. unitary system: a centralized system of government in which the subnational government is dependent on the central government, where substantial authority is concentrated. veto: the governor's power to turn down legislation; can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both the House and Senate. voting Rights Act of 1965: mandates that electoral district lines cannot be drawn in such a manner as to “improperly dilute minorities’ voting power”. white primary: primary election in which only white voters are eligible to participate. writ of habeas corpus: a petition that enables someone in custody to petition a judge to determine whether that person’s detention is legal. Texas Constitution Attached is the Texas Constitution, it can also be found at: https://www.tlc.texas.gov/docs/legref/TxConst.pdf	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.815817	Daniel Brown	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108182/overview", "title": "Texas Government", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103896/overview	FTEC 144 Sample Assignment 2 FTEC 144 Syllabus Remix - Accessibility Demo - FTEC 144: Emergency Medical Technician Overview This resource was remixed to add places in the syllabus that might need to be updated for accessibility. Welcome to the El Camino College EMT program! Emergency Medical Technicians are professional medical responders that work to help ill and injured patients in various emergency field and clinical settings. EMT principles that are covered throughout this course include, but are not limited to: leadership, followership, communication, safety, situational awareness, basic life support (BLS), patient assessment and professionalism. EMT students learn about the practices and procedures for treating medical illnesses and traumatic injuries through facilitated discussion, skills lab, simulations, scenarios and field experience. Students who successfully complete all 170 hours with an overall grade of 80% (B) or better will qualify to take the NREMT test for certification. Once the NREMT is completed, the student would be eligible for a state EMT license. Syllabus, Sample Assignment Introduction Welcome to the El Camino College EMT program! Emergency Medical Technicians are professional medical responders that work to help ill and injured patients in various emergency field and clinical settings. EMT principles that are covered throughout this course include, but are not limited to: leadership, followership,communication, safety, situational awareness, basic life support (BLS), patient assessment and professionalism. EMT students learn about the practices and procedures for treating medical illnesses andtraumatic injuries through facilitated discussion, skills lab, simulations, scenarios and field experience. Students who successfully complete all 170 hours with an overall grade of 80% (B) or better will qualify to takethe NREMT test for certification. Once the NREMT is completed, the student would be eligible for a state EMT license.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.877473	Joanna Schimizzi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103896/overview", "title": "Remix - Accessibility Demo - FTEC 144: Emergency Medical Technician", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76917/overview	Job Shadowing an Agriculture Career Overview This interactive lesson allows students to have an initial introduction to careers in agriculture. Students will watch the video and then have the opportunity to create their own job shadow experience. Introduction to Agriculture 115 Job shadowing can be the initial conversation regarding agriculture careers. Students will watch the short three-minute video. Upon completion of the video students will discuss career options in cluster area: agriculture mechanics, agriculture business, animal science, plant science and environmental horticulture. Once students have had discussion the lesson will begin. Activity: - Student will complete a form listing three local companies they want to job shadow - Student will create a business letter with details concerning the task. - Student will send the letter and wait for response. Teacher: Help students make connections with local companies in order to job shadow. Students: - Create a business letter - Visit the job site for a day Find out if this is a career area they want to pursue Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TOUrllIq5Vo	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.898867	02/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76917/overview", "title": "Job Shadowing an Agriculture Career", "author": "Lori Marchy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66278/overview	Introduction: Texas' Governor and Executive Branch Overview Introduction: Texas' Governor and Executive Branch Learning Objective By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Explain the structure and function of the executive branch of the Texas government Introduction In its 2019 session, the Texas Legislature failed to pass a “Sunset” bill that would have continued the existence of the Texas State Board of Plumbing Examiners. The bill had stalled amid controversy over whether or not to phase out this small agency and combine its functions into the larger Texas Department of Licensing and Regulation. Without passage of S.B. 621, Texas faced an interesting problem. With no law requiring plumbers to be licensed and no agency to license them, anybody with a pipe wrench could now go into the plumbing business, performing jobs from replacing a kitchen faucet to complex medical gas piping in a hospital with no license and no training. Shortly after the session, legislators realized what they had done. Some legislators, plumbers, city plumbing inspectors and others began calling for a special legislative session to fix the problem. Instead, Texas Governor Greg Abbott simply issued an executive order extending the existence of the state board through the next regular legislative session. How? "A qualified workforce of licensed plumbers throughout the state, including from areas not directly affected by Hurricane Harvey, will be essential as those funds are being invested in crucial infrastructure, medical facilities, living facilities, and other construction projects,” he said in his order. By extending the board through the next legislative session or until “disaster needs subside,” the governor was able to tap into sweeping powers given to his office to deal with natural disasters. How can a governor in a “weak governor” state sidestep the legislature and resurrect an agency despite legislation to the contrary? In this chapter, we’ll look at the executive branch of state government in Texas. Licensing and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas: Introduction. Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.915832	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66278/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66279/overview	Background Overview Background Learning Objective At the end of this section, you will be able to: - Dscuss the background of Texas' executive branch and Governor Introduction This section discusses the background of Texas' executive branch. Basic Description The executive branch consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State. Texas has a plural executive branch system which limits the power of the Governor. Except for the Secretary of State, all executive officers are elected independently making them directly answerable to the public, not the Governor. Partly because of many elected officials, the governor’s powers are quite limited in comparison to other state governors or the U.S. President. In popular lore and belief the lieutenant governor, who heads the Senate and appoints its committees, has more power than the governor. The governor commands the state militia and can veto bills passed by the Legislature and call special sessions of the Legislature (this power is exclusive to the governor and can be exercised as often as desired). The governor also appoints members of various executive boards and fills judicial vacancies between elections. All members of the executive branch are elected statewide except for the Secretary of State (appointed) and the State Board of Education (each of its 15 members are elected from single-member districts). History and Background The state’s first constitution in 1845 established the office of governor, to serve for two years, but no more than four years out of every six (essentially a limit of no more than two consecutive terms). The 1861 secessionist constitution set the term start date at the first Monday in the November following the election. The 1866 constitution, adopted just after the American Civil War, increased terms to 4 years, but no more than 8 years out of every 12, and moved the start date to the first Thursday after the organization of the legislature, or “as soon thereafter as practicable.” The Reconstruction constitution of 1869 removed the limit on terms, Texas remains one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term limit. The present constitution of 1876 shortened terms back to two years, but a 1972 amendment increased it again to four years. The Texas Constitution specifies that the governor must be at least 30 years old, an American citizen and a resident of Texas for at least five years. Texas governors served two-year terms until voters changed the Constitution to provide for four-year terms in 1972. The first governor of Texas was J. Pinkney Henderson, who took over executive leadership from the final president of the Republic of Texas, Anson Jones, in 1846. Every governor from Richard Coke (1874–1876) to Dolph Briscoe (1973-1979) was a Democrat. Since George W. Bush’s election to the governor’s office in 1994, all four Texas governors have been Republicans. Texas was the first southern state to elect a female governor. Miriam Ferguson served two terms following the impeachment of her husband, James Ferguson, in 1917 – the only Texas governor ever impeached. The second female governor, Ann Richards, served in the 1990s. The Texas governor currently receives a $150,000 annual salary, as well as living accommodations. The Texas Governor’s Mansion, immediately southwest of the Texas Capitol building, has been home to Texas governors and their families since 1856. Gubernatorial Elections Texas elects governors in the midterm elections, that is, even years that are not presidential election years. For Texas, 2022, 2026, 2030 and 2034 are all gubernatorial election years. Legally, the gubernatorial inauguration is always set for the “on the first Tuesday after the organization of the Legislature, or as soon thereafter as practicable.”If two candidates tie for the most votes or if an election is contested, a joint session of the legislature shall cast ballots to resolve the issue. The incumbent, Greg Abbott, is the forty-eighth governor to serve in the office since Texas' statehood in 1845. He assumed office on January 20, 2015, succeeding Rick Perry (R). Perry was the longest-serving governor in state history with a tenure lasting from 2000 to 2015. Abbott previously served as the Attorney General of Texas from 2002 to 2015. Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution The Executive Powers of the Governor: Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.937407	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66279/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66280/overview	The Qualifications and Roles of the Texas Governor Overview The Qualifications and Roles of the Texas Governor Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define the qualifications, roles, responsibilities, powers, and procedures associated with the office of the governor of Texas Introduction This section discusses the qualifications, roles, responsibilities, powers, and procedures associated with the office of the Governor of Texas Qualifications Article IV, Section 4 of the Texas Constitution sets the following qualifications for Governor: - Must be at least 30 years old; - Resident of Texas for at least 5 years immediately before the election; - Must be a U.S. citizen. The Roles Played by Texas’ Governor General Roles The governor makes policy recommendations that lawmakers in both the state House and Senate chambers may sponsor and introduce as bills. The governor also appoints the Secretary of State, as well as members of boards and commissions who oversee the heads of state agencies and departments. As the state's chief budget officer, governors submit an executive budget to the legislature as a plan for revenue and expenditure for the next biennium. The constitutional and statutory duties of the Governor include - Signing or vetoing bills passed by the Legislature. - Serving as commander-in-chief of the state’s military forces. - Convening special sessions of the Legislature for specific purposes. - Delivering a report on the condition of the state to the Legislature at the beginning of each regular session. - Estimating of the amounts of money required to be raised by taxation. - Accounting for all public monies received and paid out by the Governor and recommending a budget for the next two years. - Granting reprieves and commutations of punishment and pardons upon the recommendation of the Board of Pardons and Paroles and revoking conditional pardons. - Declaring special elections to fill vacancies in certain elected offices. - Appointing qualified Texans to state offices that carry out the laws and direct the policies of state government. Some of these offices are filled by appointment only. Others are ordinarily elected by the people, but the governor must occasionally appoint individuals to fill vacancies. The governor also appoints Texans to a wide range of advisory bodies and task forces that assist him with specific issues. Veto Power The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Texas Legislature. The Governor has line-item veto power, enabling the governor to veto individual components (or lines) of a bill. The Governor of Texas’ line-item veto power applies only to spending measures, only to a bill that “contains several items of appropriation.” When a bill contains several items of appropriation, the Governor “may object to one or more of such items, and approve the other portion of the bill.” Ibid. Thus, the Governor may line-item veto one or more “items of appropriation” without vetoing the entire appropriations bill. Time to Consider The governor must sign or veto legislation within 10 days of transmittal (excluding Sunday), or it becomes law without his or her signature. There is no “pocket veto” for the Governor of Texas. For legislation transmitted with less than 10 days left in the session, the governor has 20 days after adjournment to act, or the legislation becomes law without being signed. This latter provision allows a Governor to veto legislation after the Legislature has adjourned, with no opportunity for the Legislature to override a veto. In practice, a Governor’s vetoes are rarely challenged. Legislative Override Two-thirds of members present in both chambers must vote to override a veto. If all members are in attendance, this is 100 of the 150 members in the Texas House of Representatives and 21 of the 31 members in the Texas State Senate. Texas is one of 36 states that requires a two-thirds vote from both of its legislative chambers to override a veto. Clemency Power The governor has the authority to grant clemency upon the written recommendation of a majority of the Board of Pardons and Paroles. Clemency includes full pardons after conviction or successful completion of a term of deferred adjudication community supervision, conditional pardons, pardons based on innocence, commutations of sentence, and reprieves. In capital cases, clemency includes commutation of sentence to life in prison and a reprieve for execution. The governor may also grant a one-time reprieve of execution, not to exceed (30) days, without a Board recommendation. Appointment Power The authority to make governmental appointments is one of the most significant powers given to the governor of Texas by the state’s Constitution. During a four-year term, the Governor will make about 3,000 appointments. Most appointments are: - State officials and members of state boards, commissions and councils that carry out the laws and direct the policies of state government activities; - Members of task forces that advise the Governor or executive agencies on specific issues and policies; or - State elected and judicial offices when vacancies occur by resignation or death of the office holder. The majority of these appointments are volunteer positions, representative of our citizen government. Most appointees are entitled to standard travel expenses and/or per diem to attend meetings and conduct business of the board or commission. Budgetary Power The Governor has relatively limited budgetary powers. The Governor is required to submit an executive budget, but the Legislature typically ignores the Governor’s budget, preferring to take the lead itself on budgetary matters. A Governor may attempt to influence the budgetary process through the power of persuasion, but this power is limited. In the end, a Governor’s primary budget power is the power to veto or threaten to veto legislation. Get to know Texas Governor Greg Abbott (https://gov.texas.gov/governor-abbott), the 48th Governor of the State of Texas. Licenses and Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL Revision and Adaptation: Authored by: Kris S. Seago. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, ADAPTATION Revision and Adaptation: Qualifications and Roles of the Texas Governor. Authored by: Andrew Teas. License: CC BY: Attribution PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT Duties, Requirements & Powers. Authored by: Office of the Texas Governor. Located at: https://gov.texas.gov/governor- abbott/duties License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:35:05.967117	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66280/overview", "title": "Texas Government 2.0, The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas", "author": null }

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