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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89667/overview	Parent Involvement Overview This is an inquiry project about parent involvement in schools. This project includes different types of strategies and the advantages and disadvantages of parent involvement. Introduction Parental involvement is defined as the participation of parents in regular ways. Meaningful communication is involved allowing students academic learning and other school activities to be successful. All over the world, teachers are very thankful for parents willing to help out in and around the classroom. Parents help on field trips and class parties as well as helping their child at home on homework each night so that they are ready to learn new material the next day. However, there are educators out there who feel like students with involved parents are in the way of the child’s education. Some teachers feel like when they teach material each day and then the parents help at night teaching them a different way, it just confuses the child, impeding their learning. Aside from academics, some teachers feel involved parents are overwhelming because they are over opinionated and judgmental when it comes to classroom setups and lessons. Throughout our website you will find useful and positive ways parents can be involved in their child’s academics. https://www.bbpbschools.net/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=345909&type=d&pREC_ID=754303 (for picture) Strategy 1 - Parent Involvement at Home The purpose of homework contracts between students and parents is to draw more parent involvement in specifically the literacy growth of the student population. There are 5 steps that need to be implemented for this to work. 1. There needs to be a reward system for the child,2. The parent negotiates with the child and agree with goals and rewards,3. Both parties fill out a homework planner,4. Parent checks childs completion and gives earned rewards, 5. Start fading the reward system little by little. https://www.oercommons.org/courses/homework-contracts-tapping-the-power-of-parents/view Strategy 2 - Parent Involvement at School Parents who want to be involved with their child once they go to middle school can try this strategy to help with their homework. The school wants to help educate parents on practices to help their child at home, there would be mini workshops once a month and feature specific strategies versus broad information. Parents can follow these suggestions and still need a little help in guiding their students’ progress. That is why the workshops once a month are specific to a certain subject, like reading, math, science, and social studies. This will help parents who don’t understand the work that is getting sent home and how to complete it. https://www.oercommons.org/courses/reading-for-parents-in-middle-school-2/view Strategy 3 - Parent Involvement in Social Media This strategy is for parents to stay involved with their child by social media. There are many social media apps that children use that a parent can learn a lot from. When a child does not want to have a conversation the parent can check their social media to find out how they are doing and feeling. Social media might not always be a good idea, but can help a parent stay involved. Strategies for Teachers to Involve Parents Volunteer opportunities for parents is a way parents can stay involved. If a parent does not work they could help in the classroom with day to day activities, or volunteer to chaperone a field trip. Parents can also help plan festivities, join the school PTO, and help with improvement projects. Strategy 4 - Parent Involvement within SPED To have parents involved more in the classroom within SPED, a teacher should define parent involvement, show parents how to get involved, remove parent fear and mystery from the special education world, to know parents of different backgrounds may have barriers due to linguistic and/or cultural differences, and most importantly continuous communication. For more information, you can go to their website. https://www.specialedusa.com/post/special-education-and-parental-involvement Advantages and Disadvantages of Parent Involvement The advantages of parent involvement are: When there is good communication between parents and teachers, absenteeism decreases Academic performance increases Helps improve student behavior in the classroom The benefit extends to all ages Improves teacher performance Helps when the parents feel happier and more involved with their children's education The disadvantages of parent involvement are: - When parents are excessively involved in their children’s schools it can damage their children’s self-esteem as well as the teacher’s self-esteem. https://observatory.tec.mx/edu-news/the-importance-of-parental-involvement-in-teaching Final Conclusion Parent involvement is essential for student development and offers many benefits. The participation of parents in the educational process means that teachers and parents share the responsibility to teach students and work together to achieve educational goals. The earlier that a connection is established between parents and the educational process of their children, the stronger the foundation for success of the student. When there is good communication between parents and teachers, academic performance increases, there reading and comprehension increase, and students feel more motivated learn and their grades improve along with their self-esteem and their attitude. Not only does it help the students but it helps the teacher as well. When the parent and teacher have better communication, parents learn to value the work of the teacher more. https://observatory.tec.mx/edu-news/the-importance-of-parental-involvement-in-teaching	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.680140	Caroline Fowler	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89667/overview", "title": "Parent Involvement", "author": "Allyson Novak" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103412/overview	Designing a Resume Overview This asynchronous e-learning course will introduce the learner to effective resume formatting and design. By the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to: - Recognize the elements of a well-designed resume - Categorize resume components under appropriate headings - Use design principles to format a resume - Evaluate a completed resume for flaws Looking for a job? Make your resume stand out! On average, recruiters spend six seconds looking at a candidate's resume. Formatting and structure matter just as much as content. Learn how to design a dynamite resume following some simple steps. Click "Next" to get started! Lesson Overview & Knowledge Check This learning system will introduce you to effective resume formatting and design. By the end of the lesson, you will be able to recognize the elements of a well-designed resume, categorize resume components, use design principles to format a resume, and evaluate a completed resume for flaws. After the lesson, you can apply what you learn to creating your own resume! Before you get started with the lesson, please take a moment to complete a brief survey about your existing resume knowledge. After your complete the survey, you will be directed to the next section of this lesson. Click on the link below to complete the survey. Resume Layout A well-designed resume uses three key features to enhance readablity. Incorporating these features will make your resume easy to follow and help you stand out to recruiters. Scan-Ability Your goal for the resume is to make it easy for the reader to scan VERY quickly for the most relevant and important experience and skills. Use formatting–boldface, type scale, strategic use of white space–to make key information easy to find. Formatting and Visual "Chunking" USE ALL CAPS, bold, italics or underline to create emphasis and access points for the reader. Create visual chunking with white space between blocks of information– keep those blocks short! Two short blocks are better–more inviting to read–than one long one. Information Architecture Information architecture refers to a hierarchy of information or text achieved by a combination of sequence, scale, and boldness of your information. By selecting what text appears first, horizontally or vertically, you're telling the reader what information is most important. Source: The three features on this page are described using text from the DePaul University Career Center. Well-designed Resume Review the example of a well-designed resume and corresponding notes on this page. Identify spots where the author used scan-ability, formatting and visual "chunking," and information architecture to achieve the desired results. Reflect on the following questions as you review the resume: - Do you find this resume easy to read? Why/why not? - What stands out? - How is the resume structured? - What are the categories and corresponding headings? Identifying Design Flaws Now, review this sample resume and reflect on the following questions: - Do you find this resume easy to read? Why/why not? - Could you easily scan the resume for key elements? - Does the resume use ALL CAPS, bold, italics or underline to emphasize and "chunk" sections? - Does the content appear in a logical, hierarchical sequence? - Are there elements of the resume that you would remove or add? Answers: Identifying Design Flaws Compare your answers to the reflection questions with the answers in bold: - Do you find this resume easy to read? Why/why not? - This resume uses many design features to enhance readability, though there are several spots where readability could be enhanced. - Could you easily scan the resume for key elements? - The resume lacks white space, making it difficult to scan. - Does the resume use ALL CAPS, bold, italics or underline to emphasize and "chunk" sections? - The resume uses caps and bold to divide up sections and help with readability. - Does the content appear in a logical, hierarchical sequence? - The two columns on the resume create confusion for the reader. The "core competencies" and "profile objectives" appear on the same horizontal line, making it unclear which is most important. - Are there elements of the resume that you would remove or add? - The headshot photo in the upper left corner is unnecessary for most resumes. It can be distracting. - The "personal details" section in the lower left corner can be removed/consolidated with the skills section. Including your birthday is not necessary. - The resume is missing a section on work experience. Organizing a Resume Organizing your resume content is another vital step in designing a compelling resume. Looking, again, at this well-designed example, you can see that the author divided the resume into five sections: - Education - Experience - Projects - Technology - Skills Each section includes specific and relevant examples, taken from the authors professional experience. Most examples are bullet points. In the "Experience" and "Projects" sections, the author wrote the examples as statements, highlighting measurable deliverables. For example, under the second heading in "Experience" the author illustrates a specific skill they used while working as a Community Health Researcher: "Created data visualization that illustrated the disparity between community health awareness and access to medical services." Review the resume on this page with attention to what the author included in each section. You will practice organizing resume content on the next page! Practice Organizing a Resume Let's practice organizing a resume! Below you will see three sample headings and five sample content blocks. Where would each content block go in a well-designed resume? Sample headings Education Experience Skills Sample content General Manager, Costco, 2010-Present - Managed a budget of $50,000 - Enhanced spending processes and loss prevention Doctor of Philosophy, University of Illinois, 1995 Political Science Biochemistry Lab Manager, University of Chicago, 2005-2007 - Supervised staff team of 20 part time lab technicians Adobe Creative Suite Software Data Analytics Certificate, DePaul University, 2015 Answers: Practice Organizing a Resume Education Doctor of Philosophy, University of Illinois, 1995 Political Science Data Analytics Certificate, DePaul University, 2015 Note: While "data analytics" would fall under the skills heading, the "Data Analytics Certificate" is best placed under education. Experience General Manager, Costco, 2010-Present - Managed a budget of $50,000 - Enhanced spending processes and loss prevention Biochemistry Lab Manager, University of Chicago, 2005-2007 - Supervised staff team of 20 part time lab technicians Note: The "Biochemistry Lab Manager" entry is an example of work experience, even though it took place at a university, and may have occured in the same time period that the author was a student. Skills Adobe Creative Suite Software Review & Proofreading Your resume is not done until you proofread it! After you generate content, organize sections, and apply design principles, you must double-check your work. A seemingly small typo can get your resume thrown of a recruiter's pool. Before sending your resume in to a job, review it at least twice. These reviews can be done by you, or, ideally, with support from a trusted friend or colleague. The first review of your final resume should focus on structure and format. Ask yourself these questions: - Is the resume scan-able? - Are the sections clearly organized? - Did I make good use of fonts, layout, and white space? - Are the examples under each heading appropriate illustrations of my accomplishments? - Does the spacing and allignment flow? The second review should solely focus on spelling and grammar. Ask yourself these questions: - Is every word spelled correctly? - Are the statements clear and written as fragments (rather than full sentences)? - Do all of the tenses align? Recap & Knowledge Check Let's recap what we learned! A well-designed resume uses three key features to enhance readablity: - Scan-Ability - Formatting and Visual "Chunking" - Information Architecture Organize your resume content into appropriate heading and sections. This will help recruiters understand your experiences when scanning your resume. Remember to review and proofread your final resume before submitting it. Ask trusted friends or colleagues to help with this review. Incorporating features and tips into your resume will make your resume easy to follow and help you stand out to recruiters! Knowledge Check Thank you for participating in this course! The final step is to complete a knowledge check survey, similar to what you did at the beginning of the course. Once you complete the survey, you will be done with the course. Click on the link below to check your knowledge.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.716079	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103412/overview", "title": "Designing a Resume", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88753/overview	Teaching Sentence Structure - ESL Level 1 Overview These lectures and assignments step ESL students through the process of learning sentence variety which is the key to writing that is both correct, mature, and interesting. Beginning with simple sentences as the foundation allows all students to add more sentence types to their writing in an organized way. This module can be combined with the others uploaded in this folder about reading, grammar, and writing activities to create an entire OER based ESL class for this level. Writing Simple Sentences Writing Simple Sentences - What is a Simple Sentence? - First, we need to define the words phrase and clause. - A phrase is a group of related words, so English has prepositional phrases, participle phrases, noun phrases, verb phrases, etc. - A clause has both a subject and a related verb that must agree. Clauses can be independent (can stand by itself which means it can function as a sentence) and dependent/subordinate (must be in a sentence with an independent clause, or it is a fragment). - So, a simple sentence is an independent clause with one subject and predicate (fancy word for the verb phrase because it is possible to have more than one verb with a single subject). - Be Verbs What are be verbs? These verbs are forms of the verb to be. In present tense, they are is, am, and are. - Action Verbs - Action verbs show some form of action. - English has many, many, many action verbs to choose from. - To make your writing better and more interesting, choose more action verbs than be verbs. Of course, you will still use be verbs, but you should have more action verbs than be verbs in your writing. - Simple Sentences Using be Verbs - Simple Sentences with be verb plus a noun (predicate nominative). For these sentences the subject and the predicate nominative are the same person, place, or thing. The predicate nominative renames the subject, so the sentence could be reversed. My favorite drink is coffee. OR Coffee is my favorite drink. - Simple Sentences with a be verb plus an adjective (predicate adjective). The adjective describes the subject. The puppy is smart. - Simple sentences with a be verb and an adverb or adverb phrase. The puppy is here. OR The puppy is next to me. - Simple sentence beginning with there is/are. There are many vegetables to eat. - Simple sentence beginning with it is. It is a new semester. - When to Choose Be Verbs or Action Verbs - Generally, we prefer sentences with action verbs because action verbs add more meaning and allow readers to “see” what is happening. - Sentences beginning with there is/are and it is are never the best option. They are 3. grammatically correct, but they are not stylistically preferable. - Sometimes a be verb is preferable and/or necessary when you want to make an assertion (statement of truth). - One of the most famous simple sentences with a be verb is the slogan for the Sanitation Workers’ Strike in the 1960s here in Memphis. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was attending their protests when he was assassinated (murdered). I am a man. - Simple Sentences with Action Verbs English has so many verbs to choose from! As you add more vocabulary, you will see that you can use walk but also stroll, saunter, or shuffle. Run can also be job, dash, dart, or sprint. For now use the words you know! Most be verb sentences can be changed to action verb sentences, often by using a word already in the sentence as the action verb. - Change My favorite drink is coffee to I drink coffee every morning. - Change The puppy is smart to The puppy learns quickly. - Change The puppy is next to me to The puppy sits next to me. OR The puppy is sitting next to me. - Change There are many vegetables to eat. to My family eats many vegetables. - Change It is a new semester to The new semester begins this month. - Sources from the Web “37 Simple Sentences” - “37 Simple Sentence Examples and Worksheet," Your Dictionary [webpage]. https://examples.yourdictionary.com/simple-sentence-examples.html “To Be or Not to Be: Replacing to Be Verbs” - St. Louis Community College - College Writing Center. "To be or not To be: Replacing Be Verbs," 15 Apr. 2014. https://stlcc.edu/docs/student-support/academic-support/college-writing-center/to-be-verbs.pdf - Simple Sentences Assignment Following the examples above, write five simple sentences using be verbs, one for each type. Then, change each of them to simple sentences using action verbs. You may have to add some words in order to make the second set of sentences make sense. So, you will have a total of 10 simple sentences. Make sure you do your own work! Do not copy sentences from the internet! Beginning Sentences with Adverbs - Definition of an Adverb - An adverb is one of the 8 parts of speech in English. - They modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Sometimes they can modify entire clauses or sentences. - Many adverbs have the –ly suffix (ending added to the end of the word), but not all adverbs have the –ly ending. - In fact many, NOT all, adjectives can become adverbs by adding the -ly. The adjective beautiful can become the adverb beautifully. However, even though friendly is an –ly adverb, it does not correspond (match to) an adjective. Friend without the –ly is a noun, not an adjective. - Adverbs answer the questions: how? When? Where? To what extent? The next slide will explain why. - Five Types of Adverbs - Adverbs of degree. These adverbs answer the question to what extent: very, almost, extremely, etc. - Adverbs of frequency. These adverbs deal with how often something occurs. It is one half of the when question. Examples: never, often, frequently, always. - Adverbs of manner. These adverbs answer the question how. Most of the –ly adverbs are these types of adverbs. Examples: quickly, noisily, helpfully. But also well and fast. - Adverbs of place. These answer the question where. Examples: inside, nowhere, everywhere, etc. - Adverbs of time. These are the other half of the when adverbs. Examples: yesterday, today, tomorrow, etc. - Adverbs Have a Super Power - We are discussing adverbs in a writing class because many adverbs, not all of them, can move. - They are like Lego blocks and can be clicked onto the sentence in the usual place, directly after the verb, OR they can be moved to the beginning of the sentence, OR they can be at the end of the sentence. - Sentence Variety - The normal order of an English sentence is subject, verb, object. - Some languages cannot vary the order of sentences. However, English has a lot of options for how to begin sentences. - In fact native English speakers and readers EXPECT sentence variety. - If anyone writes a paragraph in English where all of the sentences begin with the subject, the paragraph can be 100% grammatically correct, but native speakers will say the paragraph sounds like a child wrote it. - To write well in English, writers MUST have sentence variety. - Adverbs vs. Adverbials - We have already defined adverbs and explained them. Adverbials are related to adverbs, but instead of a single word adverbials can be a phrase or even an entire clause. - Adverbials still answer the questions how, when, where, and to what extent. - They can still move to the beginning of the sentence. - Remember this concept of adverbials because we will come back to it many times over the course of the semester. - Which Adverbs Can Begin a Sentence? - Adverbs that modify the entire sentence can occur at the beginning of the sentence. - Adverbs that are transitional (moving from one thing to another) words can occur at the beginning of the sentence. Examples: however, on the other hand, next, therefore, in fact, furthermore. - Most, but not all, -ly adverbs can begin a sentence. - According to “Adverb Placement” by Marina Pantcheva, always, ever, rarely, seldom, and never cannot occur at the beginning of the sentence. Pantcheva, Marina. “Adverb Placement \| English Language Help Desk.” English Language Help Desk. https://site.uit.no/english/grammar/adverb-placement/ - Notice the Comma - When an adverb occurs at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary . - The comma comes directly after the introductory adverb. - EXAMPLES: - Quietly, I ate the chocolate. - Happily, the girl skipped to the playground. - Clearly, sentence variety is important in English. - Writing Sentences with Introductory Adverbs Assignment Write 5 sentences with the adverb at the beginning of the sentence. Let me know if you have questions or need help. Be brave. Mistakes are a wonderful learning tool! - Sources from the Web “Lolly Lolly Lolly Get Your Adverbs Here - Schoolhouse Rock.” YouTube, 3 Feb. 2011. https://youtu.be/14fXm4FOMPM - Schoolhouse Rock, “Lolly, Lolly, Lolly Get Your Adverbs Here” Beginning Sentences with Prepositional Phrases - What is a Preposition? - Prepositions are one of the eight parts of speech in English. - According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, “A preposition is a word—and almost always a very small, very common word—that shows direction (to in "a letter to you"), location (at in "at the door"), or time (by in "by noon"), or that introduces an object (of in "a basket of apples"). Prepositions are typically followed by an object, which can be a noun (noon), a noun phrase (the door), or a pronoun (you).” - Prepositions indicate that a noun will follow which is the object of the prepositional phrase. - How to Identify Prepositions - They are small, directional words. - Think of a mouse and a trashcan. A mouse can be in a trashcan, on a trashcan, beside a trashcan, under a trashcan, above a trashcan, etc. - The mouse and the trashcan will work for almost all of the prepositions. - I have linked a webpage with a complete list at the bottom of the module. - Adverbials and Adjectivals - Adverbials and adjectivals are phrases and clauses that act like adverbs and adjectives. - Prepositional phrases act as adverbials and adjectivals in sentences. - Remember that adverbs answer the questions how, when, where, and to what extent. Most adverbials will answer when and where. - In the morning answers when. By the lake answers where. - Prepositional Phrases Can Move - Just like adverbs, prepositional phrases can be moved to the beginning of sentences to provide sentence variety. - You can have one, two, three, or even more prepositional phrases stacked one after the other. - In the morning I go for a walk. In the morning before breakfast I go for a walk. - Notice that you do NOT have a comma after the introductory prepositional phrases. Unlike other introductory elements you do not use commas with introductory prepositional phrases UNLESS you have three or more OR you need the comma for clarification (to make something clearer). - One More Thing! - The subject of an independent or dependent clause will NEVER be located in a prepositional phrase. - The nouns and pronouns within prepositional phrases are objects of the preposition and CANNOT be subjects. - You can cross out ALL prepositional phrases when you are trying to make subjects and verbs agree or are looking for the subject of your sentence or clause. - Sources from the Web OddballVQ. “Schoolhouse Rock Grammar Rock Busy Prepositions.” YouTube, 12 Dec. 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avC53wsZiJA&feature=youtu.be – Schoolhouse Rock – “Busy Prepositions” ENGLISH PAGE.” Www.Englishpage.Com, 2020. https://www.englishpage.com/prepositions/prepositions_list.htm - complete list of prepositions Writing Compound Sentences - What are Compound Sentences? - A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined with a conjunction. - You can remember all of the coordinating conjunctions in English with the mnemonic (tool to remember something by making a word or pattern out of the first letter of each item): FAN BOYS or for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. - When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, you will need a comma before the conjunction. EXAMPLE: I was hungry, so I made a sandwich. - Coordinating conjunctions do not have to connect entire sentences. They can also connect other parts of speech to make a compound subject, verb, etc. EXAMPLES: My mother and father are at work. My mother works and goes to school. - Limitations of Compound Sentence - In English you should only have two main clauses connected with coordinating conjunctions in a single sentence. - This pattern is different than in Arabic, for example. In Arabic you can add one thought on top of another on top of another using and. Not in English. - If you use too many compound sentences with the subject first, your writing will still seem childish to native speakers. - How do we solve these limitations? Keep reading. - Changing Simple Sentences to Compound Sentences - Below is a paragraph from and exercise in Writing Skills Practice in EFL by Patricia Wilcox Peterson. Every sentence in this paragraph is a simple sentence, so the cadence (the beat) of the paragraph is very repetitious (sounds the same). This pattern is NOT desirable (what we want) in English. I have linked the entire book at the end of the module if you want to read more. The exercise comes from page 89. - My name is June Taylor. My daughter Sara lives in Fairbanks, Alaska. I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. I am a working mother. I work as a camera woman for a T.V. station in Fairbanks. My job is interesting. I enjoy it. I didn’t always work. I didn’t plan to work. I started to work ten years ago. This is my story. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/developing_writing.pdf Peterson, Patricia Wilcox. Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL Beginning/Intermediate Level, United States Department of State: Office of English Language Programs, 1982. - My name is June Taylor. My daughter Sara and I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. I am a working mother, and I work as a camera woman for a T.V. station in Fairbanks. My job is interesting, so I enjoy it. I didn’t always work, nor did I plan to work. I started to work ten years ago, and this is my story. - What do you think? It is better because you have a good mix of longer and shorter sentences. However, this changed paragraph still sounds repetitive because every sentence begins with the subject. - The Importance of Sentence Variety - To write well in English, you must have sentence variety which means that your sentences vary in length (some short, some long) AND in the way they begin. - You do NOT want to begin all of your sentences with the subject first. You must begin some of them with something other than the subject. - We have now learned two ways to begin sentences with something other than the subject: introductory adverbs and introductory prepositional phrases. - Paragraph With Introductory Elements Added - Here we have the same paragraph again. Now, I have added introductory adverbs and prepositional phrases. What do you think? - My name is June Taylor. My daughter Sara and I live in Fairbanks, Alaska. I am a working mother, and I work as a camera woman for a T.V. station in Fairbanks. My job is interesting, so I enjoy it. For years I didn’t work, nor did I plan to work. However, I started to work ten years ago, and this is my story. Writing Complex Sentences - What is a Complex Sentence? - A complex sentence has only one main clause or sentence AND one or more dependent or subordinate clause. - Dependent and subordinate mean the same thing: they cannot stand alone. This concept is very important! We will come back to it shortly. - How to Write Complex Sentences Below we have two simple sentences: I was hungry. I cooked dinner. You could combine these sentences to make a compound sentence: I was hungry, so I cooked dinner. OR you can use a subordinating conjunction. Conjunctions allow us to connect items in a sentence. Coordinating conjunctions (FAN BOYS) are only one type of conjunctions. When I was hungry, I cooked dinner. - Benefits of Complex Sentences - Do you see the benefit of the complex sentence? - Because of the way they are constructed, complex sentences provide sentence variety! - The subject does not come first if you put the dependent/subordinate clause at the beginning of the sentence. - You edit out extra words while keeping all of the ideas from your sentences. - Dependent/Subordinate Clauses Can Move - Remember that adverbs and adverbials can move in sentences. - Did you notice the word when and that when is one of the questions that adverbs/adverbials answer? - Just as phrases can be adverbial, so can clauses. - So, these dependent/subordinate clauses can also move to the end of the sentence, and, in some cases, they can be in the middle of a longer sentence with more than one independent clause. EXAMPLE: I cooked dinner when I was hungry. - Punctuation Note - Notice that when a dependent/subordinate clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, you must have a comma after the dependent/subordinate clause and before the main clause begins. - Why? This introductory clause is like the entrance ramp to the interstate. The comma signals to the reader that the introductory information is over, and now, we are reading the main clause. - However, you do NOT need a comma before a dependent/subordinate clause at the end of the sentence. - Why? The subordinating conjunction itself signals that the dependent/subordinate clause is beginning. You do not need a comma because we already have the information we need. - List of Subordinating Conjunctions - We are going to limit how many subordinating conjunctions we deal with in this class. We will cover a total of 7, but we will cover 2 of them in the next module. - Before, after, until, when, and while are 5 of the subordinating conjunctions we are going to discuss. You should notice that before, after, and until are ALSO prepositions. How you know the difference? If they are followed by a noun ONLY, they are prepositions; if they are followed by a noun AND a verb, they are subordinating conjunctions. - Sources from the Web https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/developing_writing.pdf - Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL: Beginning/Intermediate Level - Introductory Dependent Clauses Assignment Complete Exercise IV on page 102 of Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL Complex Sentences Continued - Subordinating Conjunctions - The most common subordinating conjunctions are because and even though/although. We will begin with those. - However, there are many more subordinating conjunctions including since, if, when, after, before, while, etc. - Before and after can be prepositions OR subordinating conjunctions. It they are followed by a noun only, they are prepositions. It they are followed by a subject and a verb, they are subordinating conjunctions. Context is the only way to determine which way they are acting in that sentence. - How Subordinate/Dependent Clauses Work - All clauses have a subject and a verb. - Clauses can be independent (a sentence) or dependent/subordinate. - Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone because they have been altered (changed) by adding a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun (who, which, that). - Examples of independent clauses: 1. Eric finds snakes. 2. The snow fell for hours. - Examples of subordinate/dependent clauses that now have to be added to a different independent clause: 1. When Eric finds snakes, he teaches people about them. 2. Because the snow fell for hours, we had many inches on the ground. - Using Because - Subordinating conjunctions have meanings that you must take into account. - Because shows that whatever happened in the dependent/subordinate clause caused what happens in the independent clause to occur. - So is the coordinating conjunction that matches meaning. You can always change compound sentences that use so into complex sentences that use because. - Make sure your sentence makes sense. - Problem Sentence: Because I had blonde hair when I was a child, I am a good reader. This sentence makes grammatical sense, but blonde hair as a child did not make me a good reader. - Correction: Because I had blonde hair when I was a child, it often turned green if I swam in the pool. - Using Even Though and Although - Even though and although mean exactly the same thing and are interchangeable. - Make sure you only use them when you have a change from one thing or position to a different thing or position. - But is the coordinating conjunction that matches meaning. You can always change compound sentences that use but into complex sentences that use even though or although. - Problem sentence: Although I was hungry, I ate dinner. - Correction: Although I was hungry, I did not eat dinner. You must have the opposite happen in order to use these subordinating conjunctions. - Writing Sentences with Introductory Clauses Assignment Write three sentences using because as a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of the sentences, two using even though, and two using although for a total of 7 sentences. Using Relative Clauses - Relative Clauses are Another Way to Add Sentence Variety - Changes the length of the sentence. - Changes the middle or end of the sentence. - Does not vary the beginning. - Alternative to Coordinating Conjunctions - The relative pronouns are pronouns. - Using them helps avoid repetition. - They can be a required part of the sentence that does not need commas on either side or an extra part of the sentence that does need commas on each side of the relative clause. - A Different Way to Combine Sentences The girl is sleepy. The girl has been doing her homework for hours. Could be Because the girl has been doing her homework for hours, she is sleepy. OR The girl who has been doing her homework for hours is sleepy. - Sources from the Web "Relative Pronouns."Grammar Monster. https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/relative_pronouns.htm Traffis, Catherine. "What Is a Relative Pronoun and How Does It Work?" GrammarlyBlog. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/relative-pronouns/ - Relative Pronoun Assignments Complete Exercise II on pages 123-4 in Writing Skills Practice Book for EFL Using Participle Phrases - What are Participle Phrases? - Participle phrases act like multi-word adjectives that modify the subject of a sentence. - In the simplest terms a participle is the –ing or the –ed form of a verb that we are using in a different way. - Because they modify the subject, they must come before or after the subject. - We are going to focus on using participle phrases before the subject as another way to begin sentences with something before the subject. They are another option for introductory elements. - How to Create a Participle Phrase - Begin with a compound sentence that has a progressive form of the verb in one of the clauses. - The boy was running across campus, and he knocked over a professor. - To create the participle phrase, take out the auxiliary be verb and the coordinating conjunction. The first clause will now only be a phrase that cannot stand alone. - Running across campus, the boy knocked over a professor. - Notice that you have to use the boy instead of he because it is the first time you mention the boy. Also notice that they boy is who is running across campus. You could not have the computer be the subject because it cannot run across campus. Questions? - Why Do We Use Participle Phrases? - They add more variety to our writing. - They let us avoid using coordinating conjunctions over and over. - They let us be less wordy and eliminate unnecessary words. - They let us embed (put inside) information in shorter phrase that does not need an entire clause. - Gerunds - We have another way to use the –ing form of the verb. - Participles are –ing or –ed verbs that are now acting as adjective. - Gerunds are –ing verbs acting as nouns. - You should definitely use them, but they do not add sentence variety. - EXAMPLES: Running is my favorite sport. Reading takes me a long time. - More Examples - Sleeping all day in the car, the baby never cried. - Exhausted, mom fell asleep as soon as she sat down. - Texting while driving, the inconsiderate driver caused an accident. - Working at home, the writer completed the article before the deadline. - A Word of Caution - Not all –ed verbs work as participles. The –ing participle phrases are much easier to use. - The process to create a participle phrase with an –ed verb is a little more complicated. The thing to remember is that the subject that comes immediately after the participle phrase MUST be what the participle phrase is talking about. - EXAMPLE: The pit master basted the barbeque all day, and his customers bought it all in three hours. Basted all day, the barbeque sold out in three hours. - Using Participle Phrases Assignment Write four sentence with introductory participle phrases. Comprehensive Sentence Variety Lecture and Assignment - Standard Order of English Sentences The standard order in an English sentence is S – V – O (Subject, Verb, Object) - Why Do We Want to Change that Order? - Although English can be frustrating because of all of its variety and rule breaking, that trait is also what makes English powerful. - English is a Ferrari (really fancy sports car), so we are not going to ride around in a golf cart all of the time. - English speakers EXPECT this variety when they read. When they read an entire paragraph where every sentence is S-V-O, they perceive that writing as childish and/or boring. - The Simple Sentence - The Simple sentence has only one subject and one verb. 2. Actually, this sentence can be the most powerful one in English, but you only want to use a few. A famous Bible verse is a classic example: “Jesus Wept.” 3. Because this sentence is the first one children learn, you cannot use a lot of them in your writing without sounding like a 7 year old. - EXAMPLE: The businesswoman ate breakfast. - Combining Sentences with Coordinating Conjunctions (Compound Sentences) - English has 7 coordinating conjunctions which you can remember with the phrase FAN BOYS: for, and, or, but, or, yet, so. These words are used along with a comma to join two complete sentences together. - These words are the first way children and non-native speakers learn to combine sentences. You will always have some of these sentences in your writing. - Using these sentences is a matter of balance. You do not want too many of them. Arabic, on the other hand, uses this construct over and over. - EXAMPLE: The businesswoman ate her breakfast, and she hurried to leave for work on time. - Combining Sentences with Subordinating Conjunctions (Complex Sentences) - Rather than coordinate over and over, English relies on subordinating. Subordinate means unable to stand alone, so what is happening is that one sentence becomes dependent on the other. - There are many subordinating conjunctions. They include: because, even though, since, when, after, although, etc. Be careful though because these words do have meaning. - To use these, the subordinating conjunction goes in front of one of the subjects, and a comma is necessary after the subordinate clause. - EXAMPLE: After the businesswoman ate her breakfast, she left to go to work. - Combining Sentences by Using Participle Phrases - Another way to combine sentences is to keep part of the verb of one sentence while eliminating the subject and the auxiliary verb. - The resulting pattern is a participle phrase which can be a present participle (-ing form) or past participle (third form of the verb). - Original sentence: The businesswoman was eating her breakfast, and she checked her email. - Note: The subject that follows the participle phrase must make sense. In the example below, you could NOT say: Eating her breakfast, the stove… - EXAMPLE: Eating her breakfast, the businesswoman checked her email. - Combining Sentences Using Relative Clauses - Relative clauses allow two sentences that share a subject to be combined. - For these sentences one of the subjects is replaced by a relative pronoun such as who, which, or that. - EXAMPLE: The businesswoman, who was in a hurry, ate a cold breakfast. - Sentence Variety that is not Sentence Combining - Begin with 1, 2, 3, or more prepositional phrases. EXAMPLE: On Saturday before her big meeting the businesswoman wolfed down her breakfast and left for work. - Begin with an introductory adverb. EXAMPLE: Quickly, the businesswoman ate her breakfast and left for work. - Comma Note Remember that one of the comma rules is to set off most introductory elements. So, all of the examples we have just covered have a comma after them EXCEPT the introductory prepositional phrases. You do not put a comma after introductory prepositional phrases unless you have three or more. - Putting It All Together On the next slide is the opening paragraph of an essay titled “Just Walk On By: A Black Man Ponders His Power to Alter Public Space” by Brent Staples. The essay is about a black man being upset because some white women see him as threatening when he is simply living his life. I have linked the entire essay below if you want to keep reading. NOTE: He is NOT actually threatening anyone!!!!! He is actually a really nice guy which is the point of his essay. - Opening Paragraph of “Just Walk On By…” by Brent Staples My first victim was a woman – white, well-dressed, probably in her early twenties. I came upon her late one evening on a deserted street in Hyde Park, a relatively affluent neighborhood in an otherwise mean, impoverished section of Chicago. As I swung onto the avenue behind her, there seemed to be a discreet, uninflammatory distance between us. Not so. She cast back a worried glance. To her, the youngish black man – a broad six feet two inches with a beard and billowing hair, both hands shoved into the pockets of a bulky military jacket – seemed menacingly close. After a few more quick glimpses, she picked up her pace and was soon running in earnest. Within seconds she disappeared into a cross street. - Notice the Sentence Patterns We Have Discussed - Although the author does not use all of the patterns we have covered, he does use many of them. - Which ones do you recognize? - You should also recognize that there are even more sentence patterns that we have not discussed. English has A LOT of sentence variety. - Cumulative Sentence Variety Assignment For homework take the original sentence and modify it to create sentences that have the following patterns. It will be the same way I modified the example sentence. Put your sentences in a WORD document that you will upload to the Assignments Folder. Your simple sentence: The student did her homework. 1. Use a coordinating conjunction. 2. Use a subordinating conjunction. 3. Use a participle phrase. 4. Use a relative clause. 5. Use introductory prepositional phrase or phrases. 6. Use an introductory adverb.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.879518	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88753/overview", "title": "Teaching Sentence Structure - ESL Level 1", "author": "Language, Grammar and Vocabulary" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16568/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.908716	08/31/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/16568/overview", "title": "Blank Multiplication Table 0-12", "author": "Hally Milleson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109124/overview	EDUCATOR RESOURCES TO ADDRESS ANTISEMITISM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS Overview Resouces for educators addressing antisemitism. Teaching about Antisemitism Oregon's Every Student Belongs An important step in creating safe and inclusive school climates where all who participate in our school communities feel welcome. The rule prohibits hate symbols, specifically three of the most recognizable symbols of hate in the U.S. The Oregon Department of Education webpage includes resources for teaching about combatting hate, discrimination, and bias. THE INTERNATIONAL DEFINITION OF ANTISEMITISM The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) created a definition of antisemitism that begins: Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. TEACHING RESOURCES What is antisemitism? Created by the International Holocaust Alliance (IHRA), this working definition of antisemitism is a comprehensive definition adopted by over 30 democratic countries, including the United States. It is also included in the California Department of Education’s Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum (ESMC). The reason for its widespread acceptance is that it reflects the real-life experiences of Jews who face this bigotry today. Schools and school districts can use IHRA as a tool to educate students about all forms of antisemitism, past and present. It is also a tool to help determine whether an incident of hatred or discrimination has occurred. Jewish Americans lesson The Institute for Curriculum Services (ICS) creates and improves the accuracy of K-12 instructional materials, develops standards-aligned curricula, and provides professional development to teachers. The lesson by ICS is included in the ESMC, which is being updated now. Antisemitism and Jewish Middle Eastern Americans lesson plan; Oral history project video series Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North African (JIMENA) aims to achieve "universal recognition for the heritage and history of the 850,000 indigenous Jewish refugees from the Middle East and North Africa." JIMENA’s lesson plan has been adopted by the California State Department of Education. The Roots and Impacts of Antisemitism lesson plan Facing History focuses on using lessons of history to challenge teachers and their students to stand up to bigotry and hate. Their resources are widely used in schools across the United States. Anti-Defamation League (ADL) The ADL's goal is to stop the defamation of the Jewish people and to secure justice and fair treatment to all. The ADL’s resources are used in schools across the United States: - No Place for Hate program - Antisemitism Uncovered: BINAH: Building Insights to Navigate Antisemitism and Hate - Echoes and Reflections - Lesson Plan: Antisemitic Incidents: Being An Ally, Advocate and Activist - Lesson Plan: Challenging Antisemitism: Debunking the Myths and Responding With Facts - Online Antisemitism Course MUSEUMS FOR VIRTUAL PROGRAMS AND FIELD TRIPS - Oregon Jewish Museum and Center for Holocaust Education - US Holocaust Memorial Museum (Washington DC) - Holocaust Center for Humanity (Seattle) - Wassmuth Center for Human Rights (Boise) - Museum of Tolerance (Los Angeles) - Skirball Cultural Center (Los Angeles) - Holocaust Center for Humanity (Seattle) - American Jewish Historical Society (New York) - Dallas Holocaust and Human Rights Museum - Emma Lazarus Exhibit (New York) - Holocaust Center for Humanity (Seattle) - Jewish Museum of Maryland - Museum of the Southern Jewish Experience - National Museum of American Jewish History (Philadelphia) - Sephardic Heritage Museum (New York) - The Breman (Atlanta) - The Jewish Museum (New York) - Touro Synagogue - Oldest Synagogue in the U.S. (Newport, RI) (Sephardic) - US Holocaust Memorial Museum (Washington DC)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.925895	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109124/overview", "title": "EDUCATOR RESOURCES TO ADDRESS ANTISEMITISM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85483/overview	Inquiry Project Template Overview This is a template for an inquiry project in a senior level early childhood course. Purpose of the Project The purpose of this inquiry project is to dive deeper into important educational topics not addressed fully in your coursework. These modules will be open for anyone to search and learn from your project results. You will find guidelines attached and explanations of each required section. You will delete this section and create your OER beginning with the introduction section. Include a reference list for each section. Introduction Here you will introduce your topic, perhaps add in images, graphs, or other visuals to help guide the learning process. You might just define what the topic is and what your main points you will cover are. Be create here. How will you draw in the audience to want to go through your OER? Include a reference list for each section. Main Points of Project Topic Here is where the majority of your work will go. You will have your main points and information in this section with an easy to follow format. I will put a link to my OER in the group so you can reference it if needed. Have the audience read and do something. This should not be a simple release of a lot of information. Include a reference list for each section. Final Conclusion Here you will insert your conclusion, or suggestions for implementation, from your presentation. This should be a unique understanding from your group's perspective based upon your research. Insert a reference list for each section.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:02.951544	08/31/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85483/overview", "title": "Inquiry Project Template", "author": "Leah Carruth" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114944/overview	Classroom Management: Motivating Students and Creating a Dynamic Learning Environment (POD/CETL) Classroom management resources User guide Classroom management resources: User guide Early Childhood Environments: Designing Effective Classrooms Images for Classroom arrangement Iris Center Early Childhood Environments: Designing Effective Classrooms Planning for classroom management Planning for classroom management guide Planning for classroom management practice guide Planning for Classroom management practice guide Rules and Routines Teach for Life Making Classroom Rules Classroom Arrangement Overview This is a template for an inquiry project in a senior level early childhood course. Purpose of the Project In this content we will cover the different aspects of classroom arrangement, we will look into why it is important to implement rules and routines along with ways on how to teach them to students. Along with designing effective classrooms and the types of classrooms. Lastly we will cover classroom management, how to effectively establish classroom management and skills and practices that create safe and supportive learning environments. Sections in this Course Overview Rules and Routines Designing effective classrooms Classroom management Conclusion Introduction Rules and Routines- Establishing a firm foundation for students at the beginning of the school year and what their expectations are from their educators. Having these set boundaries helps prevent behavior problems, what rules need to be followed in a classroom and what routines are established for students to quickly find a day-to-day rhythm. Designing Effective classrooms- Having a designed effective classroom can create a safe space for students that are in a classroom all year long. They way you design your classroom is going to affect students and their learning. Incorporating how diverse learners are going to be able to adapt and adjust to a new environment once entering a classroom is important when designing an effective classroom. Classroom Management- The purpose of classroom management is to create and maintain an environment that is going to allow students to grow and succeed. It is important for this environment to be well-managed that way there are minimal distractions and minimal behavioral problems. Setting boundaries and expectations is only the start to managing a classroom that is going to be successful throughout the year. Main Points of Project Topic Rules and Routines Intro to topic: When being in a classroom teachers and students establish both rules and routines that are followed in the classroom. Having these rules and routines supports students in being ready to engage and lays an important foundation for learning success. A rule is a short instruction for conduct or action that everyone is expected to know, follow, and refer to regularly. While Routines are sequences of recurring tasks or actions. Using rules and routines in the classroom helps students apprehend and demonstrate what is expected from them in the classroom. These rules and routines also provides assurance to students because they know what they can expect from their teacher during learning time, and how participating will help them achieve their goals. Importance of Teaching routines: An effective classroom management system creates a safe caring learning environment. Routines assure students and gives validity about what is expected in the classroom by providing stability and predictability. Enforcing these routines are important as it gives students the encouragement and enables students to independently follow these routines with small involvement from the teacher. Establishing routines in the classroom gives students an idea on how to behave because they have clear expectations and are expected to model these expectations. One way to teach a routine would be by using the gradual release model, this strategy is used by modeling, scaffolding, and independent practice. To teach a routine: Introduce the routine and briefly detail your expectations (why and what) Model and describe the routine to your students by demonstrating the expected behaviors (I do). Provide an opportunity for students to practice the routine with teacher support (we do). Students complete the routine independently (you do) Reinforce and maintain the routine consistently through acknowledgment, praise, and practice. Establishing and Maintaining Rules: Rules should be introduced on the first day of school, but instead of telling students what the rules are have the students take a part in creating the rules. Having the students participate in making the rules for the class. Students will understand the value of these rules if they take part in creating them. Example Video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXg-1CGvdA8 A list of rules should be short simple as possible, so that students do not feel overwhelmed by the amount of rules they are learning about. Instead we want students to remember what is expected of them and be able to limit distractions from their learning. Introduce and explain each rule clearly (what and why). Display them in the learning environment where students can easily see them. Check – and further develop, where necessary – students’ understanding of what the rules should and should not ‘look like’ and ‘sound like’ through class discussion, modeling and practice with students. Monitor all students and reinforce the rules consistently and fairly by reminding students of and practicing the rules when necessary. Acknowledge or praise the behavior, rather than the student, when rules are followed to support students’ intrinsic motivation to repeat the behavior. Temporal Environment: Supporting transitions between activities Visual schedules to give students a visual representation of their day How much time each routine takes The sequence and order of the routines that are completed throughout the day _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Designing Effective Classrooms Introduction of topic: When designing a classroom teachers need to ensure accessibility for everyone. This includes selecting child-sized, age-appropriate furnishings and considering all aspects of the environment. Having your classroom built for students' needs and their accessibility. Also designing a classroom environment that can be modified for students with disabilities. Teachers should carefully plan the physical environment of a classroom. The classroom should organize spaces, furniture, and materials to boost learning possibilities Example video over topic: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n0K9bfEbhPI This video is an example of a classroom environment that is designed for students. The students are able to move more freely, variety of seating options, and allows them to make individual choices in their learning environment. Types of classrooms: Effective and ineffective classrooms Classroom design is an important factor that promotes growth for the students. Down below are two different classroom types that are effective and ineffective to students. Supportive classroom A supportive classroom utilizes furniture to create distinct areas in the room. This type of classroom incorporates ways to store class materials that are easily reachable for children. The materials are displayed at eye level to assist children in daily classroom learning. As well as using effective lighting in your classroom to support students needs and promote learning. Less supportive Classroom A less supportive classroom may be cluttered and doesn’t utilized storage and space. The classroom lacks separation, and may not have materials that are reachable to the students. The design may not be beneficial to students and may have a lack of space and feel unorganized and cluttered. Physical Environment includes: The classroom design and the layout. It also includes learning centers, materials, and furnishings. Items that create a classroom environment. Here is a video that shows how a classroom is set up. Look at the variety of seating and the flexibility they have for the students. Video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XErm_kdsLyk As shown from the video, it shows different ways the classroom was set up with a variety of seating and its purpose within the classroom. Areas and seating in the classroom that promote small group instruction and independent learning, Here are some ways that you can design an effective classroom: Teachers should arrange the environment to optimize learning and effectively engage all children. Create different zones for individual work, partners and group activities Use and Incorporate visual aids within the classroom like posters, rules and schedules. Consider lighting and sound to help create a comfortable setting Carefully select and position materials to enrich learning experiences that can be at eye-level for the students and accessibility. When Designing a classrooms make sure the classroom is suitable for diverse learners and meet their needs. Classrooms also need to be flexible in their design and create areas that are suitable for students with disabilities. Here are some ways or ideas that can be used in your classroom to help meet the needs of all students and their learning needs. Modify or adjust chairs to cater to the needs of children with disabilities. Providing specialized equipment Making room for specialized equipment Cluttered free areas for easy use movement around the classroom Ways to promote effective classroom Showcase children's work to foster pride and a sense of ownership. Position visuals at children's eye level for easy viewing. Establish parent communication Create a multicultural classroom that allows diversity for all students ____________________________________________________________________________________Classroom Management Intro to topic: The purpose of classroom management is to create a safe environment where student are free of judgement and feel safe in the classroom. Having set boundaries, being prepared, and reinforcing expectations that are expected in the classroom is a start to classroom management and a start of having a classroom that is successful. As a teacher having a system and a plan can reduce disengaged students so how can you incorporate advanced learning and activities in your classroom or in lesson plans to keep those students who finish work faster engaged and interested, it reduces disruptive behaviors, and as well as how to respond to disruptive behavior. How to effectively plan for classroom management: Reflect on how you are managing your classroom and what skills and practice can help you improve or what needs to be changed during initial planning Plan in advance Plan how to create and maintain an environment that is beneficial to your students as well and the educator. Questions to ask yourself when reflecting on your classroom management skills How do you impact the students and learning environment in which you teach? At what level is the learning environment you have developed safe and supportive for all students? How do you build positive connections and establish positive relationships with all of your students How do you maximise learning time through high expectations, routines, and rules? To what extent are expectations, routines, and rules consistently demonstrated by students? Skills and practices that create safe and supportive learning environments and further learning time. Having clear communication with your students can help students feel like they are always going to be able to communicate how they are feeling, if they need something, or the need to communicate with someone. Having consistency in a classroom can help further on daily routines, and expectations through being consistent in the classroom and with your students. Correcting behavior problems. Setting classroom rules and student behavior expectations creates and safe environment for not only students but as the teacher you are creating boundaries in your classroom for all students. Establishing planning When it comes to managing classroom it is better to be prepared before interacting with students. The more connections the greater impact on the relationship with your students, and your classroom. Planning is just as important as a teacher because of the learning environment you are trying to create and the focus is on learning. Based on your planning it is important to reflect on your planning and adjust the planning throughout the school year. When planning at the beginning of the year it might look different to what your planning looks like in the middle of the year. Some planning that can be incorporated and what to look at when planning classroom management is Get to know your students and their families Develop reflexive practice to enhance responsiveness Teach the set expectations in your classroom as well as rules How to respond to student behavior Motivating students and creating positive behavior outcomes: Here is a video that talks about creating a positive environment but also when having behavior problems in a classroom setting. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqQdq0Tmh1Y Final Conclusion Conclusion over Classroom Arrangement As we have discussed previously in our module over classroom arrangement and all the aspects that contribute to it, we will now discuss ending points over all of the topics that were discussed. Ending overview: We have discussed different ways on how to use routines and rules in a classroom. We have discussed their purpose and why you should use them in your classroom. We have also discussed ways on effective ways for classroom arrangements and how it looks like. Lastly, we have discussed classroom management and its importance in a classroom. As educators, we must consider various elements, including classroom arrangement, rules, routines, and effective teaching strategies to built an effective classroom.It involves creating an environment where students can learn, collaborate, and thrive	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.005312	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114944/overview", "title": "Classroom Arrangement", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100605/overview	2 business environment Overview macro micro,enoronment internal environment self awarness macro environment macro environment and micro environment	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.023557	02/06/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100605/overview", "title": "business environment", "author": "nanma vv" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106788/overview	Wellness and Prevention Overview This resource provides an ECHOES recording regarding Every Moment Counts, a program designed to build capacity of school personnel and families with mental health/awareness. While currently there are few resources, physical health/wellness, and mental health/wellbeing are part of the PT and OT scopes of practices. A discussion with the new therapist may center around district priorities and the district's right of assignment of the contracted OT/PT time. Wellness and Prevention The following ECHO recording discusses the program Every Moment Counts which is a program designed to build capacity for school personnel and families regarding the promotion of positive mental health. Building Communities of Practice to Foster Implementation of Every Moment Counts (75 min recorded session) While currently there are few resources, physical health/wellness, and mental health/wellbeing are part of the PT and OT scopes of practices. A discussion with the new therapist may center around district priorities and the district's right of assignment of the contracted OT/PT time.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.036557	07/17/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106788/overview", "title": "Wellness and Prevention", "author": "Nathaniel Baniqued" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/59295/overview	Internet of Things Overview In this lesson, students will learn the basics of Internet of Things (IOT) and applications of IOT. There are two videos in the Prezi that show the importance of IOT and help inspire the creation of new ideas. At the conclusion of the presentation and all the readings, please write a 250-500 word response related to future applications of IOT and the concepts that stood out to you. Please respond to one other student's response. Learning Objectives Students should be able to: Apply their new found understanding of Internet of Things (IOT) by creating potential uses for this technolgy	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.048656	10/30/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/59295/overview", "title": "Internet of Things", "author": "Jack McCarthyy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104543/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in DO SOMETHING!!! or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.069750	06/01/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104543/overview", "title": "EVIL PREVAILS WHEN GOOD PEOPLE DO NOTHING", "author": "Dr. Susan Haynes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106262/overview	CAT final draft Phonemic Awareness in Early Intervention Overview What is the current state of the research on phonemic awareness treatment efficacy? What is the current state of the research on phonemic awareness treatment efficacy? What is the current state of the research on phonemic awareness treatment efficacy?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.087388	07/03/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106262/overview", "title": "Phonemic Awareness in Early Intervention", "author": "Lauren Sprague" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111888/overview	Moving Towards a Better Quality of Life Overview This presentation is meant to guide nursing staff in efforts to educate patients on the importance of movement in their hospital care, rehabilitation, and home care. Moving Towards a Better Quality of Life, Nursing focused interventions to increase activity in hospitalized patients. This presentation is meant to guide nursing staff in efforts to educate patients on the importance of movement in their hospital care, rehabilitation, and home care.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.099098	01/24/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111888/overview", "title": "Moving Towards a Better Quality of Life", "author": "Kerry Lakin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66016/overview	Dr. Anil Chidrawar Overview Phenols are aromatic hydroxy compounds in which one or more hydroxy groups are directly attached to the aromatic ring. Phenols Definition of phenol Classification of phenols Preparation of phenols The chemical reaction of phenols Acidic character of phenol	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.116543	05/03/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66016/overview", "title": "Dr. Anil Chidrawar", "author": "Dr. Anil Chidrawar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86389/overview	Nuclear Chemistry Overview Nuclear Chemistry topics covered from chemistry text book. Chemistry PowerPoints cover basics of Nuclear Chemistry.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.132582	10/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86389/overview", "title": "Nuclear Chemistry", "author": "Shibin Chacko" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115668/overview	exercise and the brain Overview exercise exercise and the brain exercise PDF Exercise and the brain chapter Download View	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.157346	05/01/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115668/overview", "title": "exercise and the brain", "author": "Nolan Jetter" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122192/overview	Democracy In Rwanda Overview Rwanda is the "Land of a Thousand Hills" full of greenery and fertility. The nation is landlocked boarded by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The country has a growing population with over 13 million people one of the highest population densities in Africa. Many of its citizens are young people born after The 1994 Genocide Against The Tutsi and are jobless and in poverty. Kinyarwanda is the country's official language. Rwanda is a very religious nation and is known as one of the most politically stable countries in the continent of Africa. Rwanda is known for its cleanliness, and banning plastic bags, with a collective effort for community unity and organization. The citizens of Rwanda gather together for Umuganda a traditional practice and a national holiday that takes place the last Saturday of every month from 8-11 am, where everyone comes together to clean, repair, and build in their communities.This Open Educational Resource will navigate the democratic attributes of Rwanda and the lack thereof. Learning Goals Essential Question: Is Rwanda a Democracy? You will be able to: Describe the attributes of Rwanda’s Democracy or Lack Thereof. History of Rwanda The Kingdom of Rwanda was a Monarchy, known as the Mwami. The Monarchy emerged in the 15th century. Germany's colonial rule impacted the Kingdom in the 1890's. 1916 Rwanda became a Belgian mandate after Germany's defeat in World War I. By the 1950s Rwanda's governance system had completely shifted away from its traditional practices and became a complete colonial administration. The three main societal social groups Hutu, Twa, and the Tutsi were determined by colonial leaders. Creating a "Tutsi Elite" and a "Hutu Majority" the male-led political parties within these identity factions were so determined and encouraged in their beliefs that ignited the first phase of the genocide in 1959 (Prunier). Violence between and against these groups escalated through propaganda and politics leading to the 1994 Genocide Against The Tutsi. How Does Rwanda's Democracy Function? Today, Rwanda has a strong governmental structure. Its constitution is centered on reconciliation and peacebuilding. The country has executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as several ministries departments. The Ministries of Health, education, agriculture, animal resources, ministry of infrastructure, finance, and Economic Planning have full control of their focuses. The Rwandan Governance Board monitors compliance and good governance in the private, public, and non-governmental sectors of Rwanda. The Country is divided into four provinces; the Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, and Western Province. The City of Kigali is the capital of Rwanda and is considered a decentralized governance. Within each province, there are subdivisions of 30 districts, which are further subdivided into sectors, cells, and villages. The majority of the provinces are rural and are catered to by the government through needed health, food, and farming programs and benefits. Umudogudo is the village gathering where leaders navigate issues together in their neighborhoods. Rwanda ensures that everyone has health insurance. Health insurance is half a dollar for a year. Your economic category (Ubudeje) will impact how much you have to pay for insurance. The wealthy pay 75% and middle class pays 50% and Graduates from university pay 15% with the government paying the remainder. For the improvised communities the government pays 100%. This is Minubuwe the Ministry of National Unity & Civic Engagement in Kigali, Rwanda Leadership in Rwanda The Leadership in Rwanda has been consistent since after the 1994 Genocide Against The Tutsi, with Paul Kagame being President. A great attribute in leadership is Rwanda's focused on women holding positions of power. Rape and Gender Based Violence was used a tool in the genocide. Now, women are being uplifted in Rwanda's government holding 61.3% of seats in Rwanda's Parliament. Which is the highest percentage in the world. Women also occupy 50% of the positions in the President's cabinet. However, it is known that Rwanda's "increased representation of women has not led to greater statutory protection of women's rights, nor has it led to a more democratic political terrain." (Burnet) Political Parties: RPF Liberal Party Green Party Opposition: FDLR Interhamwe Conflicts & Concerns of Rwanda's Democracy Rwanda has many democratic features such as elections, institutions, and economic development through partnerships, gentrification, agriculture, and tourism. However, Rwanda's President Paul Kagame has been in power since 2000. There have been very intense limitations on any of his opposition parties. The country does not have freedom of speech in the media. Rwanda is a very civil society with little activism or criticism of the government at all. It has only been 30 years since the Genocide and the country is still recovering and remains weary of conflict. Many people do not trust anyone, rightfully so, there is an overall lack of vulnerability. This 30th anniversary will also mark the release dates for many perpetrators of the genocide. The government of Rwanda plays a significant role in the ongoing genocide in the Democratic Republic Of the Congo. My Personal Experience In Rwanda Ms.McCullough's Observations Of Democracy In Rwanda. Jocelyn McCullough studied abroad in Rwanda in Spring 2024, while she was there she reached every point of the country. Meeting all types of citizens and leaders, she was able to navigate the country and learn a lot about its functionality. Key Takeaways Sources Works Cited Buckley-Zistel, Susanne. “What Caused the Rwandan Genocide? - Susanne Buckley-Zistel.” YouTube, 27 June 2023, youtu.be/MF7EbUGlaOU?si=xVUPjBGjSrgpgPcg. Accessed 2 Dec. 2024. Burnet, Jennie E., "Women Have Found Respect: Gender Quotas, Symbolic Representation and Female Empowerment in Rwanda" (2011). Anthropology Faculty Publications. 3.https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/anthro_facpub/3 EBSCO Publishing: eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/23/2020 9:12 AM via SIT GRADUATEINSTITUTE/SIT STUDY ABROADAN: 2175846; Uvin, Peter.; Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in RwandaAccount: s9324602 Gérard Prunier. The Rwanda Crisis : History of a Genocide. New York, Columbia University Press, 1997. Harding, Robin . “Who Is Democracy Good For? Elections, Rural Bias, and Health and Education Outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa.” University of Oxford, 27 Dec. 2018. Newbury, Catharine. “Background to Genocide: Rwanda.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 23, no. 2 (1995): 12–17. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166500. News Global, TLDR. “Will War Break out between Rwanda and the DRC?” Www.youtube.com, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uxWahUxx2i8.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.179029	11/25/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122192/overview", "title": "Democracy In Rwanda", "author": "Jocelyn McCullough" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115658/overview	Exercise and the Brain Overview This chapter details the effects that exercise on neuroplasticity, mental health, and neuroprotection. Exercise and the Brain See attached file for content	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.195547	Jessica Jones	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115658/overview", "title": "Exercise and the Brain", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22879/overview	Introduction to Sociology Introduction to Sociology We all belong to many groups; you’re a member of your sociology class, and you're a member of your family; you may belong to a political party, sports team, or the crowd watching a sporting event; you’re a citizen of your country, and you're a part of a generation. You may have a somewhat different role in each group and feel differently in each. Groups vary in their sizes and formalities, as well as in the levels of attachment between group members, among other things. Within a large group, smaller groups may exist, and each group may behave differently. At a rock concert, for example, some may enjoy singing along, others prefer to sit and observe, while still others may join in a mosh pit or try crowd surfing. Why do we feel and act differently in different types of social situations? Why might people of a single group exhibit different behaviors in the same situation? Why might people acting similarly not feel connected to others exhibiting the same behavior? These are some of the many questions sociologists ask as they study people and societies.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.209842	Rachel Dilley	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22879/overview", "title": "Introduction to Sociology 2e, An Introduction to Sociology, Introduction to Sociology", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28774/overview	Microeconomics and Macroeconomics Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe microeconomics - Describe macroeconomics - Contrast monetary policy and fiscal policy Economic Perspectives Economics is concerned with the well-being of all people, including those with jobs and those without jobs, as well as those with high incomes and those with low incomes. Economics acknowledges that production of useful goods and services can create problems of environmental pollution. It explores the question of how investing in education helps to develop workers’ skills. It probes questions like how to tell when big businesses or big labor unions are operating in a way that benefits society as a whole and when they are operating in a way that benefits their owners or members at the expense of others. It looks at how government spending, taxes, and regulations affect decisions about production and consumption. It should be clear by now that economics covers considerable ground. We can divide that ground into two parts: Microeconomics focuses on the actions of individual agents within the economy, like households, workers, and businesses. Macroeconomics looks at the economy as a whole. It focuses on broad issues such as growth of production, the number of unemployed people, the inflationary increase in prices, government deficits, and levels of exports and imports. Microeconomics and macroeconomics are not separate subjects, but rather complementary perspectives on the overall subject of the economy. To understand why both microeconomic and macroeconomic perspectives are useful, consider the problem of studying a biological ecosystem like a lake. One person who sets out to study the lake might focus on specific topics: certain kinds of algae or plant life; the characteristics of particular fish or snails; or the trees surrounding the lake. Another person might take an overall view and instead consider the lake's ecosystem from top to bottom; what eats what, how the system stays in a rough balance, and what environmental stresses affect this balance. Both approaches are useful, and both examine the same lake, but the viewpoints are different. In a similar way, both microeconomics and macroeconomics study the same economy, but each has a different viewpoint. Whether you are scrutinizing lakes or economics, the micro and the macro insights should blend with each other. In studying a lake, the micro insights about particular plants and animals help to understand the overall food chain, while the macro insights about the overall food chain help to explain the environment in which individual plants and animals live. In economics, the micro decisions of individual businesses are influenced by whether the macroeconomy is healthy. For example, firms will be more likely to hire workers if the overall economy is growing. In turn, macroeconomy's performance ultimately depends on the microeconomic decisions that individual households and businesses make. Microeconomics What determines how households and individuals spend their budgets? What combination of goods and services will best fit their needs and wants, given the budget they have to spend? How do people decide whether to work, and if so, whether to work full time or part time? How do people decide how much to save for the future, or whether they should borrow to spend beyond their current means? What determines the products, and how many of each, a firm will produce and sell? What determines the prices a firm will charge? What determines how a firm will produce its products? What determines how many workers it will hire? How will a firm finance its business? When will a firm decide to expand, downsize, or even close? In the microeconomics part of this book, we will learn about the theory of consumer behavior, the theory of the firm, how markets for labor and other resources work, and how markets sometimes fail to work properly. Macroeconomics What determines the level of economic activity in a society? In other words, what determines how many goods and services a nation actually produces? What determines how many jobs are available in an economy? What determines a nation’s standard of living? What causes the economy to speed up or slow down? What causes firms to hire more workers or to lay them off? Finally, what causes the economy to grow over the long term? We can determine an economy's macroeconomic health by examining a number of goals: growth in the standard of living, low unemployment, and low inflation, to name the most important. How can we use government macroeconomic policy to pursue these goals? A nation's central bank conducts monetary policy, which involves policies that affect bank lending, interest rates, and financial capital markets. For the United States, this is the Federal Reserve. A nation's legislative body determines fiscal policy, which involves government spending and taxes. For the United States, this is the Congress and the executive branch, which originates the federal budget. These are the government's main tools. Americans tend to expect that government can fix whatever economic problems we encounter, but to what extent is that expectation realistic? These are just some of the issues that we will explore in the macroeconomic chapters of this book. Key Concepts and Summary Microeconomics and macroeconomics are two different perspectives on the economy. The microeconomic perspective focuses on parts of the economy: individuals, firms, and industries. The macroeconomic perspective looks at the economy as a whole, focusing on goals like growth in the standard of living, unemployment, and inflation. Macroeconomics has two types of policies for pursuing these goals: monetary policy and fiscal policy. Self-Check Questions What would be another example of a “system” in the real world that could serve as a metaphor for micro and macroeconomics? Hint: There are many physical systems that would work, for example, the study of planets (micro) in the solar system (macro), or solar systems (micro) in the galaxy (macro). Review Questions What is the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics? What are examples of individual economic agents? What are the three main goals of macroeconomics? Critical Thinking Questions A balanced federal budget and a balance of trade are secondary goals of macroeconomics, while growth in the standard of living (for example) is a primary goal. Why do you think that is so? Macroeconomics is an aggregate of what happens at the microeconomic level. Would it be possible for what happens at the macro level to differ from how economic agents would react to some stimulus at the micro level? Hint: Think about the behavior of crowds.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.231783	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28774/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Welcome to Economics!, Microeconomics and Macroeconomics", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51114/overview	Themes and Concepts of Biology Overview Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term. Introduction Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term. From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with three questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? And once we know something is alive, how do we find meaningful levels of organization in its structure? And, finally, when faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions. Properties of Life All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life. Order Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms (Figure 1.10), similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work together to form organ systems. Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can grow toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch (Figure 1.11). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response. Watch this video to see how plants respond to a stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey. DNA and Reproduction Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape. Growth and Development All organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young (Figure 1.12) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents. Regulation Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body. Homeostasis In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”)—the ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear (Figure 1.13), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat. Energy Processing All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms, such as plants, algae and cyanobacteria, capture light energy from the sun by photosynthesis and convert it into chemical energy; others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.252443	02/13/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/51114/overview", "title": "Biology - Remixed for Austin Community College, The Study of Life, Themes and Concepts of Biology", "author": "Alice Sessions" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61393/overview	Chapter 9.5: Judicial Selection Processes Overview Judicial Selection Process Introduction Introduction This section examines how Texas selects judges to administer justice. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the various methods of selecting judges - Understand how Texas selects judges - Understand arguments supporting and criticising partisan elections - Evaluate alternative methods of selecting judges By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the various methods of selecting judges - Understand how Texas selects judges - Understand arguments supporting and criticising partisan elections - Evaluate alternative methods of selecting judges Judicial Selection Methods Judicial Selection Methods Judicial selection methods vary substantially across the United States. Though each state has a unique set of guidelines governing how they fill their state and local judiciaries, there are five main methods: - Partisan elections: Judges are elected by the people, and candidates are listed on the ballot alongside a label designating political party affiliation. - Nonpartisan elections: Judges are elected by the people, and candidates are listed on the ballot without a label designating party affiliation. - Legislative elections: Judges are selected by the state legislature. - Gubernatorial appointment: Judges are appointed by the governor. In some cases, approval from the legislative body is required. - Assisted appointment, also known as merit selection or the Missouri Plan: A nominating commission reviews the qualifications of judicial candidates and submits a list of names to the governor, who appoints a judge from the list. After serving an initial term, the judge must be confirmed by the people in a yes-no retention election to continue serving. - A retention election or judicial retention is a periodic process whereby voters are asked whether an incumbent judge should remain in office for another term. The judge, who does not face an opponent, is removed from the position if a percentage of voters (often 50 percent) indicate that he or she should not be retained. Texas' Judicial Selection Process Texas' Judicial Selection Process Texas elects their judges (except at some of the municipal levels) in partisan elections, and the table below depicts the specifics for each level of court.[1] Arguments For and Against Selection Judges by Partisan Elections Arguments For and Against Selection Judges by Partisan Elections Arguments supporting partisan elections Proponents of judicial elections argue that this method of selection is the most democratic, allowing the people to have a direct voice in selecting judges. They believe voters are capable of selecting a judiciary that reflects their values and that they are entitled to that choice. “ [Y]ou cannot take the politics out of decisions about who is going to hold what office, but you can take the people out of the politics. This democracy business can be a little messy at times, certainly inefficient and occasionally some bad mistakes are made, but you can trust [voters] to get it right most of the time.” —Professor Michael E. DeBow of the Samford University School of Law Along similar lines, those in favor of elections say that the prospect of being voted out of office holds judges accountable to voters. Samford University law professor Michael E. DeBow points to examples from the late 1990s when judiciaries in Texas and Alabama appeared to be heavily inclined towards trial lawyers. When voters caught wind of this, they began what DeBow calls a “revolt,” replacing their judges and moving towards tort reform laws. “Could this have happened in Missouri Plan states? Or in states with nonpartisan elections? Probably not as quickly.… [I]t is a significant thing for voters to assert themselves as dramatically as they did in these two states. It strongly supports the view that voters are not incompetent to vote on judicial races, and lends aid and comfort to those working to effect legal reform.” —Professor Michael E. DeBow of the Samford University School of Law Another argument put forth by proponents of this selection method is that affiliating judicial candidates with a political party efficiently communicates the candidate’s values and ideologies to voters. Indeed, in their book The Politics of State Courts, political science professors Harry H. Stumpf and John H. Culver assert that “In partisan [judicial] races, the political party label may give most voters all the information they seek.” Furthermore, some argue that partisanship is unavoidable. Even in the assisted appointment method of judicial selection there arises something of a “subterranean process of bar and bench politics,” writes DeBow, one over which voters have little control. Arguments against partisan elections Critics of partisan judicial elections argue that the growing amount of fundraising in election campaigns gives special interest groups a foothold to manipulate the judiciary to their liking. Judicial elections have become much more expensive in the last decade—partisan elections more so, perhaps because state parties serve as “ready-built infrastructures for ‘bundling’ donations,” according to Billy Corriher of the Center for American Progress. Those skeptical of the process also claim that it creates a highly polarized judiciary made up of judges who are pressured to please their campaign supporters. “I never felt so much like a hooker down by the bus station… as I did in a judicial race. Everyone interested in contributing has very specific interests. They mean to be buying a vote.” —Ohio Supreme Court Senior Associate Justice Paul Pfeifer Addressing the argument that party affiliation gives voters useful information about a judge’s values, Corriher believes voters actually understand very little about how partisanship plays into everyday decisions on the bench. “If voters understood how a Republican judge differs from a Democratic one in the run-of-the-mill cases that occupy most of the courts’ time, then partisan identification might prove more useful. … When voters think of judges’ political affiliation, they often think of cases involving controversial social issues, such as abortion or gay marriage, that garner a lot of media attention but constitute merely a fraction of a court’s rulings. But in the states that have seen the most judicial campaign cash, the campaign donors are not concerned with social issues. Instead, liberal judges are supported by trial lawyers who want to see judges protecting individuals’ right to sue wrongdoers; conservative judges are strongly backed by corporate interest groups that want judges who will uphold “tort reform” laws that limit lawsuits.” —Billy Corriher, Director of Research for Legal Progress at the Center for American Progress The Shepherd Study A 2013 study by the American Constitution Society titled “Justice At Risk: An empirical analysis of campaign contributions and judicial decisions” examined the effects of campaign contributions on judicial behavior. Independent researchers analyzed over 2,345 business-related state supreme court published opinions from 2010 to 2012, merging the dataset with over 175,000 campaign contribution records that occurred over that period. Information was also collected on the characteristics of individual justices, including ideology. The findings were reported as follows: - A significant relationship exists between business group contributions to state supreme court justices and the voting of those justices in cases involving business matters. - The more campaign contributions from business interests justices receive, the more likely they are to vote for business litigants appearing before them in court. - A justice who receives half of his or her contributions from business groups would be expected to vote in favor of business interests almost two-thirds of the time. - The empirical relationship between business contributions and justices’ voting for business interests exists only in partisan and nonpartisan systems; there is no statistically significant relationship between money and voting in retention election systems. - There is a stronger relationship between business contributions and justices’ voting among justices affiliated with the Democratic Party than among justices affiliated with the Republican Party. Reading Review Questions Compare and contrast partisan and nonpartisan judicial selection methods. Describe the two main ways judges may be appointed by the State Government. Briefly describe the arguments in favor of judicial election by the people Briefly describe the arguments in opposition to judicial election by the people	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.276646	01/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61393/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Chapter 9.5: Judicial Selection Processes", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85008/overview	1.3 Layout and Development 1_Nursery-Site-Selection 6a - Nursery-Site Selection, Layout, and Development PUBLIC DOMAIN https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/32/68/00001/EP03400.pdf Nursery Site Selection Overview Title image "20150515-NRCS-LSC-0923" by USDAgov is licensed under CC PDM 1.0 Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Lesson Objectives Evaluate the factors that influence site selection of a production nursery. Identify factors that influence nursery site selection. Explain the influence of climate, soil, water, topography, previous land use, site potential, and location to nursery site selection. Key Terms climate - an average of the long-term, prevailing weather conditions of a region drainage - the natural or artificial removal of surface water soil - the layer(s) of generally loose mineral and/or organic material that are affected by physical, chemical, and/or biological processes at or near the planetary surface, and usually hold water, air, and organisms and support plants supply chain - the system of operations that collaborate to plan, produce, and provide a product or service to a market water supply - the water available for a region which may be delivered via natural or man-made waterways Site Selection Criteria Modified from "Nursery-Site Selection, Layout, and Development" by F.E. Morby, USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain Climate Requirements for climate and growing season will vary depending on the species and ecotypic variants that will be grown. An ecotype is a genetically distinct population that has adapted to its particular environment. For example, red maple (Acer rubrum) has a wide natural distribution throughout Eastern North America, as far north as Canada and south into Florida. Tennessee growers would have a difficult time growing a Canadian ecotype of red maple that is adapted to the longer daylengths and shorter growing season common at a northerly latitude. A Canadian ecotype would come out of winter dormancy later in the season than a Tennessee variant. Conversely, a Florida ecotype of red maple may break dormancy too early in the growing season, resulting in cold damage (Raulston, 1994). Climatic concerns for species or ecotypes go beyond the seasonal daylengths or the overall length of growing season. Nursery growers should also consider the temperature, precipitation, wind, and light conditions of a site. Temperature Extremely hot periods reduce plant growth and can damage appearance. As temperatures increase, the rate of transpiration rapidly rises, increasing the amount of water needed from irrigation. Short periods of daytime temperatures of 110°F or more can tax irrigation systems, but properly designed irrigation systems can protect plants from burning during those periods. Growth of most species is greatly impeded by ambient temperatures of 90°F and above. Extremely low temperatures can be detrimental to unprotected young material or container plants. The site may need to be modified by incorporating a pot-in-pot system or constructing a high tunnel. Extreme cold can drive frost deep into the soil for field-grown plants, delaying harvesting and processing into spring (see Unit 6, Lesson 2: Growing Methods for Nursery Production for more information). Precipitation High rainfall areas are best avoided. However, the season in which the precipitation occurs is important. Heavy spring rains can delay spring operations, such as adding soil amendments, starting a cover or green manure crop, or sowing tree seed. Summer rains tend to be a problem only when they occur as cloudbursts and result in flooding, erosion, or wash-out. Frequent summer rains may be detrimental because rains may disrupt stock hardening processes already induced by withholding irrigation. Areas with heavy winter rains should be avoided; heavy rain saturates nursery soil to the point of hindering lifting, damaging soil structure, and causing flooding and erosion. Wind Wind can damage plants, blow over containerized material, and limit operations, such as pesticide applications. Winds will affect irrigation application and uniformity and may cause erosion. High winds can desiccate plants. In areas with high winds, choose a site with natural windbreaks or install artificial windbreaks (Acquaah, 2009). Light Plants grown in outdoor nurseries rely on natural sunlight for healthy growth. Sites with heavy tree cover or tall structures may need to be modified to increase light penetration to the growing environment. Exposed sites may require shade houses to protect shade-loving plants (Acquaah, 2009). Soil Containerized nurseries tend to use soilless growing media to fill pots rather than native soil (see Unit 6, Lesson 2: Growing Methods for Nursery Production for more information). Field production requires plants be grown in the site’s native soil. Soil qualities, such as texture, pH, and fertility, can vary across the property. Soil testing is a crucial step in choosing a site that has the most suitable soil for the crop and production method. Texture Soils that have good drainage, proper aeration, and a sufficient water-holding capacity are ideal for in-ground nursery production. The ideal soil texture will vary depending on whether field-grown plants will be harvested as ball-and-burlap or bare root. Ball-and-burlap plants should be grown in soil that is cohesive enough to hold around the root ball. Bare root trees should be grown in a loose sand or loam that will be easier to remove from the roots (Acquaah, 2009). Sandy loams or loamy sands with good drainage are excellent for field-grown nurseries. Soil pH The optimum soil reaction, or pH, for most tree species is between pH 5.0 and 6.0. Nutrients are less available to plants at excessively low and high pH levels. Soil pH can be altered with soil additives, such as sulfur, or by injecting phosphoric or sulfuric acid into irrigation water. Fertility While nutrients can be added in the form of fertilizer or organic matter, the soil should be responsive to fertilization (Acquaah, 2009). Soil testing will help the grower identify the nutrient holding capacity, nutrient availability, and organic matter content of the native soil. Water Securing an adequate water supply for domestic or irrigation reasons use can be a major problem. Water rights must be obtained for any water source. Therefore, special consideration must be given to a site where the quantity and quality of water are adequate for current and possible future requirements. All water needs and the timing of those needs must be considered. For example, in most nurseries, irrigation is necessary during the growing season and for frost protection. Restrictions on flow and on periods of delivery must be closely scrutinized. Irrigation Water Sources Lakes are a good source of irrigation water. Storage capacity, draw-down, other uses, and contaminants must be examined before any commitment is made. Screening may be necessary to remove water-borne debris. Streams are sometimes used for nursery irrigation and must be checked for water rights, other uses, and quality. In addition, attention must be paid to intakes, diversions for pumping stations, protection during runoff periods, and maintenance of the stream channel to ensure maximum carrying capacity. Stream water may need to be screened to alleviate contamination by vegetation, weed seeds, animals, algae, and other water-borne debris. Irrigation water delivered through open ditches is usually controlled by irrigation districts and is subject to specific short delivery periods. Such a source is not reliable unless storage is made available on site; therefore, irrigation water is not recommended. Water drawn from wells is probably one of the best irrigation sources for most locations. Draw-down and pumping capacity must be checked to ensure that water is available in reliable quantities when it is required. Domestic or irrigation pipelines are reliable. In many instances, clean water will be supplied with adequate pressure and volume to eliminate the need for pumping. The two types of pipelines are similar, and both generally well designed and constructed. However, domestic water lines usually have more connections creating a high demand for water and more concern for failure of the system. Systems must be reviewed to ensure that maintenance is adequate and repairs are timely. Water Quality Chemical contaminants may infiltrate an irrigation source through the soil or from precipitation or surface runoff. Contamination by minerals, such as calcium or boron, will usually be found in well water. However, because streams, lakes, and ditches also may have mineral contaminants, any potential site must have its water sources evaluated for mineral content and concentration. Water from any open source (lake, stream, or ditch) may contain weed seeds. High concentrations of these can lead to unwanted vegetation in seedbeds and cover crops, which is a major problem. Special, well-designed screening devices can alleviate this problem. Water-borne diseases can infect root systems and foliage. Chemical water treatment may be necessary if pathogens are present, such as Phytophthora—a fungus causing root disease. Water Runoff Modern nurseries must also consider how surface water runoff will be handled. Excess water from irrigation or precipitation can carry chemical or biological contaminants or eroded soil. While there are several ways to limit surface runoff, some municipalities may require growers to construct a retention pond to capture runoff in an effort to prevent contamination of waterways or groundwater (Figure 6.1.1) (Fulcher, 2013). This runoff can be re-used for irrigation (Figure 6.1.2). Topography The area for nursery beds should be level, or nearly so. A slight slope (2% maximum) is beneficial for better surface drainage, but slopes greater than 2% can cause erosion, necessitating expensive control measures, as well as result in leaching of soluble fertilizer salts (Wilde, 1958). Topography can also impact the ability to use farm equipment (Figure 6.1.3) and irrigation systems. Low areas may be poorly drained and can be more susceptible damage caused by frost pockets (Acquaah, 2009). The importance of aspect will depend on the latitude and altitude of the nursery site. In most of the temperate zone, eastern and southeastern aspects should be avoided because of greater frost danger, as well as southern and southwestern aspects because of excessive dryness during periods of drought. Where irrigation is available, southern aspects in northern latitudes at high elevations are best because of their greater warmth. For most sites, though, a northwestern aspect is best because vegetative growth starts later in spring and is not subjected to injury by frost. Water loss through evaporation from the soil surface is not so rapid on northwestern aspects. Previous Land Use Past use of the land may influence its value as a potential nursery site. For example, past practices that have altered soil acidity or caused toxic chemicals to accumulate will be detrimental to field-grown production. If the site has been altered, the grower should determine what was done when. Site Production Potential Many nursery sites have been selected and developed with little or no allowance made for future expansion. Regardless of how remote it may seem; expansion should be considered. To do so, the site-selection team must examine areas adjacent or close to the property. Proximity to Customers, Labor, and Services Proximity of the nursery to customers, work force, transportation, utilities, and facilities for people are all important components of the supply chain. These factors should be evaluated by the site-selection team. Locating the site geographically close to customers seems to be most judicious, although, with the advent of transportation systems and refrigerated trucks, this is not as necessary as it once was. Often, other criteria prevail. Customers Without customer demand, the nursery business cannot succeed. The grower should ask themselves several questions as they plan the nursery, including: Will the business serve local customers or ship plants to online customers? Will the material be sold wholesale to other nurseries or landscapers, or directly to individuals as retail? Does the local area support a large enough population with sufficient income for targeted sales? (McMahon, 2020). Labor Force The nursery should be within easy commuting distance—about 35 miles—of an adequate, dependable labor supply. The number of workers needed varies widely, depending on size of the nursery, extent of mechanization, amount of work contracted out, degree of chemical weed control, and type of stock grown. Transportation A good transportation network is essential. In the case of a retail nursery, there must be a way to receive plant material from growers. In the case of a wholesale or an online order nursery, there must be a way to deliver material to customers. Climate-controlled transportation equipment is critical when delivering plants over long distances. County or state roads that are well traveled, maintained, and connected to freeways will aid the transport of both plants and people. Utilities Telephone, electric power, and other utilities required for nursery operation must be already available or easily secured. The history of these utilities must be evaluated, along with their current cost, supply, and reliability. Land Availability and Cost Are the sites under consideration actually for sale and within the price range given to the selection team? What are the owners' sale stipulations? Look at total developed cost. Unimproved land may initially cost less but require such large capital outlays for development that ultimate total cost may be more. Land that may initially cost more, on the other hand, may be developed to the point that few subsequent improvements are needed, and total cost may be less. Layout and Development Modified from "Nursery-Site Selection, Layout, and Development" by F.E. Morby, USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain The Team Approach Like site selection, layout and development benefit from the team approach. The development team should consist of the nursery manager; civil, electrical, and mechanical engineers; landscape and structural architects; and consultants for soils, irrigation, subsurface drainage, or other areas where on-site team expertise is weak or lacking. It's a good idea to visit similar facilities for comparison. It is expensive to develop a new nursery, and any new technology either already developed or under consideration must be evaluated. New ideas always surface when other nurseries are visited and when both positive and negative sides of a particular site or procedure are discussed. Access and Traffic Flow The nursery should be as compact as possible to minimize the length of the boundary fence and reduce the time lost moving from one part of the nursery to another (Aldhous, 1972). Roads provide access to the site and to growing fields. When the site is developed, all access roads should be paved; they must be capable of taking heavy "semi" truck and tractor traffic in all kinds of weather. Parking areas must be evaluated and particular attention given to pedestrian and vehicle traffic flows. While considering connecting points (entries and exits) to existing road systems, the development team should solicit input from the local community. Administrative Site The administrative site includes administrative offices; storage areas for equipment, trees, seed, pesticides, other chemicals, and fuels; shops; a fuel-dispensing station; an employee center; and processing facilities. The type, number, and location of required buildings can be determined with the team approach. Other administrative development could include employee-enrichment areas (in the form of parklike surroundings), holding areas for irrigation water or soil amendments, a culled-plant disposal area, and an area for holding scrap material and used equipment until sale is possible (potential aesthetic conflicts with neighbors may arise in this last case). Although possible future expansion must always be kept in mind, the administrative complex must optimize the use of space to avoid being spread out. The results of poor or inadequate planning can cause the manager and staff considerable anxiety in future years. The Master Plan Once agreement has been reached on placement of all structures and development begins, a master plan—a dynamic tool—must be made to document the team decision. Once the development team has disbanded, this plan will stand as an illustrated document of site layout, indicating growing areas, roads, buildings, outdoor storage areas, reservoirs, streams, fences, neighbors, possible expansion areas for buildings, and other site development. The master plan is not cast in concrete and should be updated as management needs change. Development Program To properly develop a site, an action plan must be prepared. One approach is to construct a critical-path chart that shows events and operations on a timeline (Figure 6.1.4). Tree-production scheduling must be coordinated with site development. Structures that are needed first must be built first. Throughout nursery development, the action plan is continuously reviewed—by an individual, a team, or a contractor—and revised, as needed. Critical factors that may have been overlooked initially are identified and incorporated. It is important for everything to be viewed objectively and in proper perspective. Budgeting and Accountability Budgeting is critical and must have highest priority in the development process. Budgets should be planned 2 to 3 years in advance to ensure that funding, people, and facilities will be available when needed. The budget and the action plan must be developed together. If shortages of funds or people are anticipated, construction may have to be delayed or other alternatives sought. The process of "fixing accountability" identifies objectives and action steps (Morrisey, 1976), as well as the individuals responsible for their accomplishment in the outlined time frames. Responsibilities must be reasonable, however, and should be adjusted if necessary to ensure that the work can realistically be completed. Dig Deeper "Nursery-Site Selection, Layout, and Development" by F.E. Morby, USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain "Layout and Design Considerations for a Wholesale Container Nursery" by T.H. Yeager & D.L. Ingram, University of Florida IFAS Extension. Copyright © University of Florida IFAS Extension. Used with permission. Attribution and References Attribution Lesson modified from "Nursery-Site Selection, Layout, and Development" by F.E. Morby, USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain Title image "20150515-NRCS-LSC-0923" by USDAgov is licensed under CC PDM 1.0 References Acquaah, G. (2009). Horticulture principles and practices (Fourth edition). Pearson Education, Inc. Aldhous, J. R. (1972). Nursery practice. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. Forestry Commun. Bull. 43. 184 p. Chavasse, C. G. R. (1980). The means to excellence through plantation establishment: the New Zealand experience. Pages 119- 139 in Proc., Forest plantations, the shape of the future. Weyerhaeuser Science symposium, April 30-May 3, 1979. Weyerhaeuser Co., Tacoma, Washington. Fulcher, A. & Fernandez, T. (2013). Sustainable nursery irrigation management series: Part III. Strategies to manage nursery runoff. University of Tennessee Extension. Retrieved June 2021 from, https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W280.pdf Krugman, S. L., and E. C. Stone. (1966). The effect of cold nights on the root-generating potential of ponderosa pine seedlings. Forest Science. 12:451-459. Kepner-Tregoe. Inc. (1973). Problem analysis and decision making. Princeton Research Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 99 p. McMahon, M. (2020). Plant science: Growth, development, and utilization of cultivated plants (Sixth edition). Pearson Education, Inc. Morby, F.E. (1984). Nursery-site selection, layout, and development. Forest nursery manual: Production of bareroot seedlings. Retrieved June 2021 from https://rngr.net/publications/nursery-manuals/fnm/Chapter%202 Morrisey, G. L. (1976). Management by objectives and results in the public sector. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Massachusetts. 278 p. Raulston, J.C. & Tripp, K.E. (1994). Exploring the complexities of plant hardiness. Arnolida, 54(3): 22-31. Van den Driessche, R. (1969). Forest nursery handbook. B. C. Forest Service. Victoria. Res. Note 48. 44 p. Wilde, S. A. (1958). Forest soils - Their properties and relation to silviculture. Ronald Press, New York. 537 p.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.347533	Anna McCollum	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85008/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Nursery Production, Nursery Site Selection", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87612/overview	5.11 Animal Manures 5.12 90-120 Day Rule 5.13 Compost 5.14 Compost Tea 5.15 Vermicompost 5.16 Processed Animal Manures 5.17 Ratooning 5.18 Soil Conservation 5.19 Cover Cropping 5.20 Organic Mulches 5.21 Conservation Tillage 5.22 Contour Conservation and Strip Cropping 5.23 Mixed Cropping 5.24 Food Forests 5.25 Nutrient Management_Nitrogen and Trace Minerals 5.26 Genetic Engineering 5.2 Crop Rotation in Annual Crops 5.3 Crop Rotation in Perennial Crops 5.4 Biodiversity 5.5 Disease and Pest Management 5.6 Environmental Benefits and Considerations of Crop Rotations 5.7 Pesticide and Fertilizer Use Under Different Crop Rotations 5.8 Alley Cropping 5.9 Soil Building 5_Crop-Biodiversity Crop Biodiversity Overview Title Image: Strips of oats and hay are interspersed with strips of corn to save soil and improve water quality and wildlife habitat on this field in northeast Iowa Credit: United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service; Public Domain Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Lesson Objectives Defend the need for genetic diversity in cropping systems. Identify various cropping systems that promote genetic diversity. Recognize the advantages and disadvantages related to genetic diversity. Key Terms conservation tillage - the minimal use of soil cultivation with crops crop rotation - cycling through planting different types of crops for several years mixed cropping - growing different types of plants in the same land monoculture - a sequence where the same crop is planted for 3 consecutive years polyculture - the process of growing multiple crops in a designated area to mimic the natural environment ratooning - the process of cutting plant stems down to stimulate another round of growth sequential cropping - growing various crops on the same land in different years, one after the other vulnerability - plants’ susceptibility to pests and environmental conditions Introduction Expanding markets, new production technologies, and economic competition in recent decades have resulted in crop specialization, increased purchase of off-farm inputs, and production practices that often have adverse environmental consequences. Monoculture (successively growing the same crop on the same land), continuous row crops, and other intensive cropland uses have increased with the availability of commercial fertilizers to supply nutrient needs and chemicals to control pests. Crop rotations that include hay, grass sod, and other soil-conserving crops were abandoned by many producers as the demand for hay and forages declined. The choice between monoculture and rotating different crops on the same land depends on a broad range of economic and physical factors. And the choice of rotation frequently affects the use of fertilizer and pesticides. Crop Rotation in Annual Crops For producers of annual crops, complying with crop rotation standards is straightforward and often beneficial for crop health. Crop rotation refers to the sequencing of crops over time on a field or planting bed. Rotations typically mean that crops are not followed by a member of the same crop family. Sequential cropping is not unique to organic systems, as it is also practiced by many conventional farmers. However, organic systems are unique in that crop rotation is specifically required in the USDA organic regulations. Crop rotation can • interrupt insect life cycles. • suppress soilborne plant diseases. • prevent soil erosion. • build organic matter. • fix nitrogen. • increase biodiversity of the farm. Crop rotations are an important way to suppress insects and diseases. For example, farmers who raise potatoes will rotate the field out of solanaceous crops for at least 2 years before replanting potatoes. This helps reduce populations of insects, such as the Colorado potato beetle, and prevent diseases, such as late blight. Rotations with 3 to 5 years between the same crop may be needed to effectively reduce insect and disease levels. Rotations also can be designed to increase soil fertility. A crop sequence that features soil-improving crops can counterbalance soil-depleting crops. Soil-improving crops include sod crops dominated by perennial grasses and perennial legumes. Sod crops in rotation build soil organic matter and reverse the decline that typically occurs when cultivated annual crops are grown year after year. Legumes, such as alfalfa, clovers, beans, and peas, are especially beneficial because they fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and make it available to subsequent crops. Even short-term, nonleguminous cover crops can provide benefits when used as part of the crop-rotation plan. The best cover crops are specific varieties adapted to the soil, climate, and season. They are sown at a fairly high rate to cover the soil quickly and prevent erosion. When planning crop rotations, it is important to remember that cultivated row crops, such as vegetables, tend to degrade soil. Since the soil is open and cultivated between rows, microbes break down organic matter at a more rapid pace. Furthermore, row crops have modest root systems and consequently do not contribute enough new organic matter to replace that lost from the open soil between rows. In most cases, above-ground crop residues make only minor contributions to replacing lost organic matter. In contrast, cereals and cover crops are more closely spaced and have more extensive root systems than row crops, greatly reducing the amount of soil exposed to degradation. In addition, these crops receive little or no cultivation after planting, which reduces organic-matter loss even more. As a result, cereals and green manures can be considered neutral crops, replacing soil organic matter at roughly the same rate at which it breaks down. Crops that make a perennial sod cover, such as grasses, clovers, and alfalfa, not only keep the soil entirely covered but also have massive root systems that produce far more organic matter than is lost. Incorporating sod crops as a fundamental part of a crop rotation not only builds soil but also supports weed-control strategies. Weed control improves because the types of weeds encouraged by row-cropping systems are usually adapted to growing in a sod/hay crop. To make the most efficient use of sod crops, it is necessary to include livestock in the system or to find a market for the hay. Livestock will assist in transferring (via manure) nutrients from one part of the farm to another. The major drawback to selling hay is that the nutrients it contains are shipped off the farm. Crop Rotation in Perennial Crops For producers of organic perennial crops, the requirement for crop rotation can be confusing. Farmers should implement practices that will maintain soil organic matter, control pests, conserve nutrients, and protect the soil against erosion. For growers of annual crops, those practices typically include crop rotation, but other practices can be substituted if rotation is not practical. Some perennials will be part of a long-term crop rotation, which may last a few years or even decades. Asparagus, for example, is a perennial that can be productive for 15 years or more. When a field is taken out of asparagus production, it is typically planted with another crop to reduce the incidence of soilborne disease. That practice is considered a long crop rotation. Several other perennials, such as strawberries, Echinacea, and lavender, are not required to have a cover crop because they are typically part of a long crop rotation. Other types of perennials—those that will not be part of a crop rotation—may require additional practices to ensure soil conservation and biodiversity in the cropping system. This is important with large perennials, such as trees, that have large drive rows between the crop rows. For example, organic farmers must have a cover crop (often grass) between the rows of trees in an orchard. Crops that are required to have a cover crop between crop rows include caneberries, grapevines, blueberries, tree fruits, and nut trees. Some perennial crops, such as alfalfa, develop a canopy that covers the ground and prevents soil erosion. Such crops are not required to be rotated with other crops. Biodiversity Many organic farmers actively manage their farms to increase biodiversity, due to its many benefits. Biodiversity plays a particularly crucial role in pest management. Although farmers are encouraged to have diverse systems, there are no specific requirements, standards, or monitoring practices. Diverse agricultural systems support strong populations of predators and parasites that help keep pest populations at manageable levels. This approach is proactive rather than reactive because a diverse system reaches an equilibrium that prevents pest outbreaks from becoming too severe. Birds and bats can keep insect populations low. Raptors can scare away fruit-eating birds. Coyotes, owls, and foxes can keep rodent populations under control. These animals can be encouraged to improve the plants' vulnerability because plants are providing needed shelter, water, and habitat. Organic producers increase biological diversity in the plant canopy by planting a diversity of crops and plant varieties in any given season. Use of cover crops and hedgerows also adds biodiversity. The diversity of vegetation, combined with reduced use of broad-spectrum pesticides, increases the diversity of insects and spiders in the plant canopy. Introducing beneficial insects and providing habitat for them to become established will increase biodiversity. To promote biodiversity in the soil, it is helpful to minimize tillage, introduce microorganisms in compost, and avoid broad-spectrum pesticides. These practices will increase the variety of bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates in the soil. Disease and Pest Management In many field crop and vegetable systems, maintaining a diverse, healthy ecosystem and using well-timed cultural practices are sufficient for pest management. Pests may not be eliminated, but damage levels are low enough to be tolerated. Organic producers maintain that organic soil-building practices will result in crops that are properly nourished and thereby less susceptible to attack by pests and diseases. Natural biological pest control arises in a healthy organic system in the form of an active complex of natural predators and parasites that suppress pest populations. Incorporating habitat and food sources for beneficial insects into the farm, known as farmscaping, can provide long-term benefits. Environmental Benefits and Considerations of Crop Rotations Crops face danger of extensive damage or destruction from a variety of sources including weeds, pests, diseases, adverse environmental conditions, and unfavorable weather. Potential crop yields can be seriously restricted by a lack of crop protection.. Planned crop rotations can increase yields, improve soil structure, reduce soil loss, conserve soil moisture, reduce fertilizer and pesticide needs, and provide other environmental and economic benefits. However, crop rotations may reduce profits when the acreage and frequency of highly profitable crops are replaced with crops earning lower returns. Many crop rotations reduce soil loss and are an option for meeting conservation compliance on highly erodible land. The growth of hay, small grain crops, or grass sod in rotation with conventionally tilled row crops reduces the soil’s exposure to wind and water and decreases total soil loss. While beneficial, crop sequencing can be complex and require more knowledge about plants and growing (Figure 5.5.2). These rotations, however, are a desirable option to farmers only when profitable markets exist or the conservation crops can be utilized by on farm livestock enterprises. Alternating wheat and fallow is a common practice for conserving soil moisture in regions with low rainfall. Applying tillage practices to minimize evaporation or transpiration from idle land in one season increases the amount of stored soil moisture available for the crop in the following season. The ability of legume crops to fix atmospheric nitrogen and supply soil nitrogen needs for subsequent crops is well documented. The plowdown of established alfalfa or other legumes can provide carryover nitrogen for a crop that requires high levels of nitrogen, such as corn. Research has shown that soybeans can be managed to fix 90 percent of their nitrogen needs and provide a soil nitrogen credit of 20 pounds or more per acre for a subsequent crop (Heichel, 1987). However, soybeans grown in rotation with corn where soils are already rich in nitrogen have not been shown to fix significant amounts of nitrogen. Crop rotations affect pest populations and can reduce the need for pesticides. Different crops often break pest cycles and prevent pest and disease organisms from building to damaging levels. Treatment for corn rootworm, the most common insecticide treatment on corn, normally only requires alternating another crop to sufficiently reduce root-worm survival rates to levels that do not require insecticide treatment. Hay and grass sod grown in rotation with corn, however, may increase the need for other corn insecticides to treat other pests. Besides providing erosion control, small grains, hay, and grass sod are competitive with broadleaf weeds and may help control weed populations in subsequent crops. These crops are usually harvested or can be cut before weeds reach maturity and produce seed for germination the following season. Weeds on prior idle acres or fallow land may be controlled by either cutting or tilling to reduce weed infestations the following year. Sometimes, herbicides are used to kill existing vegetation on idle land (chemical fallow) in lieu of mechanical methods. Rotations also can reduce financial risk and provide a more sustainable production system. Since adverse weather or low market prices are less likely to affect all crops simultaneously, the diversity of products resulting from crop rotation can reduce risk. Pesticide and Fertilizer Use Under Different Crop Rotations Crop rotation is often key to a sustainable agricultural production system and can reduce the need for fertilizer and pesticides. Fertilizer applications are often adjusted for prior nitrogen-fixing crops. Fewer pesticides may be needed when rotations break pest cycles or reduce infestation levels. Alley Cropping Alley cropping is defined as the planting of rows of trees and/or shrubs to create alleys within which agricultural or horticultural crops are produced. Alley cropping systems are sometimes called intercropping, especially in tropical areas. The trees produced through alley cropping may include valuable hardwood veneer or lumber species; fruit, nut or other specialty crop trees/shrubs; or desirable softwood species for wood fiber production. As trees and shrubs grow, they influence the light, water, and nutrient regimes in the field. These interactions are what sets alley cropping apart from more common monocropping systems. Alley cropping can vary from simple systems, such as an annual grain rotation between timber tree species, to complex multilayered systems that can produce a diverse range of agricultural products. It is especially attractive to producers interested in growing multiple crops on the same acreage to improve whole-farm yield. Growing a variety of crops in close proximity to each other can create significant benefits to producers, such as improved crop production and microclimate benefits and help them manage risk. Soil Building For centuries before the advent of chemical fertilizers, farmers supplied all the nutrients for their crops solely by adding organic matter to the soil. As fresh organic matter, such as crop residues, decomposes, it forms a stable substance called humus. Organic matter can be added to soils with compost, animal manures, or green manures. Adding organic matter is a fundamental way to build soils. Organic matter provides food for microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria, and macroorganisms, such as earthworms. As these diverse soil organisms decompose organic matter, they convert nutrients into forms that are available to plants. Soils high in organic matter also have improved water-holding capacity, helping plants resist drought. Green Manures Green manures are crops grown specifically for soil improvement. They are typically incorporated into the soil after they have produced a large amount of biomass or fixed a significant amount of nitrogen in the case of legumes. Managing green manure crops to increase organic matter and provide the maximum amount of nitrogen to the following crop is both an art and a science. Annual grasses, small grains, legumes, and other useful plants like buckwheat can be inserted into the cropping sequence to serve as green manures. Their roots pull nutrients from deeper soil layers, and the tops are plowed into the soil to add organic matter and a stable source of nutrients. In particular, deep tap-rooted crops such as alfalfa, sweet clover, rape, and mustard are known to extract and use minerals from the deeper layers of soil. Legumes add nitrogen to the soil. Nitrogen accumulations by leguminous cover crops can range from 40 to 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre. The amount of nitrogen captured by legumes depends on the species of legume grown, the total biomass produced, and the percentage of nitrogen in the plant tissue. Cultural and environmental conditions that limit legume growth—such as a delayed planting date, poor stand establishment, and drought—will reduce the amount of nitrogen produced. Conditions that favor high nitrogen information production include a good stand, optimum soil nutrient levels and soil pH, good nodulation, and adequate soil moisture. Animal Manures Conservation of manure and its proper application are key means of recycling nutrients and building soil. Farms without livestock often buy manure or compost because they are considered to be among the best fertilizers available, though sole reliance on fertilizers from other farms can have its drawbacks like cost, availability, and transportation. Manures from conventional systems are allowed in organic production, including manure from livestock grown in confinement and from those that have been fed genetically engineered feeds. Manure sources containing excessive levels of pesticides, heavy metals, or other contaminants may be prohibited from use. Such contamination is likely present in manure obtained from industrial-scale feedlots and other confinement facilities. Certifiers may require testing for these contaminants if there is reason to suspect a problem. Herbicide residues have been found in manures and manure-based composts. One type—aminopyralid—is used in pastures for control of broadleaf weeds. Grass and corn are not affected by the herbicide, and cows are not affected when they eat the grass or silage. However, the herbicide can be present in their manure in concentrations high enough to stunt the growth of tomatoes, peppers, and other susceptible broadleaf crops. If a manure source is suspected of being contaminated with excessive amounts of prohibited substances, appropriate testing should be conducted. If test results indicate that the manure is free of excessive contamination, and it is subsequently used in production, the test results should be kept on file. Used properly, manures can replace all or most needs for purchased fertilizer, especially when combined with a whole-system fertility plan that includes crop rotation and cover cropping with nitrogen-fixing legumes. Manure is typically applied just ahead of a crop requiring high fertility, such as corn or squash. Manures also can be applied just prior to a cover crop planting. Incorporating the manure as soon as possible after application, rather than allowing it to remain on the soil surface, will conserve the maximum amount of the nitrogen. Although manure is an excellent fertilizer for crops, and it has been used that way for centuries, manure may harbor microorganisms that are pathogenic to humans. To minimize the possibility of illness due to organic foods, there are strict regulations on the use of manure in organic crops. 90-120 Day Rule Application of manure to organic crops is restricted by what is known as the 90–120-day rule, as described in § 205.203(c)(1): “You may not apply raw, uncomposted livestock manure to food crops unless it is: 1. Incorporated into the soil a minimum of 120 days prior to harvest when the edible portion of the crop has soil contact; OR 2. Incorporated into the soil a minimum of 90 days prior to harvest of all other food crops.” Incorporation is generally assumed to mean mechanical tillage to mix the manure into the soil. This is important for crops that have soil contact which include leafy greens, melons, squash, peas, and many other vegetables. Any harvestable portion of a crop that can be splashed with soil during precipitation or irrigation might be considered to have soil contact. Crops that do not have soil contact include tree fruits and sweet corn. The 90- and 120-day restrictions apply only to food crops; they do not apply to fiber crops, cover crops, or to crops used as livestock feed. Compost Perhaps no other process is more closely associated with organic agriculture than composting. Composting is one of the most reliable and time-honored means of conserving nutrients to build soil fertility. Because matured, well-made compost is a stable fertilizer that will not burn plants and because composting kills most human and plant pathogens, compost can safely be used as a side-dress fertilizer on food crops. Animal manures used in organic crop production often are composted before use, in part because some types of raw manure will burn plants if applied directly to crops. Composting reduces the number of viable weed seeds, creates a uniform product with predictable nutrient levels, and eliminates worries about human pathogens. If manures are composted according to USDA organic regulations, then they are considered compost, not manure, and may be applied without restrictions. If manure is aged but not composted according to the regulations, then the material is still considered manure and must be applied in accordance with the 90–120-day rule explained above. The composting procedures are adapted from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) guidelines for composting biosolids. This policy was established to ensure the elimination of pathogens that cause illness in humans. The regulations define compost as “the product of a managed process through which microorganisms break down plant and animal materials into more available forms suitable for application to the soil...” Compost used in organic production must be made according to the criteria set out in § 205.203(c)(2). This section of the regulations specifies that: - “The initial carbon: nitrogen ratio of the blended feedstocks must be between 25:1 and 40:1. - The temperature must remain between 131 °F and 170 °F for 3 days when an in-vessel or a static-aerated-pile system is used. - The temperature must remain between 131 and 170°F for 15 days when a windrow composting system is used, during which period the windrow must be turned at least five times.” Organic farmers often maintain a compost pile on the farm as an efficient and cost-effective way to retain nutrients on the farm and build soil. If compost feedstocks include raw manure, they must be composted in the method detailed above. This composting process must be explained in a system plan and documented with temperature records. If those requirements are not met, then the resulting compost must be applied according to the 90-120-day raw manure rule. If compost feedstocks do not include raw animal manures, then the resulting compost is considered plant material and there are no restrictions on its use. Compost Tea Some organic farmers apply compost teas to crops or soil to increase the populations of beneficial microbes. If compost tea will be applied to organic crops, it is critical that the compost used to produce the extract has been made according to USDA organic regulations. The procedures for making both the compost and the compost tea must be explained in your OSP. Applications of teas made from uncomposted manure must follow the 90-120-day rule. The tea extract may need to be tested to ensure that it is free of dangerous pathogens, particularly if the tea has been made with compost tea additives. The additives, such as molasses, provide nutrients for microbes and thereby increase their rate of growth. There is some concern that any human pathogens present will grow more abundantly in a tea made with these additives. Further details on the recommendations for the use of compost tea are available in the NOP publications listed at the end of this chapter. Vermicompost Vermicompost is compost that uses worms to digest the feedstocks. Since feedstocks may include animal manures, there has been debate as to whether the 90-120-day rule should apply to vermicompost. The NOP has issued the following guidance: feedstocks for vermicompost materials may include organic matter of plant or animal origin. Feedstocks should be thoroughly macerated and mixed before processing. Vermicomposting systems depend upon regular additions of thin layers of organic matter at 1- to 3-day intervals. Doing so will maintain an aerobic environment and avoid temperature increases above 35 °C (95 °F), which will kill the earthworms. The composting process must be described in the OSP, reviewed by the certifier, and well documented on the farm. Further details are available in the NOP publications listed at the end of this chapter. Processed Animal Manures Heat-treated, processed manure products may be used in organic production. There is no required interval between application of processed manure and crop harvest. From the standpoint of the farmer, of course, these inputs would be applied well before harvest, so that the nutrients would be available to the crop. To be considered processed, the manure must be heated to 150 °F for 1 hour and dried to 12 percent moisture or less. Ratooning Ratooning is a production practice that is sometimes used on plants like sugarcane and okra. The process involves cutting stems down in mid-summer. Plants are then fertilized after being ratooned to support plant growth. This process rejuvenates the plant to stimulate another round of harvest on new growth in the later summer to early fall and is common in commercial growing. Soil Conservation Careful conservation and management of crop residues is part of organic soil management, since this residue plays a valuable role in improving and protecting the soil. The key to soil conservation is to keep the ground covered for as much of the year as possible. Organic farmers have long recognized the value of basic soil conservation. There are many practices that help conserve soil, including cover crops, mulches, conservation tillage, contour plowing, and strip cropping. Since water erosion is initiated by raindrop impact on bare soil, any management practice that protects the soil from raindrop impact will decrease erosion and increase water entry into the soil. Mulches, cover crops, and crop residues all serve this purpose well. A major limitation of organic row-crop farming is that cultivation is used for weed control, since herbicides are not allowed. This cultivation creates and maintains bare ground, which increases the likelihood of soil erosion. By contrast, soil that is covered with an organic mulch of crop residue, such as that typically found in no-till fields, is less likely to erode. Organic no-till systems have yet to be perfected for annual row crops, but they work well for perennial fruit crops and pasture, allowing for year-round ground cover and virtually no soil erosion. Cover Cropping Cover crops are single species or mixtures of plants grown to provide a vegetative cover between perennial trees, vines, or bushes; between annual crop rows; or on fields between cropping seasons. The vegetative cover on the land prevents soil erosion by wind and water, builds soil fertility, suppresses weeds, and provides habitat for beneficial organisms. Cover crops also can help reduce insect pests and diseases, and legume cover crops fix nitrogen. Any crop grown to provide soil cover is considered a cover crop, regardless of whether that crop is later incorporated into the soil as a green manure. Both green manures and other types of cover crops can consist of annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants grown in a pure or mixed stand during all or part of the year. When cover crops are planted to reduce nutrient leaching following a cash crop, they are termed “catch crops.” This type of cover crop is typically grown over the winter when the field would otherwise be unoccupied. Organic Mulches Organic mulches cover the soil and provide many of the same benefits as cover crops, especially the prevention of soil erosion. Many organic materials—such as straw, leaves, pine needles, and wood chips—can be effective mulches. Straw and other materials that are easily decomposed are applied to strawberries and vegetables during the growing season. The mulch can be tilled in at the end of the season, where it will quickly decompose. Wood chips, because they decompose very slowly, are more commonly applied to perennial crops such as blueberries, where they will not be tilled in. Applying organic mulch can be labor-intensive. Tree fruit growers sometimes mow the drive rows and blow the green clippings into the tree rows, which automates the mulching process. Heavy mulches can be a benefit by suppressing weed growth, or a nuisance by providing a haven for slugs. Organic mulches keep the soil cool, which may be a boon for blueberries in hot climates and a drawback for tomatoes in cool spring weather. Organic mulches have a beneficial long-term effect because they add nutrients to the soil as they decompose. Mulches of high-carbon material may have the opposite effect because they tie up nitrogen during the decomposition process. However, this should not be a problem if mulches are used properly—that is, placed on top of the soil, and not incorporated. Conservation Tillage In conservation tillage, crops are grown with minimal soil cultivation. This is also known as no-till, minimum till, incomplete tillage, or reduced tillage. When the amount of tillage is reduced, the residues from the plant canopy are not completely incorporated into the soil after harvest. Crop residues remain on top of the soil and prevent soil erosion, a practice known as crop residue cover. The new crop is planted into this stubble or small strips of tilled soil within the stubble. Contour Conservation and Strip Cropping Slope plays a role in soil conservation, in that flat ground erodes less than sloping ground with equal amounts of ground cover. Contour plowing is the practice of plowing across a slope following its elevation contour lines, rather than straight up and down the slope. The cross-slope rows formed by contour plowing slow water runoff during rainstorms to prevent soil erosion. Strip farming, also known as strip cropping, alternates strips of closely sown crops, such as hay or small grains, with strips of row crops, such as corn, soybeans, or cotton. Strip farming helps prevent soil erosion by creating natural dams for water, helping to preserve the soil. Mixed Cropping The growing of several crops simultaneously in the same field but not in rows is called mixed cropping. Mixed cropping, including intercropping, is the oldest form of systemized agricultural production and involves the growing of two or more species or cultivars of the same species simultaneously in the same field. However, mixed cropping has been little by little replaced by sole crop systems, especially in developed countries. Some of the advantages of mixed cropping are, for example, resource use efficiency and yield stability, but there are also several challenges, such as weed management and competition. Food Forests Modern agriculture has leaned heavily on monoculture field cropping. Many have found polyculture to be a natural solution for modern issues like soil water conservation, nutrient deficiencies in soil, and disease and pest management. Trees can provide many benefits in gardens and in urban environments. They produce fruit, like apples, peaches and figs, and also provide shade and wildlife habitat. Food forests support forest ecosystems and connect communities with nature. Trees of different sizes produce nuts and fruit, while their shade can support a variety of fresh, flavorful mushrooms, herbs, and berries. Trees improve air quality and help soil retain water. Nutrient Management: Nitrogen and Trace Minerals Although organic matter plays an important role in building productive soils, there are specific crops and soil types that will benefit from additional applications of specific nutrients. Organic farmers are allowed to use a variety of fertilizers to provide micronutrients to their crops. Before applying micronutrients, soil deficiencies must be documented through soil tests, plant tissue tests, observing the condition of plants, or evaluating crop quality at harvest. Nitrogen is often a limiting nutrient, especially for vegetables and other row crops. Including legumes in the rotation can help to ensure sufficient nitrogen for the following crop. Biological nitrogen fixation in legumes results from a symbiotic relationship between the plant and Rhizobium bacteria. These bacteria “infect” the roots of legumes, forming nodules. The bacteria then fix nitrogen from the air, which results in sufficient nitrogen both for their own needs and for subsequent crops. The inoculation of legume seed may be necessary to optimize nitrogen fixation. It is important to purchase an inoculant appropriate to the kind of legume being planted to ensure it is not genetically modified. Genetically modified inoculants are prohibited in organic production. Genetic Engineering The planting of GM crops is regulated—new varieties may not be widely planted until they’ve been approved by USDA. If conventional seed is planted, the certifier will request proof that it is not genetically engineered. This verification is becoming more important each year, as the number of genetically modified (GM) crops increases. The use of GM seeds is prohibited in organic agriculture, and it is the responsibility of organic growers to make certain that the crops they grow are not genetically engineered. GM crops that are now being planted or will soon be available include alfalfa, beets, corn, soybeans, papaya, plum, rapeseed, tobacco, potato, tomato, squash, cotton, and rice. This list is expected to change, as genetically engineered versions of several other crops have been developed but have not yet been released for commercial production. The most current information about GM crops is maintained by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Seed companies that develop a new variety of genetically modified seeds must submit a petition to APHIS before that seed can be distributed to the public. Genetic engineering is considered an excluded method and is defined as a variety of methods used to genetically modify organisms or influence their growth and development by means that are not possible under natural conditions or processes and are not considered compatible with organic production. Such methods include cell fusion, microencapsulation and macroencapsulation, and recombinant DNA technology (including gene deletion, gene doubling, introducing a foreign gene, and changing the positions of genes when achieved by recombinant DNA technology). Such methods do not include the use of traditional breeding, conjugation, fermentation, hybridization, in vitro fertilization, or tissue culture. With certified organic production, if it is necessary to use conventional seeds, it is essential to verify that the variety has not been genetically engineered and to keep documentation of this verification, as your inspector will ask to see it. Seed companies that have taken the Safe Seed Pledge may be convenient sources of non-GMO seeds. The Safe Seed Pledge was developed by the Council for Responsible Genetics and has been signed by numerous seed companies. Dig Deeper Attributions Title Image: Strips of oats and hay are interspersed with strips of corn to save soil and improve water quality and wildlife habitat on this field in northeast Iowa, Credit: United States Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service; Public Domain 4.2 Crop Rotations by the United States Department of Agriculture is in the Public Domain. Alley Cropping by the United States Department of Agriculture is in the Public Domain. Guide for Organic Crop Producers by the United States Department of Agriculture is in the Public Domain. "Sustainable Mixed Cropping Systems for the Boreal-Nemoral Region" by Lizarazo, et. al. is licensed CC BY 4.0. Trees and Food Forests by the United States Department of Agriculture is in the Public Domain.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.470350	Amanda Spangler	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87612/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Plant Classification and Use, Crop Biodiversity", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87628/overview	5.3 Psychological Benefits of Plants 5.4 Physiological Benefits of Plants 5.5 Medicinal Benefits of Plants 5_The-Role-of-Plants-in-Human-Well-Being Hall & Knuth: A Review of the Emotional and Mental Health Benefits of Plants Hall & Knuth: Available Resources and Usage of Plant Benefits Information Hall & Knuth: Physiological Health Benefits Hall & Knuth: Social Benefits International Center of Ethnobiology TeachEthnobotany The Role of Plants in Human Well-Being Overview Title image: "Appalachian Trail, Smoky Mountain National Park, TN" by Abhishek Chinchalkar is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Lesson Objectives Describe the various ways plants impact human well-being. Distinguish between the terms psychological and physiological. List research-based psychological and physiological benefits of plants. Key Terms medicinal - substances and other treatments that are used to cure illnesses physical - relates to the body physiological - the way that living bodies function psychological - relates to the mind and feelings restorative - refers to the ability to restore consciousness, vigor, or health Introduction For most of human history, our health, wellbeing, and success have been intertwined with our ability to interpret the environmental cues around us, which are often provided by plants. People who were better able to interpret these signals from plants had an easier time finding food, water, shelter, and refuge from predators. There is a growing body of research that demonstrates the physiological, physical, medicinal, and psychological benefits of green nature to humans. Several such studies are referenced in this lesson. Some studies explore benefits from active gardening activities, such as tending a vegetable or flower garden or taking a nature hike; while others attempt to quantify benefits from passive experiences, including viewing nature from a window or the presence of a houseplant in a room. The amount of plant life varies between areas, and many of these studies use the term “green space” rather than “plants” or “gardens.” What is “green space”? In their comprehensive series of literature reviews on the benefits of plants and horticulture, Dr. Charles Hall and Dr. Melinda Knuth write, “The term ‘green spaces’ has been used extensively to refer to areas of urban vegetation including public and private parks and gardens, residential landscapes, and urban forests and other municipal landscapes.” Readers should keep in mind that many of the findings referenced in the first three sections of this lesson are from correlational studies rather than true experiments, and correlation does not necessarily mean causation. Correlational studies are an important first step researchers take to determine whether future controlled studies are worthwhile. Prominent Theories When researchers explore the relationship between plants and nature on human health, they develop a theory to explain their findings. Three prominent theories in the fields of environmental psychology, environmental sociology, and socio-horticulture include Dr. Stephen and Dr. Rachel Kaplan’s Attention Restoration Theory, Dr. Roger Ulrich’s Stress Recovery Theory (a Psycho-Evolutionary Theory), and Dr. Edward O. Wilson’s Biophilia Hypothesis. While some people may have learned to love plants, gardening, and nature through taught experiences, each of these three theories proposes that unlearned, evolutionary factors are also important considerations when describing our positive response to nature. Stress Recovery Theory (Psycho-Evolutionary Theory) The framework for Stress Recovery Theory was proposed by Dr. Roger Ulrich (formerly of Texas A&M University, currently with the Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden); this framework can be found in his landmark work “Aesthetic and affective response to natural environments” (1983). Ulrich and co-author Russ Parsons later described the theory in “Influences of passive experiences with plants on well-being and health” (1992): The long evolutionary development of humankind in natural environments has left its mark on our species in the form of unlearned predispositions to pay attention and respond positively to certain contents (e.g., vegetation, water) and configurations that comprise those environments. People respond especially positively to combinations of contents and forms characteristic of natural settings that were most readily exploited by premodern humans, or were most favorable to ongoing well-being or survival… Ulrich postulates that quick-onset affective or emotional reactions – not cognitive responses – constitute the first level of response to nature, and are central to subsequent thoughts, memory, meaning, and behavior with respect to environment. Dr. Ulrich has measured physiological and psychophysiological responses to stress, including heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension and brain waves, after exposure to different stimuli. He and other proponents of Stress Recovery Theory have found that exposure to natural environments—even just a view from a window or a poster of a natural scene—can reduce tension and enhance recovery from stress (Ulrich, 1984; Ulrich et al., 1991). Attention Restoration Theory Dr. Stephen Kaplan and Dr. Rachel Kaplan of the University of Michigan proposed Attention Restoration Theory in their book The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective as an explanation for why natural environments seem to have a restorative effect on attention. Any discussion of this theory should include a description of “mental fatigue.” Mental fatigue is caused by spending time in a state of directed attention where focus must be maintained by suppressing distracting stimuli. This is especially common in modern environments where cell phone notifications and advertisements are constantly vying for attention. School environments also require a great deal of directed attention to successfully complete assignments and learn new information. The ability to maintain directed attention decreases over time. The result of prolonged directed attention is mental fatigue (Parsons, 1991). Symptoms of mental fatigue include irritability, increased incidence of mistakes (Kaplan, 2001), stress (Han, 2009), aggression and decreased impulse control (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). As a person becomes more mentally fatigued, they become less able to evaluate a situation rationally and more likely to have an unnecessary outburst (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). Natural environments that are rich in “fascinating” stimuli that intrigue the senses can be suitable treatment for mental fatigue. According Attention Restoration Theory, natural environments that spark human fascination provide an opportunity for the mind to recover from mental fatigue (Parsons, 1991). Other treatments for mental fatigue include taking a vacation and, to some extent, sleep (Kaplan, 1993). Attention restoration is facilitated by a landscape that meets certain criteria (Kaplan, 1984). An example of a restorative landscape would be a “mysterious” environment, where participants in the environment feel drawn in to explore around a bend of a curving path or over a hill just out of view. Since the type of environment is of primary importance in attention restoration theory, much of the research supporting the theory typically involves some type analysis of the qualities of the landscape (like mystery). However, Rachel Kaplan (1984) once asked, “Is presence in the setting sufficient to reap the benefits? Or is some involvement or commitment [activity in the environment] on the part of the individual essential?” Kaplan went on to note three types of involvement in the landscape that could also contribute to Attention Restoration Theory. The first type of involvement is active involvement in the natural environment, which could include gardening or a walk through the neighborhood. The second type of involvement is observing (passive involvement), such as a looking out on a natural scene from a window or watching plants grow and develop. The third level of involvement is on a conceptual nature. Conceptual involvement has to do with knowledge and imagining one’s participation in a natural environment through an activity like planning a garden or reflecting on a prior outdoor experience. The Biophilia Hypothesis Dr. Edward O. Wilson (1929 – 2021) studied at the University of Alabama and Harvard University, where he went on to hold a faculty position from 1956 until 1996. He began his career as a biologist focused on the study of ants. In fact, he discovered the first colony of fire ants in the U.S. near the port of Mobile in Alabama. Wilson’s work as a biologist led him to study social behavior of insects, animals, and humans. He became one of the foremost naturalists of the 20th century, writing several books on science and conservation. In 1984, Wilson wrote Biophilia, in which he proposed that humans have an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life. Wilsons’ Biophilia Hypothesis attempts to explain why humans have a preference for the natural world and makes a strong argument in favor of conservation. The Biophilia Hypothesis has led to an increase in biophilic design. Biophilic designs incorporate biophilia into the built environment and are becoming more common in architecture, interior design, and other related fields as a complement to green design. While green design strives to decrease the environmental impact of the built environment, biophilic design includes natural elements and features as a way to facilitate human connection with nature. Psychological Benefits of Plants Research in environmental psychology, socio-horticulture, and related fields have shown that even in our modern society, humans still experience psychological benefits from spending time with plants. Several studies have shown that access to green nature, a view of green space from a window, the presence of living houseplants, and even images of nature have positive psychological benefits. Humans in modern societies spend most of their time indoors (US Dept. of Labor, 2006). And, with expanding rates of urbanization, more people live in areas that are further removed from natural environments (Van den Berg et al., 2010), and access to green space is an important consideration for human development. Many of studies have focused on benefits in terms of stress reduction and recovery from mental fatigue. Dr. Rita Berto defined “stress” in her literature review of the role that nature plays in coping with stress (2014): “Stress” can be defined as the condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy (whether real or not) between the demands of a situation and the biological, psychological or social resources of the individual [1]. The negative effects of stress can be measured in various ways inside and out of the laboratory and these measures fall into three categories: those that rely on (1) neuro-physiological or bodily changes in the individual experiencing stress, (2) performance or behavioral changes and (3) self-report by individuals. As you will read in the following section, researchers have attempted to measure the benefits of green nature in many different ways, from proximity of trees, gardens, and natural areas to view from a window. Access to Green Space Spending time with living, green plants in natural settings, viewing them from a window, or just living near green areas is associated with reducing stress and recovery from mental fatigue (Abraham et al., 2010; Carrus et al., 2015; Watts, 2017; Wolf & Housley, 2014). Access to nature is related to happiness. One study found that after controlling for other variables, access to nature is related to several indicators of happiness (Zelenski & Nisbet, 2014). In fact, more accessibility to parks and natural, forest-like environments is related to increased happiness, better concentration, and less stress, anger, depression, and tension (Van den berg et al., 2003). Access to green space can also improve memory retention. One experiment tested the working memory of participants who either walked through an arboretum or who walked along a busy urban street. Those who walked through the arboretum had a 20% greater improvement in working memory than those who walked on the urban street (Berman et al., 2012). Another similar study found that those who went on a 50-minute walk in green nature had better working memory and less anxiety than participants who went on a 50-minute walk on a busy street (Berman et al., 2012). As tree canopy in a community increases, crime tends to decrease. One study found that a 10% increase in tree cover is related to a 12% decrease in crime (Troy et al., 2012). In the Workplace A view of nature is also related to satisfaction with work and life. A longitudinal study of employees over a 6-month period found that individuals who had a view of nature in their workspace were more satisfied with their jobs than individuals who did not have a view of nature (Kaplan, 1983). Another survey found that of 615 office workers, individuals with a view of nature were more satisfied with their lives and were more enthusiastic with their jobs than workers who did not have a view of nature (Kaplan, 1983). Workers who have a view of green nature are more productive, have higher workplace satisfaction, and tend to be happier than those who do not (Lottrup et al., 2015). Interior plants in the workplace (Figure 9.5.4) are associated with increased productivity, decreased stress, improved attention, and higher rates of workplace satisfaction (Gilchrist et al., 2015, Hartig et al., 2014, Raanaas et al., 2011). One study found that the presence of green plants in the workplace increased worker productivity by 15% (Korpela et al., 2017; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2014). Researchers found that as few as three small to medium sized plants can positively impact reaction time and perceived air quality and that as the number of plants in a room increased, so did the mood of the study participants (Lee & Maheswaran, 2011). In Schools Living plants in the classroom can improve student performance and influence classroom evaluations. One study found that when plants were placed in a classroom, students advanced through the curriculum 20 to 26% times more quickly (van Duijin et al. 2011). Students who have a view of green space during school have better attentional capacity and lower stress (Kuo, 2015; Becker et al., 2017), or are better able to recover from stress (Li & Sullivan, 2016). A view of green space from the classroom may also be related to academic achievement (Benfield et al., 2015; Browning & Rigolon, 2019). Even the amount of green space on a playground can impact students in the classroom. Students who play in areas with high levels of green nature tend to experience less physiological stress and have improved psychological well-being when compared to children who play in areas with low levels of green space (Kelz et al., 2015) Students who are diagnosed with attention disorders such as ADD and ADHD may benefit from time spent in nature. One study found that children who have ADHD concentrated better after a walk through the park when compared to children who walked through a downtown neighborhood (Taylor & Kuo, 2009). At Home Plants and nature are related to neighborhood satisfaction. One study compared medical records of households in areas with different amounts of green space near their home. When compared to participants living in an area with the greatest amount of green space, those who had only 10% of green space within half a mile of their home had 30% more of a risk of developing anxiety disorders and 25% greater risk of depression (Wolf & Housley, 2014). Additionally, individuals that actively engage in gardening are more satisfied with their neighborhood than those who do not. One survey of apartment dwellers found that permitting gardening activities within or near a neighborhood increased resident satisfaction. In addition to the benefits from gardening, researchers found a strong positive correlation between merely having a view of nature from the home and residential satisfaction (Kaplan, 2001). Access to nature may also be related to self-control. One study focused on a group of girls who lived in the same housing complex. The girls who had a better view of green space from their windows showed better discipline, concentration, impulsivity, and ability to delay gratification (Taylor et al., 2002). Furthermore, aggression and violence decrease for apartment residents who have access to nearby nature when compared to residents of apartments in a barren environment (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001). Adolescents who live in an area where green space is within 1000 meters of their residence exhibit less aggressive behavior than those without close access to nature (Younan et a., 2016). Horticultural Therapy In Green Nature Human Nature, Charles Lewis writes that the primary purpose of horticulture therapy is to “promote the wellbeing of individual patients, and plants become byproducts of the healing process.” Horticulture therapy has both physiological and psychological benefits to patients. The American Horticulture Therapy Association describes horticulture therapy as follows: Horticultural therapy techniques are employed to assist participants to learn new skills or regain those that are lost. Horticultural therapy helps improve memory, cognitive abilities, task initiation, language skills, and socialization. In physical rehabilitation, horticultural therapy can help strengthen muscles and improve coordination, balance, and endurance. In vocational horticultural therapy settings, people learn to work independently, problem solve, and follow directions. Horticultural therapists are professionals with specific education, training, and credentials in the use of horticulture for therapy and rehabilitation. Participation in horticulture therapy programs has been found to help people cope with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Figure 9.5.5). Veterans with post-traumatic stress who participate in Nature Adventure Rehabilitation report feeling more hope for the future as well as improvements in emotional and social quality of life (Gelkopf et al., 2013). Victims of natural disasters are also at high risk of PTSD. Nature disaster victims who participated in a horticulture therapy program showed fewer symptoms of the disorder than victims who participated in a standard stress-education program (Kotozaki et al., 2015; Sekiguchi et al., 2015). Researchers have found that horticulture therapy can reduce the effects of dementia by improving cognitive capacity and reducing instances of aggressive behavior (Gigliotti & Jarrott, 2005). Physiological Benefits of Plants Spending time with green nature not only benefits our mental wellbeing, but our physical health as well. As with the psychological benefits of plants, several studies have explored the relationship between access to green space and physiological health. Access to Green Space People who have access to green space tend to experience less stress and engage in more physical activity (Thompson et al., 2012). Access to green space can improve sleep quality and duration (Astell-Burt et al., 2013; Morita et al., 2011), which is important because insufficient sleep is associated with serious, chronic health issues (Cappuccio et al., 2011; Cappuccio et al., 2008; Chaput et al., 2007; Hislop & Arber, 2003; Hublin et al., 2007). Exposure to plants can also positively impact diabetes by increasing anti-diabetic hormones adiponecitin and didehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (Bhasin et al., 2013; Ohtsuka, 1998). Access to Trees The number of trees, amount of tree canopy, and access to trees can impact health (Figure 9.5.6). One study found that people who live in neighborhoods with a high density of street trees tend to report significantly fewer cardio-metabolic health conditions (Kardan et al., 2015). The same study also found that having an average of 11 more trees on a city block, on average, has cardio-metabolic health benefits usually associated with an increase of $20,000 in personal income and moving to a neighborhood that has a $20,000 higher median income or being 1.4 years younger (Kardan et al., 2015). The city of Portland, Oregon explored the health benefits associated with trees. They found that when trees improve air quality by reducing the amount of NO2, the healthcare benefits from fewer respiratory problems are estimated at $7 million (Rao et al., 2014). Researchers have attempted to gauge whether the loss of trees would have an impact on human mortality. After controlling for many other factors that could impact mortality, communities where trees have been lost to the emerald ash borer (an invasive insect pest) have experienced a corresponding increase in mortality related to lower-respiratory-tract and cardiovascular illnesses. For the 15 states included in the study, tree loss due to the emerald ash borer was linked with 6,113 lower-respiratory-system related deaths and 15,080 deaths related to cardiovascular health problems (Donovan et al., 2013). The implication of this study is that trees are associated with cardiovascular and lower-respiratory-tract health, and the loss of trees is connected with mortality due to cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. Access to Gardening Participation in hands-on gardening activities is linked to physical health. Gardening is exercise. Digging holes for planting, pushing mulch in a wheelbarrow, raking leaves, pulling a hose or carrying a watering can are just a few examples of physical activities common to gardening. Edible gardening is related to fruit and vegetable consumption. One study found that while non-gardeners only ate fruits and vegetables on average 3.9 times per day, home gardeners consumed produce 4.6 times per day and community gardeners 4.6 times per day (Litt et al., 2011). Horticulture Therapy Horticulture therapy can be used to improve coordination and strengthen muscles. One study followed a group of elderly women who participated in a 15-week gardening program and found that participants had an improvement in dexterity and muscle mass and a decrease in waist circumference when compared to an indoor control group (Park et al., 2016). Horticulture therapy has also been used to help people manage chronic musculoskeletal pain. Participants were less dependent on pain medication, exhibited better coping skills, and had better mental and physical health (Verra et al., 2012). In Hospitals Hospital patients who have a view of green nature from their window tend to recover from surgery more quickly and require less pain medication (Mehaffy & Salingaros, 2015; Park et al., 2013). They also are more likely to have more positive interactions with hospital staff (Ulrich, 1983). Hospital patients who have living plants in their rooms or posters of plants may also experience less stress (Beukeboom et al., 2012) In Schools The CDC encourages schools to provide farm-to-school activities that provide hands-on education through school garden programs and field trips to local farms, classroom nutrition education, and alternative fundraising using local produce (Harmon, 2011). School garden programs (Figure 9.5.7) have the potential to strengthen the healthy development of students through improved knowledge about fruits and vegetables, increased preference for fruits and vegetables (Morris & Zidenberg-Cherr, 2002; Parmer et al., 2009; Robinson-Obrien et al., 2009), and increased consumption of fruits and vegetables (McAlleese & Rankin, 2007; Parmer et al., 2009; Robinson-Obrien et al., 2009; Ozer, 2007). Children who play in natural environments tend to develop better balance and coordination, which are predictors of physical activity (Fjørtoft, 2001; Fjørtoft, 2004). Medicinal Benefits of Plants In addition to providing food, textile fiber, building material, physical exercise, psychological benefits, plants have been used as a source of medicine for most of human history. Even today, researchers and pharmaceutical companies are searching for plants for medicinal properties, and many people grow herbs in their gardens for basic remedies. How Long Have People Been Using Medicinal Plants? Excerpt from "Medicinal Botany" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain Our earliest human ancestors found plants to heal wounds, cure diseases, and ease troubled minds. People on all continents have long used hundreds, if not thousands, of indigenous plants, for treatment of various ailments dating back to prehistory. Knowledge about the healing properties or poisonous effects of plants, mineral salts, and herbs accumulated from these earliest times to provide health and predates all other medical treatment. Evidence exists that plants were used for medicinal purposes some 60,000 years ago. A burial site of a Neanderthal man was uncovered in 1960. Eight species of plants had been buried with him, some of which are still used for medicinal purposes today. By 3500 BC, Ancient Egyptians began to associate less magic with the treatment of disease, and by 2700 BC the Chinese had started to use herbs in a more scientific sense. Egyptians recorded their knowledge of illnesses and cures on temple walls and in the Ebers papyrus (1550 BC), which contains over 700 medicinal formulas. Hippocrates, 460 – 380 BC, known as the “Father of Medicine,” classified herbs into their essential qualities of hot and cold, moist and dry, and developed a system of diagnosis and prognosis using herbs. The number of effective medicinal plants he discussed was between 300 and 400 species. Aristotle, the philosopher, also compiled a list of medicinal plants. His best student, Theophrastus discussed herbs as medicines, the kinds and parts of plants used, collection methods, and effects on humans and animals. He started the science of botany with detailed descriptions of medicinal plants growing in the botanical gardens in Athens. The most significant contribution to the medicinal plant descriptions was made by Dioscorides. While serving as a Roman army physician, he wrote De Materia Medica in about AD 60. This five-volume work is a compilation concerning approximately 500 plants and describes the preparation of about 1000 simple drugs. Written in Greek, it contains good descriptions of plants giving their origins and medical virtues and remained the standard text for 1,500 years. The earliest Ayurvedic texts on medicine from India date from about 2,500 BC. In Ayurvedic theory, illness is seen in terms of imbalance, with herbs and dietary controls used to restore equilibrium. Abdullah Ben Ahmad Al Bitar (1021 – 1080 AD) an Arabic botanist and pharmaceutical scientist, wrote the Explanation of Dioscorides Book on Herbs. Later, his book, The Glossary of Drugs and Food Vocabulary, contained the names of 1,400 drugs. The drugs were listed by name in alphabetical order in Arabic, Greek, Persian, or Spanish. Galen, a physician considered the “medical pope” of the Middle Ages, wrote extensively about the body’s four “humors”—the four fluids that were thought to permeate the body and influence its health. Drugs developed by Galen were made from herbs that he collected from all over the world. The studies of botany and medicine became very closely linked during the Middle Ages. Virtually all reading and writing were carried out in monasteries. Monks laboriously copied and compiled the manuscripts. Following the format of Greek botanical compilations, the monks prepared herbals that described identification and preparation of plants with reported medicinal characteristics. At this time though, healing was as much a matter of prayer as medicine. Early herbalists frequently combined religious incantations with herbal remedies believing that with “God’s help” the patient would be cured. With time, practitioners began to focus on healing skills and medicines. By the 1530s, Paracelsus (born Philippus Theophrasts Bombastus von Hohenheim, near Zurich in 1493), was changing Europe’s attitudes toward health care. Many physicians and apothecaries were dishonest and took advantage from those they should be helping. Paracelsus was a physician and alchemist who believed that medicine should be simple and straight forward. He was greatly inspired by the Doctrine of Signatures, which maintained that the outward appearance of a plant gave an indication of the problems it would cure. The Doctrine of Signatures is evident in many common names of plants today. For example, lungwort (Pulmonaria spp.) was once used to treat respiratory illnesses because its leaves somewhat resemble human lungs. In 1775, Dr. William Withering was treating a patient with severe dropsy caused by heart failure. He was unable to bring about any improvement with traditional medicines. The patient’s family administered an herbal brew based on an old family recipe and the patient started to recover. Dr. Withering experimented with the herbs contained in the recipe and identified foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) as the most significant. In 1785, he published his Account of the Foxglove and Some of Its Medical Uses. He detailed 200 cases where foxglove had successfully been used to treat dropsy and heart failure along with his research on the parts of the plant and harvest dates that produced the strongest effect. Withering also realized that therapeutic dose of foxglove is very close to the toxic level where side effects develop. After further analysis, the cardiac glycosides digoxin and digitoxin were eventually extracted. These are still used in treating heart conditions today. In 1803, morphine became one of the first drugs to be isolated from a plant. It was identified by Frederich Serturner in Germany. He was able to extract white crystal from crude opium poppy. Scientists soon used similar techniques to produce aconitine from monkshood, emetine from ipecacuanha, atropine from deadly nightshade, and quinine from Peruvian bark. In 1852, scientists were able to synthesize salicin, an active ingredient in willow bark, for the first time. By 1899, the drug company Bayer, modified salicin into a milder form of aectylsalicylic acid and lauched asprin into our modern world. The synthetic age was born and in the following 100 years, plant extracts have filled pharmacy shelves. Although many medicines have been produced from plant extracts, chemists sometimes find that the synthetic versions do not carry the same therapeutic effects or may have negative side effects not found when using the whole plant source. A full 40 percent of the drugs behind the pharmacist’s counter in the Western world are derived from plants that people have used for centuries, including the top 20 best-selling prescription drugs in the United States today. For example, quinine extracted from the bark of the South American cinchona tree (Cinchona calisaya) relieves malaria, and licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) has been an ingredient in cough drops for more than 3,500 years. The species native to the United States, Glycyrrhiza lepidota, has a broad range from western Ontario to Washington, south to Texas, Mexico and Missouri. Eastward, there are scattered populations. The leaves and roots have been used for treating sores on the backs of horses, toothaches, and fever in children, sore throats and cough. Medicinal interest in mints dates from at least the first century A.D., when it was recorded by the Roman naturalist Pliny. In Elizabethan times more than 40 ailments were reported to be remedied by mints. The foremost use of mints today in both home remedies and in pharmaceutical preparations is to relieve the stomach and intestinal gas that is often caused by certain foods. Modern Ethnobotany Most United States residents have easy access to pharmacies that are fully stocked with neatly labelled bottles of uniform pills and syrups; therefore, it can be difficult to appreciate the role plants and other natural materials continue to play in modern medicine. Ethnobotanists like Dr. Cassandra Quave of Emory University are modern-day plant hunters who work hard to identify, test, and introduce new plant-based medicines. In her book The Plant Hunter, Dr. Quave writes “Of the estimated 374,000 species of plants on earth, records exist for the medicinal use of at least 33,443[...] That means that around 9% of all plants on earth have been – and in many cases, continue to be – used as a major form of medicine for people.” Yet of the estimated 9% of plants with medicinal value, fewer than 5% have been studied in a lab. That’s where ethnobotanists come in. They begin by interviewing people who have traditional knowledge of medicinal plants that grow in their region or reading historic accounts of plants that have healing properties. These scientists work with indigenous community members to identify and collect the correct species of plants. According to Dr. Quave, As of January 2021, the global population is 7.8 billion people, and roughly 80 percent of them, or 6.2 billion, live in economically underdeveloped countries. Medicinal plants constitute the primary pharmacopoeia, or primary form of medicine, for 70-95 percent of people living in most developing countries. In other words, at least 4 billion people are dependent on plants for medicine, and the key ingredients in their medicine chests are getting more and more difficult to find. Once the plants have been identified and collected, a portion of the samples are preserved in an herbarium. An herbarium is a library of preserved plant specimens that have been dried, pressed, and labelled with information about where they were collected. Herbarium specimens are an important reference for research, education, and identification. The remainder of the samples are transported to a lab, where they are processed as ground and dried material or as liquid extracts. These samples are tested to determine their chemical and molecular composition. Samples are tested for their efficacy in combating various bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases. Doctors and pharmaceutical companies learn the results of these studies when they are published and presented at conferences. A new medicine can be introduced after further testing and product development. Even once a new medicine has been identified and introduced, the search is far from over. Over time and with increased exposure, the organisms responsible for diseases can adapt and become resistant to tried-and-true treatments. Identifying medicinal plants is becoming more difficult, both due to loss of information and habitat destruction. Traditionally, older members of the community would pass these traditions to the younger members; however, this knowledge is at risk of being lost forever as young members of these communities move away in search of better opportunities and as older members grow in age. Even if these traditions are recorded, the native ranges of medicinal plants around the world are threatened by human development. The race is on for ethnobotanists to preserve both the records of plants used and the genetic information of the plants themselves. Investments in research and nature conservation are the keys to ensure our health now and in the future. Dig Deeper For more information about the role plants play on human wellbeing, check out Dr. Charles Hall and Dr. Melinda Knuth's comprehensive series of literature reviews on the benefits of plants and horticulture that were published in the Journal of Environmental Horticulture: - 1: A Review of the Emotional and Mental Health Benefits of Plants - 2: Physiological Health Benefits - 3: Social Benefits - 4: Available Resources and Usage of Plant Benefits Information To learn more about the importance of nature to children’s development, check out the Children and Nature Network website. To learn more about modern plant hunters and the search for new plant-based medicines, check out Dr. Cassandra Quave’s TeachEthnobotany YouTube Channel To learn more about the field of ethnobiology, visit the International Center of Ethnobiology website. Attribution and References Attribution Excerpt from "Medicinal Botany" by the USDA Forest Service is in the Public Domain Title image: "Appalachian Trail, Smoky Mountain National Park, TN" by Abhishek Chinchalkar is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. References Abraham, A., K. Sommerhalder & T. Abel. (2010). Landscape and well-being: a scoping study on the health-promoting impact of outdoor environments. International Journal of Public Health, 55(1): 59–69. Astell-Burt, T., Feng, X., & Kolt, G. S. (2013). Does access to neighbourhood green space promote a healthy duration of sleep? Novel findings from a cross-sectional study of 259 319 Australians. 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Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22(1-2), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2001.0241 Thompson, C.W., Roe, J., Aspinall, P., Mitchell, R., Clow, A., & Miller, D. (2012). More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landscape and Urban Planning, 105(3), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015 Troy, A., Morgan Grove, J., & O’Neil-Dunne, J. (2012). The relationship between tree canopy and crime rates across an urban–rural gradient in the greater Baltimore region. Landscape Urban Planning, 106(3):262– 270. Ulrich, R.S. (1983). Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. Behavior and the Natural Environment (pp. 85–125). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3539-9_4 Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 224(4647), 420–421. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6143402 Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7 Ulrich, R.S. & Parsons, R. (1992). Influences of passive experiences with plants on individual well-being and health. The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-Being and Social Development (pp. 93-105). Portland, OR: Timber Press. United States Department of Labor. (2006). American Time Use Survey (ATUS). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/tus/ Van den Berg, A.E., Koole, S.L. & van der Wulp, N.Y. (2003). Environmental preference and restoration: (How) are they related? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23: 135–146. Van den Berg, A.E., Maas, J., Verheij, R.A., & Groenewegen, P.P. (2010). Green space as a buffer between stressful life events and health. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 70(8), 1203–1210. van Duijin, B., Klein Hesselink, J. Kester, M. & Jansen en Hilde Spitters, J. (2011). ‘Planten in de klas’ [plants in the classroom]. Productschap Tuinbouw (Product Board for Horticulture), Rapport Project. Watts, G. (2017). The effects of ‘‘greening’’ urban areas on the perceptions of tranquillity. Urban Forestry Urban Greening, 26: 11-17. Wolf, K. & Housley, E. (2014). Reflect & restore: urban green space for mental wellness. The TKF Foundation, Annapolis, MD. 14 p. Younan, D., Tuvblad, C., Li, L., Wu, J., Lurmann, F., Franklin, M., Berhane, K., McConnell, R., Wu, A. H., Baker, L., & Chen, J.-C. (2016). Environmental Determinants of Aggression in Adolescents: Role of Urban Neighborhood Greenspace. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(7), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.05.002 Zelenski, J.M. & Nisbet, E.K. (2014). Happiness and feeling connected: the distinct role of nature relatedness. Environment Behavior 46 (1):3–23.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.584591	Anna McCollum	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87628/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People, The Role of Plants in Human Well-Being", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85011/overview	1.3 Artificial Selection and Early Hybridization 1_Plant-Domestication Plant Domestication Overview Image credit: “CIMMYT- CESBatan - MEX - 06082019 - 0037.jpg” by Alfonso Cortés/CIMMYT is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Lesson Objectives Explain the domestication of plants for agriculture. Explain the transition to the agrarian lifestyle. Key Terms artificial selection - occurs when humans select an organism for desired characteristics (phenotype), which can lead to changes on a genetic level (genotype) cultivation - the growing or tending of crops domestication - the process of modifying wild plants and animals by selective breeding into forms more suited to cultivation by humans hybridization - the creation of offspring from two unlike parents, often the product of two different species or two different varieties The Transition to the Agrarian Lifestyle Archeologists believe that for much of our history, humans lived a nomadic lifestyle: hunting animals and gathering plants for food. These early humans would follow wild game, collecting fruit, nuts, grains, and other plant-based foods along the way. Their movement was largely driven by seasonal changes in food availability. Some of the earliest plants that were harvested for long-term storage were grains, such as wheat and barley. These cereals grew wild throughout much of an area in the Middle East known as the Fertile Crescent. Using simple tools, such as flint-bladed sickles, early humans could harvest as much as 2 lbs. of wheat an hour. With just a few weeks of work, a small family could store enough grain to sustain itself through an entire year (Standage, 2005). Dried grains were able to be stored for long periods of time, which provided a consistent source of food through lean seasons. However, stored food needed to be monitored and guarded to prevent loss due to pests and environmental damage. About 10,000 years ago, some groups of humans began to deliberately cultivate their food by planting seeds with the intent to harvest. This development led to the formation of agricultural villages centered around cultivating and harvesting crops (Figure 9.1.1). Agricultural concepts and practices seem to have independently arisen in several areas across the globe over a span of only about six thousand years, rather than originating in just one area and spreading from there (Diamond, 2002; Diamond, 2005). Agriculture spread from those centers as populations and farmable land use increased. Knowledge of agricultural techniques and use of tools and seeds also spread by trade. Artificial Selection and Early Hybridization The process of artificial selection happens when humans select a plant or animal, based on qualities of appearance (phenotype), for extensive cultivation or further breeding, which can lead to changes on a genetic level (genotype). To help us better understand the process of artificial selection, let us consider what researchers believe were likely the steps early humans made in domesticating three common crops: wheat, maize, and the cole crops. A Brief History of Wheat Primitive einkhorn wheat (Trititicum monococcum) is similar to modern wheat in that it is edible and relatively easy to harvest when compared to other crops. However, there are some differences between the wild ancestors of our modern wheat and the wheat that we grow today. For example, wild wheat tends to produce much smaller grains held on smaller heads. These heads of grain are delicate and prone to scatter their seeds in response to the slightest touch. This characteristic, known as “shattering seed heads,” makes it easier for wild grains to spread their seeds in their natural environment. However, this adaptation makes it more difficult for humans to collect grains without dropping a good portion of the harvest. As early humans selected which heads of grain to harvest, they showed preference for wheat that naturally produced larger grains that did not shatter when collected. These improved forms were probably the result of natural spontaneous hybridization in the field. Scientists believe that einkhorn wheat crossed with a related wild grass (T. searsii), resulting in the improved emmer wheat species (T. turgidum). These natural crosses increased the number of chromosomes, or the ploidy level, in the plant. For example, diploid einkhorn wheat has 7 pairs of chromosomes, while the tetraploid emmer wheat has 17 pairs of chromosomes. The modified forms may have initially sprouted closer to villages from seed that was accidentally spilled, but humans eventually figured out that these harvested grains could also be planted for an improved and more uniform crop. While these new forms of wheat may not have been the product of deliberate hybridization by plant breeders, the choice to primarily grow improved forms (such as emmer wheat rather than einkhorn wheat) was a form of artificial selection (Figure 9.1.2). Improved strains of wheat quickly spread from the Near East to northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of Asia. As humans cultivated wheat in new environments, they continued to select improved forms that performed better in their region. This tradition continues to this day. Norman Borlaug (1914 – 2009) is a notable modern wheat breeder who rigorously crossed, trialed, and selected new strains of wheat for characteristics, such as improved yield, stout forms that are less prone to lodging or falling over, as well as the ability to grow in a variety of environments (Figure 9.1.3). His developments contributed to the Green Revolution, which made use of these improved varieties, better crop management practices, and synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yields across the globe (Raven et al., 2005). A Brief History of Maize While the first evidence of plant domestication is found in the Fertile Crescent, artificial selection also happened independently in the New World. Before the arrival of European settlers, maize was a staple crop for many people living in North, Central, and South America (Figure 9.1.4), but its origins are still somewhat of a mystery. Researchers believe that maize was developed in Central America sometime around 6000 BCE. Unlike progenitors of wheat and most other cereal crops, there doesn’t appear to be a wild form of maize (Zea mays sbsp. mays). There have been several hypotheses as to the origin of maize. We will explore just one of those hypotheses in this text. Some researchers believe modern corn is the domesticated form of the wild grass teosinte (Zea mays sbsp. parviglumis). Teosinte is a very large grass that looks like a taller, multi-stemmed version of modern corn (Figure 9.1.5). However, there are many important differences between teosinte and maize, including the fact that teosinte’s kernels are basically inedible (Mann, 2005). Teosinte produces much smaller, extremely woody grains that are held on narrow, two-rowed ears. Each ear is contained in its own husked chamber, with 5 to 12 chambers contained in one larger husk. These chambers split open and the grains shatter, effectively scattering the seed that will sprout the next season. In contrast, maize produces large, succulent grains that are held tightly on a large cob contained by a husk (Raven et al., 2005). These characteristics make maize ideal for harvesting and human consumption, but they would prevent maize from being able to scatter seed independent of human intervention. That is, maize and corn could not survive in the wild without people to harvest and plant its seeds (Mann, 2005). With an ancestor so markedly different from the cultivated form, it is difficult to understand how exactly maize was selected from teosinte. Scientists are still trying to figure out exactly how this happened, but it is clear that the selection process for more edible grains, larger ears, and non-shattering seed heads was the result of deliberate actions over many generations (Mann, 2005). This process occurred over generations of deliberate breeding, an impressive feat even to accomplished scientists today. In fact, Dr. Nina Federoff, a geneticist at Pennsylvania State University, began her article “Prehistoric GM Corn” with the bold statement: “Corn (maize) is arguably man’s first, and perhaps his greatest, feat of genetic engineering.” Most of our modern corn is the product of hybridization between inbred selections. In fact, nearly all corn produced in the United States is hybrid corn. These hybrid selections produce a more uniform crop where individuals have identical growth and development characteristics, which makes mechanized harvesting easier. Hybrid corn is usually very vigorous, and strains can be selected based on their ability to grow well in a variety of climates. Most importantly, hybrid corn produces significantly higher yields than traditional corn and maize (Raven et al., 2005). These characteristics mean that more corn can be produced per acre with less water, fertilizer, pesticides, and labor. While intensive breeding and hybridization has unquestionably led to higher yields, monoculture stands of hybrid corn are especially vulnerable to pests and diseases (Figure 9.1.6). Genetic diversity is the key to overcoming these health issues. Saving and studying landraces (Figure 9.1.7) and preserving wild relatives (like teosinte), in order to use this material for future breeding efforts, will help protect our ability to produce food for ourselves in the future (Raven et al., 2005). A Brief History of Cole Crops The Cole Crops (vegetables in the species Brassica oleracea) provide an excellent example of artificial selection. European kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens, and kohlrabi, vary widely from one another in appearance Figure 9.1.8). However, they are all members of the same species that have been selected by humans over time for their different physical attributes. - Both kale and collard greens were selected for their large, tender leaves, and these were probably the first domesticated forms of the B. oleracea. Modern varieties of these plants may have green, purple, or red leaves that may be flat or frilly. Scientists believe kale most closely resembles the wild ancestor of this species. - Broccoli was bred for its flower buds and tender stems. Plants can form large heads or small spears that can be green, purple, or yellow in color. - Brussels sprouts was selected for its lateral buds, and it is believed to have been bred from cabbage in Brussels, Belgium in the 16th century. - Cabbage was developed to produce tightly wrapped leaves around a large terminal bud. Cabbages are also available in a variety of shapes (rounded or savoyed leaves) and colors (white, green, red, and purple). - Cauliflower is believed to have been developed from broccoli by selecting for easily blanched, tender flower buds and shoots. While white cauliflower is the most familiar form, heads can also be chartreuse, orange, or purple in color. - Kohlrabi was bred to produce an edible stem that is swollen and fleshy. Plants are available in green or purple. While each of these crops may look quite different from one another, they are all members of the same species and are purely the product of human selection. While it’s unclear exactly when the first Brassica oleracea was domesticated, there is evidence of early versions of broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, and kale being grown by the Greeks as early as 300 BCE. The Romans brought cabbage and kale with them on their conquests of and to their settlements in northern Europe between 40 and 450 CE. Kohlrabi and Brussels sprouts were developed in northern Europe around 1500 BCE. New and improved varieties of these crops continue to be introduced in modern times (Colley et al., 2015). Attribution and References Attribution Image credit: “CIMMYT- CESBatan - MEX - 06082019 - 0037.jpg” by Alfonso Cortés/CIMMYT is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 References Colley, M., Zystro, J., Buttala, L. A., & Siegel, S. (2015). The seed garden: The art and practice of seed saving. Seed Savers Exchange. Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature (London), 418(6898), 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019 Diamond, J. (2005). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies. W.W. Norton. Fedoroff, N.V. (2003). Prehistoric GM Corn. Science, 302(5648), 1158–1159. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1092042 Mann, C. (2005). 1491: New revelations of the Americas before Columbus. 1st ed. Knopf. Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, and S.E. Eichhorn. (2005). Plants and People. Biology of plants. 7th ed (pp. 475-495). W.H. Freeman and Company, Worth Publishers, New York. Standage, T. (2005). A history of the world in 6 glasses. Walker & Co.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.677800	Anna McCollum	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85011/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Impact of Plants and Horticulture on People, Plant Domestication", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93470/overview	Marketing Communication Methods Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Marketing Communication Methods What you’ll learn to do: describe common methods of marketing communication, their advantages and disadvantages A common challenge for people new to marketing is learning about the many marketing communication tools and methods now available and understanding how to use them effectively. Fortunately, most of us have first-hand experience of being on the receiving end of IMC—whether you like it or not, you are a consumer, and you’ve been the target of all kinds of marketing communication. You know the difference between an ad that gets your attention and one you just tune out, for example. You are familiar with the line between “persistent” and “annoying” when it comes to getting marketing-related emails or text messages. You recognize which buy-one-get-one-free offers are a great deal, and which ones seem like a racket. All this experience will come in handy in this section and later in the course. You’re getting closer to being on the other side of the wall, where you’ll be tasked with using marketing communication methods and tools to devise your own marketing plan (in the last module of this course!). In this section, though, you’ll get a chance to examine each of these marketing communication methods one by one. Fortunately, the underlying principles we’ve discussed up to this point apply to all of them: knowing your audience, defining strategy, setting objectives, crafting the message. Where paths diverge is in the tools themselves: how to design a great ad, how to produce a memorable event, how to get coverage for your organization in the news media, how to use email and social media skillfully for marketing purposes, and so on. The next several readings provide a general overview of seven important marketing communication methods (shown in Figure 1, below) in common use today. This section will help you become familiar with each method, common tools associated with each method, how to use these methods effectively, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Some marketing professionals spend entire careers becoming specialists in one or more of these areas. Other marketers become generalists who are skilled at bringing together different tools–and experts–to execute effective IMC programs. Figure 1. The Promotion Mix Whether you think you’re more of a generalist or a specialist, marketing offers great opportunities for creativity and experimentation. There will always be a new idea, strategy, tool, or combination of tactics that marketers can turn into IMC magic for their companies and their customers. As you learn about and gain experience with the basic tools and approaches, you’ll see opportunities to try something new. And you should: in the marketing world, fresh is good! The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain Advertising - Explain Public Relations - Explain Sales Promotions - Explain Personal Selling - Explain Direct Marketing - Explain Digital Marketing - Explain Guerrilla Marketing Learning Activities - Reading: Advertising - Reading: Public Relations - Reading: Sales Promotions - Reading: Personal Selling - Reading: Direct Marketing - Reading: Digital Marketing - Reading: Guerrilla Marketing - Simulation: Integrated Marketing LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: Marketing Communication Methods. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Advertising Advertising: Pay to Play Advertising is any paid form of communication from an identified sponsor or source that draws attention to ideas, goods, services or the sponsor itself. Most advertising is directed toward groups rather than individuals, and advertising is usually delivered through media such as television, radio, newspapers and, increasingly, the Internet. Ads are often measured in impressions (the number of times a consumer is exposed to an advertisement). Advertising is a very old form of promotion with roots that go back even to ancient times. In recent decades, the practices of advertising have changed enormously as new technology and media have allowed consumers to bypass traditional advertising venues. From the invention of the remote control, which allows people to ignore advertising on TV without leaving the couch, to recording devices that let people watch TV programs but skip the ads, conventional advertising is on the wane. Across the board, television viewership has fragmented, and ratings have fallen. Print media are also in decline, with fewer people subscribing to newspapers and other print media and more people favoring digital sources for news and entertainment. Newspaper advertising revenue has declined steadily since 2000.[1] Advertising revenue in television is also soft, and it is split across a growing number of broadcast and cable networks. Clearly companies need to move beyond traditional advertising channels to reach consumers. Digital media outlets have happily stepped in to fill this gap. Despite this changing landscape, for many companies advertising remains at the forefront of how they deliver the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The Purpose of Advertising Advertising has three primary objectives: to inform, to persuade, and to remind. - Informative Advertising creates awareness of brands, products, services, and ideas. It announces new products and programs and can educate people about the attributes and benefits of new or established products. - Persuasive Advertising tries to convince customers that a company’s services or products are the best, and it works to alter perceptions and enhance the image of a company or product. Its goal is to influence consumers to take action and switch brands, try a new product, or remain loyal to a current brand. - Reminder Advertising reminds people about the need for a product or service, or the features and benefits it will provide when they purchase promptly. When people think of advertising, often product-focused advertisements are top of mind—i.e., ads that promote an organization’s goods or services. Institutional advertising goes beyond products to promote organizations, issues, places, events, and political figures. Public service announcements (PSAs) are a category of institutional advertising focused on social-welfare issues such as drunk driving, drug use, and practicing a healthy lifestyle. Usually PSAs are sponsored by nonprofit organizations and government agencies with a vested interest in the causes they promote. Advantages and Disadvantages of Advertising As a method of marketing communication, advertising has both advantages and disadvantages. In terms of advantages, advertising creates a sense of credibility or legitimacy when an organization invests in presenting itself and its products in a public forum. Ads can convey a sense of quality and permanence, the idea that a company isn’t some fly-by-night venture. Advertising allows marketers to repeat a message at intervals selected strategically. Repetition makes it more likely that the target audience will see and recall a message, which improves awareness-building results. Advertising can generate drama and human interest by featuring people and situations that are exciting or engaging. It can introduce emotions, images, and symbols that stimulate desire, and it can show how a product or brand compares favorably to competitors. Finally, advertising is an excellent vehicle for brand building, as it can create rational and emotional connections with a company or offering that translate into goodwill. As advertising becomes more sophisticated with digital media, it is a powerful tool for tracking consumer behaviors, interests, and preferences, allowing advertisers to better tailor content and offers to individual consumers. Through the power of digital media, memorable or entertaining advertising can be shared between friends and go viral—and viewer impressions skyrocket. The primary disadvantage of advertising is cost. Marketers question whether this communication method is really cost-effective at reaching large groups. Of course, costs vary depending on the medium, with television ads being very expensive to produce and place. In contrast, print and digital ads tend to be much less expensive. Along with cost is the question of how many people an advertisement actually reaches. Ads are easily tuned out in today’s crowded media marketplace. Even ads that initially grab attention can grow stale over time. While digital ads are clickable and interactive, traditional advertising media are not. In the bricks-and-mortar world, it is difficult for marketers to measure the success of advertising and link it directly to changes in consumer perceptions or behavior. Because advertising is a one-way medium, there is usually little direct opportunity for consumer feedback and interaction, particularly from consumers who often feel overwhelmed by competing market messages. Developing Effective Ads: The Creative Strategy Effective advertising starts with the same foundational components as any other IMC campaign: identifying the target audience and the objectives for the campaign. When advertising is part of a broader IMC effort, it is important to consider the strategic role advertising will play relative to other marketing communication tools. With clarity around the target audience, campaign strategy, and budget, the next step is to develop the creative strategy for developing compelling advertising. The creative strategy has two primary components: the message and the appeal. The message comes from the messaging framework discussed earlier in this module: what message elements should the advertising convey to consumers? What should the key message be? What is the call to action? How should the brand promise be manifested in the ad? How will it position and differentiate the offering? With advertising, it’s important to remember that the ad can communicate the message not only with words but also potentially with images, sound, tone, and style. Marketers also need to consider existing public perceptions and other advertising and messages the company has placed in the market. Has the prior marketing activity resonated well with target audiences? Should the next round of advertising reinforce what went before, or is it time for a fresh new message, look, or tone? Along with message, the creative strategy also identifies the appeal, or how the advertising will attract attention and influence a person’s perceptions or behavior. Advertising appeals can take many forms, but they tend to fall into one of two categories: informational appeal and emotional appeal. The informational appeal offers facts and information to help the target audience make a purchasing decision. It tries to generate attention using rational arguments and evidence to convince consumers to select a product, service, or brand. For example: - More or better product or service features: Ajax “Stronger Than Dirt” - Cost savings: Wal-Mart “Always Low Prices” - Quality: John Deere “Nothing runs like a Deere” - Customer service: Holiday Inn “Pleasing people the world over” - New, improved: Verizon “Can you hear me now? Good.” The following Black+Decker commercial relies on an informational appeal to promote its product. (Note: There is no speech in this video; only instrumental music.) Text alternative for “Black and Decker 20V MAX” (opens in new window). The emotional appeal targets consumers’ emotional wants and needs rather than rational logic and facts. It plays on conscious or subconscious desires, beliefs, fears, and insecurities to persuade consumers and influence their behavior. The emotional appeal is linked to the features and benefits provided by the product, but it creates a connection with consumers at an emotional level rather than a rational level. Most marketers agree that emotional appeals are more powerful and differentiating than informational appeals. However, they must be executed well to seem authentic and credible to the target audience. A poorly executed emotional appeal can come across as trite or manipulative. Examples of emotional appeals include: - Self-esteem: L’Oreal “Because I’m worth it” - Happiness: Coca-Cola “Open happiness” - Anxiety and fear: World Health Organization “Smoking Kills” - Achievement: Nike “Just Do It” - Attitude: Apple “Think Different” - Freedom: Southwest “You are now free to move about the country” - Peace of Mind: Allstate “Are you in good hands?” - Popularity: NBC “Must-see TV” - Germophobia: Chlorox “For life’s bleachable moments, there’s Chlorox” The following Heinz Ketchup commercial offers a humorous example of an ad based entirely on an emotional appeal: Developing the Media Plan The media plan is a document that outlines the strategy and approach for an advertising campaign, or for the advertising component in an IMC campaign. The media plan is developed simultaneously with the creative strategy. A standard media plan consists of four stages: (a) stating media objectives; (b) evaluating media; (c) selecting and implementing media choices; and (d) determining the media budget. Media objectives are normally started in terms of three dimensions: - Reach: number of different persons or households exposed to a particular media vehicle or media schedule at least once during a specified time period. - Frequency: the number of times within a given time period that a consumer is exposed to a message. - Continuity: the timing of media assertions (e.g. 10 per cent in September, 20 per cent in October, 20 per cent in November, 40 per cent in December and 10 per cent the rest of the year). The process of evaluating media involves considering each type of advertising available to a marketer, and the inherent strengths and weaknesses associated with each medium. The table below outlines key strengths and weaknesses of major types of advertising media. Television advertising is a powerful and highly visible medium, but it is expensive to produce and buy air time. Radio is quite flexible and inexpensive, but listenership is lower and it typically delivers fewer impressions and a less-targeted audience. Most newspapers and magazines have passed their advertising heydays and today struggle against declining subscriptions and readership. Yet they can be an excellent and cost-effective investment for reaching some audiences. Display ads offer a lot of flexibility and creative options, from wrapping busses in advertising to creating massive and elaborate 3-D billboards. Yet their reach is limited to their immediate geography. Online advertising such as banner ads, search engine ads, paid listings, pay-per-click links and similar techniques offers a wide selection of opportunities for marketers to attract and engage with target audiences online. Yet the internet is a very crowded place, and it is difficult for any individual company to stand out in the crowd. \| Advertising Media Type \| Strengths \| Weaknesses \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Television \| · Strong emotional impact · Mass coverage/small cost per impression · Repeat message · Creative flexibility · Entertaining/prestigious \| · High costs · High clutter (too many ads) · Short-lived impression · Programming quality · Schedule inflexibility \| \| Radio \| · Immediacy · Low cost per impression · Highly flexible \| · Limited national coverage · High clutter · Less easily perceived during drive time · Fleeting message \| \| Newspapers \| · Flexibility (size, timing, etc.) · Community prestige · Market coverage · Offer merchandising services · Reader involvement \| · Declining readership · Short life · Technical quality · Clutter \| \| Magazines \| · Highly segmented audiences · High-profile audiences · Reproduction quality \| · Inflexible · Narrow audiences · Waste circulation \| \| Display Ads: Billboards, Posters, Flyers, etc. \| · Mass coverage/small cost per impression · Repeat message · Creative flexibility \| · High clutter · Short-lived impression \| \| Online Ads (including mobile): Banner ads, search ads, paid listings, pay-per-click links, etc. \| · Highly segmented audiences · Highly measurable · Low cost per impression · Immediacy; link to interests, behavior · Click-thru and code allow further interaction · Timing flexibility \| · High clutter · Short-lived impression · Somewhat less flexibility in size, format \| The evaluation process requires research to assess options for reaching their target audience with each medium, and how well a particular message fits the audience in that medium. Many advertisers rely heavily on the research findings provided by the medium, by their own experience, and by subjective appraisal to determine the best media for a given campaign. To illustrate, if a company is targeting young-to-middle-aged professional women to sell beauty products, the person or team responsible for the media plan should evaluate what options each type of media offers for reaching this audience. How reliably can television, radio, newspapers or magazines deliver this audience? Media organizations maintain carefully-researched information about the size, demographics and other characteristics of their viewership or readership. Cable and broadcast TV networks know which shows are hits with this target demographic and therefore which advertising spots to sell to a company targeting professional women. Likewise newspapers know which sections attract the eyeballs of female audiences, and magazines publishers understand very well the market niches their publications fit. Online advertising becomes a particularly powerful tool for targeted advertising because of the information it captures and tracks about site visitors: who views and clicks on ads, where they visit and what they search for. Not only does digital advertising provide the opportunity to advertise on sites that cater to a target audience of professional women, but it can identify which of these women are searching for beauty products, and it can help a company target these individuals more intensely and provide opportunities for follow-up interaction. The following video further explains how digital advertising targets and tracks individuals based on their expressed interests and behaviors. You can view the transcript for “Behavioral Targeting” here (opens in new window). Selection and Implementation The media planner must make decisions about the media mix and timing, both of which are restricted by the available budget. The media-mix decision involves choosing the best combination of advertising media to achieve the goals of the campaign. This is a difficult task, and it usually requires evaluating each medium quantitatively and qualitatively to select a mix that optimizes reach and budget. Unfortunately, there are few valid rules of thumb to guide this process, in part because it is difficult to compare audiences across different types of advertising media. For example, Nielsen ratings measure audiences based on TV viewer reports of the programs watched, while outdoor (billboard) audience-exposure estimates are based on counts of the number of automobiles that pass particular outdoor poster locations. The “timing of media” refers to the actual placement of advertisements during the time periods that are most appropriate, given the selected media objectives. It includes not only the scheduling of advertisements, but also the size and position of the advertisement. There are three common patterns for advertising scheduling: - Continuous advertising runs ads steadily at a given level indefinitely. This schedule works well for products and services that are consumed on a steady basis throughout the year, and the purpose of advertising is to nudge consumers, remind them and keep a brand or product top-of-mind. - Flighting involves heavy spurts of advertising, followed by periods with no advertising. This type of schedule makes sense for products or services that are seasonal in nature, like tax services, as well as one-time or occasional events. - Pulsing mixes continuous scheduling with flighting, to create a constant drum-beat of ads, with periods of greater intensity. This approach matches products and services for which there is year-round appeal, but there may be some seasonality or periods of greater demand or intensity. Hotels and airlines, for example, might increase their advertising presence during the holiday season. Budget When considering advertising as a marketing communication method, companies need to balance the cost of advertising–both of producing the advertising pieces and buying placement—against the total budget for the IMC program. The selection and scheduling of media have a huge impact on budget: advertising that targets a mass audience is generally more expensive than advertising that targets a local or niche audience. It is important for marketers to consider the contribution advertising will make to the whole. Although advertising is generally one of the more expensive parts of the promotion mix, it may be a worthwhile investment if it contributes substantially to the reach and effectiveness of the whole program. Alternatively, some marketers spend very little on advertising because they find other methods are more productive and cost-effective for reaching their target segments. Anatomy of an Advertisement Advertisements use several common elements to deliver the message. The visual is the picture, image, or situation portrayed in the advertisement. The visual also considers the emotions, style, or look-and-feel to be conveyed: should the ad appear tender, businesslike, fresh, or supercool? All of these considerations can be conveyed by the visual, without using any words. The headline is generally what the viewer reads first—i.e., the words in the largest typeface. The headline serves as a hook for the appeal: it should grab attention, pique interest, and cause the viewer to keep reading or paying attention. In a radio or television ad, the headline equivalent might be the voice-over of a narrator delivering the primary message, or it might be a visual headline, similar to a print ad. In print ads, a subhead is a smaller headline that continues the idea introduced in the headline or provides more information. It usually appears below the headline and in a smaller typeface. The body copy provides supporting information. Generally it appears in a standard, readable font. The call to action may be part of the body copy, or it may appear elsewhere in a larger typeface or color treatment to draw attention to itself. A variety of brand elements may also appear in an advertisement. These include the name of the advertiser or brand being advertised, the logo, a tagline, hashtag, Web site link, or other standard “branded” elements that convey brand identity. These elements are an important way of establishing continuity with other marketing communications used in the IMC campaign or developed by the company. For example, print ads for an IMC campaign might contain a campaign-specific tagline that also appears in television ads, Website content, and social media posts associated with the campaign. Ad Testing and Measurement When organizations are poised to make a large investment in any type of advertising, it is wise to conduct marketing research to test the advertisements with target audiences before spending lots of money on ads and messages that may not hit the mark. Ad testing may preview messages and preliminary ad concepts with members of a target segment to see which ones resonate best and get insight about how to fine-tune messages or other aspects of the ad to make them more effective. Organizations may conduct additional testing with near-final advertising pieces to do more fine-tuning of the messages and visuals before going public. To gauge the impact of advertising, organizations may conduct pre-tests and post-tests of their target audience to measure whether advertising has its intended effect. A pre-test assesses consumer attitudes, perceptions, and behavior before the advertising campaign. A post-test measures the same things afterward to determine how the ads have influenced the target audience, if at all. Companies may also measure sales before, during, and after advertising campaigns run in the geographies or targets where the advertising appeared. This provides information about the return on investment for the campaign, which is how much the advertising increased sales relative to how much money it cost to execute. Ideally advertising generates more revenue and, ultimately profits, than it costs to mount the advertising campaign. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Revision and adaptation of Advertising. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Communicating to Mass Markets, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Project: Global Text. License: CC BY: Attribution - Behavioral Targeting. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/HtOkaAMOmAc. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - HEINZ Ketchup Wiener Stampede. Provided by: Heinz. Located at: https://youtu.be/LOlfhBT8i9I. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Naked Juice Ad. Provided by: Naked Juice. Located at: https://www.nakedjuice.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - Puma Ad. Provided by: PUMA. Located at: https://us.puma.com/en/us/home. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - Screenshot Rogue Voodoo Porter Ad. Provided by: Rogue Ales and Spirits. Located at: https://www.rogue.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - BLACK + DECKER 20V MAX*- Lithium Drill/Driver with AutoSense Technology. Provided by: Lowe's Canada. Located at: https://youtu.be/w6tqDoJQokM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Hoover Ad. Provided by: Hoover. Located at: https://www.hoover.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Got Milk?. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gotmilk.png. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Pears Soap ad. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pears_Soap_1900.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Reading: Public Relations Public Relations: Getting Attention to Polish Your Image Public relations (PR) is the process of maintaining a favorable image and building beneficial relationships between an organization and the public communities, groups, and people it serves. Unlike advertising, which tries to create favorable impressions through paid messages, public relations does not pay for attention and publicity. Instead, PR strives to earn a favorable image by drawing attention to newsworthy and attention-worthy activities of the organization and its customers. For this reason, PR is often referred to as “free advertising.” In fact, PR is not a costless form of promotion. It requires salaries to be paid to people who oversee and execute PR strategy. It also involves expenses associated with events, sponsorships and other PR-related activities. The Purpose of Public Relations Like advertising, public relations seeks to promote organizations, products, services, and brands. But PR activities also play an important role in identifying and building relationships with influential individuals and groups responsible for shaping market perceptions in the industry or product category where an organization operates. Public relations efforts strive to do the following: - Build and maintain a positive image - Inform target audiences about positive associations with a product, service, brand, or organization - Maintain good relationships with influencers—the people who strongly influence the opinions of target audiences - Generate goodwill among consumers, the media, and other target audiences by raising the organization’s profile - Stimulate demand for a product, service, idea, or organization - Head off critical or unfavorable media coverage When to Use Public Relations Public relations offers an excellent toolset for generating attention whenever there is something newsworthy that marketers would like to share with customers, prospective customers, the local community, or other audiences. PR professionals maintain relationships with reporters and writers who routinely cover news about the company, product category, and industry, so they can alert media organizations when news happens. At times, PR actually creates activities that are newsworthy, such as establishing a scholarship program or hosting a science fair for local schools. PR is involved in publishing general information about an organization, such as an annual report, a newsletter, an article, a white paper providing deeper information about a topic of interest, or an informational press kit for the media. PR is also responsible for identifying and building relationships with influencers who help shape opinions in the marketplace about a company and its products. When an organization finds itself facing a public emergency or crisis of some sort, PR professionals play an important role strategizing and managing communications with various stakeholder groups, to help the organization respond in effective, appropriate ways and to minimize damage to its public image. To illustrate, PR techniques can help marketers turn the following types of events into opportunities for media attention, community relationship building, and improving the organization’s public image: - Your organization develops an innovative technology or approach that is different and better than anything else available. - One of your products wins a “best in category” prize awarded by a trade group. - You enter into a partnership with another organization to collaborate on providing broader and more complete services to a target market segment. - You sponsor and help organize a 10K race to benefit a local charity. - You merge with another company. - You conduct research to better understand attitudes and behaviors among a target segment, and it yields insights your customers would find interesting and beneficial. - A customer shares impressive and well-documented results about the cost savings they have realized from using your products or services. - Your organization is hiring a new CEO or other significant executive appointment. - A quality-assurance problem leads your company to issue a recall for one of your products. It is wise to develop a PR strategy around strengthening relationships with any group that is important in shaping or maintaining a positive public image for your organization: reporters and media organizations; industry and professional associations; bloggers; market or industry analysts; governmental regulatory bodies; customers and especially leaders of customer groups, and so forth. It is also wise to maintain regular, periodic communications with these groups to keep them informed about your organization and its activities. This helps build a foundation of familiarity and trust, so these relationships are established and resilient through the ups and downs of day-to-day business. The following video, about Tyson Foods’ “Meals That Matter” program, shows how one company cooked up an idea that is equal parts public relations and corporate social responsibility (CSR). The video covers the Tyson disaster-relief team delivering food to the residents of Moore, Oklahoma, shortly after tornados struck the area on May 20, 2013. The company received favorable publicity following the inauguration of the program in 2012. (You can read one of the articles here: “Tyson Foods Unveils Disaster Relief Mobile Feeding Unit.”) You can view the transcript for “Tyson Foods Meals That Matter – Moore, Okla., June 2013” here (opens in new window). Standard Public Relations Techniques Public relations encompasses a variety of marketing tactics that all share a common focus: managing public perceptions. The most common PR tools are listed in the following table and discussed below. \| Public Relations Technique \| Role and Description \| Examples \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Media Relations \| Generate positive news coverage about the organization, its products, services, people, and activities \| Press release, press kit, and interview leading to a news article about a new product launch; press conference \| \| Influencer/Analyst Relations \| Maintain strong, beneficial relationships with individuals who are thought leaders for a market or segment \| Product review published by a renowned blogger; company profile by an industry analyst; celebrity endorsement \| \| Publications and Thought Leadership \| Provide information about the organization, showcase its expertise and competitive advantages \| Organization’s annual report; newsletters; white papers focused on research and development; video case study about a successful customer \| \| Events \| Engage with a community to present information and an interactive “live” experience with a product, service, organization or brand \| User conference; presentation of a keynote address; day-of-community-service event \| \| Sponsorships \| Raise the profile of an organization by affiliating it with specific causes or activities \| Co-sponsoring an industry conference; sponsoring a sports team; sponsoring a race to benefit a charity \| \| Award Programs \| Generate recognition for excellence within the organization and/or among customers \| Winning an industry “product of the year” award; nominating customer for an outstanding achievement award \| \| Crisis Management \| Manage perceptions and contain concerns in the face of an emergency situation \| Oversee customer communication during a service outage or a product recall; execute action plan associated with an environmental disaster \| Media relations is the first thing that comes to mind when many people think of PR: public announcements about company news, talking to reporters, and articles about new developments at a company. But media relations is the tip of the iceberg. For many industries and product categories, there are influential bloggers and analysts writing about products and the industry. PR plays an important role in identifying and building relationships with these individuals. Offering periodic “company update” briefings, newsletters, or email updates helps keep these individuals informed about your organization, so you are top of mind. The people responsible for PR are also involved in developing and distributing general information about an organization. This information may be in the form of an annual report, a “state of the company” briefing call, video pieces about the company or its customers, and other publications that convey the company’s identity, vision, and goals. “Thought leadership” publications assert the company’s expertise and position of leading thought, practice, or innovation in the field. These publications should always be mindful of the same messaging employed for other marketing activities to ensure that everything seems consistent and well aligned. While some consider event marketing a marketing communication method of its own, others categorize it with public relations as we have done here. Events, such as industry conferences or user group meetings, offer opportunities to present the company’s value proposition, products, and services to current and prospective customers. Themed events, such as a community service day or a healthy lifestyle day, raise awareness about causes or issues with the organization wants to be affiliated in the minds of its employees, customers, and other stakeholder groups. A well-designed and well-produced event also offers opportunities for an organization to provide memorable interaction and experiences with target audiences. An executive leader can offer a visionary speech to generate excitement about a company and the value it provides—now or in the future. Events can help cement brand loyalty by not only informing customers but also forging emotional connections and goodwill. Sponsorships go hand-in-hand with events, as organizations affiliate themselves with events and organizations by signing on to co-sponsor something available to the community. Sponsorships cover the gamut: charitable events, athletes, sports teams, stadiums, trade shows and conferences, contests, scholarships, lectures, concerts, and so forth. Marketers should select sponsorships carefully to make sure that they are affiliating with activities and causes that are well managed and strategically aligned with the public image they are trying to cultivate. Award programs are another common PR tool. Organizations can participate in established award programs managed by trade groups and media, or they can create award programs that target their customer community. Awards provide opportunities for public recognition of great work by employees and customers. They can also help organizations identify great targets for case studies and public announcements to draw attention to how customers are benefitting from an organization’s products and services. Crisis management is an important PR toolset to have on hand whenever it may be needed. Few companies choose this as a promotional technique if other options are available. But when crises emerge, as inevitably they do, PR provides structure and discipline to help company leaders navigate the crisis with communications and actions that address the needs of all stakeholders. Messaging, communication, listening, and relationship building all come to the fore. When handled effectively, these incidents may help an organization emerge from the crisis stronger and more resilient than it was before. This is the power of good PR. Advantages and Disadvantages of Public Relations Because PR activity is earned rather than paid, it tends to carry more credibility and weight. For example, when a news story profiles a customer’s successful experience with a company and its products, people tend to view this type of article as less biased (and therefore more credible) than a paid advertisement. The news story comes from an objective reporter who feels the story is worth telling. Meanwhile an advertisement on a similar topic would be viewed with skepticism because it is a paid placement from a biased source: the ad sponsor. Advantages of Public Relations[1] - The opportunity to amplify key messages and milestones. When PR activities are well-aligned with other marketing activities, organizations can use PR to amplify the things they are trying to communicate via other channels. A press release about a new product, for example, can be timed to support a marketing launch of the product and conference where the product is unveiled for the first time. - Believable. Because publicity is seen to be more objective, people tend to give it more weight and find it more credible. Paid advertisements, on the other hand, are seen with a certain amount of skepticism, since people that companies can make almost any kind of product claim they want. - Employee pride. Organizing and/or sponsoring charitable activities or community events can help with employee morale and pride (both of which get a boost from any related publicity, too). It can also be an opportunity for teamwork and collaboration. - Engaging people who visit your Web site. PR activities can generate interesting content that can be featured on your organization’s Web site. Such information can be a means of engaging visitors to the site, and it can generate interest and traffic long after the PR event or moment has passed. Industry influencers may visit the site, too, to get updates on product developments, growth plans, or personnel news, etc. Disadvantages of Public Relations2 - Cost. Although publicity is usually less expensive to organize than advertising, it isn’t “free.” A public relations firm may need to be hired to develop campaigns, write press releases, and speak to journalists. Even if you have in-house expertise for this work, developing publicity materials can take employees away from their primary responsibilities and drain off needed resources. - Lack of control. There’s no guarantee that a reporter or industry influencer will give your company or product a favorable review—it’s the price you pay for “unbiased” coverage. You also don’t have any control over the accuracy or thoroughness of the coverage. There’s always a risk that the journalist will get some facts wrong or fail to include important details. - Missing the mark. Even if you do everything right—you pull off a worthy event and it gets written up by a local newspaper, say—your public relations effort can fall short and fail to reach enough or the right part of your target audience. It doesn’t do any good if the reporter’s write-up is very short or it appears in a section of the paper that no one reads. This is another consequence of not being able to fully control the authorship, content, and placement of PR. PR and Integrated Marketing Communication Public relations activities can provide significantly greater benefits to organizations when they happen in conjunction with a broader IMC effort, rather than on their own. Because PR focuses heavily on communication with key stakeholder groups, it stands to reason that other marketing communication tools should be used in conjunction with public relations. For example: - Press releases can be distributed to media contacts, customers, and other stakeholder groups via email marketing campaigns that might also include additional information or offers—such as an invitation to a webinar to learn more about the subject of the press release. - Press releases are posted to the Web site to update content and provide a greater body of information for Web site visitors - Event presentations and other activities should align with an organization’s broader marketing strategy, goals, and messaging. Everything should be part of the same, consistent approach and theme—e.g., the topics of speeches, information available in trade show booths, interactions with event participants via email and social media, etc. - Sponsorship activities often provide an opportunity to advertise at the event, as well. Naturally it is important for there to be good alignment between these advertising opportunities, company messaging, and the audience for the sponsored activity. - A thought-leadership piece, such as an article or a white paper authored by a company leader, can be published on the Web site and incorporated into an email marketing campaign that targets selected audiences Smart marketers consider PR tools in concert with other marketing activity to determine how to make the greatest impact with their efforts. Because PR activities often involve working with many other people inside and outside the organization, they usually need a long lead time in order to come together in the desired time frame. Event planning happens months (and sometimes years) in advance of the actual event itself. Press releases and public announcements can be mapped out over several months to give marketers and other stakeholders plenty of time to prepare and execute effectively. PR is undoubtedly a powerful toolset to amplify other marketing efforts. - http://edwardlowe.org/digital-library/how-to-establish-a-promotional-mix/ - http://edwardlowe.org/digital-library/how-to-establish-a-promotional-mix/ LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Reading: Public Relations. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Innovation Awards. Provided by: ICT Authority. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenyaictboard/14140767473/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Announcement. Authored by: rawpixel. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/photos/announcement-announcing-audio-3976318/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Tyson Foods Meals That Matter. Provided by: Tyson Foods. Located at: https://youtu.be/awsB5_H2PlI. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Reading: Sales Promotions Sales promotion helps make personal selling and advertising more effective. Sales promotions are marketing events or sales efforts—not including traditional advertising, personal selling, and public relations—that stimulate buying. Sales promotion can be developed as part of the social media or e-commerce effort just as advertising can, but the methods and tactics are much different. Sales promotion is a $300 billion—and growing— industry. Sales promotion is usually targeted toward either of two distinctly different markets. Consumer sales promotion is targeted to the ultimate consumer market. Trade sales promotion is directed to members of the marketing channel, such as wholesalers and retailers. The goal of many promotion tactics is immediate purchase. Therefore, it makes sense when planning a sales-promotion campaign to target customers according to their general behavior. For instance, is the consumer loyal to the marketer’s product or to the competitor’s? Does the consumer switch brands readily in favor of the best deal? Does the consumer buy only the least expensive product, no matter what? Does the consumer buy any products in your category at all? PROCTOR & GAMBLE Procter & Gamble believes shoppers make up their mind about a product in about the time it takes to read this paragraph. This “first moment of truth,” as P&G calls it, is the three to seven seconds when someone notices an item on a store shelf. Despite spending billions on traditional advertising, the consumer-products giant thinks this instant is one of its most important marketing opportunities. It recently created a position entitled Director of First Moment of Truth, or Director of FMOT (pronounced “EFF-mott”), to produce sharper, flashier in-store displays. There is a 15-person FMOT department at P&G headquarters in Cincinnati as well as 50 FMOT leaders stationed around the world.[1] One of P&G’s most prominent in-store promotions has been for a new line of Pampers. In the United States, P&G came up with what it calls a “shopper concept”—a single promotional theme that allows it to pitch products in a novel way. The theme for Pampers was “Babies First.” In stores, the company handed out information on childhood immunizations, car-seat safety, and healthy diets while promoting its diapers and wipes in other parts of the store. To market Pampers diapers in the United Kingdom, P&G persuaded retailers earlier this year to put fake doorknobs high up on restroom doors, to remind parents how much babies need to stretch. Sales Promotion Techniques Most consumers are familiar with common sales promotion techniques including samples, coupons, point-of-purchase displays, premiums, contents, loyalty programs and rebates. Do you like free samples? Most people do. A sample is a sales promotion in which a small amount of a product that is for sale is given to consumers to try. Samples encourage trial and an increased awareness of the product. You have probably purchased a product that included a small free sample with it—for example, a small amount of conditioner packaged with your shampoo. Have you ever gone to a store that provided free samples of different food items? The motivation behind giving away samples is to get people to buy a product. Although sampling is an expensive strategy, it is usually very effective for food products. People try the product, the person providing the sample tells consumers about it, and mentions any special pricing or offers for the product. The objectives of a promotion depend on the general behavior of target consumers, as described in Table 1. For example, marketers who are targeting loyal users of their product don’t want to change behavior. Instead, they want to reinforce existing behavior or increase product usage. Frequent-buyer programs that reward consumers for repeat purchases can be effective in strengthening brand loyalty. Other types of promotions are more effective with customers prone to brand switching or with those who are loyal to a competitor’s product. Cents-off coupons, free samples, or an eye-catching display in a store will often entice shoppers to try a different brand. The use of sales promotion for services products depends on the type of services. Consumer services, such as hairstyling, rely heavily on sales promotions (such as providing half off the price of a haircut for senior citizens on Mondays). Professional services, however, use very little sales promotion. Doctors, for example, do not often use coupons for performing an appendectomy, for example. In fact, service product companies must be careful not to utilize too many sales-promotion tactics because they can lower the credibility of the firm. Attorneys do not have a sale on providing services for divorce proceedings, for example. \| Type of Behavior \| Desired Results \| Sales Promotion Examples \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Loyal customers: People who buy your product most or all of the time \| Reinforce behavior, increase consumption, change purchase timing \| Loyalty marketing programs, such as frequent-buyer cards and frequent-shopper clubs Bonus packs that give loyal consumers an incentive to stock up or premiums offered in return for proof of purchase \| \| Competitor’s customers: People who buy a competitor’s product most or all of the time \| Break loyalty, persuade to switch to your brand \| Sweepstakes, contests, or premiums that create interest in the product \| \| Brand switchers: People who buy a variety of products in the category \| Persuade to buy your brand more often \| Sampling to introduce your product’s superior qualities compared to their brand \| \| Price buyers: People who consistently buy the least expensive brand \| Appeal with low prices or supply added value that makes price less important \| Trade deals that help make the product more readily available than competing products Coupons, cents-off packages, refunds, or trade deals that reduce the price of the brand to match that of the brand that would have been purchased \| Two growing areas of sales promotion are couponing and product placement. American consumers receive over $321 billion worth of coupons each year and redeem about $3 billion.2 Almost 85 percent of all Americans redeem coupons. Sunday newspaper supplements remain the number one source, but there has been explosive growth of online or consumer-printed coupons. General Mills, Kimberly-Clark, and General Electric like online coupons because they have a higher redemption rate. Coupons are used most often for grocery shopping. Do they save you money? One study found that people using coupons at the grocery store spent eight percent more than those who didn’t.3 Product placement is paid inclusion of brands in mass media programming. This includes movies, TV, books, music videos, and video games. So when you see Ford vehicles in the latest James Bond movie or Tom Hanks putting on a pair on Nikes on-screen, that is product placement. Product placement has become a huge business. For example, companies paid more than $6 billion in a recent year to have their products placed prominently in a film or television program; that figure is expected to reach more than $11 billion by 2019.4 It is easy to go overboard with this trend and be portrayed as a parody, however. The 2017 Emoji Movie is an example of failed product placements. The theme of the movie centered on various emojis caught in a smartphone as they are forced to play Candy Crush and say glowing things about such apps as Dropbox and Instagram as they make their way through the phone.5 Also, some have suggested that product placement might doom the products and companies. For example, Atari products appeared in the classic 1982 film Blade Runner, but the original company went out of business shortly after the movie was released, while another product, the Cuisinart food processor, had to settle a price-fixing scandal after making an appearance in the film. This has not stopped companies such as Sony, Peugeot, and Coca-Cola from tempting fate by appearing in the recently released Blade Runner 2049.6 Many large companies are cutting their advertising budgets to spend more on product placements. One area of product placement that continues to raise ethical issues is so-called “experts” being paid to mention brands on the air. Contests and sweepstakes are also popular consumer sales promotions. Contests are games of skill offered by a company, that offer consumers the chance to win a prize. Cheerios’ Spoonfuls of Stories contest, for example, invited people to submit an original children’s story and the chance to win money and the opportunity to have their story published. Sweepstakes are games of chance people enter for the opportunity to win money or prizes. Sweepstakes are often structured as some variation on a random drawing. The companies and organizations that conduct these activities hope consumers will not only enter their games, but also buy more of their products and ideally share their information for future marketing purposes. As the following video shows, marketers have become increasingly sophisticated in the way they approach this “gaming” aspect of sales promotions. You can view the transcript for “Gamification” (opens in new window). WHICH SALES PROMOTIONS WORK BEST, AND WHEN? Although different types of sales promotions work best for different organizations, rebates are very profitable for companies because, as you have learned, many consumers forget to send in their rebate forms. In a weak economy, consumers tend to use more coupons, but they also buy more store brands. Coupons available online or at the point of purchase are being used more often by consumers. Trade shows can be very successful, although the companies that participate in them need to follow-up on the leads generated at the shows. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sales Promotions7 In addition to their primary purpose of boosting sales in the near term, companies can use consumer sales promotions to help them understand price sensitivity. Coupons and rebates provide useful information about how pricing influences consumers’ buying behavior. Sales promotions can also be a valuable–and sometimes sneaky–way to acquire contact information for current and prospective customers. Many of these offers require consumers to provide their names and other information in order to participate. Electronically-scanned coupons can be linked to other purchasing data, to inform organizations about buying habits. All this information can be used for future marketing research, campaigns and outreach. Consumer sales promotions can generate loyalty and enthusiasm for a brand, product, or service. Frequent flyer programs, for example, motivate travelers to fly on a preferred airline even if the ticket prices are somewhat higher. If sales have slowed, a promotion such as a sweepstakes or contest can spur customer excitement and (re)new interest in the company’s offering. Sales promotions are a good way of energizing and inspiring customer action. Trade promotions offer distribution channel partners financial incentives that encourage them to support and promote a company’s products. Offering incentives like prime shelf space at a retailer’s store in exchange for discounts on products has the potential to build and enhance business relationships with important distributors or businesses. Improving these relationships can lead to higher sales, stocking of other product lines, preferred business terms and other benefits. Sales promotions can be a two-edged sword: if a company is continually handing out product samples and coupons, it can risk tarnishing the company’s brand. Offering too many freebies can signal to customers that they are not purchasing a prestigious or “limited” product. Another risk with too-frequent promotions is that savvy customers will hold off purchasing until the next promotion, thus depressing sales. Often businesses rush to grow quickly by offering sales promotions, only to see these promotions fail to reach their sales goals and target customers. The temporary boost in short term sales may be attributed to highly price-sensitive consumers looking for a deal, rather than the long-term loyal customers a company wants to cultivate. Sales promotions need to be thought through, designed and promoted carefully. They also need to align well with the company’s larger business strategy. Failure to do so can be costly in terms of dollars, profitability and reputation. If businesses become overly reliant on sales growth through promotions, they can get trapped in short-term marketing thinking and forget to focus on long-term goals. If, after each sales dip, a business offers another sales promotion, it can be damaging to the long-term value of its brand. IMC Support for Sales Promotions Sales promotions are delivered to targeted groups via marketing campaigns during a pre-set, limited amount of time. In order to broaden awareness, impact and participation, sales promotions are often combined with other marketing communication methods in the promotional mix. Examples of IMC support for sales promotions include: - Weekly email messages to consumers informing them about the week’s sales, special offers, and coupons - Promotional information on a Web site informing consumers about the availability of a rebate or other special offer - Posters and other promotional materials to enhance a point-of-purchase display - Sweepstakes forms incorporated into a magazine advertisement - Social media campaigns encouraging people to post about entering a sponsored contest on Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram These types of activities create synergies between the sales promotions and other marketing activities. IMC activities can amplify the message about the sales promotion and encourage active participation from target customers. Finally, it is important to recognize that sales promotions cannot compensate for a poor product, a declining sales trend, ineffective advertising, or weak brand loyalty. If these fundamentals are not working, sales promotions can serve only as a temporary solution. - Jim Tincher, “Your Moment of Truth,” Customer Think, http://customerthink.com, August 30, 2016. - “Coupon Statistics: The Ultimate Collection,” Access Development, http://blog.accessdevelopment.com, May 17, 2017. - Drew Hendricks, “5 Ways to Enhance Your SEO Campaign with Online Coupons,” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com, May 13, 2015. - Laurent Muzellec, “James Bond, Dunder Mifflin, and the Future of Product Placement,” Harvard Business Review, https://hbr.org, June 23, 2016. - Josh Terry, “Unfunny Emoji Movie Is a Sad Echo of 2015’s “Inside Out,” Deseret News, http://www.deseretnews.com, July 31, 2017. - Don Steinberg, “Science Affliction: Are Companies Cursed by Cameos in Blade Runner?” The Wall Street Journal, https://www.wsj.com, September 25, 2017. - http://edwardlowe.org/digital-library/how-to-establish-a-promotional-mix/ LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Sales Promotion, from Boundless Marketing. Provided by: Boundless. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Communicating to Mass Markets, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Project: Global Text. License: CC BY: Attribution - Sales Promotion. Provided by: OpenStax CNX. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/4e09771f-a8aa-40ce-9063-aa58cc24e77f@8.6. Project: Introduction to Business. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4e09771f-a8aa-40ce-9063-aa58cc24e77f@8.6 - Sampler tray of Starbucks new Mocha Toffee Latte. Authored by: Urban Bohemian. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/urbanbohemian/4948232118/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Gamification. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/1nikw1v5Zjo. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives Reading: Personal Selling People Power Personal selling uses in-person interaction to sell products and services. This type of communication is carried out by sales representatives, who are the personal connection between a buyer and a company or a company’s products or services. Salespeople not only inform potential customers about a company’s product or services, they also use their power of persuasion and remind customers of product characteristics, service agreements, prices, deals, and much more. In addition to enhancing customer relationships, this type of marketing communications tool can be a powerful source of customer feedback, as well. Later we’ll cover marketing alignment with the sales process in greater detail. This section focuses on personal selling as one possible tool in the promotional mix. Effective personal selling addresses the buyer’s needs and preferences without making him or her feel pressured. Good salespeople offer advice, information, and recommendations, and they can help buyers save money and time during the decision process. The seller should give honest responses to any questions or objections the buyer has and show that he cares more about meeting the buyer’s needs than making the sale. Attending to these aspects of personal selling contributes to a strong, trusting relationship between buyer and seller.[1] Common Personal Selling Techniques Common personal selling tools and techniques include the following: - Sales presentations: in-person or virtual presentations to inform prospective customers about a product, service, or organization - Conversations: relationship-building dialogue with prospective buyers for the purposes of influencing or making sales - Demonstrations: demonstrating how a product or service works and the benefits it offers, highlighting advantageous features and how the offering solves problems the customer encounters - Addressing objections: identifying and addressing the concerns of prospective customers, to remove any perceived obstacles to making a purchase - Field selling: sales calls by a sales representative to connect with target customers in person or via phone - Retail selling: in-store assistance from a sales clerk to help customers find, select, and purchase products that meet their needs - Door-to-door selling: offering products for sale by going door-to-door in a neighborhood - Consultative selling: consultation with a prospective customer, where a sales representative (or consultant) learns about the problems the customer wants to solve and recommends solutions to the customer’s particular problem - Reference selling: using satisfied customers and their positive experiences to convince target customers to purchase a product or service Personal selling minimizes wasted effort, promotes sales, and boosts word-of-mouth marketing. Also, personal selling measures marketing return on investment (ROI) better than most tools, and it can give insight into customers’ habits and their responses to a particular marketing campaign or product offer. When to Use Personal Selling Not every product or service is a good fit for personal selling. It’s an expensive technique because the proceeds of the person-to-person sales must cover the salary of the sales representative—on top of all the other costs of doing business. Whether or not a company uses personal selling as part of its marketing mix depends on its business model. Most often companies use personal selling when their products or services are highly technical, specialized, or costly—such as complex software systems, business consulting services, homes, and automobiles. In addition, there are certain conditions that favor personal selling:[2] - Product situation: Personal selling is relatively more effective and economical when a product is of a high unit value, when it is in the introductory stage of its life cycle, when it requires personal attention to match consumer needs, or when it requires product demonstration or after-sales services. - Market situation: Personal selling is effective when a firm serves a small number of large-size buyers or a small/local market. Also, it can be used effectively when an indirect channel of distribution is used for selling to agents or middlemen. - Company situation: Personal selling is best utilized when a firm is not in a good position to use impersonal communication media, or it cannot afford to have a large and regular advertising outlay. - Consumer behavior situation: Personal selling should be adopted by a company when purchases are valuable but infrequent, or when competition is at such a level that consumers require persuasion and follow-up. It’s important to keep in mind that personal selling is most effective when a company has established an effective sales-force management system together with a sales force of the right design, size, and structure. Recruitment, selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of the sales force also obviously play an important role in the effectiveness of this marketing communication method.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Personal Selling The most significant strength of personal selling is its flexibility. Salespeople can tailor their presentations to fit the needs, motives, and behavior of individual customers. A salesperson can gauge the customer’s reaction to a sales approach and immediately adjust the message to facilitate better understanding. Personal selling also minimizes wasted effort. Advertisers can spend a lot of time and money on a mass-marketing message that reaches many people outside the target market (but doesn’t result in additional sales). In personal selling, the sales force pinpoints the target market, makes a contact, and focuses effort that has a strong probability of leading to a sale. As mentioned above, an additional strength of personal selling is that measuring marketing effectiveness and determining ROI are far more straightforward for personal selling than for other marketing communication tools—where recall or attitude change is often the only measurable effect. Another advantage of personal selling is that a salesperson is in an excellent position to encourage the customer to act. The one-on-one interaction of personal selling means that a salesperson can effectively respond to and overcome objections—e.g., concerns or reservations about the product—so that the customer is more likely to buy. Salespeople can also offer many customized reasons that might spur a customer to buy, whereas an advertisement offers a limited set of reasons that may not persuade everyone in the target audience. A final strength of personal selling is the multiple tasks that the sales force can perform. For example, in addition to selling, a salesperson can collect payments, service or repair products, return products, and collect product and marketing information. In fact, salespeople are often the best resources when it comes to disseminating positive word-of-mouth product information. High cost is the primary disadvantage of personal selling. With increased competition, higher travel and lodging costs, and higher salaries, the cost per sales contract continues to rise. Many companies try to control sales costs by compensating sales representatives through commissions alone, thereby guaranteeing that salespeople are paid only if they generate sales. However, commission-only salespeople may become risk averse and only call on clients who have the highest potential return. These salespeople, then, may miss opportunities to develop a broad base of potential customers that could generate higher sales revenues in the long run. Companies can also reduce sales costs by using complementary techniques, such as telemarketing, direct mail, toll-free numbers for interested customers, and online communication with qualified prospects. Telemarketing and online communication can further reduce costs by serving as an actual selling vehicle. Both technologies can deliver sales messages, respond to questions, take payment, and follow up. A second disadvantage of personal selling is the problem of finding and retaining high-quality people. Experienced salespeople sometimes realize that the only way their income can outpace their cost-of-living increase is to change jobs. Also, because of the push for profitability, businesses try to hire experienced salespeople away from competitors rather than hiring college graduates, who take three to five years to reach the level of productivity of more experienced salespeople. These two staffing issues have caused high turnover in many sales forces. Another weakness of personal selling is message inconsistency. Many salespeople view themselves as independent from the organization, so they design their own sales techniques, use their own message strategies, and engage in questionable ploys to generate sales. (You’ll recall our discussion in the ethics module about the unique challenges that B2B salespeople face.) As a result, it can be difficult to find a unified company or product message within a sales force or between the sales force and the rest of the marketing mix. A final disadvantage of personal selling is that sales-force members have different levels of motivation. Salespeople may vary in their willingness to make the desired number of sales calls each day; to make service calls that do not lead directly to sales; or to take full advantage of the technologies available to them. How IMC Supports Personal Selling4 As with any other marketing communication method, personal selling must be evaluated on the basis of its contribution to the overall marketing mix. The costs of personal selling can be high and carry risks, but the returns may be just as high. In addition, when personal selling is supported by other elements of a well-conceived IMC strategy, it can be very effective indeed. Consider the following example of Audi, which set out to build a customer-relationship program: Audi’s goal was to not have the relationship with the customer end after the sale was made. Operating on the assumption that the company’s best potential customers were also its existing customers, the company initiated an online program to maintain contact, while allowing its sales force to concentrate on selling. Based on its television campaign for the new A4 model, Audi offered a downloadable screensaver that frequently broadcasted updated news and information automatically to the consumers’ computers. After displaying the screensaver option on its Web site, Audi sent an email to owners and prospects offering them the opportunity to download it. More than 10,000 people took advantage of the offer. Audi then began to maintain a continuous dialog with the adopters by sending them newsletters and updates. Click-through rates ranged from 25 to 35 percent on various parts of the site—well exceeding the standard rates—and car sales were 25 percent higher than they were the previous year, even in a down economy.5 As a result of several coordinated communication methods (TV advertising, email, downloadable screensaver, newsletters, and product information) and presumably a well-designed customer relationship management (CRM) system, Audi helped its sales force be more effective (by freeing it up to focus on sales and by connecting it with more prospective customers), which, turn, meant higher profits. - http://smallbusiness.chron.com/strategic-selling-techniques-15747.html - http://www.smetimes.in/smetimes/in-depth/2010/Sep/02/personal-selling-when-and-how500001.html - http://www.smetimes.in/smetimes/in-depth/2010/Sep/02/personal-selling-when-and-how500001.html - http://www.zabanga.us/marketing-communications/how-companies-integrate-personal-selling-into-the-imc-program.html - http://www.zabanga.us/marketing-communications/how-companies-integrate-personal-selling-into-the-imc-program.html LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Personal Selling, From Boundless Marketing. Provided by: Boundless. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Phone call. Provided by: CWCS Managed Hosting. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/122969584@N07/13780153345/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Communicating to Mass Markets, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Project: Global Text. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Handshake. Authored by: Cytonn Photography. Provided by: Unsplash. Located at: https://unsplash.com/photos/n95VMLxqM2I. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved. License Terms: Unsplash License Reading: Direct Marketing Direct Marketing: Going Straight to the Customer Direct marketing activities bypass any intermediaries and communicate directly with the individual consumer. Direct mail is personalized to the individual consumer, based on whatever a company knows about that person’s needs, interests, behaviors, and preferences. Traditional direct marketing activities include mail, catalogs, and telemarketing. The thousands of “junk mail” offers from credit card companies, bankers, and charitable organizations that flood mailboxes every year are artifacts of direct marketing. Telemarketing contacts prospective customers via the telephone to pitch offers and collect information. Today, direct marketing overlaps heavily with digital marketing, as marketers rely on email and, increasingly, mobile communications to reach and interact with consumers. The Purpose and Uses of Direct Marketing The purpose of direct marketing is to reach and appeal directly to individual consumers and to use information about them to offer products, services and offers that are most relevant to them and their needs. Direct marketing can be designed to support any stage of the AIDA model, from building awareness to generating interest, desire, and action. Direct marketing, particularly email, also plays a strong role in post-purchase interaction. Email is commonly used to confirm orders, send receipts or warrantees, solicit feedback through surveys, ask customers to post a social media recommendation, and propose new offers. Direct marketing is an optimal method for marketing communication in the following situations: - A company’s primary distribution channel is to sell products or services directly to customers - A company’s primary distribution method is through the mail or other shipping services to send directly to the customer - A company relies heavily on sales promotions or discounts, and it is important to spread the word about these offers to consumers - An advertisement cannot sufficiently convey the many benefits of a company’s product or service, and so a longer marketing piece is required to express the value proposition effectively - A company finds that standard advertising is not reaching its target segments, and so better-targeted marketing communications are required to reach the right individuals; for example, using direct mail to reach wealthier people according to their affluent zip code - A company sells expensive products that require more information and interaction to make the sale - A company has a known “universe” of potential customers and access to contact information and other data about these customers - A company is heavily dependent on customer retention, reorders and/or repurchasing, making it worthwhile to maintain “permissioned” marketing interaction with known customers Data: The Key to Effective Direct Marketing The effectiveness of direct marketing activity depends on marketers using databases to capture the information of target customers and the use of this information to extend ever-more-personalized offers and information to consumers. Databases record an individual’s residence, geography, family status, and credit history. When a person moves or makes a significant purchase like a car or a home, these details become part of the criteria marketers use to identify who will be a good target for their products or services. With electronic media, the information flow about consumers opens the floodgates: marketing databases capture when a consumer opens an email message and clicks on a link. They track which links piqued consumers’ interests, what they view and visit, so that the next email offer is informed by what a person found interesting the last time around. These databases also collect credit card information, so marketers can link a person’s purchasing history to shopping patterns to further tailor communications and offers. Mobile marketing adds another dimension of personalization in direct-to-consumer communications. It allows marketers to incorporate location-sensitive and even activity-specific information into marketing communications and offers. When marketers know you are playing a video game at a mall, thanks to your helpful smart phone, they can send you timing-, location- and activity-specific offers and messages. Direct Marketing in Action How does this work in practice? If you’ve ever paid off an auto loan, you may have noticed a torrent of mail offers from car dealerships right around the five-year mark. They know, from your credit history, that you’re nearly done paying off your car and you’ve had the vehicle for several years, so you might be interested in trading up for a newer model. Based on your geography and any voter registration information, you may be targeted during election season to participate via telephone in political polls and to receive “robocalls” from candidates and parties stumping for your vote. Moving into the digital world, virtually any time you share an email address with an organization, it becomes part of a database to be used for future marketing. Although most organizations that engage in email marketing give the option of opting out, once you become a customer, it is easy for companies to justify continuing to contact you via email or text as part of the customer relationship you’ve established. As you continue to engage with the company, your behavior and any other information you share becomes part of the database record the company uses to segment and target you with offers it thinks will interest you. Similarly, marketers use SMS (text) for marketing purposes, and direct marketing activity takes place in mobile apps, games, and Web sites. All of these tools use the data-rich mobile environment to capture information about consumers and turn it into productive marketing opportunities. QR codes, another direct-to-consumer mobile marketing tool, enable consumers to scan an image with a mobile phone that takes them to a Web site where they receive special information or offers. A great illustration of how companies use consumer information for direct marketing purposes comes from a New York Times article that interviewed Andrew Pole, who conducts marketing analytics for the retailer Target. The article discusses how Target uses behavioral data and purchasing history to anticipate customers’ needs and make them offers based on this information: Target has a baby registry, and Pole started there, observing how shopping habits changed as a woman approached her due date, which women on the registry had willingly disclosed. He ran test after test, analyzing the data, and before long some useful patterns emerged. Lotions, for example. Lots of people buy lotion, but one of Pole’s colleagues noticed that women on the baby registry were buying larger quantities of unscented lotion around the beginning of their second trimester. Another analyst noted that sometime in the first twenty weeks, pregnant women loaded up on supplements like calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Many shoppers purchase soap and cotton balls, but when someone suddenly starts buying lots of scent-free soap and extra-big bags of cotton balls, in addition to hand sanitizers and washcloths, it signals they could be getting close to their delivery date. As Pole’s computers crawled through the data, he was able to identify about twenty-five products that, when analyzed together, allowed him to assign each shopper a “pregnancy prediction” score. More important, he could also estimate her due date to within a small window, so Target could send coupons timed to very specific stages of her pregnancy. One Target employee I spoke to provided a hypothetical example. Take a fictional Target shopper named Jenny Ward, who is twenty-three, lives in Atlanta, and in March bought cocoa-butter lotion, a purse large enough to double as a diaper bag, zinc and magnesium supplements, and a bright blue rug. There’s, say, an 87 percent chance that she’s pregnant and that her delivery date is sometime in late August. What’s more, because of the data attached to her Guest ID number, Target knows how to trigger Jenny’s habits. They know that if she receives a coupon via e-mail, it will most likely cue her to buy online. They know that if she receives an ad in the mail on Friday, she frequently uses it on a weekend trip to the store.1 The article goes on to tell the well-documented story of an outraged father who went into his local Target to complain about the mailer his teenage daughter received from Target featuring coupons for infant clothing and baby furniture. He accused Target of encouraging is daughter to get pregnant. The customer-service employee he spoke with was apologetic but knew nothing about the mailer. When this employee phoned the father a few days later to apologize again, it emerged that the girl was, in fact, pregnant, and Target’s marketing analytics had figured it out before her father did. Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Marketing All this data-driven direct marketing might seem a little creepy or even nefarious, and certainly it can be when marketers are insensitive or unethical in their use of consumer data. However, direct marketing also offers significant value to consumers by tailoring their experience in the market to things that most align with their needs and interests. If you’re going to have a baby (and you don’t mind people knowing about it), wouldn’t you rather have Target send you special offers on baby products than on men’s shoes or home improvement goods? As suggested in the New York Times excerpt, above, direct marketing can be a powerful tool for anticipating and predicting customer needs and behaviors. Over time, as companies use consumer data to understand their target audiences and market dynamics, they can develop more effective campaigns and offers. Organizations can create offers that are more personalized to consumer needs and preferences, and they can reach these consumers more efficiently through direct contact. Because it is so data intensive, it is relatively easy to measure the effectiveness of direct marketing by linking it to outcomes: did a customer request additional information or use the coupons sent? Did he open the email message containing the discount offer? How many items were purchased and when? And so forth. Although the cost of database and information infrastructure is not insignificant, mobile and email marketing tend to be inexpensive to produce once the underlying infrastructure is in place. As a rule, direct marketing tactics can be designed to fit marketing budgets. Among the leading disadvantages of direct marketing are, not surprisingly, concerns about privacy and information security. Target’s massive data breach in 2013 took a hefty toll on customer confidence, company revenue, and profitability at the time. Direct marketing also takes place in a crowded, saturated market in which people are only too willing to toss junk mail and unsolicited email into trash bins without a second glance. Electronic spam filters screen out many email messages, so people may never even see email messages from many of the organizations that send them. Heavy reliance on data also leads to the challenge of keeping databases and contact information up to date and complete, a perennial problem for many organizations. Finally, direct marketing implies a direct-to-customer business model that inevitably requires companies to provide an acceptable level of customer service and interaction to win new customers and retain their business. Direct Marketing in the IMC Process Direct marketing, and email marketing in particular, plays a critical role in many IMC campaigns because it is a primary means of communicating with any named-and-known target audiences. It is a common vehicle for spreading the word about sales promotions and public relations activities. Direct marketing pieces can reuse and reinforce messages and images developed for advertisements, offering another touch point for reaching target segments. QR codes and other mobile marketing tactics may be used at the point of sale to engage customers and persuade them to purchase. Email marketing messages commonly include links to social media, inviting consumers to share experiences, opinions, marketing messages, and offers with their social networks. Direct marketing can also be a useful tool in personal selling, as it helps marketers and sales representatives efficiently maintain ongoing relationships with customers and prospects as they are nurtured through the sales process. The rich data behind direct marketing also provides insight for sales representatives to help them segment prospective customers and develop offers and sales approaches personalized to their needs and interests. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Direct Marketing. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Screenshot Mobile Advertisement. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Screenshot Target Baby Registry. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Email Marketing. Authored by: RaHuL Rodriguez. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/rahulrodriguez/9162677329/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Reading: Digital Marketing Digital Marketing: Inform, Entice, Engage Digital marketing is an umbrella term for using a digital tools to promote and market products, services, organizations and brands. As consumers and businesses become more reliant on digital communications, the power and importance of digital marketing have increased. The direct marketing section of this module already discussed two digital tools: email and mobile marketing, which fit into both categories. This section will discuss other essential tools in the digital marketing tool kit: websites, content marketing and search-engine optimization (SEO), and social media marketing. What Makes Digital Marketing Tools Unique In part, digital marketing is critically important because people use digital technologies frequently, and marketing needs to happen where people are. But digital marketing tools also have other unique capabilities that set them apart from traditional (predigital) marketing communication tools. These capabilities make them uniquely suited to the goals of marketing. Digital marketing tools are: - Interactive: A primary focus of many digital marketing tools and efforts is to interact with target audiences, so they become actively engaged in the process, ideally at multiple points along the way. This may happen by navigating a website, playing a game, responding to a survey, sharing a link, submitting an email address, publishing a review, or even “liking” a post. Asking consumers to passively view an advertisement is no longer enough: now marketers look for ways to interact. - Mobile and portable: Today’s digital technologies are more mobile and portable than ever before. This means digital marketing tools are also mobile and portable: consumers can access them–and they can access consumers–virtually anytime and anywhere through digital devices. Digital marketing can reach people in places and ways that simply were not possible in the past. A tired mother stuck in traffic might encourage her child to play a game on her smart phone, exposing both child and mother to marketing messages in the process. A text message sent to a remote location can remind an adventurer to renew a subscription or confirm an order. Many physical limitations fall away in the digital world. - Highly measurable and data driven. Digital technologies produce mountains of data about who is doing what, when, how, and with whom. Likewise, digital marketing tools enable marketers to determine very precisely whom they want to reach, how to reach them, and what happens when people begin the process of becoming a customer. By tracking and analyzing these data, marketers can also identify which channels are most productive for bringing people into the site and what types of interactions are most efficient at turning them into customers. - Sharable: Because digital marketing tools are digital, it is easy to share them at low or no cost–a benefit for marketers and for consumers who find content they want to share virally. People routinely share videos, games, websites, articles, images, and brands—any number of overt or covert marketing artifacts. In fact, the degree to which something is shared has become a key metric to confirm how successful it is as a marketing vehicle. Sharing has always been a primary means of spreading ideas. Digital marketing tools now facilitate extremely rapid, efficient, global sharing. - Synergistic with other marketing activities: Digital marketing tools offer quick, easy, and inexpensive ways to repurpose marketing messages and content from other marketing communication methods. They help amplify and reinforce the messages targeting consumers through other media. For example, uploading a TV ad to YouTube creates a piece of digital marketing content that can be posted to Facebook, tweeted on Twitter, embedded in a website page, and shared via an email from a sales representative engaged in personal selling to a target customer. ALWAYS #LIKEAGIRL Let’s take a look at this commercial from Always. What did they do to take advantage of digital marketing tools? You can view the transcript for “Always #LikeAGirl” here (opens in new window). Not only did Always produce a video on a relevant topic, but they invited people to join the conversation. At the end of the commercial, they invited viewers to share the message, to tweet using #likeagirl, and to visit their website. The Imperative to Use Digital Marketing For virtually every organization that wants to do business in the world today, having some level of digital marketing presence is a requirement. A website is quite literally an organization’s digital address and calling card. People of all ages routinely use Web searches for information that shapes their purchasing decisions; using the Web helps them decide where to look, what to buy, where to find it, and how much to pay. Marketers must develop useful Web content and engage in search engine optimization (SEO) strategies in order to make sure their websites will be found when people come looking. Social media marketing helps organizations tap into the power of word-of-mouth sharing, so that people hear about a company, product, or brand from trusted sources. Social media allow marketers to foster communities and listen in on timely conversations about their brands and products, providing insight into what’s working or not working with their marketing or the customer experiences they provide. Email and mobile marketing reflect the dominant communication patterns in the developed world as well as in many developing countries. Communicating with prospects and customers effectively requires marketers to use these common, everyday tools. Digital marketing tools are an integral part of most IMC campaigns, as they provide digital communication support to target and reinforce campaign messages and activities in other media. Examples of digital marketing tools supporting broader IMC activity include the following: - Media companies host and monitor forums for fans to live-tweet during broadcast and cable TV programs, such as The Walking Dead and Empire, including commentary on the programming, advertising, the entertainment “brand,” and nature of the fan community. - Companies routinely upload television ads to YouTube and then work to create “buzz” by promoting this content through their websites, blogs, Facebook, Twitter, and other social media platforms. - Well-designed Web content such as research reports, articles, and e-books are used as informational giveaways to generate interest and cultivate leads during trade shows, conferences, and personal selling activities. Website Marketing Websites represent an all-in-one storefront, a display counter, and a megaphone for organizations to communicate in the digital world. For digital and bricks-and-mortar businesses, Websites are a primary channel for communicating with current and prospective customers as well as other audiences. A good website provides evidence that an organization is real, credible, and legitimate. The variety of online website-building services now available make setting up a basic website relatively simple and inexpensive. Once the website is established, it can continue to be fairly easy and inexpensive to maintain if the organization uses cost-effective and user-friendly tools. On the other hand, sophisticated websites can be massively expensive to build and maintain, and populating them with fresh, compelling content can devour time and money. But organizations can adjust the scope, scale, and resources required for their websites in proportion to their business objectives and the value they want their websites to deliver. Websites As Marketing Tools Websites are very flexible, allowing organizations to build the kinds of features and capabilities they need to conduct business effectively. Common marketing objectives and website functions include the following: - Providing general information about an organization such as the value proposition, products and services, and contact information - Expressing the brand of an organization through design, look and feel, personality, and voice - Demonstrating products, services, and expertise, including the customer experience, features, benefits, and value they provide - Proof points about the value a company offers, using evidence in the form of case studies, product reviews, testimonials, return on investment data, etc. - Lead generation, capturing information about website visitors to use in ongoing sales and marketing activity - Communities and forums for target audiences to share information and ask/answer questions - Publishing value-adding content and tools for informational or entertainment purposes to bring people in and draw them back to the website - Communication about company news, views, culture, developments, and vision through an electronic newsroom or a company blog, for example - Shopping, providing tools for customers to research, find, and select products or services in the digital environment - Recommendations that direct customers to information, products, services, and companies that meet their interests and needs - Sales, the ability to conduct sales and transact business online - Capturing customer feedback about the organization, its products, services, content, and the website experience itself Before starting to build a website, the marketing manager should meet with other company leaders to lay out a common vision for what the Website should accomplish and the business functions it should provide. For example, if a business does not plan to handle sales online, there is no need to build a “shopping cart” function or an e-commerce engine. If cultivating lively dialogue with an active customer community is an important business objective, this capability should be incorporated into the website strategy and design decisions from the outset. The website strategy must be effective at achieving the organization’s goals to inform, engage, entertain, explore, support, etc. Top Tips for Effective Websites Many factors go into building an effective website. The following table serves as a checklist for key considerations. \| Website Element \| Tips and Recommendations \| \|---\|---\| \| Domain name \| The domain name is your digital address. Secure a name that is memorable and functional for your business. \| \| Look and feel \| A site’s look and feel conveys a lot about a company. Make sure your site makes positive impressions about credibility, product quality, the customer experience, etc. \| \| Messaging \| Messaging and how it is presented can draw people in or turn them off immediately. Find concise, compelling ways to tell your story. \| \| Design \| Website design is about usability as well as aesthetics. Make conscious choices about how design expresses your brand personality as well as its role in making the user experience intuitive and effective. \| \| Structure \| Structure the website and organize information so that it is easy for visitors to navigate the site and find what they want. \| \| Content quality \| To a large degree, the quality of content is what brings traffic into a website (more on this soon). Produce content and organize it so it can drive traffic, move customers through the sales cycle, and generate business. \| \| Content variety \| Use a mix of professional-quality text, images, video, and other visual content to make your website interesting and readable. \| \| Language \| Typos and grammatical errors are an immediate website turnoff. Proofread everything with fresh eyes before you publish. \| \| Accessibility \| Follow basic principles of website accessibility to ensure that people can use your site effectively regardless of device or disability. \| \| Call to action \| Provide cues for your website visitors about what to do next. Give each page a clear call to action and a path that invites people to keep exploring and moving closer to a purchasing decision. \| \| Analytics \| Track website traffic and usage patterns using a tool like Google Analytics. Monitor which website pages get attention and which ones flop. Use what you learn to improve how well your website meets your objectives. \| Advantages and Disadvantages of Website Marketing Websites have so many advantages that there is almost no excuse for a business not to have one. Effective website marketing declares to the world that an organization exists, what value it offers, and how to do business. Websites can be an engine for generating customer data and new business leads. An electronic storefront is often dramatically less expensive than a physical storefront, and it can serve customers virtually anywhere in the world with internet access. Websites are very flexible and easy to alter. Organizations can try out new strategies, content and tactics at relatively low cost to see what works and where the changes pay off. At the same time, websites carry costs and risks. They do require some investment of time and money to set up and maintain. For many organizations, especially small organizations without a dedicated website team, keeping website content fresh and up-to-date is a continual challenge. Organizations should make wise, well-researched decisions about information infrastructure and website hosting, to ensure their sites remain operational with good performance and uptime. Companies that capture and maintain customer data through their websites must be vigilant about information security to prevent hackers from stealing sensitive customer data. Some company websites suffer from other types of information security challenges, such as electronic vandalism, trolling (offensive or provocative online posts), and denial-of-service attacks mounted by hackers to take websites out of commission. Search-Engine Optimization and Content Marketing Search-engine optimization (SEO) is the process of using Internet search engines, such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo, to gain notice, visibility, and traffic from people conducting searches using these tools. SEO works in lockstep with content marketing, which takes a strategic approach to developing and distributing valuable content targeted to the interests of a defined audience, with the goal of driving sales or another profitable customer action. In other words, content marketers create worthwhile Internet content aimed at their target audiences. Then organizations use SEO tactics to get this content noticed and to generate new traffic and sales leads. Together, SEO and content marketing can help boost awareness and brand perceptions about the value a company provides. Content marketing can help an organization gain visibility as an expert or leader in its competitive set. Together these marketing communications tools help organizations get noticed and stay top of mind among individuals seeking the types of products or services they offer. How SEO Works The basic premise behind search-engine optimization is this: People conduct Internet searches. The search terms they use bring up a given set of results. When someone is searching for the types of things your organization offers, as a marketer you want your results to be at the top. You can boost your search rankings by identifying and applying SEO and content marketing strategies to the search terms people use when they are looking for products or services like yours. It may even be worth paying to get their attention, because people searching for the things you offer are likely to be better-qualified prospective customers. Because the supply of Internet content on any given topic is continually expanding, and because search-engine companies regularly fine-tune their search algorithms to deliver ever more helpful results, SEO is not a one-time task. It’s an ongoing process that companies should incorporate into their entire approach to digital marketing. In the world of SEO, there are two types of search results: 1) organic (or unpaid) search results, and 2) inorganic (or paid) search results. Organic search results are the unpaid listings that appear solely because of their relevance to the search terms entered when you conduct an Internet search. These are unpaid listings, and they earn their place because the search engine determines they are most relevant and valuable based on a variety of factors including the content itself and the popularity of that content with other Internet users. Inorganic, or paid search results, appear because companies have paid the search engine for a high-ranking placement based on the search terms used. Organizations bid for this placement and typically pay per click when someone clicks through to a website. Most search engines mark the paid results as ads, so that Internet users can distinguish between organic and paid search results. In Figure 1, below, the results preceded by the word Ad in yellow indicate paid search results from a Google search of “cats for sale.” The following short video explains what makes Google AdWords so powerful. You can view the transcript for “Google AdWords” here (opens in new window). Marketers use key-word research to guide their efforts to improve their rankings for both organic and inorganic searches. Key-word research helps marketers identify the search terms people are most likely to use when looking for the types of products, services, or information their website offers. Tools such as freely available Google AdWords Keyword Planner and Google Trends help marketers identify and compare popular search terms. Armed with optimal search key words, they can buy high-ranking placement in inorganic, paid search results for their search terms of choice. They can improve their organic (unpaid) search rankings by applying content marketing strategies. How Content Marketing Works There is a popular saying among digital marketers: “Content is king.” Good content attracts eyeballs, while poor content does not. Content marketing is based on the premise that marketers can use web content as a strategic asset to attract attention and drive traffic of target audiences. As a marketer, part of your job is to help the organization publish substantive web content–articles, videos, e-books, podcasts, images, infographics, case studies, games, calculators, etc.–that will be interesting for your target segments. When you do this, you should incorporate your optimal search terms into the content, so that it’s more likely to show up in organic search results. You should also look for ways to link to that content from other webpages, so that search-engine “bots” (or computer programs) responsible for cataloguing websites will think your content is popular and well regarded by the Internet-user community. As your content appears in search results, it will rank higher as more and more people click through to your content and link to it from other locations on the Internet. Top Tips for SEO and Content Marketing You can use the following simple recommendations to realize the benefits of SEO and content marketing. When the two work together, they can support your organization’s success raising its profile, improving search rankings, and generating traffic and new business. \| SEO/Content Element \| Tips and Recommendations \| \|---\|---\| \| Content quality \| Make website content substantive, and showcase your expertise. Create material that makes people want to stay on your site to keep reading, interacting, and exploring. \| \| Key-word research \| Conduct key-word research to learn what actual search terms people are using that relate to your goods, products, services, and brand. \| \| Incorporate key words \| Make sure your content matches the search terms you want to be associated with. Be sure to use actual, real-world search terms in order to get the bump to higher rankings. \| \| Content freshness \| Search-engine algorithms like new content, as well as content where there is a flurry of activity. Create and promote fresh new content regularly to get the “freshness boost” in search results. \| \| Evergreen content \| Be sure to develop some Web content that won’t age and become outdated quickly, such as news releases. Persistently useful, interesting content generates more visits, more external links from other sites, and higher search rankings. \| \| Internal links \| Create internal links between content pages on your website. This points users to additional material that may interest them. It also helps search engines crawl through your site to reach and discover all of your content. And more sites that link to a page help boost that page’s search rankings. \| \| Headlines \| Create great headlines for your Web content that grab attention while also helpfully indicating what the content will provide. Also, make sure your content delivers on the headline. \| \| Call to action \| Include a clear call to action on each Web page or content element, whether that involves sharing information, registering for a webinar, downloading an e-book, or linking to another Web page. Use content and calls to action to move people through the AIDA model toward purchasing decisions. \| \| Promoting content \| Once content is published, use other marketing communication tools to promote it. Write posts about it on Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Google+, or other social networks of choice. Send email messages to active sales opportunities. Link to it from the Website home page. Create a flurry to help give it an SEO boost. \| Advantages and Disadvantages of SEO and Content Marketing Internet search is a fact of life in the modern world. It is a critical tool for customer decision making in B2B and B2C markets. Practicing the basic tenets of SEO helps an organization get into the search-engine fray. When marketers do it skillfully, they can easily track the results, see what works, and adjust course to improve outcomes. When organizations generate high-quality content, it can be relatively inexpensive to achieve great SEO results, particularly as search engines themselves increasingly reward the “real deal”: good information and true substance targeted to a specific audience. While SEO and content marketing are powerful tools, they are also rather like puppies that need ongoing feeding and care. Both require regular monitoring to check whether they are effective and need refreshing. The Internet is a crowded and competitive place, where organizations from around the globe can compete with one another for attention and customer loyalty. It takes persistence and hard work to get on top of the Internet content world and stay there. Social Media Marketing Social media marketing is the use of online applications, networks, blogs, wikis, and other collaborative media for communicating brand messaging, conducting marketing, public relations, and lead generation. Social media are distinctive for their networking capabilities: they allow people to reach and interact with one another through interconnected networks. This “social” phenomenon changes the power dynamic in marketing: no longer is the marketer the central gatekeeper for all communication about a product, service, brand, or organization. Social media allows for organic dialogue and activity to happen directly between individuals, unmediated by a company. Companies can (and should) listen, learn, and find ways to participate authentically. Social media marketing focuses on three primary objectives: - Creating buzz: Developing and publishing messages (in a variety of formats–e.g., text, video, and images) that is disseminated via user-to-user contact - Fostering community: Building ways for fans to engage with one another about a shared interest in a brand, product, or service - Facilitating two-way communication: Online conversations are not controlled by the organizations. Instead, social media promotes and encourages user participation, feedback, and dialogue How Social Media Marketing Works Organizations have opportunities to engage in social media for marketing purposes in several ways: paid, earned, and owned social media activity. - Paid: Paid social media activity includes advertisements on social media (placed in various locations), sponsored posts or content, and retargeting advertisements that target ads based on a consumer’s previous actions. This type of social media activity is best suited for sales, lead generation, event participation, and incorporation into IMC campaigns. - Earned: Earned social media activity involves news organizations, thought leaders, or other individuals who create content about an organization. It is particularly suited to supporting public relations efforts. - Owned: Owned social media activity happens through social media accounts that an organization owns (e.g., Facebook page, Twitter handle, Instagram name, etc.). This activity is ideal for brand awareness, lead generation, and goals around engaging target audiences. Effective use of social media to reach your target audience requires more effort by an organization than the traditional marketing methods. Not only must an organization create unique content and messaging, but it must be prepared to engage in two-way communication regarding the content that it produces and shares on social media. To be effective at using social media to reach target audiences, an organization must: - Create unique content, often. Social media, unlike traditional methods, cannot rely on static content. An organization must regularly publish new, unique content to stay relevant on any social media platform. - Ask questions. To foster engagement, an organization must solicit feedback from users, customers, and prospects. This is critical to creating conversation, insight, and discussion on social media platforms. - Create short-form media. Most social media platforms have character limits per post. Users on social media expect to be able to scan their feed. Long posts (even within character limits) tend to underperform. The more succinct an organization can be, the better. - Try different formats. Most social media platforms provide users with the option to add images and video to text. Social media is becoming an increasingly visual medium, where content that performs the best usually includes an image or video. Try to convert messages into images and video when possible for maximum reach. - Use a clear, immediate call to action. Social media works best for achieving marketing goals with a clear call to action that a user can do immediately from their computer or mobile device. Examples include 1) Web traffic (click-through), 2) downloads of content (e.g., white papers, articles, etc.), 3) online purchases, and 4) engagement (comment, like, share, view, read). Common Social Media Marketing Tools What’s hot in social media is a moving target, but the following table provides a listing and description of primary social media platforms. \| Tool \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Blogs \| Long- or short-form medium for communicating with audiences \| \| YouTube \| Video-hosting social media site \| \| Short-form (280 character) “microblogging” medium that is intended for text and image sharing \| \| \| Long-form (up to 2,000 characters per post) medium for sharing text, images, videos, and other multimedia content \| \| \| Image-based social network that is intended as a visual medium. Does not have capabilities to drive click-through rate (CTR) because posts offer no link option \| \| \| Google+ \| Long-form medium for sharing text, images, videos, and other multimedia content \| \| Medium for sharing photos and visual content categorized by theme \| \| \| Long- or short-form medium for sharing text, images, videos, and other multimedia content targeted to the business community \| Top Tips for Social Media Marketing The following tips help break down the process of mounting a successful social media marketing strategy. \| Activity \| Tips and Recommendations \| \|---\|---\| \| Start with SWOT \| Start by conducting a SWOT analysis of your social media activity. Evaluate how your organization is currently using social media, as well as the competition (platforms, messaging, tactics, and campaigns). \| \| Establish a baseline \| Establish a baseline. Take measurements for current reach and engagement before starting to use social media for marketing. This will help you gauge the impact and improve as you pursue a social media strategy. \| \| Set goals \| Set specific goals for your social media campaign. Make them S.M.A.R.T. goals that align with your broader marketing strategy. \| \| Target audience \| Understand how your target audience is using social media (and what platforms). \| \| Platforms \| Identify which social media platforms you will use and what you want to accomplish in each. \| \| Ownership \| Identify who within the organization will “own” and share responsibility for social media participation. Work out plans for how to coordinate activity and messaging if there are multiple owners. \| \| Testing \| A/B test your content using the targeting features of the social media platform. Figure out which types of posts, messages, content, and topics generate better response. \| \| Measurement \| Regularly take measurements for how much engagement your efforts are producing. Compare them to the benchmark and assess progress toward goals. \| \| Monitor \| Monitor social media activity regularly and be sure to respond to customers, prospects, and other users. \| Advantages and Disadvantages of Social Media Marketing The advantages and benefits of social media marketing focus heavily on the two-way and even multidirectional communication between customers, prospects, and advocates for your company or brand. By listening and engaging in social media, organizations are better equipped to understand and respond to market sentiment. Social media helps organizations identify and cultivate advocates for its products, services, and brand, including the emergence of customers who can become highly credible, trusted voices to help you sell. Unlike many other forms of marketing, social media are very measurable, allowing marketers to track online customer behavior and how target audiences respond to content created by the organization. Social media offers a virtually unlimited audience for communicating and sharing key messages in the market. It also offers marketers the ability to relatively easily target and test the effectiveness of content using the various targeting capabilities of social media for location, interests, income, title, industry, and other sociographic differentiators. Social media also carry a number of inherent challenges. Social media are dynamic environments that requires significant effort to monitor and stay current on. It is also difficult to continually create “share-worthy” content. The variety of social media tools makes it a challenge to understand which platforms to use for which target audiences and calls to action. Crisis communications can be difficult, too, particularly in the public environment of social media, in which it is difficult to contain or control communication. This means it can be difficult to mitigate the impact of a crisis on the brand. One of the biggest challenges facing organizations is determining who in the organization should “own” the social media platforms for the organization. Too few hands to help means the burden of content creation is high on a single individual. However, too many people often results in duplication of efforts or conflicting content. Expert Insight on Using Social Media: JetBlue Airline carrier JetBlue has received attention and accolades for its effective use of social media to foster two-way communication with customers. In this video, JetBlue’s head of social media strategy, Morgan Johnston, explains the company’s approach to social media and how it complements other corporate and marketing communication activity. He also shares insights about how the company used social media to manage crisis communications and respond to customers during Hurricane Sandy, when extreme weather conditions hit the company’s northeastern U.S. travel routes hard. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Social Media Marketing. Authored by: Melissa Barker. Provided by: Spokane Falls Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution - Digital Marketing. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Google AdWords. Provided by: BBC. Located at: https://youtu.be/NIL2POjhvI8. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Always #LikeAGirl. Provided by: Always. Located at: https://youtu.be/XjJQBjWYDTs. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Social Fresh interview with Morgan Johnston of jetBlue. Provided by: Social Fresh. Located at: https://youtu.be/mzsN3oEV1YE. License: All Rights Reserved - Screenshot Cats for Sale Search. Provided by: Google. Located at: https://www.google.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - Farmer's Insurance Web Site. Provided by: Farmer's Insurance. Located at: https://www.farmers.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use Reading: Guerrilla Marketing Guerrilla Marketing: Thinking Outside the Box Guerrilla marketing is a relatively new marketing strategy that relies on unconventional, often low-cost tactics to create awareness of and goodwill toward a brand, product, service, or even a company. The term “guerrilla marketing” itself comes from Jay Conrad Levinson, who coined the term in his 1984 book Guerrilla Advertising. Though “guerrilla” has military connotations (the word means “little war), guerrilla promotion strategies often combine elements of wit, humor, and spectacle to capture people’s attention and engage them in the marketing act. Guerrilla marketing is memorable. And, like the renegade militias it was presumably named for, unexpected. Practitioners of guerrilla marketing today have used other words to describe it: disruptive, anti-establishment, newsworthy, and a state of mind. By its nature, guerrilla marketing defies precise description, so it may be worthwhile to view an example before going further. CLASSIC GUERRILLA: NIKE LIVESTRONG AT THE TOUR DE FRANCE Although this campaign was a full-blown IMC effort, at its core it was really a memorable guerrilla marketing stunt: the spectacle of painting the streets of France during the world-famous Tour de France bicycle race. It ran in 2008 when Lance Armstrong was still one of the most revered athletes of his generation. Designed to generate awareness for Nike, the nonprofit Livestrong Foundation, and the cause of fighting cancer, marketers succeeded in sharing inspiring messages of hope with their target audiences: athletes, sports enthusiasts and people affected by cancer, particularly young people. You can view the transcript for “Nike Livestrong Chalkbot Web Film” (opens in new window). Telltale Signs of Guerrilla Marketing Guerrilla marketing campaigns can be very diverse in their approach and tactics. So what do they have in common? Guerrilla marketing often has the following characteristics: - It’s imaginative and surprising, but in a very hip or antiestablishment way - Doesn’t resemble a traditional marketing initiative, such as a straightforward print or TV advertising campaign - Uses combinations of different marketing communications tactics, in creative ways - Is experiential, drawing in the target audience to participate - Takes risks in what it aspires to accomplish, even if it might ruffle some feathers - Is not 100 percent approved by the establishment (i.e. the city, the event planners, the powers that be) When to Use Guerrilla Marketing This edgy marketing approach focuses on two goals: 1) get media attention, and 2) make a positive and memorable connection with your target audience. Many noteworthy guerrilla campaigns, like Nike Livestrong, focus on creating an experience that embodies the spirit of the brand. Often these projects invite people who encounter the campaign to become co-conspirators in achieving the campaign’s vision and reach. Guerrilla marketing experts assert that this technique can work for virtually any brand or organization, so long as the organization doesn’t mind taking some risks, and so long as the project is true to who you are and what you represent. The right concept for the guerrilla marketing effort should capture your organization’s authentic voice and express what is unique about your brand identity. At some point you may be asked to stand up for your actions if you’re called onto the carpet, so you need to believe in what you are doing. Guerrilla marketing is particularly suited to small, imaginative organizations that may not have much money but have a burning desire to do something memorable—to make an entrance or a splash. Severe budget constraints can encourage creative teams to be very inventive and original.[1] Because it is inherently spectacle, guerrilla marketing tactics work very well for building brands and generating awareness and interest in an organization, product, service, or idea. They aim to put a company on the map–the mind-share map. It’s interesting that guerrilla marketing often calls on the audience to engage or take action, but turning participants into a paying customers may not be the goal. However, successful guerrilla marketing can make audiences undergo a kind of “conversion” experience: if the impact is powerful enough, it can move consumers further along the path towards brand loyalty. VOLKSWAGEN: TAKE THE SLIDE! Take a look at the following guerrilla marketing spectacle organized by Volkswagen. Notice how the event capitalizes on a unique combination of emotional appeal and surprise. (Note: there is no narration to the video; just background music.) You can access the text alternative for Speed Up Your Life, Take the Slide (opens in new window). Guerrilla Marketing Tactics: The Usual Suspects As you saw in the example of the lamppost transformed into a McDonald’s coffeepot, all kinds of spaces and urban environments present opportunities for the guerrilla marketer. In fact, guerrilla marketing initiatives can be executed offline or online. Some companies feel that an edgy, unexpected online campaign with creative guerrilla elements is a little safer than executing a project in the bricks-and-mortar world. It goes against the very notion of guerrilla marketing to establish a set of tactics or practices that are “conventional” or “typical.” However, the following list describes some examples of guerrilla marketing tactics from noteworthy campaigns, which will give you an idea of what’s been used in the past.[2] \| Guerrilla Tactic \| Description \| \|---\|---\| \| Graffiti \| Graffiti marketing, a subset of guerrilla marketing, turns walls, alleys, and streets into larger-than-life canvases for marketing activity. \| \| Stencil graffiti \| Use of stencils to create repeated works of graffiti, with the stencils enabling the project team to rapidly recreate the same work in multiple locations. Stencils tend to be smaller-scale and simpler than classic graffiti art. \| \| Undercover, or stealth marketing \| Use of marketers or paid actors to go “undercover” among peers to engage unsuspecting people in a marketing activity of some sort. For example, attractive actors are paid to strike up conversations, rave about a new mobile device, and then ask people to take a photo using the device, so that they get hands-on experience with the product in question. \| \| Stickers \| Inventive use of stickers as a temporary medium for creating an image, posing an illusion, or conveying a message \| \| Flash mobs \| A group of people organized to perform an action at a predetermined place and time; usually they blend in with bystanders initially and then join the “mob” activity at a designated moment. \| \| Publicity stunts \| Extraordinary feats to attract the attention of the general public, as well as media \| \| Treasure hunts \| Placing a series of online and offline “treasure hunt” clues in an urban environment and inviting target audiences to participate in the hunt to win prizes and glory \| \| Sham events \| Staging an activity or event that appears real, but in fact is a fake, for the purposes of drawing attention and making a statement \| Despite the irreverent, anti-establishment spirit of guerrilla marketing, marketers should use good judgment about seeking permission from building owners, city managers, event planners, or others in a position of authority, to avoid unpleasant or unnecessary complications. Some coordination, or even a heads-up that something is happening, can go far toward earning goodwill and a cooperative spirit in the face of an unexpected spectacle. How NOT to Guerrilla Market When three guerrilla marketing veterans spoke with Entrepreneur about their work, they gave their top advice about what NOT to do with these projects:3 - Adam Salacuse of ALT TERRAIN: “Never aim to upset, scare, or provoke people in a negative way. The goal should be to implement something that people will embrace, enjoy, and share with friends.” - Brett Zaccardi of Street Attack: “Don’t be contrived or too bland. Don’t try to be something you’re not.” - Drew Neisser of Renegade Marketing: “Try not to annoy your target. [It] is generally not a good idea to do something that will cause someone on the team to go to jail.” Advantages and Disadvantages of Guerrilla Marketing Guerrilla marketing has several notable advantages. It can be inexpensive to execute—it’s often much cheaper than traditional advertising when you consider the number of impressions and amount of attention generated. It encourages creativity and inventiveness, since the goal is to create something novel and original. Guerrilla marketing is about buzz: it is designed for viral sharing, and it taps into powerful word-of-mouth marketing as people share their memorable guerrilla-inspired impressions and experiences with friends and acquaintances. A guerrilla marketing phenomenon can take on a life of its own and live in the memories of the people it affected long after the actual event is over. Finally, when executed effectively, guerrilla tactics are designed with media and publicity in mind. Media attention can snowball and generate a larger-than-expected “bounce” as local or even national outlets choose to cover these events. As suggested above, guerrilla marketing also carries some disadvantages and risks. When an (apparently) spontaneous activity springs up in a public space, property owners, the police, and other authorities may object and try to interfere or stop the event. Unexpected obstacles can arise, which even the best-laid plans may have missed: weather, traffic, current events, timing, etc. Some audiences or bystanders may misinterpret what is happening, or even take offense at provocative actions or messages. When guerrilla projects are cloaked in secrecy or mystery, people may become uncomfortable or fearful, or the aura of mystery may cause them to interpret the message and goals incorrectly. Similarly, if people feel they have been duped by a guerrilla marketing activity, they may come away with negative impressions. If some people disapprove of a given guerrilla marketing activity or campaign, there’s a risk of backlash, anger, and frustration. Compared to traditional marketing, guerrilla tactics are definitely riskier. Then again, the rewards can be brilliant, when things go as planned. The Role of IMC in Guerrilla Marketing As noted above, one telltale sign of guerrilla marketing is the way it blends multiple tactics to create maximum exposure and impact. Most guerrilla marketing campaigns incorporate multiple marketing communication methods and tools to carry out the the full vision. This makes them more than IMC compatible—they are really IMC dependent. For example, organizers of guerrilla stunts and feats frequently film their activities and post them online to generate (hopefully) viral videos and other content. Real-world guerrilla messages and promotional pieces often include information to access company Web sites, where custom-designed landing pages welcome visitors to the online counterpart of the guerrilla experience. Social media is a staple of guerrilla marketing. Organizing, publicizing, and sharing a campaign’s outcomes and impact may all take place through social channels. Social media also helps generate the buzz that drives guerrilla content to become viral. As guerrilla activities draw media attention, they intersect with PR and media relations. - http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/206202 - http://www.wordstream.com/blog/ws/2014/09/22/guerrilla-marketing-examples - http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/206202 LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Guerrilla Marketing. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Downtown Guerilla Marketing. Authored by: Daniel X. O'Neil. Provided by: Flickr. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/PSjaN. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Nike Livestrong - ChalkBot - Web Film. Located at: https://youtu.be/iCLdyKHxBnQ?list=PLGhn_uYiaIc8injQ6hgMPXHwmXc3l66Hx. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Speed up your life - Take the slide!. Provided by: Volkswagen. Located at: https://youtu.be/W4o0ZVeixYU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Simulation: IMC Hero Try It Congratulations: you’ve been learning a lot about IMC, and if the length of this module is any indicator, there’s a lot to learn! Are you sick of just reading about integrated marketing communications and ready to actually try it? You’re in luck. These simulations give you the opportunity to start up your marketing engine and see what you can do with IMC. Play the simulations below multiple times to see how different choices lead to different outcomes. In this simulation environment, you don’t have to shy away from choices that seem a little off: you can learn as much from the wrong choices as the right ones. All simulations allow unlimited attempts so that you can gain experience applying the concepts. Have fun! LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Simulation: Integrated Marketing. Authored by: Clark Aldrich for Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.828145	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93470/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Marketing Communication Methods", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93469/overview	Determining IMC Objectives and Approach Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Determining IMC Objectives and Approach What you’ll learn to do: explain factors to consider when selecting marketing communication methods to execute the strategy It’s clear that with the growing proliferation of communication tools and methods, integrated marketing communications are the way of the future—and now. Seemingly every day brings a new social media tool or digital marketing technique to engage people in new ways. Traditional marketing communications methods and media are also stepping up their games, offering new ways to create value for companies trying to connect with their target audiences. For example, old-school conferences and trade shows now feature active mobile and social media elements that have been incorporated into their design. TV shows can sell ad space and sponsorship on air, online, and on social media feeds. Radio programs publish their podcast counterparts, complete with ads and sponsors. For marketers, all this is great news: plenty of choices and ample opportunity to connect with customers in new ways. But is it great news? The variety of marketing communication methods and tools can be overwhelming. How do you even get started designing an IMC program? And once you have picked an approach, how do you know you’re on the right track? These are big questions marketers ask themselves regularly. Because marketing is a constantly evolving field, the right answer on one day might be different six months later. However, there are time-tested models that can help you apply a systematic approach to defining what you want to accomplish with IMC and how to select an approach that is best suited to your objectives. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Discuss the AIDA model and the role of marketing communications to help move contacts toward a purchasing decision. - Describe push vs. pull marketing strategies - Explain the S.M.A.R.T. model for developing IMC goals and objectives - Discuss the process of selecting marketing communication methods and tactics to fit the target audience and marketing objectives Learning Activities - Reading: Determining IMC Objectives and Approach - Video: Prioritizing Marketing Communications LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Determining IMC Objectives and Approach Laying the Foundation for Effective Marketing Campaigns To use integrated marketing communication (IMC) effectively in marketing campaigns, marketers go through several planning steps to define precisely what they want to accomplish and with whom. Only with this information can they be sure they are identifying the right message and promotional mix to achieve their goals. Standard marketing campaign planning steps include the following: - Determine the target market - Determine purpose and objectives for the IMC campaign - Set S.M.A.R.T. goals - Define the message - Select marketing communications methods and tools - Determine the promotional mix: which tools to use, when, and how much - Execute the campaign - Measure results and refine approach, as needed Step 1: Determine Target Market In the segmentation and targeting module, as well as in other sections of this course, we’ve discussed the critical importance of clearly identifying the target market or the set of market segments an organization plans to focus on. A marketing plan may include one or more campaigns focused on one or more target segments. Some campaigns may focus on achieving specific goals for a single segment. Other campaigns may focus on a common set of goals using a variety of IMC activities targeting different segments. In any case, clearly defining the audience for IMC activities is an essential input. This is because different market segments use different types of media, and they may have other distinctive characteristics that impact the effectiveness of a marketing activity. For example, in 2018, 68 percent of all Internet users were also Facebook users. Its usage is growing among older Americans: 41 percent of Americans aged 65 and over used Facebook (compared with 20 percent in 2012). Meanwhile, 35 percent of Facebook users are under 25 (with an additional 30 percent of users aged 25–34)—for a total of 65 percent of users under 35.[1] Your decision about whether to use Facebook in an IMC campaign should depend, in part, on what proportion of the target audience you can reach with this tool. Understanding your target segment(s) and their communication and media habits will make a huge difference in your ability to design IMC programs to reach the people you want to reach. Step 2: Determine Marketing Campaign Objectives Once the audience is defined, the next essential step for a successful marketing campaign is to define what the campaign will accomplish with its IMC efforts. Although many marketing campaigns may be oriented toward a single objective, it is possible for an IMC program to accomplish more than one objective at a time, so long as this doesn’t create confusion for your target audiences. The objectives should explain the following two items: - the impact of campaign activity on target audiences - the ultimate results or outcomes that align with the organization’s marketing strategy and corporate goals While the objective of a marketing campaign often involves increasing sales, this does not necessarily have to be an objective. An entire campaign might focus primarily on building awareness and persuading people to engage with a product or brand in some way, as a stepping-stone towards generating demand and increasing sales. A good place to help with thinking through campaign objectives is to consider the cognitive stages a customer goes through as they become aware of and eventually decide to buy a brand, product, or service. Many marketers use the AIDA model to guide this thinking and help them pinpoint campaign objectives for a given audience. Communicating with Target Segments: The AIDA Model AIDA is an acronym marketers use to help them develop effective communication strategies and connect with customers in a way that better responds to their needs and desires. Credited to the American advertising and sales pioneer, Elias St. Elmo Lewis, the model originally applied mainly to advertising. AIDA describes a common list of events that occur when a consumer views an advertisement or other marketing communication. As marketing communication methods have evolved, the model has been used to encompass other marketing tools and channels as well. The letters in the AIDA acronym stand for the following: - A represents attention or awareness, and the ability to attract the attention of the consumers. - I is interest and points to the ability to raise the interest of consumers by focusing on and demonstrating advantages and benefits (instead of focusing on features, as in traditional advertising). - D represents desire. The advertisement convinces consumers that they want and desire the product or service because it will satisfy their needs. - A is action. Consumers are led to take action by purchasing the product or service. The system helps guide marketers to refine their objectives and clarify what they want to accomplish with a target segment. As campaign objectives become clearer, marketers gain insight into ways of refining their marketing messages and deciding which tools they can use to deliver these messages effectively. The table, below, identifies typical campaign objectives associated with each stage of the AIDA model. Note that the largest group of prospective customers appears in the first stage of the model: Awareness. As the sales cycle progresses, a percentage of prospects is lost at each stage. Let’s take a look at typical campaign objectives in each stage: - Awareness: Build awareness to motivate further action - Develop brand awareness and recognition - Increase traffic to physical or virtual stores, Web sites, or other channels - Remind customers about a brand, product, service or category - Interest: Generate interest by informing about benefits; shaping perceptions - Differentiate a product, stressing benefits and features not available from competitors - Provide more information about the product or the service because information may be correlated with greater likelihood of purchase - Increase demand for a specific product or a product category; generate enough interest to research further - Desire: Create desire; move from “liking” to “wanting” - Build brand equity by increasing customer perceptions of quality, desirability, and other brand attributes - Stimulate trial, an important step in building new brands and rejuvenating stagnant brands - Change or influence customer beliefs and attitudes about a brand, product, or category, ideally creating an emotional connection - Action: Take action toward purchasing - Reduce purchase risk to make prospective customers feel more comfortable buying a new or unfamiliar product or brand - Encourage repeat purchases in the effort to increase usage and brand loyalty - Increase sales and/or market share, with the goal of broadening reach within a time period, product category, or segment MINI AND THE AIDA MODEL Car marketing is a prime example of using the AIDA model to narrow the target market and get results. Marketers in the automotive industry know their advertisements and other marketing communications must grab the attention of consumers, so they use colors, backgrounds, and themes that would appeal to them. Next, automotive marketers pique interest by showing the advantages of owning the car. In the case of the Mini, for instance, marketers imply that a small car can drive the consumer to open spaces and to fun. Advertisers can target a precise market by using the AIDA model to identify a narrow subset of consumers that may be receptive to the product offering. Car advertisements are especially made to grab attention, pique interest, meet desires, and evoke action in consumers. Third, automotive marketers speak to what their consumers desire. For Mini drivers, it’s the “fun” of driving, while for Prius consumers it may be the fuel economy or the environmental friendliness. Only after evaluating consumer desires are marketers able to create effective campaigns. Lastly, marketers use advertising and other methods, such as sales promotions, to encourage consumers to take action by purchasing the product or service. Push versus Pull Promotion Mix Strategies Push and pull strategies are promotional strategies used to get the product to its target market. A push strategy places the product in front of the customer, to make sure the consumer is aware of the existence of the product. Push strategies also create incentives for retailers to stock products and put them in front of the customer. Examples of push tactics include: - Point-of-sale displays that make a product highly visible to consumers - Product demonstrations to show off a product’s features to potential customers at trade shows and in showrooms - Retailer incentives to stock and sell products, such as discounted bulk pricing - Negotiations with a retailer to stock a specific item in limited store space, along with proof points the product will sell - Creating a supply chain for distribution that ensures retailers can obtain the product in sufficient quantities Push strategies work best when companies already have established relationships with users. For example, cell phone providers proactively send (i.e., push) advertisements via text messages to mobile customers regarding promotions and upgrades. This permission-based marketing can become particularly effective when push tactics and offers are personalized to the user based on individual preferences, usage, and buying behavior. A pull strategy stimulates demand and motivates customers to actively seek out a specific product. It is aimed primarily at the end users, rather than retailers or other middle players in the value chain. Pull strategies can be particularly successful for strong, visible brands with which consumers already have some familiarity. Examples of pull tactics include: - Mass-media advertising and promotion of a product - Marketing communications with existing customers to make them aware of new products that will fill a specific need - Referrals and word-of-mouth recommendations from existing customers - Product reviews from opinion leaders - Sales promotions and discounts Using these strategies creates a demand for a specific product. With pull tactics stoking demand, retailers are then encouraged to seek out the product and stock it on their shelves. For instance, Apple successfully uses a combination of pull strategies to launch iPhones or iPads. The music industry has shifted strongly toward pull strategies due to digitization and the emergence of social networking Web sites. Music platforms such as iTunes, Grooveshark, and Spotify all reflect a power shift toward music consumers exploring and demanding music they want, rather than music producers controlling what is available to whet music lovers’ appetites. Likewise, music retailers have adapted their strategies toward pulling in consumers to seek out products. Most businesses use a combination of push and pull strategies in order to successfully market their products, services and brands. As marketers define the objectives they want marketing campaigns and IMC to accomplish, they can determine whether “push,” “pull,” or a combination of both will be most effective. This helps guide their choices around which marketing communication methods and tools to use. Engagement Strategies In the age of IMC, it is essential for marketers to think creatively about what they are trying to accomplish with target customers through the campaign. Beyond just “pushing” a product through channel partners or “pulling” a customer in through advertising and awareness-building, marketers should consider how the campaign will draw attention, make an impact, and invite target audiences to take action amidst a crowded marketplace. Exposure alone is no longer sufficient to create brand equity and loyalty; interaction is now the name of the game. Marketers today have many different avenues for creating engagement opportunities focused on making a desired impact in the mind–and behavior–of the customer. By thinking through campaign objectives at this level, marketers can better pinpoint not only a winning strategy for the campaign, but also the types of IMC tactics and tools to help them deliver the desired results. For example: \| Campaign Strategy \| Well-suited IMC Tactics, Tools \| \|---\|---\| \| Interact \| Social media, events, guerrilla marketing efforts \| \| Engage \| Word-of-mouth recommendations, viral sharing, social media \| \| Embrace \| Brand community, social media, events, sales promotions, viral sharing \| \| Influence \| Public relations, thought leadership activities, personal selling \| \| Convince \| Case studies, testimonials, comparisons, free trials, samples \| \| Educate \| Advertising, thought leadership activities, public relations, website and other content marketing \| \| Inspire \| Testimonials, guerrilla marketing, events, advertising, case studies \| \| Nurture \| Email marketing, content marketing, personal selling \| Step 3: Set S.M.A.R.T. Goals After determining campaign objectives, marketers should set specific goals for their IMC programs using S.M.A.R.T. criteria aligned with the marketing strategy. S.M.A.R.T. is an acronym organizations and managers use to set clear, measurable goals. Used in the business world inside and outside marketing, S.M.A.R.T. comes from the work of George T. Doran.[2] He proposed that each level of the organization should set goals that are: - Specific: target a specific area for improvement - Measurable: quantify or at least suggest an indicator of progress - Assignable: specify who will do it - Realistic: state what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources - Time-related: specify when the result(s) can be achieved S.M.A.R.T. goals help ensure clarity about what will be accomplished with a marketing campaign or other activity. They also contribute to good communication between managers and employees, so that there are clear expectations on all sides about the focus of attention, resources, and results. MAKING A SMART GOAL Consider the following example of a S.M.A.R.T. marketing campaign goal: The California Campaign, implemented by the marketing team in conjunction with the California sales lead, will use customer referrals, conference appearances, content marketing tactics, and personal selling to identify and develop five new medium-to-large businesses to pilot our new technology product by September 1, 2016. This goal is: Specific: It focuses on identifying new business opportunities to pilot a new product in California Measurable: It specifies a goal of developing “five new medium-to-large businesses” to pilot the new product Assignable: It designates the ownership of this goal between the marketing team and the California sales lead Realistic: It states the resources and techniques that will be used to achieve the goal, and the size of the goal appears to be well proportioned to the time and resources available Time-related: The end date for achieving the results is clear: September 1, 2016 Using the S.M.A.R.T. format helps marketers map IMC activities directly to broader marketing goals and strategy. It also sets the stage for being able to monitor progress and adjust the campaign’s approach and tactics midstream if the initial efforts are falling short or getting off track. Step 4: Define the Message With the marketing campaign’s objectives determined and goals defined, marketers can revisit and refine campaign messaging to fit the approach they have selected. Refer to the “Defining the Message” section of this module for further guidance and recommendations around developing a messaging framework and getting the messaging right. Part of the messaging is the call to action. As marketers hone in on the marketing communication methods and tools they will use, each touch point should include a call to action aligned with the campaign strategy and goals. The calls to action should be appropriate to the AIDA model stage, the audience, and the tool being used. For example, as a prospective customer progresses through the sales cycle, the following set of appropriate calls to action might be built into Web content: - Awareness: Click on a paid search ad to visit a Web site and view a product description and comparative product review - Interest: Download a white paper outlining how a product offers a novel solution to a common business problem - Desire: Request a product demonstration - Action Stage: Request a proposal and price quote Step 5: Select Marketing Communication Methods As marketers consider marketing communication methods, several factors shape their choices: Budget What is the budget for the marketing campaign, and what resources are available to execute it? A large budget can incorporate more expensive marketing communication techniques—such as mass-market advertising and sales promotions—a larger scale, a broader reach, and/or a longer time frame. A small-budget campaign might also be very ambitious, but it would rely primarily on in-house labor and existing tools, such as a company’s Web site and content marketing, email marketing, and social media capabilities. It’s important to figure out how to get the biggest impact from the available budget. Timing Some IMC methods and tactics require a longer lead time than others. For example, email and Web marketing activities can usually be executed rapidly, often with in-house resources. Conference presentations and events require significantly longer lead time to orchestrate. It’s important to choose the tools that will make the biggest impact in the time available. Audience Effective IMC methods meet audiences where they are. As suggested above, the media habits and behaviors of the target segments should guide marketers’ choices around marketing communication. For example, if you know your target audience subscribes to a particular magazine, visits a short list of Web sites to get information about your product category, and follows a particular set of bloggers, your IMC strategy should build a presence in these media. Alternatively, if you learn that 60 percent of your new business comes as a result of Yelp and FourSquare reviews, your marketing campaign might focus on social-media reputation building and mobile touch points. Existing Assets and Organizational Strengths When considering marketing communications and the promotional mix, marketers should always look for ways to build on and make the best use of existing assets. For example, if a company has a physical store or space, how is it being used to full effect to move prospective customers through the sales cycle? If a company has a well-respected founder or thought leader as an employee, how are marketers using this asset to generate interesting content, educate prospects, differentiate the company, and create a desire for their brand, products, or services? Does the organization have a Website and, if so, how does it support each stage of the AIDA model? Organizations should be aware of these strengths and design IMC programs that use them to best advantage. Often these strengths become competitive advantages that competitors cannot easily match or replicate. Advantages of Various Marketing Communication Methods Different marketing communication methods lend themselves to particular stages of the AIDA model, push vs. pull strategies, and ways of interacting with customers. - Advertising is particularly well-suited to awareness-building - Public relations activities often focus on generating interest, educating prospective customers and sharing stories that create desire for a product or brand. Similarly, experiential events can create memorable opportunities to interact with product, brands and people. - Personal selling typically focuses at the later stages of the model, solidifying desire and stimulating action - Sales promotions, depending on their design, can be focused at any step of the AIDA model. For consumer products, they often focus on point-of-sale touch points to induce buying. - Direct marketing can also be focused at any step of the AIDA model, depending on the design. It is often used to generate interest, providing information or an offer that motivates prospective customers to dig a little deeper and learn more. - Digital marketing offers a plethora of tools that can be deployed at any stage of the AIDA model. Paid digital ads, search optimization and social media word-of-mouth all support awareness-building and generating interest. Blogs, newsletters, digital case studies and customer testimonials can be powerful tools for stoking desire. How the website engages customers through the purchasing process is key to persuading prospects to become customers. - Guerrilla marketing, like digital marketing, can be designed to impact any stage of the AIDA model. It is often used by newcomers for awareness-building, to make an impact in a new market. Marketers also use it frequently for engaging experiential activities that solidify desire and create an emotional bond with the consumer. Marketers should think creatively about the methods available to them and how they can come together to deliver the overall message, experience, goals and objectives of the campaign. Fortunately, if marketers plan well, they also have the opportunity to evaluate effectiveness and revise the approach to improve outcomes. Step 6: Determine the Promotional Mix Once marketers have selected marketing communications methods, the next step is to decide which specific tools to employ, when, and how much. IMC programs are very powerful when they layer communication channels and methods upon one another—it’s an approach that amplifies and reinforces the message. The next section of this module goes into much more detail about marketing communication methods, common tools associated with each method, and when/how to use these tools most effectively. Step 7: Execute the Campaign The final sections of this module provide recommendations for how to create effective communication and marketing plans that simplify execution and follow-through. Step 8: Measure Results Later in this module we will also discuss the process of identifying the best means of measuring the success of IMC efforts. Tracking and understanding results is how marketing teams and managers monitor progress and know when they need to adjust course. As marketers design their IMC activities and marketing campaigns with an eye toward results, accountability, and outcomes, they will benefit from an approach that emphasizes alignment between organizational strategy, marketing strategy, and the day-to-day marketing tactics that execute this strategy. - Cooper, Paige. “41 Facebook Stats That Matter to Marketers in 2019.” Hootsuite Social Media Management, November 13, 2018. https://blog.hootsuite.com/facebook-statistics/. - Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMART_criteria LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - AIDA Model, from Boundless Marketing. Provided by: Boundless. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Push and Pull Strategies, from Boundless Marketing. Provided by: Boundless. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - Mini Advertisement. Located at: https://www.miniusa.com/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use Video: Prioritizing Marketing Communications Given all the different marketing communication tools and opportunities out there, it can be hard to prioritize and choose where to focus your attention and marketing efforts. In this TEDx talk, Google’s Nick Scarpino provides a common-sense framework to help you make the biggest impact with whatever marketing resources are available to you. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - A Guide for Prioritizing Marketing Communications: Nick Scarpino at TEDxUofIChicago. Provided by: TEDx. Located at: https://youtu.be/UhQ2T5V2SQE?list=PLzGAKV7EcDXvAMT-rhjYDfBOTmd_2dSiQ. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Self Check: Determining IMC Objectives and Approach Check Your Understanding Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times. Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Self Check: Determining IMC Objectives and Approach. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.888161	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93469/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Determining IMC Objectives and Approach", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93465/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 13 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Resources for Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Slide Deck - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Simulation Unit 13: “Simulation IMC Hero” Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Marketing Campaign Concept Unit 13 Assignment: Complete Marketing Plan Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes - Explain integrated marketing communication (IMC) and its connection to the organization’s marketing strategy - Discuss how to develop effective messaging for marketing communications - Explain factors to consider when selecting marketing communication methods to execute the strategy - Describe common methods of marketing communication, their advantages and disadvantages - Explain how IMC tools support the sales process - Describe the uses of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems for marketing communication purposes - Explain common tools and approaches used to measure marketing communication effectiveness - Create a marketing campaign and budget using multiple IMC tools to execute a marketing strategy Why demonstrate how organizations use integrated marketing communication (IMC) to support their marketing strategies? The fourth P, promotion, focuses on communicating with target audiences about something: a product, service, organization, idea, or brand. Communication is how you let people know about your offering (product) and why it matters, how much it costs (price), and where to find it (place). A very wide array of tools is available today to help marketers communicate with their target audiences. Selecting the right tools for the job and combining them into a successful marketing effort is a critically important task for modern marketers. In fact, it has a special name: integrated marketing communication (IMC). The best way to start learning about IMC is to see it in action. As you watch the following videos, consider the following questions: - Who is the target of this IMC effort? - What core message is being communicated? - How many and which communication tools are being used? - How does this IMC activity turn people into active participants instead of remaining passive audience members? - How is the whole impact of this marketing effort more than just the sum of the individual parts? IMC Example #1: Small Business Saturday In 2010, American Express teamed up with millions of small businesses to create a marketing event that quickly became a tradition during the holiday shopping season in the U.S.: Small Business Saturday. To make it successful, American Express and its small business network had to create something out of nothing and then convince consumers to show up. IMC Example #2: Ariel Fashion Shoot A jam-squirting robot. A busy mall. Designer clothes. Facebook. No, this isn’t the plot of a sci-fi action movie targeting “tween” girls. It was, at the time in 2011, the largest and most interactive product demonstration ever undertaken, for a laundry detergent called Ariel Actilift. It grabbed attention across Scandinavia and induced thousands of people to participate by playing a silly remote-controlled game. In the process, it also proved the remarkable stain-fighting powers of the laundry detergent at the center of it all. Understanding Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Not every IMC effort is as elaborate or creative as these examples. The marketers responsible for them imagined and brought into being something that never existed before. But they also help you begin to see what’s possible when you combine creative ideas with the right set of communication tools focused on a common message and particular target segments. What makes these marketing programs work? When you pull things apart, you see that each of these campaigns starts with clearly articulated goals and audiences. To make their big ideas happen, they use several different marketing tools and techniques that, together, have a larger impact than any of them could manage separately. Each of these marketing activities is also decidedly participatory. It wasn’t enough to simply deliver a message. Each project invited members of the target audience to get involved in the marketing process, and they made the invitations so compelling that people actually did it! As a marketer, how do you go about creating this type of promotional experience? What elements come together to make it possible? That’s what this module is about: how marketers design powerful opportunities to engage their target audiences and shape their perceptions and behaviors. The name of this game is IMC. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Why It Matters: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Strategy. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - AMERICAN EXPRESS OPEN: Small Business Gets An Official Day. Authored by: CannesPredictions. Located at: https://youtu.be/NgmLC6jbxfg?list=PLGhn_uYiaIc8injQ6hgMPXHwmXc3l66Hx. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license - Ariel Fashion Shoot case study. Authored by: kristerka. Located at: https://youtu.be/tDQQlT1P_oY. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.924083	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93465/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93468/overview	Defining the Message Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Defining the Message What you’ll learn to do: discuss how to develop effective messaging for marketing communications At the center of any successful marketing activity is a message. Without a solid, consistent message, your marketing efforts are like a compass without an arrow: there is nothing to point your target audiences in the direction you want them to go. Good messaging takes time and attention to develop, but this effort pays a huge dividend down the road—when your marketing activities have their desired effect on the hearts, minds, and wallets of the people you want to reach. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain the role of consistent messaging in strengthening the impact of marketing communications - Outline a standard framework for developing messaging for marketing communications - Explain the importance of including a clear call to action in marketing communications Learning Activities - Reading: Defining the Message LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Outcome: Defining the Message. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Defining the Message Why the Message Matters A clear, consistent message can be the difference between a phenomenally successful marketing campaign and an utter waste of time and money. If you, as a marketer, have not defined your message clearly, how likely is it that your target audiences will get the message you want them to hear? Answer: Not very likely. With IMC campaigns bringing together multiple communication tools and touch points, the impact of a consistent, effective message is compounded when it reaches the people you’re targeting again and again through different channels. Conversely, in the absence of a clear message, a campaign results in miss after miss after miss in terms of getting your message to your target audience—and it means wasted effort and resources. The Role of Messaging In marketing, the term “messaging” refers to how an organization talks about itself and the value it provides. Related to positioning, messaging is an approved set of key points or messages an organization uses to communicate about something with a target audience. Messaging translates a positioning statement into a set of convincing “key message” statements. Marketers use these statements to develop materials for marketing communications such as ad slogans, advertising copy, social media posts, press releases, presentation scripts, and so forth. Messaging documents are a blueprint for what all the other materials–and people–should communicate. Organizations may create messaging for different purposes. Corporate messaging communicates about the purpose and value a company provides to the market. Brand messaging focuses on how and what to communicate about a company, product, or service brand. Product messaging expresses key selling points about a product. Crisis messaging outlines talking points for how an organization communicates about an unfortunate development, such as a service interruption or a public scandal. Messaging ensures that everyone in an organization who needs to communicate something with the market can do it with a common set of messages and a common understanding of what the market should hear from them. While messaging is usually created by the marketing team, it may be used by individuals and teams across a company, from executive leaders to product managers, sales representatives and other groups, in addition to the marketing team itself. Messaging is an essential ingredient for a successful marketing campaign. A campaign may use existing messaging if its goal is tied to a topic for which messaging has already been developed. For example, existing brand messaging might be used to develop a brand-awareness campaign. If no suitable messaging exists, marketers may need to develop key messages expressly for a campaign. Developing Key Messages The key messages that make up a messaging document should do the following: - Express the main idea you want people to understand and remember about your offering - Resonate with the audience you are targeting, such that they pay attention and feel what you are saying matters - Articulate clearly and concisely what you need to communicate about: e.g., what you stand for, why you are different, what value you offer, what problems you solve, etc. The message content, as well as the voice, tone, and style of the message, may vary widely, depending on the organization’s identity and what it wants to accomplish with the communication. All of these elements factor into the key messages and the creation of marketing communication artifacts based on the messaging. Start with the Basics: What, Who, Why? Message development starts with doing your homework about what the organization needs to accomplish. Revisit the company goals, objectives, and the marketing strategy to confirm the outcomes that the messaging is designed to help achieve. Consult any related positioning statements the organization has developed, because positioning lays out the foundation for what the organization wants to communicate. As you develop messaging, it’s also a good idea to review any brand-platform content, since that content can help reinforce the organization’s identity, voice, and values. Next, confirm the audience(s) for the messaging: who are the target segments and stakeholders you need to reach? Some messaging documents outline different sets of key messages for different audiences, depending on what points are most important or convincing for the audience. For example, when company leaders must communicate publicly about poor quarterly earnings, they develop one set of key messages for investors, another set of key messages for employees, and a third set for customers. All these messages are related to one another, but the most important messages for an investor to hear may be different from what employees need to hear. Identify key words and ideas you want to associate with your organization, product, service, or offering. These words and phrases may figure prominently in the messaging you develop, to help it stand out and differentiate your organization. Also, conduct a competitive messaging analysis to capture what key messages, words, and concepts other organizations are using. Your messaging should avoid sounding like everybody else. Draft Message Statements With your audience and objectives in mind, begin drafting key message statements. If you could make only a few key points to your target audience, what would those points be? As you write these message statements, keep the following criteria in mind. Key messages should be: - Concise: Key message statements should be clear and concise, ideally just one sentence long–but not a long, run-on sentence. - Simple: Key messages should use language that is easy for target audiences to understand. You should avoid acronyms, jargon, and flowery or bureaucratic-sounding language. - Strategic: Key messages should differentiate your organization and what you stand for, while articulating the value proposition or key benefits you offer. - Convincing: Messaging should include believable, meaningful information that creates a sense of urgency and stimulates action. Message wording should be decisive and active, rather than passive. - Relevant: Key messages should matter to the audience; they should communicate useful, relevant information that the audience finds appealing not only on a logical or rational level but also on an emotional level. - Memorable: Key messages should stick in the mind, so the impression they make is easy to recall. - Tailored: Messaging must communicate effectively with intended target audiences. This means the messaging should reflect the target audience’s unique needs, priorities, issues, terminology, relationship to the organization, and other distinguishing factors that might help the messaging better communicate with that audience. A tip: Don’t worry too much about word-smithing as you develop a first draft of key messages. Get your initial thinking down on paper quickly, and then go back to check against the criteria above as you refine the wording. Remember, you only need a handful of key messages—just one to three well-crafted statements—so don’t slave over trying to fill an entire page. Organize a Messaging Framework Once you have drafted an initial set of key messages, it is helpful to prioritize and organize them into a framework that helps you tell a coherent story. Marketers use a variety of different frameworks for this purpose. A simple, standard messaging framework is illustrated in the figure below. This framework includes key messaging components introduced elsewhere in this course: the brand promise, positioning statement, and target audience. By bringing these elements into the messaging document, it is easy to spot disconnects or confirm alignment between the day-to-day talking points (the primary message and message pillars), the audience, and what the organization stands for (as expressed in the brand promise and positioning statement). The primary message is sometimes referred to as an elevator pitch. Think of it as the one to three sentences you would say to a member of your target audience if you had just thirty seconds with them in an elevator. In that short time, you need to get across the core ideas. As you review the initial key messages you drafted, identify the most important ideas. Refine them into a concise statement that expresses your primary message. To support this primary message, identify one to three message pillars that further substantiate the primary message or elevator pitch. When the elevator pitch is expressing a value proposition, the message pillars are usually the key benefits delivered by the value proposition. When the elevator pitch is arguing a position, the message pillars are the key reasons the target audience should believe what is being argued. To identify your message pillars, review the initial messages you drafted. It is likely that your initial work captures some of those pillars or arguments that provide great support for your primary message. For each message pillar, identify at least three convincing proof points, or reasons the target audience should believe what you tell them. Proof points may come from a variety of sources: actual statistics or data points from research or your customer base; product features and the benefits they deliver; customers’ success stories; and so forth. Their purpose is to provide evidence and add credibility to the messages you want to communicate. As marketers turn messaging into marketing communication artifacts, the proof points also provide ideas for marketing content: case studies, white papers, advertisement copy, and so forth. They help fill out details around the messaging story you are telling to your target segment(s). Finally, add a call to action. A call to action is an instruction to the target audience about what you want them to do, once they have heard and digested your messages. Usually it is an imperative verb: Register now. Try this new product. Visit this place. Vote for this person. Although each individual marketing communication piece you create for an IMC campaign might have its own specific call to action, it is helpful to decide on an overarching call to action that identifies the behavioral change you want to incite in your target audience. This call to action serves an important role of making sure that the messages do a good job of convincing the target audience to change their behavior and do what you want them to do. If the messaging doesn’t seem powerful enough to convince people to take action, you need to revisit the messaging and make it more compelling. The primary purpose of message architecture is to help you make sure that everything you communicate ultimately ties back to the major points you want audiences to know and believe about you. As you finish filling out your message architecture, review it and check for alignment at each level. Each level of the architecture should provide consistency and support for the other levels. If you spot disconnects, work to refine the messaging so there is strong alignment. Refine Your Work After completing your message architecture, set it aside for a day or so. Then come back and go through the following checklist. Make revisions and refinements where needed. - Alignment: Recheck your messaging for alignment. Make sure all levels of the messaging framework are consistent with one another. - Hearts and Minds: Identify where your messaging is working at a rational level and where it’s working at an emotional level. To be compelling enough to spark a change in behavior, it must appeal to both. - Strategy: Confirm that the messaging complements your organizational, marketing, and brand strategies. If it isn’t getting you further along those paths, it isn’t doing its job. - Differentiation: Review your messaging with competitors in mind. Your messaging should set you apart and express messages only you can credibly own. It should be more than just “me, too” catch-up to the competition. - Tone: When you read your messages out loud, your language should sound natural and conversational. Your messaging should ring true; it should sound like it genuinely comes from your organization and the people who represent you. - Clarity: If parts of your messaging sound vague or unclear, look for ways to reword them to make them more concise and concrete. People hearing the message should easily understand exactly what you mean. - Inspiration: Your messaging should motivate and inspire your target audiences to take action. If it isn’t compelling enough to do that, you need to make it stronger. Once you have completed your messaging framework, test the messages with colleagues and internal stakeholders, as well as with members of your target segment(s). You can do this formally using marketing research techniques, or you can test the messages informally by using them in conversations and gauging whether they produce the desired reaction. Testing helps you figure out quickly what’s working and where there is room for improvement. Once your messaging framework is complete, you can apply it immediately to marketing campaigns and IMC activity. You should revisit the messaging periodically to make sure it’s still having an impact on your target audiences and helping you achieve your goals. A Messaging Framework Example The simple messaging framework shown in Figure 1, above, is easy to use for a variety of different messaging purposes. It can also easily be adapted to include other elements that marketers decide are important to the organization and alignment of messaging. HIGHFIVE’S MESSAGING Let’s take a look at the messaging framework for Highfive, a video conferencing company. The goal of this messaging is to convey the central value proposition of the company and its conferencing product, and it demonstrates good alignment across different components of the messaging.1 Brand Promise: Video conferencing you can actually love Positioning Statement: Highfive is the first video conferencing product designed to connect every employee and every conference room in your entire company Target Audience: 1, C-level Executive (influencer); 2, Director of IT (buyer); and 3, End-user (user) Mission: Our mission is to make every conversation face-to-face Tone of Voice: Empowering, progressive, human, and cheeky Elevator Pitch: Highfive is video conferencing you can actually love. We believe teams work best face-to-face. That’s why we designed the first video conferencing product designed to connect every person and room in an organization. Highfive provides an all-in-one video conferencing hardware device that plugs into any TV screen, turning any ordinary meeting room into a video room. Highfive also provides cloud apps, which allow employees and guests to simply click a link from any laptop or mobile device and instantly connect face-to-face with anyone, anywhere. The hardware device costs the same as a high-end iPad and the cloud apps are free. We think video shouldn’t be a boardroom luxury. It should be available everywhere. Brand Pillars Easy Headline benefits: Highfive is beautifully simple video conferencing you can start or join with a single click. Supporting examples: Join calls from your calendar, SMS, or email by clicking a URL, hand off video calls from your personal device to a meeting room TV with a swipe or click—no remote control needed. 5-minute plug and play setup. Everywhere Headline Benefits: Twenty conference rooms for the price of one Cisco or Polycom system. Supporting Examples: Comparable systems cost, about 15 thousand per room. At the price of an iPad, Highfive can be deployed in every room. Free apps let people stay connected at their desks or on the go. Enterprise Headline Benefits: Built for businesses, not social networking. Supporting Examples: Must sign up with work email address, domain-based security model, enterprise reliability and security built by the same people that built Google Apps for Business. In this example, marketers have left out the call to action, but they have introduced other components around which they want strong alignment: the company mission and brand voice. The rather long elevator pitch is well supported by clear, compelling message pillars, and the messaging offers ample proof points in the form of product features that substantiate the messaging claims. The messaging itself offers both rational reasons to believe the message (e.g., “simple conferencing you can start or join with a single click”) and emotional benefits to inspire action (e.g., “video conferencing you can actually love . . .”). Finally, the overall tone of the messaging demonstrates strong alignment with the company’s brand identity. - “How to Create Brand Messaging That Really Resonates.” Salesforce Pardot, February 2, 2015. https://www.pardot.com/blog/how-to-create-brand-messaging-that-really-resonates/. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Reading: Defining the Message. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Important Message. Authored by: Patrick Denker. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/pdenker/6001236724/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:03.961581	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93468/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Defining the Message", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91229/overview	Common Pricing Strategies Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Common Pricing Strategies What you’ll learn to do: compare common pricing strategies Thus far we have discussed many pricing considerations: the impact of pricing on value perceptions, the effects of elasticity, and approaches to common pricing objectives. In this section we are going to introduce some very specific, yet standard pricing strategies that organizations use to bring these concepts together. They do not replace the information that we have discussed to this point, but they are important to understand. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Explain why a company would use skim pricing - Explain why a company would use penetration pricing - Explain why a company would use cost-oriented pricing - Explain how price discounting is used and why it can be effective Learning Activities - Reading: Skim Pricing - Reading: Penetration Pricing - Reading: Cost-Oriented Pricing - Reading: Discounting Strategies Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Alternative Pricing Strategies. Provided by: Lumen Learning . License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Skim Pricing With a totally new product, competition either doesn’t exist or is minimal, and there’s no market data about customer demand. How should the price be set in such a case? There are two common pricing strategies that organizations use for new products: skim pricing and penetration pricing. The Economics of Price and Demand In order to understand these pricing strategies, let’s review the demand curve. In a typical economic analysis of pricing, the demand curve shows the quantity demanded at every price. In our graph below, the demand increases by 100 units each time the price drops by $1. Based on this demand, if a company priced its product at $4, consumers would buy 200 units. If the company wanted to raise its prices, it could charge $5, but then consumers would buy only 100 units. This is an oversimplified example, but it shows an important relationship between price and demand. The key thing to understand about this model is that when all else is equal, demand decreases as price increases. Fortunately, the marketer does not have to regard everything else as fixed. She can make adjustments to product, promotion, or distribution to increase the value to the customer in order to increase demand without lowering price. Still, once the other elements of the marketing mix are fixed, it’s generally true that a higher price will result in less demand for a product, and a lower price will result in more demand for a product. What Is Skim Pricing? Price skimming involves the top part of the demand curve. A firm charges the highest initial price that customers will pay. As the demand of the first customers is satisfied, the firm lowers the price to attract another, more price-sensitive segment. Using our example of the demand curve, the price might be set at $5 per unit at first, generating a demand of only 100 units. The skimming strategy gets its name from skimming successive layers of “cream”—or customer segments—as prices are lowered over time. Why Might Skim Pricing Make Sense? There are a number of reasons why an organization might consider a skimming strategy. Sometimes a company simply can’t deliver enough of a new product to meet demand. By setting the price high, the company is able to maximize the total revenue that it can generate from the quantity of product that it can make available. Price skimming can also be part of a customer segmentation strategy. Take a look at the graph, above. You’ll remember from our discussion of the product life cycle and customer adoption patterns that the Innovators—the adventurous customers on the left who are game to try new products—are less price sensitive and place a premium on being first to own a new product. A skim-pricing strategy targets these customers and sets a higher price for them. As the product starts to move through the Early Adopters stage, the marketer will often reduce the price to begin drawing Early Majority buyers. A skimming strategy is most appropriate for a premium product. Today we can see many examples of skim pricing in the electronics industry when new product innovations are introduced. Electronics companies know that many buyers will wait to purchase new technologies, so they use skim pricing to get the highest possible price from the Innovators and Early Adopters. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 9, Pricing the Product, Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Price Skimming. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_skimming. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Skimmer Skimming. Authored by: Andy Morffew. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/andymorffew/16660136473/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives Reading: Penetration Pricing What Is Penetration Pricing? Penetration pricing is a pricing strategy in which the price of a product is initially set low to rapidly reach a wide fraction of the market and initiate word of mouth.[1] The strategy works on the assumption that customers will switch to the new product because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with marketing objectives of enlarging market share and exploiting economies of scale or experience. Returning to our economic model, below, you can see that penetration pricing focuses at the bottom of the demand curve. If the initial price is set low, at $2, for instance, the quantity demanded will be high: 400 units. Penetration pricing offers a lower price in order to draw in a higher demand from consumers. Why Might Penetration Pricing Make Sense? Like skim pricing, penetration pricing shows an awareness of the dynamics in the product life cycle. The advantages of penetration pricing to the firm are the following: - It can result in fast diffusion and adoption across the product life cycle. The strategy can achieve high market penetration rates quickly, taking competitors by surprise and not giving them time to react. - It can create goodwill among the Innovators and Early Adopters, which can generate more demand via word of mouth. - It establishes cost-control and cost-reduction pressures from the start, leading to greater efficiency. - It discourages the entry of competitors. - It can generate high stock turnover throughout the distribution channel, which creates important enthusiasm and support in the channel. The main disadvantage of penetration pricing is that it establishes long-term price expectations for the product and image preconceptions for the brand and company. Both can make it difficult to raise prices later. Another potential disadvantage is that the low profit margins may not be sustainable long enough for the strategy to be effective. - J Dean (1976). "Pricing Policies for New Products." Harvard Business Review 54 (6): 141–153. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Shared previously - Penetration Pricing. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetration_pricing#cite_note-4. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Mallards Feeding. Authored by: Yankech Gary. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/49663413@N08/6965646827/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives Reading: Cost-Oriented Pricing Cost-Plus Pricing Cost-plus pricing, sometimes called gross margin pricing, is perhaps the most widely used pricing method. The manager selects as a goal a particular gross margin that will produce a desirable profit level. Gross margin is the difference between how much the goods cost and the actual price for which it sells. This gross margin is designated by a percent of net sales. The percent chosen varies among types of merchandise. That means that one product may have a goal of 48 percent gross margin while another has a target of 33.5 percent or 2 percent. A primary reason that the cost-plus method is attractive to marketers is that they don’t have to forecast general business conditions or customer demand. If sales volume projections are reasonably accurate, profits will be on target. Consumers may also view this method as fair, since the price they pay is related to the cost of producing the item. Likewise, the marketer is sure that costs are covered. A major disadvantage of cost-plus pricing is its inherent inflexibility. For example, department stores often find it hard to meet (and beat) competition from discount stores, catalog retailers, and furniture warehouses because of their commitment to cost-plus pricing. Another disadvantage is that it doesn’t take into account consumers’ perceptions of a product’s value. Finally, a company’s costs may fluctuate, and constant price changing is not a viable strategy. Markups When middlemen use the term markup, they are referring to the difference between the average cost and price of all merchandise in stock, for a particular department, or for an individual item. The difference may be expressed in dollars or as a percentage. For example, a man’s tie costs $14.50 and is sold for $25.23. The dollar markup is $10.73. The markup may be designated as a percent of the selling price or as a percent of the cost of the merchandise. In this example, the markup is 74 percent of cost ($10.73 / $14.50) or 42.5 percent of the retail price ($10.73 / $25.23). There are several reasons why expressing markup as a percentage of selling price is preferred to expressing it as a percentage of cost. One is that many other ratios are expressed as a percentage of sales. For instance, selling expenses are expressed as a percentage of sales. If selling costs are 8 percent, it means that for each $100,000 in net sales, the cost of selling the merchandise is $8,000. Advertising expenses, operating expenses, and other types of expenses are quoted in the same way. Thus, when making comparisons, there is a consistency in expressing all expenses and costs, including markup, as a percentage of sales (selling price). As an illustration of the cost-based process of pricing, let’s look at Johnnie Walker Black Label Scotch Whisky. This product sells for about $30 in most liquor stores. How was this price derived? The per-bottle costs are shown below: $5.00 production, distillation, maturation + $2.50 advertising + $3.11 distribution + $4.39 taxes + $7.50 markup (retailer) + $7.50 net margin (manufacturer) $30.00 total Each of the cost elements, including the retailer’s markup, is added to the initial production costs, and the total is the final price. Cost-Oriented Pricing of New Products Certainly costs are an important component of pricing. No firm can make a profit until it covers its costs. However, the process of determining costs and setting a price based on costs does not take into account what the customer is willing to pay at the marketplace. This strategy is a bit of a trap for companies that develop products and continually add features to them, thus adding cost. Their cost-based approach leads them to add a percentage to the cost, which they pass on to customers in the form of a new, higher price. Then they are disappointed when their customers do not see sufficient value in the cost-based price. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Pricing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Project: Global Text. License: CC BY: Attribution - Mangos. Authored by: Quinn Dombrowski. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/2886818380/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Reading: Discounting Strategies In addition to deciding about the base price of products and services, marketing managers must also set policies regarding the use of discounts and allowances. There are many different types of price reductions–each designed to accomplish a specific purpose. The major types are described below. Quantity Discounts Quantity discounts are reductions in base price given as the result of a buyer purchasing some predetermined quantity of merchandise. A noncumulative quantity discount applies to each purchase and is intended to encourage buyers to make larger purchases. This means that the buyer holds the excess merchandise until it is used, possibly cutting the inventory cost of the seller and preventing the buyer from switching to a competitor at least until the stock is used. A cumulative quantity discount applies to the total bought over a period of time. The buyer adds to the potential discount with each additional purchase. Such a policy helps to build repeat purchases. Both Home Depot and Lowe’s offer a contractor discount to customers who buy more than $5,000 worth of goods. Home Depot has a tiered discount for painters, who can save as much as 20 percent off of retail once they spend $7,500.1 Seasonal Discounts Seasonal discounts are price reductions given for out-of-season merchandise—snowmobiles discounted during the summer, for example. The intention of such discounts is to spread demand over the year, which can allow fuller use of production facilities and improved cash flow during the year. Seasonal discounts are not always straightforward. It seems logical that gas grills are discounted in September when the summer grilling season is over, and hot tubs are discounted in January when the weather is bad and consumers spend less freely. However, the biggest discounts on large-screen televisions are offered during the weeks before the Super Bowl when demand is greatest. This strategy aims to drive impulse purchases of the large-ticket item, rather than spurring sales during the off-season. Cash Discounts Cash discounts are reductions on base price given to customers for paying cash or within some short time period. For example, a 2 percent discount on bills paid within 10 days is a cash discount. The purpose is generally to accelerate the cash flow of the organization and to reduce transaction costs. Generally cash discounts are offered in a business-to-business transaction where the buyer is negotiating a range of pricing terms, including payment terms. You can imagine that if you offered to pay cash immediately instead of using a credit card at a department store, you wouldn’t receive a discount. Trade Discounts Trade discounts are price reductions given to middlemen (e.g., wholesalers, industrial distributors, retailers) to encourage them to stock and give preferred treatment to an organization’s products. For example, a consumer goods company might give a retailer a 20 percent discount to place a larger order for soap. Such a discount might also be used to gain shelf space or a preferred position in the store. Calico Corners offers a 15 percent discount on fabrics to interior designers who are creating designs or products for their customers. They have paired this with a quantity-discounts program that offers gift certificates for buyers who purchase more than $10,000 in a year. Personal Allowances Personal allowances are similar strategies aimed at middlemen. Their purpose is to encourage middlemen to aggressively promote the organization’s products. For example, a furniture manufacturer may offer to pay some specified amount toward a retailer’s advertising expenses if the retailer agrees to include the manufacturer’s brand name in the ads. Some manufacturers or wholesalers also give retailers prize money called “spiffs,” which can be passed on to the retailer’s sales clerks as a reward for aggressively selling certain items. This is especially common in the electronics and clothing industries, where spiffs are used primarily with new products, slow movers, or high-margin items. When employees in electronics stores recommend a specific brand or product to a buyer they may receive compensation from the manufacturer on top of their wages and commissions from the store. Trade-In Allowances Trade-in allowances also reduce the base price of a product or service. These are often used to help the seller negotiate the best price with a buyer. The trade-in may, of course, be of value if it can be resold. Accepting trade-ins is necessary in marketing many types of products. A construction company with a used grader worth $70,000 probably wouldn’t buy a new model from an equipment company that did not accept trade-ins, particularly when other companies do accept them. Price Bundling Price bundling is a very popular pricing strategy. The marketer groups similar or complementary products and charges a total price that is lower than if they were sold separately. Comcast and Direct TV both follow this strategy by combining different products and services for a set price. Similarly, Microsoft bundles Microsoft Word, Excel, Powerpoint, OneNote, and Outlook in the Microsoft Office Suite. The underlying assumption of this pricing strategy is that the increased sales generated will more than compensate for a lower profit margin. It may also be a way of selling a less popular product—like Microsoft OneNote—by combining it with popular ones. Industries such as financial services, telecommunications, and software companies make very effective use of this strategy. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 9, Pricing the Product, Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. License: CC BY: Attribution - Fabric Bolts. Authored by: Laura. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/luckylaura/2749694639/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.004099	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91229/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Common Pricing Strategies", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91236/overview	Retailers as Channels of Distribution Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Retailers As Channels of Distribution What you’ll learn to do: describe types of retailers and explain how they are used as a channel of distribution Retailing is important for marketing students to understand for two main reasons. First, most channel structures end with a retailer. While products may pass through a wholesaler or involve a broker or agent, they also include a retailer. Second, retail offers an immense number of job opportunities. Today in the U.S., there are 3,793,621 retail establishments that support 42 million jobs. Retail also contributes $2.6 trillion to the U.S. gross domestic product.1 You can view the number of jobs and retail presence in your state at the National Retail Federation (NRF). Who are these retailers? The NRF posts an annual list of the top one hundred retailers by retail sales. The top ten are listed in the table below.2 \| Rank \| Retailer \| U.S. Headquarters \| 2018 Retail Sales (billions) \| \| 1 \| Walmart Stores \| Bentonville, Arkansas \| $387.66 \| \| 2 \| Amazon.com \| Seattle, Washington \| $120.93 \| \| 3 \| The Kroger Co. \| Cincinnati, Ohio \| $119.70 \| \| 4 \| Costco \| Issaquah, Washington \| $101.43 \| \| 5 \| Walgreens \| Deerfield, Illinois \| $98.39 \| \| 6 \| The Home Depot \| Atlanta, Georgia \| $97.27 \| \| 7 \| CVS Health Corporation \| Woonsocket, Rhode Island \| $83.79 \| \| 8 \| Target \| Minneapolis, Minnesota \| $74.48 \| \| 9 \| Lowe’s Companies \| Mooresville, North Carolina \| $64.09 \| \| 10 \| Albertsons Companies \| Boise, Idaho \| $59.71 \| In this section you’ll learn more about the retail channel and the strategies that drive its growth. Learning Activities - Reading: Define Retailing - Reading: Types of Retailers - Reading: Retail Strategy - “Retail's Impact.” NRF. Accessed September 24, 2019. https://nrf.com/retails-impact. - “STORES Top Retailers 2019.” NRF. NRF. Accessed September 24, 2019. https://stores.org/stores-top-retailers-2019/. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Retailers As Channels of Distribution. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Define Retailing Introduction Retailing involves all activities required to market consumer goods and services to ultimate consumers who are purchasing for individual or family needs. By definition, B2B purchases are not included in the retail channel since they are not made for individual or family needs. In practice this can be confusing because many retail outlets do serve both consumers and business customers—like Home Depot, which has a Pro Xtra program for selling directly to builders and contractors. Generally, retailers that have a significant B2B or wholesale business report these numbers separately in their financial statements, acknowledging that they are separate lines of business within the same company. Those with a pure retail emphasis do not seek to exclude business purchasers. They simply focus their offering to appeal to individual consumers, knowing that some businesses may also choose to purchase from them. We typically think of a store when we think of a retail sale, even though retail sales occur in other places and settings. For instance, they can be made by a Pampered Chef salesperson in someone’s home. Retail sales also happen online, through catalogs, by automatic vending machines, and in hotels and restaurants. Nonetheless, despite tremendous growth in both nontraditional retail outlets and online sales, most retail sales still take place in brick-and-mortar stores. The Retail Industry The retail industry covers an enormous range of consumer needs. In reporting on common trends across the major retail segments, the National Retail Federation covers sixteen different categories. As shown below, these categories are not necessarily store types, but they show the breadth of products offered through the retail chain.1 \| Category \| Sample Retailers \| \|---\|---\| \| Auto Aftermarket \| Advance Auto Parts, AutoZone, Pep Boys \| \| Department Stores \| Kohl’s, Macy’s, Nordstrom, Saks Fifth Avenue \| \| Drug Stores \| CVS, Rite Aid, Walgreen’s \| \| Entertainment and Consumer Electronics \| AT&T, Apple, Barnes & Noble, BestBuy, GameStop, Toys R Us \| \| Footwear \| DSW, Foot Locker \| \| General Apparel \| Forever 21, Gap, H&M, Old Navy, TJ Maxx, Urban Outfitters \| \| Health and Beauty \| Bath and Body Works, Sally Beauty, Sephora, Ulta \| \| Hobby and Craft \| Michael’s, Guitar Center, Jo-Ann Fabrics \| \| Home Improvement and Hardware \| Home Depot, Ikea, Pier 1 Imports, True Value, Williams-Sonoma \| \| Jewelry and Accessories \| Charming Charlie’s, Coach, Piercing Pagoda, Signet, Tiffany & Co. \| \| Mass Merchants \| Amazon, Costco, Target, Walmart \| \| Restaurants \| Chipotle, KFC, McDonald’s, Olive Garden, Starbucks \| \| Small-Format Value \| Big Lots, Dollar General, Dollar Tree, Family Dollar \| \| Sporting Goods and Outdoor \| Bass Pro Shops, Cabela’s, Dick’s, Sports Authority, REI \| \| Supermarkets \| Albertson’s, Kroger, QFC, Safeway, Publix, Whole Foods \| \| Women’s Apparel \| Ann Taylor, Lane Bryant, Talbot’s, Victoria’s Secret \| The retail industry is designed to create contact efficiency—allowing shoppers to buy what they want efficiently with a smaller number of transactions. This design doesn’t come from a master retail plan. It’s driven by market forces. When a retailer sees an opportunity to expand its offering to increase purchases from customers in one location, it will expand its offering to meet the opportunity. When Barnes & Noble adds Starbucks coffee shops to its locations, customers visit more frequently and stay longer, increasing the chance of additional purchases. Costco recognized that busy holiday shoppers would rather buy a Christmas tree as part of a larger convenience purchase than have a focused (and less convenient) buying experience at a Christmas tree lot. Such opportunities cause retailers to expand their offerings, creating greater contact efficiency for consumers. Given this logic and opportunity, why doesn’t every retailer become a Walmart Super Store filled with every possible product? Like all organizations that market effectively, retailers shape their offerings to a target buyer. Retailers must also consider the particular shopping experience a buyer is seeking in that moment or context. One experience isn’t right for everyone at the same time; nor are all “experiences” compatible. For example, a buyer is expecting a different buying experience when she fills her car’s gas tank and when she stays at a luxury resort. Retailers define their target buyer segments, identify the service outputs that those segments require, and match their offerings to provide value to each target segment. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - The Retail Industry. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Chapter 10, Channel Concepts: Distributing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Located at: . License: CC BY: Attribution - Powell's Books. Authored by: Thomas Hawk. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/thomashawk/2987249389/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial Reading: Types of Retailers Beyond the distinctions in the products they provide, there are structural differences among retailers that influence their strategies and results. One of the reasons the retail industry is so large and powerful is its diversity. For example, stores vary in size, in the kinds of services that are provided, in the assortment of merchandise they carry, and in their ownership and management structures. The U.S. Census Bureau indicates that 94.5 percent of retail companies have only one location or store.1 More than one million retail businesses in the U.S. have fewer than one hundred employees. Most retail outlets are small and have weekly sales of just a few hundred dollars. A few are extremely large, having sales of $500,000 or more on a single day. In fact, on special sale days, some stores exceed $1 million in sales. This diversity in size and earnings is reflected in the range of different ownership and management structures, discussed below. Department Stores Department stores are characterized by their very wide product mixes. That is, they carry many different types of merchandise, which may include hardware, clothing, and appliances. Each type of merchandise is typically displayed in a different section or department within the store. The depth of the product mix depends on the store, but department stores’ primary distinction is the ability to provide a wide range of products within a single store. For example, people shopping at Macy’s can buy clothing for a woman, a man, and children, as well as house wares such as dishes and luggage. Chain Stores The 1920s saw the evolution of the chain store movement. Because chains were so large, they were able to buy a wide variety of merchandise in large quantity discounts. The discounts substantially lowered their cost compared to costs of single unit retailers. As a result, they could set retail prices that were lower than those of their small competitors and thereby increase their share of the market. Furthermore, chains were able to attract many customers because of their convenient locations, made possible by their financial resources and expertise in selecting locations. Supermarkets Supermarkets evolved in the 1920s and 1930s. For example, Piggly Wiggly Food Stores, founded by Clarence Saunders around 1920, introduced self-service and customer checkout counters. Supermarkets are large, self-service stores with central checkout facilities. They carry an extensive line of food items and often nonfood products. There are 37,459 supermarkets operating in the United States, and the average store now carries nearly 44,000 products in roughly 46,500 square feet of space. The average customer visits a store just under twice a week, spending just over $30 per trip. Supermarkets’ entire approach to the distribution of food and household cleaning and maintenance products is to offer large assortments these goods at each store at a minimal price. Discount Retailers Discount retailers, like Ross Dress for Less and Grocery Outlet, are characterized by a focus on price as their main sales appeal. Merchandise assortments are generally broad and include both hard and soft goods, but assortments are typically limited to the most popular items, colors, and sizes. Traditional stores are usually large, self-service operations with long hours, free parking, and relatively simple fixtures. Online retailers such as Overstock.com have aggregated products and offered them at deep discounts. Generally, customers sacrifice having a reliable assortment of products to receive deep discounts on the available products. Warehouse Retailers Warehouse retailers provide a bare-bones shopping experience at very low prices. Costco is the dominant warehouse retailer, with $138.4 billion in sales in 2018. Warehouse retailers streamline all operational aspects of their business and pass on the efficiency savings to customers. Costco generally uses a cost-plus pricing structure and provides goods in wholesale quantities. Franchises The franchise approach brings together national chains and local ownership. An owner purchases a franchise which gives her the right to use the firm’s business model and brand for a set period of time. Often, the franchise agreement includes well-defined guidance for the owner, training, and on-going support. The owner, or franchisee, builds and manages the local business. Entrepreneur magazine posts a list each year of the 500 top franchises according to an evaluation of financial strength and stability, growth rate, and size. The 2019 Top 500 Franchises list by Entrepreneur magazine is led by McDonald’s, Dunkin’ Donuts, Sonic Drive-In, Taco Bell, and the UPS Store. Malls and Shopping Centers Malls and shopping centers are successful because they provide customers with a wide assortment of products across many stores. If you want to buy a suit or a dress, a mall provides many alternatives in one location. Malls are larger centers that typically have one or more department stores as major tenants. Strip malls are a common string of stores along major traffic routes, while isolated locations are freestanding sites not necessarily in heavy traffic areas. Stores in isolated locations must use promotion or some other aspect of their marketing mix to attract shoppers. Online Retailing Online retailing is unquestionably a dominant force in the retail industry, but today it accounts for only a small percentage of total retail sales. Companies like Amazon and Geico complete all or most of their sales online. Many other online sales result from online sales from traditional retailers, such as purchases made at Nordstrom.com. Online marketing plays a significant role in preparing the buyers who shop in stores. In a similar integrated approach, catalogs that are mailed to customers’ homes drive online orders. In a survey on its Web site, Land’s End found that 75 percent of customers who were making purchases had reviewed the catalog first.2 Catalog Retailing Catalogs have long been used as a marketing device to drive phone and in-store sales. As online retailing began to grow, it had a significant impact on catalog sales. Many retailers who depended on catalog sales—Sears, Land’s End, and J.C. Penney, to name a few—suffered as online retailers and online sales from traditional retailers pulled convenience shoppers away from catalog sales. Catalog mailings peaked in 2009 and saw a significant decrease through 2012. In 2013, there was a small increase in catalog mailings. Industry experts note that catalogs are changing, as is their role in the retail marketing process. Despite significant declines, U.S. households still receive 11.9 billion catalogs each year.3 Nonstore Retailing Beyond those mentioned in the categories above, there’s a wide range of traditional and innovative retailing approaches. Although the Avon lady largely disappeared at the end of the last century, there are still in-home sales from Arbonne facial products, cabi women’s clothing, WineShop at Home, and others. Many of these models are based on the idea of a woman using her personal network to sell products to her friends and their friends, often in a party setting. Vending machines and point-of-sale kiosks have long been a popular retail device. Today they are becoming more targeted, such as companies selling easily forgotten items—such as small electronics devices and makeup items—to travelers in airports. Each of these retailing approaches can be customized to meet the needs of the target buyer or combined to span a range of needs. - U.S. Census Bureau, 2007 Economic Census. - Ruiz, Rebecca R. “Catalogs, After Years of Decline, Are Revamped for Changing Times.” The New York Times. The New York Times, January 25, 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/26/business/media/catalogs-after-years-of-decline-are-revamped-for-changing-times.html. - Geller, Lois. “Why Are Printed Catalogs Still Around?” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, October 16, 2012. http://www.forbes.com/sites/loisgeller/2012/10/16/why-are-printed-catalogs-still-around/. LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Chapter 10, Channel Concepts: Distributing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: . License: CC BY: Attribution - Bike & Skate. Authored by: Karol Franks. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/karolfranks/6586652573/. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives - Piggly Wiggly VA. Authored by: Acroterion. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piggly_Wiggly_VA1.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ankara: Panora Shopping Mall. Authored by: Jorge Franganillo. Provided by: flickr. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/eDYfQW. License: CC BY: Attribution - iPod vending machine. Authored by: Greg Hewgill. Provided by: flickr. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/68Mbr5. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Retail Strategy Just when we have finally mastered the marketing mix that includes the four Ps, we arrive at the retail strategy. The retail marketing strategy includes all of the elements of the traditional marketing mix: - Retailers buy product from producers or wholesalers that will most appeal to their target market. - Retailers set a price that delivers value for the product and the complete shopping experience. - Retailers promote their offering, which includes the shopping experience, the products, the pricing, and broadly, the retail brand. - Retailers create the right place, which is the point of purchase for the buyer. In delivering the best retail experience through the right place, two additional Ps come into play: presentation and personnel. Presentation Think of a physical store where you enjoy shopping. What is it about the store that you like? You might like the way the store looks, feels, sounds, or smells. It might have products that draw you in and make you want to interact with them. You may just like the store because it’s familiar and convenient—you know where to find the things you need. All of these descriptions fall into two categories. They refer either to the atmosphere of the store or the layout of the store. The atmosphere describes the feeling, tone, or mood of the store. Often, as a shopper it is difficult to identify exactly what creates the atmosphere in a good shopping experience. (It is much easier in a bad shopping experience.) The store’s decor plays a role in the atmosphere. Are the fixtures decorative or merely functional? Is the shopper invited to linger on a couch or inviting chair, or is he encouraged to simply purchase and leave? One important element of the atmosphere is density. How has the retailer packed elements into the space? Retailers manage the density of employees, fixtures, and merchandise. The shopping experience requires more employees if there is a high need for service or information. High-end clothing sales generally provide a higher level of service, with sales associates available to advise on fit and fashion choices and to bring the shoppers different sizes and clothing options in the dressing room. A car purchase is not one that generally involves the same type or style of service, but there is a high need for information that translates to a higher density of sales employees to explain features, financing, and availability. The density of merchandise and fixtures also has a significant impact on the atmosphere of the store. If the shoppers value service, or the retail brand requires a high-end experience, then the retailer generally has less density of merchandise and fixtures. If the shopper most values service outputs of assortment and convenience, then the retailer will use a higher density of merchandise. For example, grocery shoppers may have different standards for the quality of fixtures they prefer relative to the price of the grocery items, but generally they prefer a higher-density shopping experience. The shopper is trying to collect many different products from all areas of the store and would rather have shelves stacked than have to wander much farther through a store with more empty space. Convenience is the dominant factor driving the presentation of products. Finally, the layout, display, and positioning of the merchandise have a significant impact on sales behaviors. Grocers have conducted studies to optimize the layout of the store and the position of items on the shelves. Stores are designed in a logical pattern, so that they are easy to navigate and optimize spending. Higher-margin items are placed at eye level, while those that are inexpensive and commonly purchased are at the bottom of the shelf. The produce section was once the entry point for every grocery store. Today, that spot is more likely to be occupied by high-end novelty items (expensive chocolates, clothing, paper items, floral arrangements). Still, the produce section continues to be the first food section that buyers are steered toward. This is intended to facilitate meal planning before the shopper arrives at the meat and dairy departments. In a retail environment, the layout is designed to create comfort and convenience and, at the same time, drive sales. Online Presentation Moving the presentation to an online shopping experience can be even more difficult. Retail Web sites emphasize site design, navigation, information, and checkout experience. Amazon has set the standard for ease of purchase with its one-click checkout solution. Zappos is well known for providing through, accurate product photos that give a complete view of each product from every angle. Still, the online atmosphere is more difficult to differentiate than the traditional in-store experience. Personnel Retail employees are the face of the brand to the shopper. This is true of a sales associate who helps with a purchase decision, a waitperson in a restaurant, a hotel check-in clerk, or a checker in a grocery store who efficiently rings up purchases. Retail employees fill a weighty role in the brand for two reasons. First, they do work that has the potential to add immense value to the purchase process. When an employee is helpful and efficient with the selection and/or purchase of a product, it’s an important and necessary aspect of the buyer’s retail experience. The retail employees working directly with customers have a much more personal and profound impact on the brand experience of each shopper than the senior executives of the company or even store managers, who have less customer contact. In order to support employees to be successful, effective retailers will: - Demonstrate care in hiring to ensure that customer-facing employees will represent the retailer’s brand values - Train employees to be knowledgeable about the products and efficient in their jobs - Carefully manage operations so that staffing levels match the desired retail experience - Compensate employees in a way that rewards good service and effective sales Sales employees are most likely to have some variable compensation or have some portion of their paycheck tied to their ability to drive sales. These incentives can be a direct commission on sales or a less direct financial or benefits bonus for the store meeting its goals. The following video shares how one retail giant, Costco, understands the importance of treating its employees well in order to ensure good customer service and a positive shopping experience every time. You can view the transcript for “What’s the secret to Costco’s big box success?” (opens in new window). LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Retail Strategy. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Anthropologie Store. Authored by: FASTILY. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anthropologie_Walnut_Creek_2_2017-04-29.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Grocery Store. Authored by: Diane Webb. Provided by: Pexels. Located at: https://www.pexels.com/photo/grocery-store-piggly-wiggly-produce-small-town-1055443/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved - What's the secret to Costco's big box success?. Provided by: CBS News. Located at: https://youtu.be/cysRawnadPc. License: All Rights Reserved. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91233/overview	Why it Matters Overview Teacher resources for Unit 12 can be found on the next page. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Why It Matters: Place: Distribution Channels Resources for Unit 12: Distribution Channels Slide Deck - Unit 12: Place: Distribution Channels Simulation Unit 12: “Simulation: Distribution” Discussion Assignments and Alignment: Place: Distribution Channels Pacing The Principles of Marketing textbook contains sixteen units—roughly one unit per week for a 16-week semester. If you need to modify the pace and cover the material more quickly, the following units work well together: - Unit 1: What Is Marketing? and Unit 2: Marketing Function. Both are lighter, introductory units. - Unit 15: Global Marketing and Unit 16: Marketing Plan. Unit 16 has more course review and synthesis information than new material per se. - Unit 5: Ethics can be combined with any unit. You can also move it around without losing anything. - Unit 8: Positioning and Unit 9: Branding. Companion modules that can be covered in a single week. - Unit 6: Marketing Information & Research and Unit 7: Consumer Behavior. Companion units that can be covered in a single week. We recommend NOT doubling up the following units, because they are long and especially challenging. Students will need more time for mastery and completion of assignments. - Unit 4: Marketing Strategy - Unit 10: Product Marketing - Unit 13: Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Learning Outcomes Explain what channels of distribution are and why organizations use them - Explain how channels affect the marketing of products and services - Describe types of retailers and explain how they are used as a channel of distribution - Explain how integrated supply chain management supports an effective distribution strategy Why evaluate how to use distribution channels to market an organization’s products and services effectively? More Than Just Another P Of the elements in the marketing mix, product and price are perhaps the easiest to understand. We see products all around us, and we understand that we need to pay a specific price to buy them. Promotion is sometimes a little more difficult to grasp, but if we begin with the concept of advertising and then develop a more complete view of promotion from that, promotion is also fairly easy to understand. “Place,” on the other hand, is not so straightforward. In fact, using the word “place” can be misleading. If I were to say, “We are going to talk about place related to groceries,” you would likely think about where you buy your groceries—as in, which store and which location. In this module, though, we want to discuss the process of determining where you want to find particular groceries and how to get those groceries to that place in the way that best aligns with your preferences. While it inconveniently begins with the letter D rather than P, distribution is a more accurate description of this function. Distribution brings the products that you want to the place where you want to buy them, at a cost that supports the customer and company price requirements. How do your groceries get to the right place at the right cost? To explore this question, let’s look at two high-end grocery stores that use very different methods to manage this process: Whole Foods and Trader Joe’s. Whole Foods’ Approach to Distribution Whole Foods’ motto—Whole Foods, Whole People, Whole Planet—emphasizes a vision that reaches beyond food retailing. The company has chosen a strategy of sourcing locally wherever possible. This, in turn, has driven the strategy of how Whole Foods fills its shelves—the distribution strategy. The video below explains how the company sources products. You can view the transcript for “Forager Elly Truesdell Whole Foods Market” here (opens in new window). In order to support local sourcing, store managers are empowered to make purchasing decisions for each store, independently of the regional offices. As a result, it is possible for Whole Foods to buy potatoes from a local farmer who would never dream of selling his produce to a large grocery chain. Essentially, Whole Foods is differentiated because all products are sourced locally. The stores operate under minimal governance and are given maximum freedom to source a product mix that is appropriate for their location. Whole Foods stores operate according to the premise that they need these freedoms to meet the unique buying needs of their local customers. The only governing rule put in place by the corporate office is that stores must not stock products with artificial flavors, preservatives, colors, sweeteners, or hydrogenated oils. A downside to this local purchasing policy is that consistency is compromised across the chain. Every retail location carries a variety of products that distinguishes it from other stores in the same chain. Not surprisingly, it is difficult to achieve economies of scale with this model. Higher distribution costs lead to higher prices, which makes it important for Whole Foods to target customers with high incomes. To ensure ample access to their target consumer segments, Whole Foods opens stores in communities with a large number of college-educated residents with no fewer than two hundred thousand people within a twenty-minute drive. Trader Joe’s Approach to Distribution The mission of Trader Joe’s is to give customers the best food and beverage values they can find anywhere and to provide them with the information required to make informed buying decisions. The company strives to provide these with a dedication to the highest quality of customer satisfaction delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, fun, individual pride, and company spirit. At the core of the Trader Joe’s “way” is a focus on cost control, simplicity, and fun. These company objectives are woven throughout each aspect of the business. Trader Joe’s aims to create a truly unique customer experience, offering high-quality gourmet foods at a low cost in a fun environment that keeps customers coming back for more. Trader Joe’s manages its distribution networks by minimizing the number of hands that touch the product, thereby reducing costs and making products quickly available to their customers. The company orders directly from the manufacturer. The manufacturer, in turn, is responsible for bringing the product to a Trader Joe’s distribution center. At the distribution center, trucks leave on daily resupply trips to local stores. Because the stores are relatively small, there is little room for excess inventory, and orders from distribution centers need to be incredibly precise. This quick and efficient distribution process is directly responsible for helping the company identify where to locate new retail stores. Trader Joe’s will only enter markets where the region has a distribution infrastructure that allows it to efficiently resupply products to stores. They did not open stores, for instance, in Florida or Texas—both large, lucrative markets—because the distribution networks were not yet strong enough to support their strategy.[1] [2] Trader Joe’s strategy of implementing a low-cost and efficient distribution network has contributed to the democratization of gourmet foods by making them more readily available to customers at all income levels. You can see that the distribution strategy for each company has an effect on where they open stores, how they price their products, which customers will buy, and who will have access to gourmet foods. In this module, you’ll learn more about distribution strategies and their role in the marketing mix. - Lewis, Len. The Trader Joe’s Adventure: Turning a Unique Approach to Business to a Retail and Cultural Phenomenon. 2005 - http://www.traderjoes.com/our-story/timeline Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Why It Matters: Place: Distribution Channels. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Shared previously - Trader Joe's vs. Whole Foods Market: A Comparison of Operational Management. Provided by: MIT Sloan School. Located at: http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-768-management-of-services-concepts-design-and-delivery-fall-2010/projects/MIT15_768F10_paper05.pdf. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike All rights reserved content - Video: Forager, Elly Truesell, Whole Foods Market. Provided by: WholeFoodsMarket. Located at: https://youtu.be/vgpugYqyKBM. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.088863	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91233/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Place: Distribution Channels, Why it Matters", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91226/overview	Learning Hacks Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Learning Hacks: The Myth of Multitasking The Hack Multitasking is actually not possible for humans; what we think of as multitasking is really just switching our attention between tasks Remove distractions before you study as distractions result in decreased learning The Story You just finished dinner and you finally sit down with your digital textbook to study when you get a text from a friend. You check your phone and it turns out you actually have 3 unread texts! After answering the first friend, you go back and read your other messages, replying as you come to them. You and your friends send a few texts back and forth, and one sends a hilarious gif. You laugh out loud and have to share it with another friend, so you open up your social media to share it. When you open your social media you see a few unread notifications so you check out your notifications and then scroll your feed for a little bit to see if there is anything new going on. You suddenly realize you forgot to share the gif, so you find your friend and send them the gif. You look up from your phone for a second and you see your digital textbook, still waiting for you to study, and you realize you spent the last 20 minutes distracted from studying. You put your phone away and decide to start studying. Multitasking is frequently defined as doing two things at the same time, but it is actually impossible for your brain to focus on two things at the same time. If you think you are a really good multitasker, you might be a great task switcher, but you cannot attend to two different stimuli at the same time. Task switching is simply repeatedly switching what you pay attention to (like two different tasks), but you are only paying attention to one thing at a time. For example, I can talk on the phone while I drive, but this isn’t multitasking because I can only focus on either driving or talking, not both at the same time. This is actually kind of dangerous because task switching impedes task performance. This means I am slightly worse at talking on the phone and slightly worse at driving while I am task switching between the two. In this case, task switching could affect my driving which could have deadly consequences. The Research Kaitlyn May and Anastasia Elder conducted a literature review study in 2018 that examined 38 articles from 2003 to 2017 that researched the effect of task switching on learning. They found that trying to do too many things at the same time resulted in less effective learning, lower exam scores, and decreased study efficiency. The Source May, K. E., & Elder, A. D. (2018). Efficient, helpful, or distracting? A literature review of media multitasking in relation to academic performance. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 13. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Learning Hacks: The Myth of Multitasking. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Image of woman burned out by multitasking. Authored by: Gerd Altmann. Located at: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/woman-burnout-multitasking-face-1733891/. License: Other. License Terms: Pixabay License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.111311	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91226/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Pricing Strategies, Learning Hacks", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91214/overview	Name Selection Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Name Selection What you’ll learn to do: explain the importance of name selection in the success of a brand How important is naming in the success of a brand? Very important. Consider the function of a brand name: It identifies a product, service, or company and differentiates it from competitors. But it does much more than that. It can generate attention or make something utterly forgettable. It can evoke positive or negative feelings and emotions. It can capture the imagination or drive someone to boredom. It can make a remarkable or unremarkable first impression. Naming can be difficult in the crowded, increasingly global marketplace in which businesses operate today. As you understand the role of naming and the systematic process for selecting a new brand name, you can help lead your organization in making wise, informed choices about this essential element of branding. The specific things you’ll learn in this section include: - Discuss the connection between brand and name - Outline key steps in the naming process Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Name Selection Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Name Selection. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Name Selection What’s in a (Brand) Name? A brand identifies a company, product, or service as distinct from the competition. The brand is comprised of all the things that create this identity. A brand’s name is an essential part of the package. A brand name may be a product name (like Windows or Gmail), or it may be the name under which the entire organization operates (like Microsoft or Google). Because the name is so central to identity, naming a brand is an integral part of creating the brand’s reputation, development, and future success. To some extent, a brand name amounts to whatever an organization makes of it: this is the genius of brand building and marketing strategy. Unlikely names have, on occasion, become powerhouse brands, and well-named brands have fizzled out. Naming is important because an ill-conceived or poorly chosen name can torpedo an organization’s chances. At the same time, a great name alone isn’t enough to guarantee success. Naming a Brand Apple iPod line as of 2014. From left to right: iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano, iPod Touch. iPod is one of Apple’s products named with the distinctive “i.” Selecting a brand name is one of the most important product decisions a seller makes. A brand name reflects the overall product image, positioning, and, ideally, its benefits. A successful brand name can enable a product to be meaningfully advertised and distinguished from competitors; tracked down by consumers; and given legal protection. At its best, a brand can provide a carryover effect when customers are able to associate quality products with an established brand name. Attention to naming also helps customers associate products within the same brand family. For example, Apple names its mobile products with a lowercase i—for example, iPad, iPod, iPhone. Starbucks names its coffee sizes in Italian. Remember that legally protectable brand names are mandatory if an organization plans to produce mass advertising for their product or service. Once an organization starts using a new brand name, it may encounter other organizations’ claim to own the rights to that name and threaten legal action. To avoid the risks and potential expense associated with legal challenges to a brand name, it is important to use a thorough, systematic process for selecting a brand name. Selecting a Naming Strategy Before you start brainstorming new brand names and registering domain names, the company should evaluate which naming/branding policy to pursue for the new offering and choose one the following three viable options. This process helps determine whether you even need a new brand name. - Strategy 1: Own Brand. A strict branding policy under which a company only produces products and services using its own brand. In this scenario, you need a new brand name. - Strategy 2: Private-Label Brand. An exclusive distributor’s brand policy in which a producer does not have a brand of his own but agrees to sell his products only to a particular distributor and carry that distributor’s brand name (typically employed by private brands). In this scenario, the new offering will carry the distributor’s brand name, so you don’t need to create your own new brand. - Strategy 3: Mixed Brand. A mixed-brand policy allows both own-branded and private-label versions of the offering. In this scenario, you need a new brand name for the own-branded product, and the distributor’s version of the product will carry the distributor’s brand name. Steps to Develop a New Brand Name Once you have confirmed that you need a new brand name, you should follow a systematic approach to developing and selecting one, as described below: - Define what you’re naming. Define the personality and distinctive attributes of the company or product to be named. - Check the landscape. Scan the competitive landscape to identify brand names already active in the category, in order to avoid selecting a name that would easily be confused with competitors. - Brainstorm ideas. Engage a naming team to brainstorm ideas and generate potential brand names. Due to the challenges of identifying a unique, protectable name in today’s global market, the naming team should include some members with prior naming experience. Often companies hire specialty naming firms to add creative power and expertise to the process. The team should generate lots of ideas, knowing that the vast majority will fall out during the screening process. - Screen and knock out problematic names. Screen favorite names to make sure they are available to use perceptually (no mind-share conflicts with other known brands), legally (no trademark conflicts) and linguistically (no problems in translation). - Perceptual screening: Start the screening process with thorough Google searches on the names being considered in order to eliminate any that could easily be confused with established players in your product or service category, or a related category. If an established brand name is similar in terms of phonetics (sound), spelling, root word, or meaning, there is probably a conflict. Check with a trademark attorney if you have questions. - Legal screening: The next screening process is to evaluate potential conflicts with registered trademarks that exist in the product or service categories in question. Each country has its own trademark registry, so this search must be performed in each country where you expect to do business using this brand name. While anyone can attempt this process, due to the legal complexities of global trademark law, it’s advisable to engage an experienced trademark attorney to review the names, conduct an authoritative search, and provide legal clearance for the short list of final names. To learn more about this process, check out the freely available U.S. Patent & Trademark Office (USPTO) Trademark Electronic Search Service (TESS) trademark search tools. - Linguistic screening: If you plan to use the brand name in different countries and languages, a linguistic screening is a must. Use a naming firm or a linguistic screening firm to screen your final, short-listed name candidates with native speakers from the countries where you plan to operate. The linguistic screening can help you avoid blunders like GM rushing to rename the Buick LaCrosse sedan in Canada when it learned that the word crosse means either rip-off or masturbation in Quebec French, depending on the context.1 - Check domain name and social media availability. If you want to operate a Web site or social media using your new brand name, you will need an Internet domain name for your Web site, as well as social media accounts. As you are refining your short list of cleared names, check on the availability of domain names and social media handles. If you’re lucky, a clear .com domain will be available to reserve or purchase at a reasonable price, and a clear Twitter name will also be available. Here are some tips for navigating this process: - Use a reputable registry to check availability. When you’re checking on domain-name availability, don’t just google domain names at random. Instead, use a reputable domain-name registry like Godaddy.com or Register.com. When you use Google or other standard search engines, Internet bots track this activity to detect interest in unregistered domain names. Unscrupulous Internet profiteers buy up these domains and then offer them for resale at a significant markup. When you decide to reserve your domain names, be sure to use reputable registries in all the countries where you plan to operate. - Look at variations of your chosen name(s). Consider reserving domain-name variations of your chosen brand name(s), either because the original names you want are not available, or because you may want to control close variations to avoid letting them fall into the hands of competitors or Internet profiteers. For example, if your chosen brand name is “Chumber,” you may find that chumber.com has been taken, but chumber.net, chumber.org, and chumbercompany.com are all available. Although you don’t need all of these, you might choose to register them so that no one else can “own” the names and make mischief for you. For social media account names, if your first choice isn’t available, explore variations—perhaps a shortened version of your desired name. Remember, for services such as Twitter, shorter names fit better into the limited length of social media posts. - Check out your Internet “neighbors.” For any domain names that are not available according to a reputable domain-name registry, do google them to see where they take you. Some may be operated by other businesses, while others may be “parked” and inoperative. Before you settle on a final domain name for your brand, make sure you investigate where common misspellings of your name might take site visitors. For example, an education technology company seriously considered the brand name “OpenMind” and the domain openmind.com until a marketing team member discovered that a variant spelling, openminded.com, would take prospective site visitors to an adult entertainment Web site. - Reserve domains in geographies where you plan to do business. Consider whether to reserve domain names using different extensions. In other words, not just yourbrand.com, but also other extensions including those in other countries where you plan to operate: yourbrand.mx for Mexico, yourbrand.cn for China, yourbrand.ca for Canada, and so forth. If you plan to do business in multiple countries, it is wise to reserve domain names in each of the countries that are strategically important to your company. - Customer-test your final short-listed names. It is always wise to conduct market research to test short-listed names among your target customers. This gives you insight into how they will hear, interpret, and think about the names you are considering. Customer testing can reveal nuances or connotations of a name that didn’t occur to the naming team earlier–for better or for worse. Customer testing results can also be a great tie-breaker if the naming team is split between finalists. - Make your final selection. Ultimately the naming team should select the name with the most potential for creating a strong, differentiated brand, combined with the least risk from a trademark ownership perspective. - Take steps to get trademark protection for your new brand. Once a final name is chosen, engage a trademark attorney to file a trademark or service mark registration for the new brand. Ask for legal counsel on where to register your marks based on where you plan to operate globally. While this step may seem expensive and time-consuming, it can protect you and diminish risk for the organization if your brand name is ever challenged legally. Down the road, it is easier to enter into licensing and other types of agreements if a brand name is registered. Licensing can be a lucrative strategy for strong brands. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and adaptation. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Shared previously - Branding, from Introduction to Business. Authored by: Linda Williams and Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.candelalearning.com/masterybusiness2xngcxmasterfall2015/chapter/reading-branding-labeling-and-packaging/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hello, My Name Is Opportunity. Authored by: One Way Stock. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/paulbrigham/8423157044/. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives - The iPod Line. Authored by: Kyro. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPod_line_as_of_2014.png. License: CC BY: Attribution - RCMP in Formal Dress. Authored by: Kris Kru00fcg. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/kk/100453947/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Registered Trademark Symbol. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/registered-trademark-brand-sign-98574/. License: CC0: No Rights Reserved	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.143799	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91214/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Name Selection", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93473/overview	Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness Why Measure? Measurement is an important aspect of marketing campaigns and other marketing activity. Measurement makes some people very nervous because it brings accountability into marketing activity. In fact, this step can be one of a marketer’s best friends. If you don’t measure the impact of your marketing efforts, you’ll have no idea whether what you are doing is effective or not. On the other hand, if you do measure the impact, it will help you understand what is working, and where and how to improve your efforts. By nature, marketing is a dynamic field because markets change and people change. What works beautifully this year may be a complete flop next year, and vice versa. Measurement–and the results or “metrics” this process collects–are like a compass that helps marketers adjust course so they can reach their goals more quickly and effectively. Deciding What to Measure Measuring just for the sake of having numbers misses the whole point. It’s actually essential to determine the right things to measure first, if you want to get a relevant picture of what’s happening. To do this, marketers typically go through a process of identifying key performance indicators (often called KPIs). A KPI is something measurable that indicates the progress an organization is making toward its business objectives. The KPI is not the same as the actual company goal or objective; instead it is something measurable that helps managers understand how well they are progressing toward the goal. To understand the importance of KPIs, let’s say you are a track coach who wants to capture data about the sprinters on your team. You could measure all sorts of things about the athletes: their shoe size, how many cups of sweat they produce during a typical workout, how fast their hearts beat during a race, and so on. Would all those measurements be key performance indicators? Maybe not. You might decide that the key performance indicators for sprinters are their best running times and their average running times (or something else). In a company, KPIs can be determined for many different levels of the organization. These are described below: - Company-level KPIs indicate the overall company performance on company-wide goals, in terms of total revenue, profitability, customer-satisfaction rating, market share, or percentage of growth in the customer base. - Department-level KPIs track performance at the department level. For the marketing department, it might be brand awareness, the number of qualified new leads generated, cost per lead generated, or the conversion rate: the percentage of leads who are converted into customers. - Team-level KPIs track the impact and effectiveness of a team’s activities. A team focused on digital marketing, for example, might track KPIs such as email-marketing click rates, the number of Web-site visits, or SEO sales conversion rate: the percentage of individuals who come to the Web site via a search engine and result in a sale. - Campaign-level KPIs track the impact of individual campaigns. By tracking similar metrics across multiple campaigns, it is easy to see which ones are most effective with target audiences and then use this information to refine tactics and replicate successful approaches. Campaign-level KPIs are somewhat dependent on the campaign design; for example, campaigns typically track the “open” rate: i.e., how many people open an email message once it is delivered. If a campaign doesn’t use email, the open rate doesn’t exist. However, there are some “common denominator” campaign metrics marketers can track across IMC activities to determine impact and progress. Cost per impression, impressions per campaign, and conversion rate are metrics that can be tracked for virtually any campaign. - Marketing tactic-level KPIs track the effectiveness of individual marketing tactics and tools. For example, content-marketing KPIs track the effectiveness of individual content pieces used on a Web site and in IMC campaigns. These metrics, such as page views per article and number of social media shares provide insight for marketers about which types of content are most popular with target customers and which content pieces get little interest. Different companies select different sets of KPIs, depending on what they are trying to accomplish and the strategies they are pursuing to reach their goals. At any given level, it is important to limit the total number of KPIs to those that are most essential and indicative of progress. If too many things are measured, managers have trouble prioritizing and homing in on what is most important. In addition to KPIs–which represent key, strategic indicators of progress–a company may also track a variety of other metrics to inform its operations. Alignment with Goals and Objectives Figuring out what to measure starts with considering the organization’s overall goals and objectives, as well as the marketing team’s goals and objectives. The highest-level KPIs should tell managers about how well marketing is doing at meeting its goals as a team, and how the team is contributing to the organization’s overall performance. KPIs may reflect absolute figures, such as total market share. Or they may track progress toward a target, such as progress toward achieving 1,500 new customers over the course of a year. KPIs should provide information to guide managers in their decision making about what is working and where to adjust course. It is helpful for an organization to define a standard set of KPIs for measuring the effectiveness of marketing campaigns and for the contributions made by different functions within the marketing organization: public relations, advertising, social media marketing, etc. When marketers define S.M.A.R.T. goals at the outset of a campaign, these goals may incorporate KPIs to confirm what the campaign aspires to achieve and how well it does at achieving these goals. KPIs for awareness-building campaigns, for example, should be focused on campaign reach, such as number of impressions or post-campaign brand awareness. Managers should be attentive to how many KPIs they are tracking to ensure that measurement remains a useful activity rather than a burden that cuts into the productivity and effectiveness of the broader team. Fortunately, as marketing becomes more data rich and technology driven, many KPI-type metrics are calculated automatically by systems that support the marketing function, making them readily available. Tools are also available that create dashboards for marketing managers and team members to help them easily monitor KPIs on an ongoing basis. Defining the Metric Every marketing metric or KPI requires some type of measurement, and it should be based on legitimate data. When marketers define a KPI, they should also define what data will be used to calculate the KPI, as well as the source of that data. At times, different people or teams might have different assumptions about how to calculate the metric, so it is wise to clarify this during the definitional stage. It isn’t uncommon for people to identify KPIs and then discover that they don’t have ready access to the information needed for measurement. This can be a good motivator for defining a process to obtain that information. Or it can be a cue that perhaps a different KPI based on more readily available information would be a better option. When to Measure When to measure depends on what is readily available for marketers and managers to track and maintain. If it takes a lot of manual effort to generate a KPI report, or managers are spending hours per day or week compiling and reporting metrics, it could significantly cut into productive work time—and it might be wise to investigate alternatives. Fortunately, CRM and other systems that build KPI dashboard reports into their regular, day-to-day functions are readily available. In these cases, systems automatically calculate KPIs, which makes them easy to monitor over time and adjust course as needed. Typically managers should monitor KPIs at least once per quarter, in order to gauge progress and learn what’s working and how to improve. Video: Defining KPIs The following video provides an overview of different types of key performance indicators and the process of defining them. Examples of Key Performance Indicators Different types of KPIs focus on measuring progress and effectiveness in different areas related to marketing. In fact, hundreds of possible KPIs exist, so marketing managers should figure out which ones matter most for achieving their goals and focus attention accordingly. The section and table below lists a variety of KPIs that apply to different aspects of marketing communications and the marketing function generally. Marketing-Related Business Objectives Sample KPIs Sales/Revenue Generation Sample KPIs - Total sales/revenue - New/incremental sales revenue - Profitability - Average revenue per customer - New customer acquisition - Number of customers - Customer retention - Number of registrations/sign-ups Market Share Sample KPIs - Market share in category - Relative market share (share relative to largest competitor). Lead Generation Sample KPIs - Number of qualified leads - Cost per lead (by source/platform) - Traffic source breakdown. Build Brand Sample KPIs - Brand awareness - Brand equity - Price premium - Brand valuation - Share of voice: mentions of your brand/mentions of others - Brand community membership. Foster Dialogue Sample KPIs - Audience engagement - Share of voice: mentions of your brand/mentions of others - Conversion reach. Develop Customer Advocates Sample KPIs - Active advocates - Advocate influence - Advocacy impact - Online review ratings. Customer Support Sample KPIs - Resolution rate - Resolution time - Satisfaction score - Net Promoter Score (NPS). Innovation Sample KPIs - Topic Trends - Sentiment Ratio - Idea Impact. \| Business Objective \| KPI Examples \| \|---\|---\| \| Sales/Revenue Generation \| Total sales/revenue New/incremental sales revenue Profitability Average revenue per customer New customer acquisition Number of customers Customer retention Number of registrations/sign-ups \| \| Market Share \| Market share in category Relative market share (share relative to largest competitor) \| \| Lead Generation \| Number of qualified leads Cost per lead (by source/platform) Traffic source breakdown \| \| Build Brand \| Brand awareness Brand equity Price premium Brand valuation Share of voice: mentions of your brand/mentions of others Brand community membership \| \| Foster Dialogue \| Audience engagement Share of voice: mentions of your brand/mentions of others Conversion reach \| \| Develop Customer Advocates \| Active advocates Advocate influence Advocacy impact Online review ratings \| \| Customer Support \| Resolution rate Resolution time Satisfaction score Net Promoter Score (NPS) \| \| Innovation \| Topic Trends Sentiment Ratio Idea Impact \| Marketing Communications Activity Sample KPIs Reach: Campaigns, Owned Media, Earned Media, Social Media, Marketing Content Sample KPIs Impressions Potential Reach: Followers, Fans, Subscribers Confirmed Reach: Views, Post/Page Views, Video Views Hits/visits/views Repeat Visits Conversion rates (from visitor or buyer) Buzz indicators (web mentions) Net Promoter Score (NPS) Customer acquisition cost Engagement: Owned Media, Earned Media, Social Media, Marketing Content Sample KPIs Likes/Stars/Hearts Comments Shares Retweets/Reposts Positive/negative sentiment Impressions Cost per click (CPC) Cost per impression (CPM) Click-thru-rate (CTR) Customer Retention Cost Profits per customer Customer acquisition cost Paid Media: Advertising Sample KPIs Impressions Cost per click (CPC) Cost per impression (CPM) Click-thru-rate (CTR) Customer Retention Cost Profits per customer Customer acquisition cost SEO/Web Site Sample KPIs SEO keyword ranking SEO sales conversion rate Number of unique visitors Total sessions/visits Average time on site/page Email Marketing Sample KPIs Open rate Click-thru-rate (CTR) Bounce rate Unsubscribe rate Public Relations Sample KPIs Advertising value equivalency Clip/article counting Brand mentions \| Marketing Activity/Tool \| KPI Examples \| \|---\|---\| \| Reach: Campaigns, Owned Media, Earned Media, Social Media, Marketing Content \| Impressions Potential Reach: Followers, Fans, Subscribers Confirmed Reach: Views, Post/Page Views, Video Views Hits/visits/views Repeat Visits Conversion rates (from visitor or buyer) Buzz indicators (web mentions) Net Promoter Score (NPS) Customer acquisition cost \| \| Engagement: Owned Media, Earned Media, Social Media, Marketing Content \| Likes/Stars/Hearts Comments Shares Retweets/Reposts Positive/negative sentiment \| \| Paid Media (advertising) \| Impressions Cost per click (CPC) Cost per impression (CPM) Click-thru-rate (CTR) Customer Retention Cost Profits per customer Customer acquisition cost \| \| SEO/Web site \| SEO keyword ranking SEO sales conversion rate Number of unique visitors Total sessions/visits Average time on site/page \| \| Email Marketing \| Open rate Click-thru-rate (CTR) Bounce rate Unsubscribe rate \| \| Public Relations \| Advertising value equivalency Clip/article counting Brand mentions \| Campaign Metrics Case Study: Citizen Watch Citizen, one of the world’s largest makers of wristwatches, embarked on a digital marketing strategy to build its brand using social media, with a specific focus on expanding its presence on Facebook. The marketing team’s goal for the first year was to gain 100,000 followers on Facebook. Their campaign strategy focused on offering engagement opportunities that pushed people to Facebook to interact with the brand. It incorporated a combination of tactics that included offline and online elements, such as a series of register-to-win contests like a “Win Your Mum a Watch” giveaway. It also offered related online engagement opportunities, like interactive photo galleries on the company Web site for people to browse, with new products to view and share on social media. To help gauge their progress and understand how well different dimensions of the campaign were working, they tracked a variety of metrics, with one KPI being the number of Facebook followers. Over the course of the campaign, they had impressive results. In addition to blowing through their goal of getting 100,000 followers, Citizen saw the following results from consumers who participated in campaign activities: - 76 percent lead-submission rate - 82 percent app-completion rate - 26 percent social-share rate By tracking these metrics across different offers and campaigns, Citizen was able to gauge which activities were the best received and use this information to improve the effectiveness of future campaigns. The company has used these insights to expand promotional activities to other forms of social media and other types of engagement activities.[1] Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Examples of Key Performance Indicators. Authored by: Melissa Barker. Provided by: Spokane Falls Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution - Reading: Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Citizen Watch. Authored by: Kansai explorer. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Citizen_Attesa_Eco-Drive_ATV53-3023_02.JPG. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Compass Illustration. Authored by: Alan Klim. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/igraph/8231264538/. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - What Are Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)?. Authored by: Bernard Marr. Located at: https://youtu.be/9Co8slUvYj0. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license Self Check: Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness Check Your Understanding Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times. Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section. Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Self Check: Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.197324	06/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93473/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Promotion: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Measuring Marketing Communication Effectiveness", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91215/overview	Packaging Overview Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Outcome: Packaging What you’ll learn to do: discuss the role of packaging in the brand-building process Imagine yourself standing in the aisle of a grocery store, scanning the shelves and trying to decide which product brand to buy. What catches your eye? What makes you pick something and take a closer look? What influences your decision to drop it into your basket . . . or return it to the shelf? This critical moment for brands and the purchasing process is often won or lost because of packaging. According to Marty Neumeier in his book The Brand Gap, “A retail package is the last and best chance to make a sale.”1 In this section, we’ll explore how packaging can play a powerful role in shaping consumer perceptions of brands and influencing buying decisions. Learning Activities The learning activities for this section include the following: - Reading: Packaging Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Outcome: Packaging. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution Reading: Packaging Creating the Perfect Package Product packaging is an underappreciated hero in the marketing world. Packaging is supremely functional: it protects the product. It contains the product. It displays the product. It promotes the product. Its design and labeling communicate about the product. And the package itself can even increase the product’s utility, making it better suited to however the customer wants to use it. If packaging does all these things, why is it undervalued? As a marketing tool, packaging often feels low-tech and old-school in the information age. It’s just not as sexy as Web sites, events, or social media—and yet, it remains a staple of the purchasing environment. With the increased emphasis on self-service marketing at supermarkets, drugstores, and even department stores, the role of packaging is significant. For example, in a typical supermarket a shopper passes about six hundred items per minute—or one item every tenth of a second. Thus, the only way to get some consumers to notice a product is by in-store displays, shelf hangers, tear-off coupon blocks, other point-of-purchase devices, or, last but not least, effective packages.1 Packaging provides an opportunity for a product to jump out and differentiate itself on the crowded, viciously competitive shelves of supermarkets, drugstores, department stores, and other retailers. Every single customer who buys a product inevitably interacts with the packaging, which is what makes it such a potentially powerful touch point. The Roles Packaging Can Play Marketers invest a great deal on motivational research, color testing, psychological manipulation, and so on in order to learn how the majority of consumers will react to a new package. Based on the results of this research, past experience, and the current and anticipated decisions of competitors, marketers determine what primary role the package will play relative to the product. They determine which of the following needs to be included: - Quality Example: One Dutch packaging company developed a cardboard package design for fresh produce sold in the Netherlands and exported to other countries. The decorative elements were based on world-famous, collectible Delft blue porcelain, to convey high quality and desirability.2 - Safety Example: Product protection and child-proofing are standard features in the packaging of Tylenol, Benadryl, Children’s Motrin, and other over-the-counter drugs. - Instruction Example: Dosage information for drugs and “how to use this product” information for a variety of appliances, devices, and other products helps ensure that consumers use products responsibly and as intended. - Legal compliance Example: The U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) maintains strict regulations about the types of information food companies must disclose on their product labels: ingredients, calorie counts, nutritional information, serving size and servings per container, and so forth. - Distinction Example: Packaging can be distinctive as a familiar, favored brand: the Coca-Cola or Heinz Ketchup bottles, the Campbell’s Soup can, the Kleenex tissue box. Alternatively, designers may use color, shape, materials, labeling and other packaging features to convey something is new, different or improved. - Affordability Example: In packaged goods, packaging simplicity and plainness—for generic and store-brand products—often suggests greater affordability in the minds of consumers. - Convenience Example: Resealable packages have been a welcome, convenient packaging innovation for a variety of products, from baby wipes to sliced bologna to snack foods. - Aesthetic beauty Example: Perfume manufacturers devote extensive time and attention to making beautiful, distinctive designs for perfume bottles and packaging. One estimate suggests that for each $100 bottle of perfume, the manufacturer’s expense for the bottle and packaging is $10. Meanwhile, their expense for the bottle’s contents is only about $2.3 - Improved utility Example: Packaging single-serving yogurt or applesauce in tubes rather than traditional packages makes them usable in more settings and circumstances because they are less messy and no longer require spoons or a table-top to be able to eat them effectively. - Sustainability Example: Environmentally-friendly packaging can create brand preference from consumers who are conscious about their carbon footprints. Using fewer chemical-based inks and dyes, less wasteful packaging design, and preference for recycled and recyclable materials all set products apart as “green” and eco-friendly. Matching the Package to the Product . . . and the Consumer Clearly delineating the role of the product should lead to the actual design of the package: its color, size, texture, location of trademark, name, product information, and promotional materials. Market leaders in the dry food area, such as cake mixes, have established a tradition of recipes on the package. However, there are many package-related questions. Do the colors complement one another? Are you taking advantage of consumer confusion by using a package design similar to that of the market leader? Can the product be made for an acceptable cost? Can it be transported, stored, and shelved properly? Is there space for special promotional deals? Finally, various versions of the product will be tested in the market. How recognizable is the package? Is it distinctive? Aesthetically pleasing? Acceptable by dealers? Packaging designers can be extremely creative when it comes to incorporating multiple requirements into the container design. The key is to understand what factors most influence customer decisions about what to buy. For a given purchase situation, any of the factors above–or a combination of them–might help a consumer settle on which product to buy. In some product categories, the promoting the package has become almost as important—if not more important—than promoting product performance. This is true for products as diverse as powdered and soft drinks, margarine, perfumes, and pet foods. In the case of Pringles, the stacked potato chip made by Procter & Gamble, a package had to be designed that would protect a very delicate product. Hence the Pringles can. When it introduced Pringles to the market, Procter & Gamble took a risk that retailers and consumers would be open to something new. Packaging and Brand Loyalty Packaging is one dimension of a brand that can contribute to customer loyalty. Familiar or aesthetically pleasing packaging can simplify the buying process in customers’ minds. The package is a clear extension of the brand, and brands with strongly loyal fans (or “tribes,” as they are sometimes called) may create significant brand equity associated with the package. GAP’s 2010 Logo An interesting example of this phenomenon is actually a brand misstep on the part of clothing manufacturer Gap. In “8 of the Biggest Marketing Faux Pas of All Time,” Amanda Sibley describes what happened when Gap introduced a new logo in October 2010. The company was trying to make its image more contemporary and hip. How long did the logo last? A whopping two days. Gap quickly put the old logo back into place after unbelievable backlash from the public. Gap, known for everyday basics, tried to redo their image to appeal to a more hip crowd. Unfortunately, they didn’t understand who their target market is—people who want the basics and aren’t interested in trendy styles. Their loyal customers felt that Gap was changing their image for the worse and lost a connection with the brand. Gap was also unsuccessful at attracting the younger, trendy generation with the redesign (albeit only a two-day redesign), resulting in a failure on two fronts with this new logo. It wasn’t so awful for Gap to pursue a logo redesign, the lesson is simply to stay in touch with your buyer personas so you can ensure your new design reflects them. Marketers focus a lot on metrics—for good reasons—but never underestimate your audience’s feelings toward your brand. They’re harder to quantify, sure, but boy will people speak out when their sensibilities are offended.4 - William O. Bearden and Michael G. Etzel, "Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Choice,"Journal of Consumer Research, September 1982, pp. 183–194. - “Communicating Quality through Packaging.” DS Smith, June 30, 2014. http://www.dssmith.com/packaging/about/media/news-press-releases/2014/6/communicating-quality-through-packaging/. - Thau, Barbara. “Behind the Spritz: What Really Goes Into a Bottle of $100 Perfume.” AOL.com. AOL, July 22, 2012. https://www.aol.com/2012/05/22/celebrity-perfume-cost-breakdown/. - Amanda Sibley, "8 of the Biggest Marketing Faux Pas of All Time," HubSpot, July 17, 2012, http://blog.hubspot.com/blog/tabid/6307/bid/33396/8-of-the-Biggest-Marketing-Faux-Pas-of-All-Time.aspx Licenses and Attributions CC licensed content, Original - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously - Chapter 7: Introducing and Managing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by: John Burnett. Provided by: Global Text. Located at: http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License: CC BY: Attribution - Little Pringle. Authored by: Christopher Michel. Located at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/cmichel67/39944369/. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content - Image: Royal Fruitmasters Holland Box. Located at: http://www.dssmith.com/packaging/about/media/news-press-releases/2014/6/communicating-quality-through-packaging/. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use - Image: Versace Bright Crystal Perfume. Provided by: Versace. Located at: https://www.tripleclicks.com/detail.php?item=404322. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Fair Use Public domain content - Gap Logos. Provided by: Gap Inc. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.229713	03/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91215/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Principles of Marketing, Branding, Packaging", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54517/overview	Mini-lecture: Drawing Lewis structures using Connect the Dots Mini-lecture: Exceptions to the Octet Rule Mini-lecture: How to assign formal charge Mini-lecture: How to draw Lewis structures for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone Mini-lecture: how to identify valence electrons Mini-Lecture: Lewis structures with multiple bonds (oxygen and nitrogen) Ted Ed: How Atoms Bond Lewis Structures Overview This multi-part module introduces covalent bonding and Lewis structures as a model of covalent bonding. Starting with valence electrons, a method of connecting unpaired electrons and/or redistributing valence electrons to satisfy the octet rule is introduced. Numerous examples are presented including CO, ozone, and polyatomic ions Identifying valence electrons and introduction to bonding Before we can start drawing Lewis structures, we need to identify how many valence electrons (the ones typically involved in covalent bonding) each element has. The mini-lecture includes two tools to identify valence electrons. The Ted Ed video provides an introduction to bonding. How to Draw a Lewis Structure This set of mini-lectures shows an alternative method to drawing Lewis structures rather than the traditional: add up all valence electrons, attach all atoms with a single bond and subtract 2 electrons per bond, etc. This mini-lecture shows a method for drawing Lewis structures that is different from the typical approach of summing all the valence electrons and distributing out 2 at a time as bonds and lone pairs. Additional mini-lectures are attached, which show more examples including exceptions to the octet rule, polyatomic ions and atypical bonding examples (ie: carbon monoxide). How to Assign Formal Charge In the video, we eschew the typical format of the Formal Charge equation and simplify into: FC = # valence electrons - # lines - # dots lines = covalent bond in the Lewis structure dots = lone pair (individual) electrons Students get confused based on the various ways this formula is written, so we simplify to a visual model. Now that we have a basic method for drawing Lewis structures, how to we pick the most accurate one if we can draw multiple structures that follow our rules? Assigning Formal Charge helps us to identify the most reasonable Lewis structure.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.255570	05/20/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54517/overview", "title": "Lewis Structures", "author": "Amy Petros" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/35130/overview	The Argumentative Essay (and its components) Overview The fundamentals of the argumentative essay (the gateway essay to all college level writing!). Argumentative Essay - What is it and what’s in it? An argumentative essay is a type of writing that prompts the student to investigate a topic, as well as find, collect, and evaluate evidence (quotes from sources), and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner (create a thesis statement). It is crucial to remember that when you create a thesis statement: Your thesis statement should be one to two sentences. Your thesis statement should clearly present the main idea of your essay and make some kind of assertion (even if that assertion is about bringing two sides together). Your thesis should not make an “announcement” about what your essay will cover. Instead, it should just present your assertion. For example, a thesis that makes an announcement would look like: “In this paper, I will persuade you to vote for candidates who support education reform.” Thesis Statement Placement - Where does this go? While there is no such thing as a “required” place for your thesis statement, most academic essays will present the thesis statement early on, usually near the end of the introduction. There is a reason for this. Audience members are more likely to understand and absorb each point as readers if you have told them, in advance, what they should be getting out of your essay. *Your thesis statement is the most important sentence in your essay. It’s your chance to make sure your audience really understands your point. Be sure your assertion and your writing style are clear. How Does This Essay Look? First, you'll begin with an introduction. Here, you'll create a topic sentence that alludes to what you’ll be talking about, then, you’ll introduce background information about the topic, and you'll do so in a way that captures your reader. Next, you’ll introduce your claim (your thesis statement). EX Introduction: Weight in society has always played a role, but in more recent years, the stigma behind this has escalated to a whole new realm in regard to body shaming. The media, in its entirety, has managed to manipulate the public into perceiving beauty to be a certain way. Although beauty is subjective, the term in the media, has a razor thin line for its qualifications, and because of this, people are subjected to jumping to drastic extremes of dieting in order to meet its standard. Body Paragraphs You’ll follow your introduction with body paragraphs. These paragraphs are where you'll introduce your points (the claims you've made in your thesis), followed by specific evidence (quotes) that support them. Conclusion Within your conclusion, you'll summarize your thesis and comment on the significance of your topic, tying everything together. Attributions: Adapted from: Argument and Critical Thinking - Excelsior Online Writing Lab	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.276738	11/24/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/35130/overview", "title": "The Argumentative Essay (and its components)", "author": "Becca Pincolini" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91890/overview	Reading and Creating a Visual Image Overview Students will learn how to read a visual image (a photo and a poster). Next, they will use the skills that they have learned to create a visual image that addresses audience, purpose, and medium. Reading and Creating a Visual Image Students will learn how to read a visual image (a photo and a poster). Next, they will use the skills that they have learned to create a visual image that addresses audience, purpose, and medium.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.292724	04/18/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91890/overview", "title": "Reading and Creating a Visual Image", "author": "James Massa" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93394/overview	Micrograph Staphylococcus aureus Gram stain 1000x p000029 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Staphylococcus aureus cells grown on nutrient agar at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph Dozens of dark purple, round cells on a light background.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.309920	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93394/overview", "title": "Micrograph Staphylococcus aureus Gram stain 1000x p000029", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54348/overview	How Small is an Atom? Ted Ed Using Moles and Avogadro's number as a conversion factor Moles as a conversion factor: How do we get from grams to number of atoms? Overview This module has two parts: 1- Introduction to the concept of a "mole" and Avogadro's number. 2- Application of the Mole (Avogadro's number) as a conversion factor relating mass in grams to number of atoms or molecules (formula unit for ionic compounds) Introduction to the MOLE (chemist's dozen) How do we count atoms? Since atoms are so small, we can't! We'd literally die first before we could count them all. Check out the Ted Ed video, How Small is an Atom? for a taste of the relative size of these tiny particles. So, how about using mass in grams instead? We can easily weigh things, and since every pure element or compound has its own mass based on the number of protons and neutrons, we can convert from grams to atoms or molecules. We use the MOLE, which is 6.022 x 1023 of anything. The Ted Ed video on What's a Mole? Is a great place to start. Using Avogadro's number as a conversion factor Now that you understand what moles represent and why it's useful to scale to that unit, let's explore the application of this new conversion factor. In the video, we demonstrate converting atoms to moles to grams and grams to moles to atoms. If you need a refresher on Dimensional Analysis and Unit Conversions, skip over to the module on Unit Conversions. All our same rules apply. Video also includes molar mass of compounds.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.330132	05/15/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/54348/overview", "title": "Moles as a conversion factor: How do we get from grams to number of atoms?", "author": "Amy Petros" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56814/overview	4.4 Cell structure 4.4 Cell structure The video that covers topics in Chapter 4 Openstax Biology 2e book. Topics: Plant vs. animal cells differences Organelles Differences between plant and animal cells Endosymbiotic theory The video that covers topics in Chapter 4 Openstax Biology 2e book. Topics: Plant vs. animal cells differences Organelles Differences between plant and animal cells Endosymbiotic theory	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.346644	08/09/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56814/overview", "title": "4.4 Cell structure", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88419/overview	Rubric (15 pts)-Voicethread Comment Assignment Overview 15 point Rubric for Voicethread commenting assignment with sections on Submission, Content, and Collegiality Rubric for Voicethread commenting assignment.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.363234	12/02/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88419/overview", "title": "Rubric (15 pts)-Voicethread Comment Assignment", "author": "Amy Betti" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85983/overview	CA Real Estate Practice Overview This is the reading material for the closing process in California Real Estate. It will be followed by assignments at a later date. It lays out the steps that a realtor needs to make sure take place to ensure a smooth close. The Closing Process The closing process Our learning objectives for this week are - Explain the series of events that take place during closing - Discuss responsibilities for ordering inspections and insurance, and state which party usually pays for these products or service - Describe the process for estimating seller’s net proceeds and buyer’s net cost - Understand federal and state laws that regulate settlement - Summarize the real estate agent’s role during the closing process The Steps in the Closing Process -- Steps in closing process 1. Inspections ordered by buyer or real estate agent, as soon as possible -- these are usually a termite inspection, roof inspection and a home inspection. a. Reports sent to buyer or buyer’s agent and lender - the lender only needs to see these if you have written on the contract that you are requiring them. Any time you request any thing on the contract you have to show the lender. The pitfall on this is that the lender can require repairs based on reports provided. i. Buyer, with the advice of their agent, must decide whether to request that seller make any repairs called for by report. You will need to use a "request for repairs" form. b. If seller agrees to make repairs, need to verify that repairs are adequate (via reinspection) c. Inspections: structural, electrical and plumbing, interior, pest, soil, and environmental i. Most lenders require structural pest control inspections - these are only required on VA loans who require a clearance of all items on the reports. Most lenders do not require them unless it is on the RPA. (Residentail purchase contract) ii. Usually, sellers pay for corrective repairs, and buyers for preventive ones - this is something that will be negotiated. The seller is under no obligation to pay for repairs. d. If asked, agent should give buyer at least three names of inspectors; verify credentials with business organizations e. If repairs necessary, seller and buyer negotiate costs; must also do reinspection of repairs before closing 2. Financing applied for and/or finalized by buyer a. Lender’s staff plays active role throughout closing process 3. Escrow real estate agent, with delivery of purchase agreement and EMD (ernest money deposit) 4. Escrow instructions signed by parties; may be included in purchase agreement or separate document - In California the RPA includes the escrow intructions. 5. Appraisal ordered by lender a. Lender is appraiser’s client; other parties may have to request report from lender 6. Preliminary title report ordered by closing agent; copies sent to lender and buyer, for approval and/or corrections by seller 7. Loan payoff amount requested from seller’s lender a. Using “Demand for Payoff” or “Request for Beneficiary’s Statement” form b. Escrow agent or buyer’s lender must also get figures for any other liens or judgments 8. Loan approval documents signed by buyer a. Lender sends loan documents to escrow agent, for buyer to review and sign b. After documents signed, escrow agent gives them to lender, coordinates loan funding 9. Downpayment and closing costs deposited by buyer, once all contingencies met 10. Loan funds deposited by lender 11. Title insurance policy issued by title company a. Two main types of policies i. Lender’s policy ii. Owner’s policy b. Lenders require buyers to purchase lender’s policy; protects lender’s security interest c. Owner’s policy benefits buyer; protects against undiscovered title problems i. In northern California, buyer usually pays for owner’s policy ii. In southern California, seller typically pays for policy d. Standard coverage protects against problems with matters of record, e.g., deeds, liens, and other recorded interests e. Extended coverage includes all of the above, plus problems discoverable by inspection, e.g., encroachments or adverse possession f. Homeowner’s coverage covers most of the same matters as an extended coverage policy, plus some additional issues such as violations of restrictive covenants g. Lender’s policy is always extended coverage; owner’s policies are usually homeowner’s coverage 12. Hazard insurance policy issued to buyer - this is the homeowners insurance a. Minimum policy required by lenders is usually HO-3 policy i. Protects against numerous perils; usually covers personal property, too ii. Does not cover damage from earthquakes or floods; need supplemental policy for that b. Some purchase agreement forms now have hazard insurance contingency provision 13. Settlement statements prepared by closing agent or lender 14. Documents filed for recording 15. Funds disbursed by closing agent D. Real estate agent’s role is to make sure tasks are completed, and to communicate regularly with all parties 1. If problems, agents should deal with them in a fair and direct manner 2. Agent’s role during closing just as important as negotiating sale Closing Costs: A. Some closing costs are paid by seller, some by buyer, some split - this is set County by County. Always check for what is customary for the county you are working in. 1. Settlement statement (part of the closing disclosure form) is used to list closing costs a. Preliminary and final statements prepared for seller and buyer by closing agent or lender b. Seller’s net proceeds (cash at end of sale) and buyer’s net cost (cash buyer pays at closing) depend on how closing costs are allocated i. Use software to calculate net proceeds and net cost ii. Some expenses prorated between buyer and seller, based on time, interest, or benefit B. Costs and credits 1. Debits: costs party must pay at closing 2. Credits: payments parties will (or have) receive(d) 3. Some closing costs paid to other party; others paid to third parties 4. Many costs are standard or allocated by custom; others allocated based on purchase agreement or by law C. Buyer’s net cost 1. To estimate buyer’s net cost, total debits are reduced by total credits a. Purchase price is major cost (debit); good faith deposit and financing are credits offset against purchase price, to get remainder (downpayment) needed at closing b. Closing costs usually paid by buyer include: appraisal fees, credit report fees, origination fees, discount points, prepaid (or interim) interest, lender’s title insurance, inspection fees, hazard insurance, recording fees for new mortgage c. Examples of fees split or prorated: escrow fees and property taxes 2. To pay net cost, buyer usually delivers certified check or cashier’s check (or wires money); verify with escrow agent D. Seller’s net proceeds 1. Sales price is largest credit for seller; any other credits seller will get at closing are added together, any costs (debits) subtracted 2. Examples of credits include refunds for property taxes paid in advance, or reserves remaining in impound account 3. Examples of debits a seller pays: seller financing or loan assumption, payoff of seller’s loan, interest on seller’s loan (and prepayment penalty if applicable), sales commission for broker, documentary transfer tax, escrow and recording fees 4. Examples of closing costs a seller may agree to pay include: owner’s title insurance premium, discount points (or buydown), repair costs, and attorney’s fees 5. Escrow agent may offer seller options for receiving net proceeds, e.g., cashier’s check or direct deposit - today most funds are wired.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.383594	09/19/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85983/overview", "title": "CA Real Estate Practice", "author": "Christine Foreman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86006/overview	Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education Overview The blog post series Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education was originally published on the website of the Digital Higher Education Consortium of Texas (DigiTex) and has now been compiled into a booklet for ease of use. In this series, you will find articles covering five pivotal moments in the history of digital higher education including the first "online" learning program at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon University, Project Athena at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Glenn Jones' Mind Extension University, and CALCampus, one of the first resources for online synchronous learning. Description of Resource The blog post series Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education was originally published on the website of the Digital Higher Education Consortium of Texas (DigiTex) and has now been compiled into a booklet for ease of use. In this series, you will find articles covering five pivotal moments in the history of digital higher education including the first "online" learning program at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon University, Project Athena at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Glenn Jones' Mind Extension University, and CALCampus, one of the first resources for online synchronous learning. This work is licensed CC BY 4.0 and may be freely used and adapted, with attribution to the author.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.401723	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86006/overview", "title": "Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education", "author": "History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89105/overview	Biotech Lab Techniques Manual Overview This is a laboratory manual for Biotechnology lab at the undergraduate level. Welcome Welcome to your first laboratory course in biotechnology Techniques of Instrumentation for Biotechnology (BTC-105). The course is designed for you to understand, learn and practice techniques and instruments commonly used in biotechnology. You will also learn and master labmath required to make buffers, media and dilutions related to molarity, percentage and other concentrations units. The objectives of the course are: - Understand the concepts underlying techniques & instrumentation in biotechnology. - Apply formulas to calculate, prepare and standardize various strengths of molar, normal, and percent solutions within a 10% error. - Operate instruments in the average biological, chemical, clinical, and/or analytical laboratory. - Master in Scientific presentations and writing generating lab reports using good documentation practices. - Learn to work efficiently independently as well as in teams. - Develop critical thinking and analytical abilities to perform small and big projects. Students are expected to behave professionally in a laboratory at all times. The lecture will provide background and relevant information about the solutions, prep, procedure, and related techniques. The students should plan on having the following in the lab at all times- a lab coat, close-toed shoes, and a bound lab notebook. The techniques you will learn in this course include the following - Making Buffers - Simple and serial Dilutions - pH meter - Thin layer Chromatography. - Spectrophotometer - Centrifuge - Protein estimation by Bradford. - Gel filtration chromatography - Bacterial Cell – Growth Curve, Transformation - Mammalian cell culture - Polymerase chain reaction - DNA gel - Protein gel Please make sure to ask questions if you are unaware of a certain technique or where a chemical is in teh lab. Introduction to Laboratory General Lab Organization & Procedures This module will serve as an introduction to the lab. There are different kinds of labs based on their research and work focus. The type of labs are: - Research Labs (University) – focus on a question or hypothesis related to basic science or applied research. - Applied Science Labs (Company)- to develop & make products for human diseases, drug discovery, also including biologically engineered food and medical products. - Core Labs –supports the research of others using a specific type of assay or in an area of expertise. - Clinical Labs - the majority of work in these labs supports patient care. Figure 1: Different types of scientific labs based on the research work. Laboratory Personnel work in a laboratory at different level as shown in the figure below. These levels are primarily based on the education level of individuals. So as an Associate or certificate student in Biotechnology, you will fall in the same category as undergraduate student researcher. You can find employment as lab technician. Lab Routine: It is important to understand the lab routine for any lab. In most of the labs you are expected to know what is the dress code and what personal protective equipment (PPE) you are supposed to wear. In this lab you must wear a lab coat on top of your clothes and also closed toed shoes. Every lab is different, so make sure to Before entering the lab, please ensure: - Leave the food/ drinks outside the lab. - Have your lab coat and lab notebook with you. While in the lab: - Wear your lab coat and take it off if you have to step out of the lab even for a few minutes. - Note down the name of instruments and ask if you have any doubts or questions about their usage. - Note down the readings and observations of your experiments carefully. Before leaving the lab: - Make sure that you leave your bench clean. - Use Lysol and scrub at the end of the lab work to wipe your working area. - Make sure you keep all the unused lab items back on the shelves. - Ensure that the used/dirty dishes are on the cart next to -20. (after rinsing and removing labels) - Paper and other regular trash should be in the trash can. - Chemical, media, and bacterial work-generated trash must be disposed in biohazard bags. - Make sure you wash your hands before you go. Find about the following item locations and practices before you start working: - Chemicals - First Aid box - Glassware - Fire extinguisher - Lab coats - Gloves - Trash Disposal - Computer usage LABORATORY Dos and Don'ts DO's: - Take notes - Wear lab coat and PPE as needed. - Familiarize yourself with lab - Conduct experiments carefully. - Different trash in different disposal bins. - Cleanup after you complete experiments. Don'ts: - Use cell phones. - Use reagents/ buffers without asking. - Lab coats and gloves outside the lab if directed. - No open toed shoes, shorts. Methods to reduce the risk in laboratory work: - NO eating - NO smoking - NO drinking - NO chewing gum - NO applying makeup - NO combing hair. Universal precautions in a laboratory: Universal precautions have been developed to protect health professionals - Most often applied in a clinical setting - These are also important (outside the lab) for field epidemiology practices during an outbreak investigation (e.g., collecting lab specimens) - Include hand hygiene, gloves, gown, masks, eye protection, face shields, safe injection practices - Require that all equipment or contaminated items are handled to prevent transmission of infectious agents - Special circumstances may require additional precautions - For example, protective clothing, special site decontamination Barriers There are two types of barriers in a laboratory - Primary (physical) and Secondary (structural) - Primary barriers are physical barriers or personal protective equipment (PPE) between lab workers and pathogens. - Personal Protective Equipment or "PPE" is equipment worn by lab personnel to minimize exposure to hazards in the lab. Contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards can cause injury or illness. Personal protective equipment is worn according to biosafety levels and may include gloves, safety glasses and shoes, or full body suits. - Secondary barriers are structural aspects of the laboratory that make the working environment safer against infection. For example, sinks for handwashing, special containment areas, special air ventilation patterns These barriers will vary based on the microbes (biological agents) and chemicals being handled in the laboratory. Biosafety Levels (BSL) Biosafety level is a level of the biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. - BSL-1 agents are not known to cause disease in healthy adults (Example: B. subtilis, E. coli) - BSL-2 agents are associated with human diseases derived from blood or body fluids (Example: Hepatitis B virus, C. botulinum) - BSL-3 agents have the potential for respiratory transmission and may cause severe and potentially lethal infection (Example: M. tuberculosis, C. burnetti) - BSL-4 agents are dangerous and exotic agents and have the potential to cause a high risk of life-threatening disease (Example: Ebola virus, Marburg virus) Lab Safety – Signs & Symbols Laboratory signs and symbols are vital for the safety of the lab and the lab personnel. Labs typically contain hazardous chemicals, biohazards, delicate equipment, and flammable objects. Having adequate signage helps lab personnel remind and prevent errors and accidents. The symbols are mostly self-explanatory. Some of the common lab symbols are shown below. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Diamonds and HMIS Hazardous Material Identification System) Bars are Color & Number Coded with Hazard Information. NFPA signs alert first responders to chemical hazards. DOT (Department of Transportation) Symbols Are Usually Found on Shipping Cartons. MSDS: You must know information about a chemical prior to using it. Information is provided in Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS). You can look up MSDS of a chemical online. Some labs might have it stored in a physical file. Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals can Result in acute or chronic health effects. Acute – Effects occurring within hours or days of exposure Chronic – Effects occurring after exposure over many years Physical Hazards - Fire - Bunsen Burners - Autoclaves - Compressed Gas Cylinders - Broken Glassware - Razorblades and needles - Electrical Equipment - Ultraviolet light Some terms used in the lab (do you know what these are?) : - MSDS - PPE - Sharps - BSL - Biohazard Laboratory Documentation Contents of a Lab Notebook: Every lab has its documentation style to record experimental procedures and data. In this lab, you will record experiments as you do them weekly. For every lab, you are expected to record – Date, Aim, Materials, Procedure, Results, and Conclusions. Here is the purpose of each of them. Aim – States the goal of the experiment. Material – Includes all the chemicals and biological items that are required for the experiment Procedure - Description/protocol with reference to calculations (such as molecular weight, concentrations, dilutions, etc.). All the experiment steps should be written carefully so someone can repeat that in the future and produce a similar outcome. Observation – Includes the summary of data, often in form of a table, graph or figures. Results -must include both qualitative and quantitative data. If the results are unexpected or negative, they should always be included. Conclusions – Summary of the experimental results. Pre-lab write-up is done before you begin the experiment (see below). Lab notes which include the standard operating procedure (SOP) used, the data and detailed observations you make while doing the lab, and any other comments you may want to remember or convey to others Post-lab Analysis involves any calculations, conclusions drawn, and questions answered after the lab is completed. Most lab exercises come with a set of analysis questions to be answered. Good Documentation Practices Documentation is the mechanism by which raw data are captured and evaluated to ensure personal accountability. Good Documentation Practices or GDP provides a tangible, detailed record of observations and activities – a "paper trail." This is extremely important in a biotech or pharmaceutical company where products are being manufactured. The Food & Drug Administration (FDA) can supervise the process and products. FDA assumptions about documentation must always be followed: - If it isn't written down, it wasn't done - If it isn't legible, you made a mistake - If it is written in pencil, it was changed - If it isn't "controlled," you made a copy. - If it wasn't "approved" before you started, you made it up Document dates in a standardized format must be specified in your Standard Operating Procedure. Blank fields can be interpreted as missing data, and empty spaces at the bottom of a page (e.g. lab notebooks) can allow someone to add data without your knowledge or consent. Good Documentation Practices in a lab notebook We will try to follow the Good Documentation Practices in laboratory notebooks by trying to follow as many as items stated below: - Use indelible (water-resistant) blue or black ink so that it doesn't fade over time or smudge if it gets wet. No pencils or felt-tipped markers are allowed. - NEVER back date! - Enter data directly in the controlled record and never on a piece of scrap paper in the interim. - Make sure the entries are accurate and legible so that anyone can understand your entries. - Draw a diagonal line through any blank fields or empty spaces at the bottom of a page and include 'N/A' along with your initials and date. - Number each page in a controlled notebook chronologically. This verifies that no pages are missing. - For instrument printouts and attachments make sure they are within the notebook limits, and are stuck with clear adhesive tape. Include your initials and date so that part of your initials will be on the attachment and part will be on the notebook. - When entering repetitive data, do not use ditto marks. Lab Math - Significant Figures, SI Unit/ Metric System In this module, we are going to learn about more concepts that are relevant to laboratory math including significant figures, SI units, and metric systems including conversions within the metric system. Lab math Why is Lab Math Important? PURPOSE The purpose of this module is to become well versed with simple calculations - Multiplication with factors of 10 - Division by factors of 10. - How to move around decimal when multiplying or dividing. - Remembering tables - Multiplication by factors of 10 - When there is no decimal in a number then you can add the same number of zeros to the right as many you see in the multiplying factor of 10. 1. 1357 x 10 = 13570 2. 123 x 1000 = 123000 3. 8 x 200 ? - When there is a decimal in a number then you can move the decimal to as many places to the right as the number of zeros in the multiplying factor of 10. 1. 135.7 X 10 = 2. 13.57 x 10 = 3. 1.357 x 1000 = Division by factors of 10 - When there are zeros in number, equal number of zeros on top and bottom can cancel out. 200/10= 5000/1000= - When there is no decimal in a number then you can assume that the decimal is in the end. Move the decimal to the left as many zeros as you see in the dividing factor of 10. 1357 /10 = 123 / 1000 = 8 / 200 ? MULTIPLICATION PRACTICE \| PRACTICE 1. 23 x 10 = 2. 12 x 100 = 3. 150 x 100 = 4. 230 x 10000 = 5. 12.3 x 100= 6. 1.567 x 10= 7. 180.5 x100 = 8. 3 x 300 = 9. 5 x 150 = 10. 300 x 500 = 11. 55/10 = 12. 330/100 = 13. 500/ 100 = 14. 660/1000= 15. 200/20= 16. 400/20 = 17. 10/10000= 18. 200/100000= 19. 120/12= 20. 103/100= What kind of Lab Math will we be doing ? - Scientific Notations - Standard Notations Standard & Scientific Notation - Scientific numbers are written in 10x. - The first number before x should be between 1 and 9.9999 (less than 10). - Then count the numbers after that and put the count as a power of 10. Example : 2300 = 2.3 X 103 0.023 = 2.3 X 10-2 - Standard numbers are written in terms of 0s and decimal. Example : 4.5 X 103 = 4500 4.5 X 10-2 = 0.045 Symbol \| Units \| Standard Notation \| Scientific Notation \| K \| Kilo \| 1000 \| 1 x 103 \| 100 \| 1 x 102 \| \|\| 10 \| 1 x 101 \| \|\| m/g/l/M \| 1 \| 1 x 100 \| \| 0.1 \| 1 x 10-1 \| \|\| c \| Centi \| 0.01 \| 1 x 10-2 \| m \| Mili \| 0.001 \| 1 x 10-3 \| 0.0001 \| 1 x 10-4 \| \|\| 0.00001 \| 1 x 10-5 \| \|\| m \| Micro \| 0.000001 \| 1 x 10-6 \| 0.0000001 \| 1 x 10-7 \| \|\| 0.00000001 \| 1 x 10-8 \| \|\| n \| Nano \| 0.000000001 \| 1 x 10-9 \| Scientific notation is a way of expressing really big numbers or really small numbers that are in standard notation. - The scientific notation consists of two parts: - A number between 1 and 10 (N) - A power of 10 (x) N x 10x Example: Express in Scientific notation (a) 200,000 (b) 0.00002 Class Assignment Brainstorming Practice Session Scientific Figures & Scientific Notations Write the appropriate scientific notation for the following 1. 600000 \| = \| 2. 0.0678 \| = \| 3. 23.785 \| = \| 4. 89600000 \| = \| 5. 0.000009 \| = \| 6. 50005 \| = \| 7. 543.00 \| = \| 8. 0.00456 \| = \| Write the appropriate standard notation for the following 1. 3 x 10-3 = 2. 1.34 x 107 = 3. 7.29 x 10-2 = 4. 5.55 x 102 = 5. 1.054 x 101 = 6. 1.5 X 100 = 7. 2.05 x 105 = 8. 8.0354 x 10-4 = Significant Figures - There are 2 different types of numbers - Exact - Measured - Exact numbers are infinitely important - Measured number = they are measured with a measuring device (name all 4) so these numbers have ERROR. - Solution - Exact numbers are obtained by - counting - definition B. Measured numbers are obtained by using a measuring tool - Learning Check Classify each of the following as an exact or a measured number.(Hint: Whatever needs a measuring tool can not be exact number) 1 yard = 3 feet The diameter of a red blood cell is 6 x 10-4 cm. There are 6 hats on the shelf. Gold melts at 1064°C. Measurement and Significant Figures - Every experimental measurement has a degree of uncertainty. - The best guess is needed for the tenth place. What is the Length? \| \| \| We can see the markings between 1.6-1.7cm - We can't see the markings between the .6-.7 - We must guess between .6 & .7 - We record 1.67 cm as our measurement - The last digit an 7 was our guess... Measured Numbers - Do you see why Measured Numbers have error…you have to make that Guess! - All but one of the significant figures are known with certainty. The last significant figure is only the best possible estimate. - To indicate the precision of a measurement, the value recorded should use all the digits known with certainty. Below are two measurements of the mass of the same object. The same quantity is being described at two different levels of precision or certainty. RULES: Counting Significant figures - Non-Zero Digits: All the digits that are not zero count towards the number of significant figures. Example 1: 324 \| (3) Sig. Fig \| \| 2: 1.223 \| (4) \| \| 3: 12.1256 \| (6) \| \| 4: 1200001 \| (7) \| - Zero Digits: - Zeros that come between two non-zero numbers are counted in significant figures. E.g. 10001 (5 Significant Fig) - Zeros that come after non-zero number in decimal count. E.g. 2.10 (3 Significant Fig). - Zeros that come before decimal do not count. E.g. 0.25 (2 Significant Fig.) - Placeholder zeros do not count. E.g. 0.00023 (2 significant figures) 1. Trailing zeros are significant only if the number has a decimal, otherwise not. E.g. 1200.0 (5 significant Fig.); 1200 (2 Significant Fig.) RULES: Significant figures after Addition/ Subtraction/ Multiplication/ Division. - When you multiply, divide, add or subtract 2 numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will have the minimum of the two significant figures: E.g. 1.05 (significant figure 3) x 2.2 (significant fig 2) = 23.1 (Significant figure 2) Rounding Off: After decimal number greater than 5 can be rounded to next digit. E.g. 1.55 to 1.6 3.54678 to 3.5468 - Rounding Off: After decimal number lesser than 5 can be rounded to the previous digit. E.g. 1.54 to 1.5 3.54674 to 3.5467 In the last module, we learned about the concept of significant figures. Significant figures (or significant digits) are the digits in a number of a measurement that we can say is accurate and precise with a good degree of confidence. RULES or counting Significant figures WHAT COUNTS? Non-Zero Digits: All the digits that are not zero counts towards the number of significant figures: Example 1: 324 (3) Sig figs 2: 1.223 (4) 3: 12.1256 (6) 4: 1200001 (7) Zero Digits count under the following conditions: - Zeros that come between two non-zero numbers are counted in significant figures. E.g. 10001 ( 5 Significant Fig) - Zeros that come after non-zero numbers in the decimal count. 2.10 ( 3 Significant Fig). WHAT DOESN’T COUNT? (When Zero doesn’t count) - Zeros that come before decimal do not count. E.g. 0.25 ( 2 Significant Fig.) - Placeholder zeros do not count. E.g. 0.00023 ( 2 significant figures) - Trailing zeros are significant only if the number has a decimal, otherwise not. E.g. 1200 (__ significant Fig.); 1200.0 (___ Significant Fig.) RULES: Significant figures after Addition/ Subtraction/ Multiplication/ Division. Rounding Off: After decimal number greater than 5 can be rounded to the next digit. Example 1.55 to 1.6 or 3.54678 to 3.5468 Rounding Off: After decimal, a number lesser than 5 can be rounded to the previous digit. E.g. 1.54 to 1.5 or 3.54674 to 3.5467 When you add or subtract two numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will be rounded of to the least number of decimal places E.g. 1.05 (2 numbers after decimal) + 2.2 (1 number after decimal) = 3.25 rounded off to 3.2 (1 number after decimal) When you multiply or divide two numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will have the minimum of the two significant figures: E.g. 1.05 (3 significant figures) x 2.2 (2 significant figs) = 2.31 rounded off to 2.3 (2 Significant figures) Practice Session- Significant Figures What is the number of significant figures in the following? - 39.57 _______ - 132 _______ - 2.90 _______ - 123.456 _______ - 0.23 _______ - 11.02 _______ - 18.500 _______ - 1230 _______ - 123000 _______ - 0.05000 _______ Round off: - 76.512 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 932.058 to 5 significant figures. ________ - 0.5879 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 35.733 to 2 significant figures ________ - 120.5879 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 135.700 to 3 significant figures ________ - 0.5879 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 35.745 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 100.010 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 100.090 to 4 significant figures. ________ Write the answer in the appropriate significant figures - 6.28 x 5.004 = - 782.2 ¸ 2.36 = - 5.789 + 3.21 = - 6.789 – 5.980 = SI Units & Metric System The SI system is the International System of Units is the form of the metric system used around the world. There are seven basic units in the SI system: the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), the second (s), the kelvin (K), the ampere (A), the mole (mol), and the candela (cd). Important SI units that we should know in the context of laboratory math are listed here. \| SI Unit \| Symbol \| \| \| Length \| Meter \| m \| \| Mass \| Kilogram \| Kg \| \| Volume \| Liter \| L \| \| Time \| Second \| s \| \| Amount of substance \| Mole \| mol/ M \| Metric System (Conversions) Note how the major units are at every third place. Why is the conversion important? - There may be two different units on both sides of the equation. So you may need to convert - Sometimes you may need to convert it to a unit that you can measure using lab equipment like a graduated cylinder or pipette. How to convert within the metric system? Always draw the metric system line before starting conversions. 1 Kg = ______________ g 3 g = _______________ mg 60 mg = ______________ug 1.2 Kg= _______________ g = _____________________mg 3.625 g = ________________mg = __________________ug 10.03 mg = ________________ug 5000g = ______________ Kg 3500 mg = _______________ g 6000 ug = ______________mg 12 g= _______________ Kg 362.5 mg = ________________g = __________________Kg 10.03 ug = ____________mg= ____________g=_____________Kg Practice Session Write the correct abbreviation for each metric unit. 1) Kilogram _____ 4) Milliliter _____ 7) Kilometer _____ 2) Meter _____ 5) Millimeter _____ 8) Centimeter _____ 3) Gram _____ 6) Liter _____ 9) Milligram _____ Try these conversions. 10) 2 gm = _______ mg 11) 5 L = _______ mL 12) 16 km = _______________m 13) 1000 m = __________ Km 14) 2000 g = _______ kg 15) 2500 ml = _______ L 16) 48 mm = __________Km 17) 75 mL = _____ L 18) 65 g = _________Kg 19) 5.6 mM = ___________µM 20) 0.55 M = _________ mM 21) 6.3 m = _____ mm 22) 8.2 mm = ___________ m 23) 5.6 M = _______ mM 24) 120 mg = _________ g Pipette aids and pipet In the laboratory, you may have to measure and dispense liquid of different types and quantities. This can be easily achieved using a device called a pipette which can draw liquid in the slender plastic or glass tube attachment known as a pipet. Pipettes can be of different types: Bulb pipette, pipette pump, or pipette aid. Bulb Pipettes are made of natural rubber bulbs that can help suction up to a fixed volume of liquid. These kinds of pipettes are accurate and yet cheap. This type of pipette aid maybe like a dropper or more complex device with three buttons: The first displaces air from the bulb, the second is used to draw liquid into the pipette, and the third is used to expel the liquid. Pipette Pump are hollow plastic devices with a pump attached to one end and a pipet attached to the other end. The pump can be maneuvered with a thumb to regulate the amount of fluid that can be taken in the pipet. Pipette Aid are motorized devices for suction and dispensing of accurate amount of liquid. Pipets are glass (or plastic) tubes used for serology (serological pipet) and chemistry (volumetric pipet). Volumetric Pipet - Used to deliver a single specific volume of liquid, usually 1-100 ml. - On a volumetric pipette, the specifications indicate how much liquid will be transferred if the liquid is drawn up to the calibration line on the neck - the temperature at which the calibration was made - whether it is a TD (To deliver) or TC (To contain) pipette - After it is emptied, the small amount of liquid which remains in the tip should not be blown out. - Volumetric pipettes are usually marked TD hence the liquid is allowed to drain out and these are NOT blow-out pipettes Serological Pipet Serological pipette are used for precise transfer of liquid the laboratory. They are called so because they were traditionally used in the laboratory for transfer of blood or serum. - Printed on the neck of the pipette are the specifications that indicate: - the maximum volume of liquid that can be transferred - the size of the divisions on the pipette - the temperature at which calibrations were made - Always check the marking for TD or TC. TD pipettes are not blown out, TC pipettes are blown out. The key difference between volumetric and serological pipettes is that volumetric pipettes are calibrated to deliver a certain volume of a solution (through free drainage), whereas serological pipettes are generally calibrated all the way to the tip, (and the last drop of the solution has to be blown out). HANDLING STERILE PIPETTES - When using sterile pipettes, be sure to use proper techniques. - If you have a sterile package of disposable pipettes, tear only a small corner of the package open and push one pipette out of this opening, then immediately close the package to prevent contamination. - If its taken from a steel container in a hood, keep the container closed after use immediately Transferring a precise volume of liquid using a pipette - A pipette bulb is used to draw liquid up into the pipet. - There are many types of pipette bulbs. - The use of 3 types will be demonstrated in this module. The first to be demonstrated will be the common rubber bulb. Using the common rubber bulb - Squeeze bulb and touch it to the mouth of the pipette. - Place other end of the pipette in liquid to be transferred and slowly release pressure on bulb. - Draw liquid up past desired level, quickly replacing bulb with index finger. - Let liquid drain until bottom of meniscus lines up with desired level on pipette. - Touch tip of pipette to inside of beaker to remove any adhering drops. - Transfer liquid to second beaker and touch tip to inside of beaker and let liquid drain out of pipette. Use of safety bulb pipette filler Aspirate (A) → Suction (S) → Expel (E) 1: With a gentle twisting motion, insert the pipette into the Safety Pipette Filler about 1/2 cm. 2: To produce a vacuum for aspiration, squeeze valve “A” with your thumb and index finger of one hand while using your other hand to squeeze the bulb. “A” stands for “air” or “aspirate.” 3. To “pull” the liquid up into the pipette place the pipette into the liquid and squeeze the “S” or “suction” valve until the liquid reaches the desired level. 4. To “expel” the liquid, squeeze the “ E” valve. This will allow the liquid to flow out of the pipette except for the last drop. Use of pipette pump and pipette aid 1. The first step is to connect a sterile pipet to the end. 2. The pipet mouth is then placed inside the liquid to be transferred. The mouth should never be inserted too much. 3. In case of the pipette pump, the upper part can then clasped with the hand and thumb can be used to move the adjuster so that the liquid starts to get inside the pipet. 4. Once the desire level is reached then the pipet is gently lifted off the liquid and placed on top of the container for liquid to be transferred. 5. In case of pipette aid, make sure that the motor is connected to a working outlet or the pipette aid is charged. Since it is automatic, there are two buttons, one for uptake of liquid in the pipet and the other for the dispensing of liquid. Weighing and steps to making a solution Weighing a chemical in the lab Before you begin make sure that you are wearing appropriate personal protective equipment or PPE (usually lab coat and gloves). Sometimes you may be weighing a fine powder, then you may want to wear protective eye gear or mask, to prevent it from causing any eye, nose, or throat irritation. Also, make sure that you know the exact amount of substance to be weighed and what weighing balance you are going to use. Make sure to turn on the weighing balance. After you keep the weigh boat or container on the balance pan, make sure to tare the balance to zero. This will ensure that anything that you add on the weigh boat or container is reflected accurately on the digital scale. You can use spatula to add or remove the chemical. Steps to making a solution (Weigh, mix, and store) Method 1 - Weigh the solid chemical in a weigh boat. - Put it in an appropriate volumetric flask. - Add distilled water up to about 80% of the desired volume. - Stir the solution. - Once mixed makeup to the desired volume. - Store it in an appropriate container. - Autoclave if needed. Method 2 - Weigh the solid chemical in a weigh boat. - Put it in an appropriately sized beaker. - Add distilled water up to about 80% of the desired volume. - Drop a stir bar and stir the solution. - Adjust the pH if so needed. - Once mixed makeup to the desired volume in a graduated cylinder. - Store it in an appropriate container. - Autoclave if needed. Please make sure that after you are done, you will clean the area and either keep the spatula for washing or wash it and keep it aside. Also make sure to discard the PPE to the right places. Simple and Serial Dilutions In a simple dilution, a unit volume of a liquid from stock is combined with an appropriate volume of a solvent liquid to achieve the desired concentration. - The dilution factor is the unit you added the +total number of unit volumes in which your material will be dissolved. - For e.g. 1ml in 5 ml. DF= 5 folds or 1:5 A serial dilution is a series of simple dilutions which increases the dilution factor quickly. - The source of dilution material for each step comes from the diluted material of the previous step. - In a serial dilution, the total dilution factor at any point is the product of the individual dilution factors in each step up to it. Why do we need Serial Dilution? - Example 1: A technician performed a laboratory analysis of the patient’s serum for a serum glucose (blood sugar) determination. The patient’s serum glucose was too high to read on the glucose instrument. This might require dilution. - Example 2: 100 mg/dl solution of the substrate is needed for a laboratory procedure. All that is available is a 5000 mg/dl solution of the substrate. - Example 3: Serial dilutions are most often used in serological procedures, where technicians need to make dilutions of a patient’s serum to determine the weakest concentration that still exhibits a reaction of some type. The RECIPROCAL of the weakest concentration exhibiting a reaction is called a “titer”. - Example 4: If we have to measure bacteria in a wastewater sample. However as seen in the following, figure below, it is not possible to count bacteria in the first plate. It is only after a series of dilutions, that the bacteria can be counted. Simple Dilution Simple Dilution: A specific amount of stock is added to diluent like water to achieve a lower concentration. This is only a one-time dilution. Below you can see that each tube gets a sample from the stock. Dilution factor means how many folds dilution. Example 1: If its 1 ml stock in 9 ml water Dilution Ratio = 1/ (1+9) = 1/10 or 1:10 (It is expressed as 1:Dilution Factor) Example 2: If its 0.5 ml stock in 9.5 ml water Dilution Ratio = 0.5/ (0.5+9.5) = 0.5/10 = 0.05 ?? (How do we convert this to 1:Dilution factor?) There are two ways of doing this: Also note that, if we make a dilution of 1:10 to a stock solution of 200mM, the dilution will become (1/10 x 200) 20mM. Serial Dilution Serial Dilution is a series of dilutions or stepwise dilutions in which the 1st dilution is from the stock, the 2nd dilution is from 1st, the 3rd dilution is from 2nd, and so on and so forth till the desired dilution factor is reached. If V1 is added to V2 then the dilution factor at Step 1 will be DF1= V1 / V1+V2 - The dilution factor at each step can be calculated For e.g. at Step 3 the dilution factor (DF) = DF1 x DF2 x DF3. - Serial dilutions find their applications in labs both clinical as well as scientific labs like determining antibody titer, diluting blood, or serum. - Dilution factor can be popularly expressed as ratio. (Also in your experimental data) Link: http://education.wichita.edu/saltymicro/ecology_interactives/serial_dilution.html PRACTICE PROBLEMS: DILUTIONS Name: Date: - If you add 1.0 ml of a colored solution (Stock) to 4.0 ml of water in a test tube, what is the dilution ratio, of the colored solution to the final volume? - A dilution ratio of 1:10 means there is _______ul of stock in 10 ul of final volume. - A dilution ratio of 1:10 means ______ml of stock in 20 ml of final volume. - A dilution ration of 1:10 means _______L of stock in 50 L of final volume. - What is the dilution when we add 3 ml of stock to 27 ml of water? - Find the concentrations of A, B, C, D. (Hint: Observe carefully if it is simple or serial dilution) - A= 1ml of serum in 4ml of buffer = ____________________ - B = 1ml of A in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - C= 1ml of B in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - D= 1ml of C in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - If you were making a 1:10 dilution of a 100mM NaCl solution what will be its final concentration? - If you were making 1:25 dilution of a 25mM KCl solution what will be its final concentration? - If you have a Bradford reagent that you have to dilute 1:4. After dilution the final volume should be 20ml, how much of the Bradford reagent would you use to make this final volume (diluted solution)? pH pH is a unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity (basic) of a solution. The formal definition of pH is that it is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. - It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14. - "p" means taking the negative logarithm of whatever follows in the formula. for pH, pOH, p[anything] - pH = -log[H+] The pH scale corresponds to the concentration of hydrogen ions. How do we identify acids or bases? pH 7 is considered neutral. Acid has a pH of less than 7. The base has a pH greater than 7. The lower the value, the stronger is the acid. The higher the value, the stronger is the base. Logarithmic Scale Preview Number Representation and Logarithms \| \|\| Number \| Exponent/Scientific Notation \| Log of the Number \| 1000 \| 103 \| 3 \| 100 \| 102 \| 2 \| 10 \| 101 \| 1 \| 1 \| 100 \| 0 \| 0.1 \| 10-1 \| -1 \| 0.01 \| 10-2 \| -2 \| 0.001 \| 10-3 \| -3 \| 0.0001 \| 10-4 \| -4 \| How do we determine pH? Example: If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.0001 M, find the pH. Solution: - First convert the number to exponential/ scientific notation, find the log, then solve the pH equation. - H+ = 0.0001M = 10-4; log of 10-4 = -4; - pH = - log [ H+] = - log (10-4) = - (-4) = +4 = pH - The purpose of the negative sign in the log definition is to give a positive pH value. Question (Solve this): If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.000001 M, find the pH. Example of various pH in daily life Water undergoes auto- or self-ionization as shown in the following equation. 2 H2O --> H3O+ + OH- (What happened to H+ ions?) - An equilibrium is established between the ions produced and the unionized water. An equilibrium expression can be written for this system. Kw = [H3O+][OH-] where Kw is used to represent the equilibrium constant for the ionization of water. - The value of Kw, when experimentally measured has been determined to be 1 x 10-14. - Mathematically, if one takes the log of both sides of the equation, remembering that when numbers are multiplied their logs are added: log (1 x 10-14) = log [H3O+] + log [OH-] Thus, - 14 = log[H3O+] + log [OH-] Multiplying both sides of the equation by -1, we get 14 = - log [H3O+] - log [OH-] 14 = pH + pOH pH Measurement pH is measured in a number of different ways using pH paper or pH meter. pH strips are pieces of paper that change color depending on the the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid. pH Meter pH Meter is an instrument to measure the hydrogen-ion activity in solutions as pH indicating its acidity or alkalinity. - A pH measurement system consists of three parts: a pH measuring electrode, a reference electrode, and a high input meter. - The pH meter is a potentiometer which measures the potential developed between the glass electrode and the reference electrode. - The pH measuring electrode is a hydrogen ion sensitive glass bulb. - The reference electrode output does not vary with the activity of the hydrogen ion. - In modern instruments, the two electrodes are combined into one electrode, known as a combination electrode. How to pH - • A sample is placed and the glass probe at the end of the retractable arm is placed in it. - • The probe is connected to the main box. - • There are two electrodes inside the probe that measure voltage. - • One is contained in liquid with fixed pH. The other measures the acidity of the sample through the amount of H+ ions. - • A voltmeter in the probe measures the difference between the voltages of the two electrodes. - • The meter then translates the voltage difference into pH and displays it on the screen. - • Before taking a pH measurement the meter must be calibrated using a solution of known pH. Titration - The process of gradually adding known amounts of reagent to a solution with which the reagent reacts while monitoring the results is called a titration. Buffers are mixtures of weak acids and their anions (conjugate base) - Buffers resist change in pH - At pH = pKa, there is a 50:50 mixture of acid and anion forms of the compound - Buffering capacity of acid/anion system is greatest at pH = pKa - Buffering capacity is lost when the pH differs from pKa by more than 1 pH unit pH related questions: - If H+ ion concentration of a buffer is 10-9M, what is its pH? Is it acidic or basic? - If the H+ concentration of a buffer is 0.0001 M, what is the pH? Is it acidic or basic? - If the pH is 4, what is the pOH? - If the H+ concentration is 0.00001 M, what is the OH- concentration? - If the pH of a buffer is 7 what is the hydrogen ion concentration? - If the pH of buffer A is 3 and pH of buffer B is 5, what is the difference in their hydrogen ion concentration? - If the expected pH of Buffer A is 5.5 and the observed pH is 5 what is the % error in the observed as compared to the expected pH? (Percent error formula = (Theoretical - Expected)/ Theoretical x 100) Centrifuge CENTRIFUGATION - A process that involves the use of centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures. - The equipment that is used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge and the vessel that spins the sample is called rotor. Supernatant & Pellet are separated after the process of centrifugation. Supernatant : Liquid on top Pellet : Solid at the bottom of the tube Watch this video on centrifuge: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhJNFGfsUus INSTRUMENT DESIGN Centrifugal force can be measured as: - Revolutions per minute (RPM) or - Acceleration applied to the sample/Relative Centrifugal force (RCF, also referred as g) Types of Centrifuges - Low Speed (3-6000 rpm) - Micro centrifuge or Microfuge (Upto 12,000 rpm) - Small amounts, less than 2 ml - High Speed, (Upto 24,000 rpm) - Refrigerated to counteract the build up of heat produced. - Ultra Centrifuge (30-60,000 rpm) - dependent upon rotor type - Used to separate similarly sized particles - Vacuum pressure (diffusion pump) - Refrigerated - Rotors are fixed angle or vertical, - Rotors made up of heat and pressure tolerant metal - Specialize tubes - EX. Ti 60 = 60,000rpm limit - Holds 8 - 38 ml tubes Types of Rotors - Fixed angle - Vertical - Horizontal/ swinging bucket Centrifuge tubes - Centrifuge tubes are tapered tubes of various sizes made of glass or plastic. - They may vary in capacity from tens of mm, to much smaller capacities used in - One of the most commonly encountered tubes is about the size and shape of a normal test tube (~ 10 cm long). Microcentrifuge tubes - These are used extensively in molecular biology laboratories. - Micro-centrifuges typically accommodate micro-centrifuge tubes with capacities - from 250 μto 2.0 ml →These are exclusively made of plastic. Procedure of centrifugation - Set the desired temperature - Close the lid while temperatures are adjusting - Check tube tops are closed - Weigh and balance tubes - Start when the proper temperature is achieved - Place the tube into centrifuge in a balanced position - Close and lock lid - Check if speed is in RPM or RCF and accordingly set. - Set time and brake before you begin Balancing rotor load in a centrifuge If there are 3 tubes, you can use a balance tube like a tube filled with water. You should balance the tubes on the weighing scale to ensure the diagonally placed tubes have exact same weight. If there are 3 tubes, you can use a balance tube like a tube filled with water. You should balance the tubes on the weighing scale to ensure the diagonally placed tubes have exact same weight. Balancing rotor load in centrifuge Spectrophotometer Every compound absorbs and emits lights over a certain range of wavelength. A spectrophotometer is an instrument that emits light of specific wavelength to pass through a solution and measures the transmitted light. It is used to measure the concentration of a solution, confirm chemical entity or purity. Qualitative Analysis - Spectrophotometer can help identify the samples that is being measured including RNA, DNA and proteins - Purity of DNA or protein can be measured using a spectrophotometer. Quantitative Analysis can help identify - Proteins by colorimetric (broad wavelength analysis) - Nucleic acids by absorption analysis (260-280nm) - Cell Density by turbidity analysis Three types of spectrum can be used in spectrophotometer: Photometric Assay - Direct measurement of the absorption of a sample at a given wavelength. - Indirect measurement of an enzymatic reaction product that serves as an indicator of absorption that is directly proportional to absorption of the target compound. ( Ex Kinetic assays, Lowry’s assay) Absorbance measures how much of an incident light is absorbed when it travels in a material while transmittance measures how much of the light is transmitted. Spectrophotometer is based on the Beer-Lambert Law which states that the amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration of the solute in the solution and thickness of the solution under analysis. Beer-Lambert law The Beer-Lambert law states that the quantity of light absorbed by a substance dissolved in a fully transmitting solvent is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance and the path length of the light through the solution The Beer-Lambert law also referred to as Beer’s Law, describes the relationship among absorbance, the molar solute concentration, and the length of the path the light takes to get to the sample in centimeters. Absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and length: A = εcl ε is the wavelength-dependent molar absorptivity coefficient A - Absorbance (A) M (c) - Molar solute concentration in M (c) l - length of the path the light takes to get to the sample in centimeters (l) Transmittance is the relationship between the amount of light that is transmitted to the detector once it has passed through the sample (I) and the original amount of light (Io). This is expressed in the following formula. T = I / Io Spectrophotometer Components \| Video - Inside a spectrophotometer Spectrophotometer components - l selector: Usually a prism, diffraction grating or set of screening filters where a specific l of monochromatic light is selectively generated. - Slit: Regulates intensity - Photocell: Detects absorption by using electrons in the refracted light to generate an electric current that can be amplified and measured for an absorbance value - Absorbance scale – exponential (0-infinity) Proportion of light absorbed in solution. - Transmission – Percentage, linear (0-100) Proportion of light passing through the solution. - OD- Optical density Inside our Spectrophotometer Procedure - Turn on the instrument. Allow it to warm up for 5 or more minutes. - Insert the control/ blank solution into the well. - Be sure that the sides of the cuvette are clean and dry. Set the absorbance to zero. - Remove blank. Close the well, set the transmission to 0%. - Now insert the sample tube and note down the reading. Toggle between Abs and %T to see absorbance and transmittance. Absorbance & Transmittance are inversely related. Absorbance scale – Exponential (0- Infinity) Transmission (%T) - Percent, Linear (0-100); the proportion of light passing through a solution. Optical Density (OD) - is measured or corrected against a blank control. Chromatography Chromatography refers to a family of separation techniques used to separate molecules from a mixture. Chromatography is used to separate & identify components of a mix. (Like separate individual colors. (Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08YMBGS1pYU) In chromatography, components to be separated are distributed between two phases the stationary phase and the mobile phase. - Mobile phase: Phase in which sample is dissolved, it may be gas, liquid. - Stationary phase: Phase through which mobile phase is forced through like Column or TLC. How does it happen? - Individual sample components move through the mixture in mobile phase at different speed based on their solubility. - Molecules that spend most of their time in the mobile phase are carried along faster. Separation of components of ink using paper chromatography How are the mobile & stationary phases chosen in chromatography? Mobile and stationary phases are chosen so the analyte (ink mixture to be analyzed) will distribute itself between the two phases. Uses of Chromatography Chromatography is a technique to - Analyze & separate mixtures of compounds - Identify unknown compounds - Purify or establish the purity or concentration of compounds - Quantify and Monitor product formation in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries Chromatography is widely used by forensic teams to analyze blood and urine samples for drugs, paint analysis, and testing for the presence of explosives. Chromatography has applications in various fields including: - Pharmaceutical Company – determine the amount of each chemical found in new product - Hospital – detect blood or alcohol levels in a patient’s bloodstream. - Law Enforcement – to compare a sample found at a crime scene to samples from suspects - Environmental Agency – determine the level of pollutants in the water supply - Manufacturing Plant – to purify a chemical needed to make a product Separation in Chromatography Separation in chromatography occurs based on differences in factors such as: - Polarity (Extent of separation of charge, positive & negative) - Ionic strength (Separation is based on net surface charge) - Size (Separation is based on the size of the molecule) - Affinity (Separation is based on biological affinity such as Antigen-Antibody interaction) There is differential interaction of molecules between an immobile (Stationary/ Solid) and a mobile (solvent) phase. Mobile phase or Solvent phase is also known as the elution buffer in many types of chromatography. Important terms used here: Stationary/ Immobile/ Solid phase; Mobile/ Solvent phase. Chromatography – Types - Partition: Partitioning the molecule of interest between an immobile (stationary) phase (column material) and a mobile phase (elution buffer). The molecule does not attach to the stationary phase. - Adsorption: Separation by the strength of binding of a molecule of interest to the immobile phase (solid stationary phase) Partition Chromatography - The molecule to be separated must be dissolved in the solvent. - Any molecule that differs in solubility in the mobile and immobile phases can be separated. Examples of Partition chromatography are: - PC (paper chromatography) - TLC (thin layer chromatography) - Gel Filtration Chromatography Adsorption Chromatography - Separation is by the strength of binding of a molecule of interest to the immobile phase (solid stationary phase). This is different from partition chromatography because in partition, molecules distribute themselves between mobile and stationary phases without binding but in adsorption, there is binding due to attraction between a molecule and stationary phase. The interaction of a molecule with the column material causes separation Examples of Adsorption chromatography are: - Ion exchange - Affinity Chromatography Paper Chromatography and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Two types of separation based on sample movement are possible in paper chromatography: - Ascending PC (capillary) action (More common) - Ascending means “Going Up” - Descending PC (gravity & capillary) interactions - Descending means “Going Down - Descending means “Going Down Ascending Chromatography Descending Chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) is a method for identifying substances and testing the purity of compounds. TLC is a useful technique because it is relatively quick and requires small quantities of material. The stationary phase is a thin layer of adsorbent (usually silica gel or alumina) coated on a plate. The mobile phase is a developing liquid that travels up the stationary phase, carrying the samples with it. Components of the samples will separate on the stationary phase according to how much they dissolve in the mobile phase and how much they adsorb on the stationary phase. TLC Chromatogram shown in the figure below was taken after experimenting with black ink from the permanent marker (Stabilo OHPen universal) and ethanol + water mixture as solvent Separation of black ink on TLC plate. (Photo Source: Wikipedia.) Checkout this Youtube Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmHFVxTxkGs Can you tell which color is most soluble and which is the least soluble? How to set up TLC? Which color is more soluble? (Hint: The one that is running faster or higher) Paper or Thin Layer Chromatography – Lab Math Ratio of Fronts (Rf) How to calculate Rf - Mark origin at the point of start - Let the separation of colors be completed - Stop the run when the solvent has reached about 75-80% - Now calculate two distances as mentioned below Rf = Distance (Start to Center of Spot) Distance (Start to Solvent front) Distance traveled by A is 5 cm Distance traveled by B is 2 cm Distance traveled by the solvent front is 10cm Rf of A = Distance traveled by A / Distance travelled by Solvent front = 5 cm/ 10 cm = 0.5 Can you calculate Rf of B? Rf of B = Distance traveled by B / Distance traveled by Solvent front Properties of Ratio of Fronts Is the Rf same if compound run alone or with mixture? Yes, because the movement of a compound depends on how soluble it is not if it is run alone or in a mixture. Is the Rf same or different for same compound run in different solvents? If you run the same compound in water or ethanol its solubility may be different, so its Rf is different. Interpreting Chromatography data - The Rf (retention factor) value for each spot should be calculated. Remember when calculating its from origin to middle of the spot not beginning or end of spot. - It is characteristic for any given compound on the same stationary phase using the same mobile phase for development of the plates. So if you run it in anywhere in world you will always get the same Rf factor. - Hence, known Rf values can be compared to those of unknown substances to aid in their identifications. - In addition, the purity of a sample may be estimated from the chromatogram. - An impure sample will often develop as two or more spots, while a pure sample will show only one spot. What determines the separation? - Solubility - Dissociation constant - Molecular size - Temperature/humidity - Spot size/dry spot Solubility - Few substances have identical solubility in any one solvent, so this can help separate components of a mixture. - More soluble a molecule the faster it moves Dissociation Constant - Determines if a molecule is charged or uncharged at a certain pH, - Why is Dissociation constant important? As this affects the solubility. - Generally, uncharged mole separates in organic (hydrophobic) solvent. - Charged mole separate in aqueous (hydrophilic) solvent. Molecular Size - Increased mole weight = more lipophilic - Number of polar side groups (peptides) = more aqueous Temperature and Humidity - The saturation of solvent changes the flow rate. - Increased temperature= increased vapor in the chamber, so it can affect the flowrate of solvent - Increased humidity paper saturates before entering the chamber. Spot Size - You should always use small spot as large spot means streaking, tailing, run together with another sample Column chromatography The stationary phase is held in a narrow tube (not a paper) through which the mobile phase is forced under pressure or under the effect of gravity. There are several different types of column chromatography of which 3 are mentioned here: - Gel Filtration (Based on molecule size) - Ion Exchange (Based on molecular charge) - Affinity Chromatography Gel Filtration Chromatography Separation in Gel filtration chromatography is based on molecular size. - Sample: The mixture you are separating in gel filtration column is made up of molecules of different sizes. - The column is made up of beads that are like little wire cages. These beads could be: - Dextran, Agarose, Polyacrylamide (Bio gel), Sephadex (cross-linked dextran) The mixture being separated here is made up of two molecules: Blue (big) and Red (Small). Observe which comes out first and why? The sample mixture being separated here is made up of two molecules: Blue (big) and Red (Small). Observe which comes out first and why? Big molecules pass around the column beads in empty spaces and come out first. Small molecules get stuck in the beads as the beads are like empty cages. Since the smaller molecules keep getting stuck in the column beads along the path, they take a longer time to come out in comparison to the bigger molecules from the column. This type of chromatography is also known as: - Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) - Molecular Exclusion Chromatography (MEC) - Molecular Sieve Chromatography (MSC) - Gel Filtration Chromatography (GFC) - Gel Chromatography. Ion Exchange Chromatography Separation based on the strength of binding to the immobile phase, based on ionic interactions. - Anion Exchanger is positively charged column that binds to anions/ negatively charged protein. - Cation Exchanger is negatively charged column that binds to cations/ positively charged protein. EX: (-) Carboxy-methyl groups (CM) - Attracts positive ions (+) Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) - Attracts negative ions Affinity Chromatography Separation based on specific binding to the immobile phase by exploiting known selectivity/ affinity/interaction of certain biological molecules. - EX: Specific binding of substrates - Inhibitors to cofactors (NZ) - Base sequence interactions (DNA, RNA) - Receptors to hormones - Antibodies to lectins Chromatography columns we just studied are used on specific instrumentation: - HPLC: High Pressure Liquid Chromatography - FPLC: Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography), is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify each component in a mixture. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. A chromatogram is a paper printout or graph of chromatographic data. Features of a chromatogram are: - position of peaks (x-axis) Time/ Tube # - width of peak - symmetry of peaks - Height of peak (y-axis)- Absorbance On-column detection for colored or fluorescent compounds directly after developing the chromatogram. Monitoring of eluted fractions (PC or TLC). Using special detectors connected to the, UV detectors, etc.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.845846	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89105/overview", "title": "Biotech Lab Techniques Manual", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73003/overview	"The Power of Money," by Karl Marx Overview Classic writing on the social psychology of money by the youthful Karl Marx. original text excerpted from The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 By possessing the property of buying everything, by possessing the property of appropriating all objects, money is thus the object of eminent possession. The universality of its property is the omnipotence of its being. It is therefore regarded as an omnipotent being. Money is the procurer between man’s need and the object, between his life and his means of life. But that which mediates my life for me, also mediates the existence of other people for me. For me it is the other person. That which is for me through the medium of money – that for which I can pay (i.e., which money can buy) – that am I myself, the possessor of the money. The extent of the power of money is the extent of my power. Money’s properties are my – the possessor’s – properties and essential powers. Thus, what I am and am capable of is by no means determined by my individuality. I am ugly, but I can buy for myself the most beautiful of women. Therefore I am not ugly, for the effect of ugliness – its deterrent power – is nullified by money. I, according to my individual characteristics, am lame, but money furnishes me with twenty-four feet. Therefore I am not lame. I am bad, dishonest, unscrupulous, stupid; but money is honoured, and hence its possessor. Money is the supreme good, therefore its possessor is good. Money, besides, saves me the trouble of being dishonest: I am therefore presumed honest. I am brainless, but money is the real brain of all things and how then should its possessor be brainless? Besides, he can buy clever people for himself, and is he who has power over the clever not more clever than the clever? Do not I, who, thanks to money, am capable of all that the human heart longs for, possess all human capacities? Does not my money, therefore, transform all my incapacities into their contrary? If money is the bond binding me to human life, binding society to me, connecting me with nature and man, is not money the bond of all bonds? Can it not dissolve and bind all ties? Is it not, therefore, also the universal agent of separation? It is the coin that really separates as well as the real binding agent – the [...] chemical power of society. The distorting and confounding of all human and natural qualities, the fraternization of impossibilities – the divine power of money – lies in its character as men’s estranged, alienating and self-disposing species-nature. Money is the alienated ability of mankind. That which I am unable to do as a man, and of which therefore all my individual essential powers are incapable, I am able to do by means of money. Money thus turns each of these powers into something which in itself it is not – turns it, that is, into its contrary. If I long for a particular dish or want to take the mail-coach because I am not strong enough to go by foot, money fetches me the dish and the mail-coach: that is, it converts my wishes from something in the realm of imagination, translates them from their meditated, imagined or desired existence into their sensuous, actual existence – from imagination to life, from imagined being into real being. In effecting this mediation, [money] is the truly creative power. No doubt the demand also exists for him who has no money, but his demand is a mere thing of the imagination without effect or existence for me, for a third party, for the [others], and which therefore remains even for me unreal and objectless. The difference between effective demand based on money and ineffective demand based on my need, my passion, my wish, etc., is the difference between being and thinking, between that which exists within me merely as an idea and the idea which exists as a real object outside of me. If I have no money for travel, I have no need – that is, no real and realizable need – to travel. If I have the vocation for study but no money for it, I have no vocation for study – that is, no effective, no true vocation. On the other hand, if I have really no vocation for study but have the will and the money for it, I have an effective vocation for it. Money as the external, universal medium and faculty (not springing from man as man or from human society as society) for turning an image into reality and reality into a mere image, transforms the real essential powers of man and nature into what are merely abstract notions and therefore imperfections and tormenting chimeras, just as it transforms real imperfections and chimeras – essential powers which are really impotent, which exist only in the imagination of the individual – into real powers and faculties. In the light of this characteristic alone, money is thus the general distorting of individualities which turns them into their opposite and confers contradictory attributes upon their attributes. Money, then, appears as this distorting power both against the individual and against the bonds of society, etc., which claim to be entities in themselves. It transforms fidelity into infidelity, love into hate, hate into love, virtue into vice, vice into virtue, servant into master, master into servant, idiocy into intelligence, and intelligence into idiocy. Since money, as the existing and active concept of value, confounds and confuses all things, it is the general confounding and confusing of all things – the world upside-down – the confounding and confusing of all natural and human qualities. He who can buy bravery is brave, though he be a coward. As money is not exchanged for any one specific quality, for any one specific thing, or for any particular human essential power, but for the entire objective world of man and nature, from the standpoint of its possessor it therefore serves to exchange every quality for every other, even contradictory, quality and object: it is the fraternization of impossibilities. It makes contradictions embrace. Assume man to be man and his relationship to the world to be a human one: then you can exchange love only for love, trust for trust, etc. If you want to enjoy art, you must be an artistically cultivated person; if you want to exercise influence over other people, you must be a person with a stimulating and encouraging effect on other people. Every one of your relations to man and to nature must be a specific expression, corresponding to the object of your will, of your real individual life. If you love without evoking love in return – that is, if your loving as loving does not produce reciprocal love; if through a living expression of yourself as a loving person you do not make yourself a beloved one, then your love is impotent – a misfortune.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.869901	Sociology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73003/overview", "title": "\"The Power of Money,\" by Karl Marx", "author": "Psychology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93908/overview	First Day of Class OER Powerpoint Overview This CC-BY licensed, fully editable and adaptable "First Day of Class" PowerPoint is intended for faculty using Open Educational Resources (OER) in their courses. Similar to presentations provided by traditional publishers that introduce required course materials, this PowerPoint resource explains in a few concise slides what OER is, why it's so great, and how students can access the OER needed for their course that semester. This CC-BY licensed, fully adaptable "First Day of Class" PowerPoint is for faculty using Open Educational Resources (OER) in their courses. Similar to presentations provided by traditional publishers that introduce required course materials, this PowerPoint resource explains in a few concise slides what OER is, why it's so great, and how students can access the OER needed for their course that semester. Unless where otherwise indicated, this OER First Day of Class PowerPoint by Elizabeth Spica is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.888394	06/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93908/overview", "title": "First Day of Class OER Powerpoint", "author": "Elizabeth Spica" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88373/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software Overview Welcome to Astronomy 1020 Lab 1! The Introduction to Stellarium Software lab will cover the installation, navigation, and use of Stellarium, the software which will be used to complete ASTR 1020 lab work. Stellarium [Copyright © 2004-2011 Fabien Chereau et al.] ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software Download the attached zip file and install the zipped file (it contains a website) on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML (website) content in D2L's Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.906771	11/29/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88373/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74106/overview	CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" Overview This is the recording of a webinar by CCCOER titled "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.928433	10/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74106/overview", "title": "CCCOER Webinar on \"Culture Shift to Academic Freedom\"", "author": "Aubree Evans" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68685/overview	Scientific Method Overview Activity to work with scientific method. The scientific Method: Childbed Fever This exercise introduces students with the story of Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis's work with childbed fever and hand washing. It can be a dry lab activity, in-class-activity or homework.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.945716	06/17/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68685/overview", "title": "Scientific Method", "author": "Erika Brockmann" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107797/overview	ERROR: type should be string, got "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOoXAWSu5-M\nUntitled\nLetter Shape Classification\nOverview\nGeneral Applied Computer Science -- shopperMarket\nIntro. demand statistics for crash-course outline\nhttps://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107799/overview\nfor additional references to OCR\nIntroductory Announcement:\nIn this lesson, we explore the code in the example HTML JavaScript at URL http://www.dialtosee.com. The website does continue to strive towards the Optical Character Recognition (OCR) written in vanilla js. When you have time, please advise the file include::\"FCS_n2.js\" which may contain errors from being hand written. The contents of \"FCS_n2.js\" detect a single closed shape looped many times to include all shapes (closed) within a monochrome image of various dimension [depending-on camera] (particularly in smartphone) with the purpose of searching a 24bit color file for a certain word. In the example of being at a supermarket and using the mobil-device to take a picture to search for less confusion as advertisement tend to overwhelm.\non youTube videos keyword:\"dial2c\" M,R.'s animations display a fast-but-general understanding of this alien page.\nReccomend: \"youTube video on M,R.'s channel\" title=\"dial2see\" at store by Peg Anke.\nNote: www.dial2c.com website also compresses 16,777,216colors to monochrome in two steps. First compressing the photo into 27 (-or- less) colors via function \"E_26(IMDT_Dot)\", with \"IMDT_Dot\" being the argument passed to the function \"E_26\" and returning the native ImageData object.\nfunction fastObjects($) is a fairly difficult read and may be discussed in another lesson; However, is the main interest to edit what indexed objects are recognized A-Z (not numbers). As https://www.twoExponents4096.com suggests, we can turn a character ideograph into a decimal. Full 24bit or monochrome, the load time of Dialtosee.com's results are quick.\nExploring the code behind the <HTML>: = visit the web page on a dedicated machine and in Microsoft® Windows© (left-click)= \"Save Page As..\" [web-page complete] /downloads or selected personal folder. \"LetterBuild\" will not run without manual edit to the HTML <script src=\"..files\"/> from this downloaded system of files. I suggest continuing the name of \"LetterBuild\" which may be downloaded freely, as freeWare and holds harmless anyone viewing and gaining from any information in. -- Legally, student's attempting good and the bettering of humanity shall be protected.\nThe basics of HTML without CSS, SEO, MetaData<tags> may be available on the web and I recommend https://www.w3schools.com also teaching JavaScript to expected understandings. When you need help here with code Syntax and native methods and objects, operators, block and function form... w3schools in HTML5.\n1. Explore the code.\nHTML -- located at the bottom most reach of the page is quite overwhelming and needs an edit. Key <tags> are: 4ea - canvas objects especially \"scaleStill\" with [onclick=\"moonme(event)\"] this accesses programatically the input[id=\"wrhouse\"][type=\"file\"] opening the function \"gather()\" opening the access to get a photograph using the users camera. the image is duplicated and scaled (irregularly- fitting the device width) and the monochrome compression is rendered, touch-keyboard debugged, and monochrome (closed shapes) visibly rendered.\nJavaScript -- Using the read then call style, the most commonly used functions begin in the script <tag>. I do wish you well in processing the data in a non-User-friendly way.\n2. Try this trusted site and communicate how we may develop a standard in tesseract deep-learning to understand this Artificial Intelligence. Mainly in optical characters rendered in every orientation with the first goal being: To index the entire 4096 character map to include all non-censored shapes, closed-or-not. Secondly, emoji's classifications may be sorted by search strings, eventually at all finite search strings and combinations. Likewise, Photographs may be scanned by facial recognition learning and machine-training to include the polygraph.\nAfter: EXPLORING THIS HUB: you may be enriched with the ability to functionally use the technology at hand to properly investigate and explore information practically and scientificlly.\nTernary\n24bit Compression to 26 color + 1 bin\nbbbb Tri Color monochrome 00000 000 _ #000000 0 00001 001 A #800000 0 00010 002 B #FF0000 0 00011 010 C #008000 0 00100 011 D #808000 0 00101 012 E #FF8000 1 00110 020 F #00FF00 1 00111 021 G #80FF00 1 01000 022 H #FFFF00 1 01001 100 I #0000FF 0 01010 101 J #8000FF 0 01011 102 K #FF0080 0 01100 110 L #008080 0 01101 111 M #808080 2 01110 112 N #FF8080 1 01111 120 O #00FF80 1 10000 121 P #80FF80 1 10001 122 Q #FFFF80 1 10010 200 R #0000FF 0 10011 201 S #8000FF 0 10100 202 T #FF00FF 0 10101 210 U #0080FF 0 10110 211 V #8080FF 1 10111 212 W #FF80FF 1 11000 220 X #00FFFF 1 11001 221 Y #80FFFF 1 11010 222 Z #FFFFFF 1 11011 11100 11101 11110 11111\nEdge Detection\nword wrap ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- //snippit -- DO NOT RUN alone function closedChr(aGch, all, etfn) { var Walk = aGch; var width = Walk[Walk.length - 2]; var height = Walk[Walk.length - 1]; if(all === true) { var bwRen = []; var capture = []; var tooBig = (width - Math.round(width * 0.6) > 24)? Math.round(width * 0.6):width - 4; } var m = 0; var e = [], a = []; var n = 0, p = 0; var c = 0, i = 0, a = 0, j = 0; var d = 0, u = 0, m = 0, b = 0; var x1 = 0, x2 = 0; var y1 = 0, y2 = 0; var x7 = 0, y7 = 0; for(d = 1; d < height - 2; d += _CRH_ - 1) { for(u = 1; u < width - 2; u++) { p = u + (d * width); if((Walk[p] === etfn[1]) && (Walk[p - 1] === etfn[1])) { if((Walk[p + 1] === etfn[2]) \|\| (Walk[p + 1] === etfn[3])) { x1 = width; y1 = height; x2 = y2 = 0; Walk[p] = etfn[0]; e = []; e.push(Walk[(p - 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - 1]); e.push(Walk[p]); e.push(Walk[p + 1]); e.push(Walk[(p - 1) + width]); e.push(Walk[p + width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) + width]); if(e[3] === etfn[1]){if(e[0] === etfn[1]){a = 1;}else{a = 4;}} if(e[1] === etfn[1]){if(e[2] === etfn[1]){a = 3;}else{a = 2;}} m = 0; while((a < 9) && (a > 0)) { if(all) { if(++m % _CRH_ === 0) { m = 0; Pane[p] = NaN; } } if(a === 1){p--; p -= width;} if(a === 2){p -= width;} if(a === 3){p++; p -= width;} if(a === 4){p--;} if(a === 5){p++;} if(a === 6){p--; p += width;} if(a === 7){p += width;} if(a === 8){p++; p += width;} e = []; e.push(Walk[(p - 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) - width]); e.push(Walk[p - 1]); e.push(Walk[p]); e.push(Walk[p + 1]); e.push(Walk[(p - 1) + width]); e.push(Walk[p + width]); e.push(Walk[(p + 1) + width]); a = directional(e, a, etfn); if(a > 0) { c = p % width; i = Math.floor(p / width); if(c < x1){x1 = c;} if(c > x2){x2 = c;} if(i < y1){y1 = i;} if(i > y2){y2 = i;} } } Walk[u + (d * width)] = etfn[1]; if(a === 9) { x7 = x2 - ++x1; y7 = y2 - ++y1; if((x7 > 0) && (y7 > _CRH_ - 1)) { if(!all) { return scaleSquare(_CRH_, Walk, [x1, y1, x2, y2, x7, y7, width], all, etfn[1]); }else if(all) { if(x7 < tooBig) { for(m = _CRH_; m < _CMH_; m++) { if(m <= y7) { ea = []; ea = Attn(scaleSquare(m, Walk, [x1, y1, x2, y2, x7, y7, width], true, true));//Walk[u + (d * width)])); capture.push(ea); capture.push(iA(ea)); if(m === _CRH_) { if(ea[ea.length - 1] === _CRH_) { bwRen.push([x1, y1, x7, y7]); LIST.push(ea);//ch LIST.push(iA(ea));//ch }//else LIST error } } }//m Llib.push(capture); capture = []; } } } } } } } } if(all === false) { return [0]; }else if(all) { // Llib = Tll2Sm(L2ib); // L2ib = []; return bwRen; } return [0]; } -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:04.970992	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107797/overview", "title": "Letter Shape Classification", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104102/overview	Research Skills: What is Pre-Reading? Overview This exercise introduces learners to the practice of pre-reading. While designed for FYE, it can be used in any course with a research component. Introductory Exercise (Research Skills, Day 5) Overview: What's Pre-Reading? Context Pre-Reading is an important skill to practice, and we do it for three reasons: - to think about the topic of the reading before we read it carefully so we can know what the writer is going to say about the topic - to identify what we already know about the topic of the reading so we can engage on a deeper level with what the writer is going to say about the topic - to understand and remember more of what we read In all of your classes, and ENGL 100 in particular, begin to practice pre-reading. It will make learning more enjoyable and beneficial! Moreover, pre-reading will help you efficiently conduct research (it helps you save time and choose the best sources). Directions Prior to a thorough reading, spend 10-15 minutes completing the following steps. Use a dedicated notebook for class to capture your thoughts: - Make note of the: - Title - Author - Pictures, graphs, other visuals - Italicized words - Key concepts (from subheadings) Write in your notebook: - A brief, 2-3 sentence pre-reading summary (predict what the chapter will be about) - Specific questions for directed reading (using chapter subheadings) - All new vocabulary 2. After reading: - Research key terms collected in Step 1 - Watch a few YouTube videos on the subject Write in your notebook: - A brief, 2-3 sentence response to the reading - If possible, write brief answers to the questions you asked in Step1 - Record new vocabulary you think will broaden your previous and new knowledge of the topic Pre-Read: My Substantive Sources Context For this writing assignment, we'll focus on searching for substantive sources only (that is, we'll avoid "popular or commercial" sources and scholarly or academic" sources). Directions Before we begin this task, review “Overview: What’s Pre-Reading” (page 1). It will greatly help us determine what we should pay attention to as we pre-read each of our three substantive sources. - Open a Word document. - Write the author and title of your first substantive source at the top of the page. Be sure the title is formatted properly. [Note: put title in quotation marks and capitalize all the words in the title, except prepositions and conjunctions.] - Use the following questions to write a 100-150-word entry for each of your three substantive sources (300-450 words total): - What do you already know about the topic of the source based on your pre-read? - What are some key terms of the source? [Note: Recall, when pre-reading a source, key terms or important words are often found in the title, section titles, topic sentences, concluding sentences, subject heading, and so on.] - What did you learn from a quick YouTube or Wikipedia search about the topic of the source? How do you predict this new information will help direct your reading of the source? - What are two focus questions for each source you created based on your pre-read? - Why might this source be the most appropriate out of the three to deepen your understanding of your "happiness-enhancing practice" and the topic of well-being? - Once you complete #1-3 for each of your three substantive sources, upload the document as a Word file (.doc or .docx) or a .pdf.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.005186	05/22/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104102/overview", "title": "Research Skills: What is Pre-Reading?", "author": "Andrew Kranzman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97546/overview	Learning Styles Module: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview Textbooks & Other Resource Links Finnegan, Lisa. 2020. Medical Terminology in a Flash: A Multiple Learning Styles Approach (4 th Edition). Publisher FA Davis 2020 ISBN 9780803689534 OFAR Module Module 1- Learning Styles Visual-Auditory-Verbal-Kinesthetic Learning style theory suggests that individuals learn information in different ways according to their unique abilities and traits. Therefore, although all humans are similar, the ways in which you best perceive, understand, and remember information may be somewhat different from the ways other people learn. In truth, all people possess a combination of styles. You may be especially strong in one style and less so in others. You may be strong in two or three areas or may be equally strong in all areas. As you learn about the styles described in this chapter, you may begin to recognize your preferences and will then be able to modify your study activities accordingly. Try using multiple learning styles as you study rather than choosing one in particular. This will help you make the most of your valuable time, enhance your learning, and support you in doing your very best in future classes. Sensory Learning Styles Experts have identified numerous learning styles and have given them various names. Some are described in an abstract and complex manner, whereas others are relatively simple and easy to grasp. For ease of understanding, this book uses the learning styles associated with your senses. You use your senses to see and hear information. You use touch and manipulation or your sense of taste or smell. You may find it useful to think aloud as you discuss new information with someone else. Because the senses are so often involved in the acquisition of new information, many learning styles are named accordingly: visual, auditory, verbal, and kinesthetic (hands-on or tactile). In this chapter you will learn about the different learning styles and will also be able to determine what learning style or combination of styles are you. Mrs. Bravo Action Plan The OFAR Action Plan consists of the following interventions. - Review different nursing OER Resources for Medical Terminology - Evaluate the content of OER Resources is appropriated and aligns to curriculum, SLO’s and Course Objectives. - Present to Faculty for better feedback. - Propose OER resources to curriculum committee and nursing faculty - Integrate an antiracism classroom Module 1 section providing a survey to students to help identify high risk students and to better serve student population. - Ensure class content delivers in different learning styles. - Integrate action plan to syllabus and curriculum. - Review all material and OER resources for appropriateness - Test the course environment with other faculty and possibly student volunteers for feedback and constructive critique. - Implement Action Plan and Anti-Racism Classroom into canvas. Course Description Course of study is designed to develop competency in the accurate use of medical vocabulary to include anatomy, physiology, diseases, and descriptive terms to prepare students for entry-level positions as medical transcribers, clinical editors, health insurance processors, patient administration specialists OFAR Module 1. Identify Anti-racism in the classroom 2. Complete The VARK Questionnaire The assessment consists of 16 questions related to your learning strengths and weaknesses. The following is the direct link to go to the VARK ASSESSMENT (Links to an external site.) Objectives After completing the questionnaire you will be able to identify your learning styles and preferences. The results will provide you with tools and suggestions to facilitate your learning. Assignment Submit a your results to the assignment tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.025083	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97546/overview", "title": "Learning Styles Module: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90964/overview	Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template Overview This template is for Higher Education courses to share their syllabus, with a focus on opportunities to collaborate. Why an Open Syllabus? Rationale for openly sharing this syllabus (Use this space to provide a short background on why there is value in openly sharing your syllabus.) Aspects of this syllabus that may want specific attention for remixing (Use this space to orient the professor to which sections of the syllabus might want need special attention for remixing based on student populations. Example - "This course features a high number of adults in a second career and they may not have expertise in __________________. This course features supports to help them slowly build their confidence with ____________.") Opportunities for collaboration (Use this space to identify specific parts of your course that you see as in the "continuous improvement" phase. This may be a section where you would appreciate seeing remixes so that you can grow from additional thought partnering. Example "This course is currently using peer feedback on the essay portion of assessment #2. The included peer rubric that is linked seems to have challenges with peers giving thorough feedback. Additional thoughts about including authentic peer feedback would be appreciated.) Syllabus Content (Copy and paste your syllabus into this space. You can also "Import from Google Docs" and attach Word Documents or PDFs.)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.040334	Megan Simmons	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90964/overview", "title": "Higher Education Syllabus Sharing Template", "author": "Joanna Schimizzi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60448/overview	Chapter 1: Lecture Guide PPT Overview Attached is an overview of Chapter 1 in the form of PPT. It is structured with talking / discussion points instead of detailed notes. This correlates to Texas Government 1.0 Chapter 1. Chapter 1: Lecture Guide Attached is an overview of Chapter 1 in the form of PPT. It is structured with talking / discussion points instead of detailed notes. This correlates to Texas Government 1.0 Chapter 1.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.056432	12/06/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/60448/overview", "title": "Chapter 1: Lecture Guide PPT", "author": "Annette Howard" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79388/overview	Rhetoric in the REal: A First-Year Writing Syllabus Overview Syllabus and assignments for a First-Year Writing Course. I think there's enough in this document for you to run this class if you wanted to! Intro Hi everyone, Attached, you will find my most recent First-Year Writing syllabus. There's a new edition every year. I strive to build my syllabi to best serve each semester's student body. This syllabus includes a wide range of assignments and assessment modalities, a sample semester schedule, the prompts I use throughout the semester, and the course's "logistics." I use a kind of question-answer dialogue to discuss the "logistics." It may seem a little weird at first. I've found talking about expectations and policies and all the rest through a performed dialogue helps me create a hospitable environment in the classroom from the get-go. It's fun and funny and we get to laugh together. The dialogue helps keep my first experience with my students full of sweetness and light--I hope. For this course, the department requires an assignment sequence that includes a rhetorical analysis essay and a well-scaffolded 10-page research paper. All assigned readings must be non-fiction. I love teaching this class! In Solidarity, Daniel Hengel	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.073073	04/18/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79388/overview", "title": "Rhetoric in the REal: A First-Year Writing Syllabus", "author": "Daniel Hengel" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92541/overview	Louvre Museum Overview A travel article about Louve Museum The Louvre Museum was built as a castle in the Middle Ages by Philippe Auguste, the king of the time, to protect the city. After being used as a castle, this building, which was also used as a royal residence, palace and school of Literature and Sculpture, was decided to be used as a museum in 1793 during the French Revolution. Today, inside this large building, there is a rich library, conference hall, laboratory where the works are examined and renewed, and the Louvre Museum School, which provides education in museology and art history. The Louvre museum is among the museums with the largest painting collection in the world. The collection has expanded day by day with works brought from Egypt, Jordan, Athens, Rome, Iraq and many other countries. The Louvre museum, which is a work in itself, has also hosted artifacts from different periods. The 9,000-year-old statue of Ain Ghazal, which we can refer to as the "oldest" of the museum, reveals how extensive the chronology of the museum is. To talk about the works that impressed me in the museum, I must first start with the Mona Lisa painting. The Mona Lisa appears to be sitting with her arms crossed in a wooden chair with armrests on a rather high, open balcony. There are various theories about the portrait; It is said that the Mona Lisa was actually Lisa Gherardini, the wife of a wealthy Florentine merchant, but Leonardo kept the painting for himself, not delivering it to the merchant who ordered it. Another theory is that Leonardo drew himself in female form due to his homosexual identity. In short, the identity of the Mona Lisa is as mysterious as the expression on her face. Another work is “The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne” commissioned by the Santissima Annunziata Monastery. Again, a Leonardo Da Vinci work and this work was not delivered just like the Mona Lisa. That is why the work appeared after Leonardo's death. In the work, the childhood of Jesus, his mother Mary and Mary's mother Anna are seen. This painting impressed me because of the combination of 3 generations and the slight smile and calm demeanor on their faces when looked carefully. Leonardo preferred a mountainous and open area as the background in this painting, as in the Mona Lisa painting. In addition, the characters stand in a high place, as in the Mona Lisa. In the painting “The Raft Of The Medusa”, there are people left to their fate on a raft and trying to send a sign around. This painting impressed me because some of the figures in the painting were exhausted and hopeless and some of them struggled by shaking the fabrics in their hands. A pyramid of happiness is seen in the painting, and an increasing happiness and hope can be seen as you look upwards. The table I want to mention at the end of my article is; “The Wedding At Cana” standing right in front of the Mona Lisa painting I mentioned above by saying “I have to start”. This painting impressed me because it is huge. Contrary to the paintings I am used to seeing, it caught my attention because it has a far and wide angle and a very crowded environment. This is the painting that I have studied for the longest time since it contains so many figures. The first thing that caught my attention is the sight of Jesus and Mary in the middle of the table. Because of a long table and Jesus standing in the middle, the painting "The Last Supper" came to my mind directly. There are also those who want to watch the feast by hanging dangerously over the columns and balconies. This highlights the importance of the feast.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.088946	05/08/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92541/overview", "title": "Louvre Museum", "author": "Fatma Zehra ATAK" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84471/overview	Arc Length In Polar Coordinates: Calculus 3 project by Meredith Lapidas Overview This Project has been completed as part of a standard 10 weeks Calculus 3 asynchronous online course with optional WebEx sessions during Summer 2021 Semester at MassBay Community College, Wellesley Hills, MA. Arc Length In Polar Coordinates Introduction Imagine a clock set to 3;30, so that the hour hand is on 3 and the minute hand is on 6. If you has to describe the location of the hour hand with respect to the minute hand, what would you say? Rather than measuring the distance between both numbers with exactmeasurements, it would be much easier to say that the 3 and 6 are 90 degrees apart. Just like this clock example, polar coordinates can be used to simplify locating points on a graph. A Polar Coordinate is set of values that specify the location of a point based on both the distance between the point and a fixed origin, as well as the angle between the point and a direction. Polar curves are points that are a set distance from the origin/pole, depending on the angle measured in counterclockwise direction from a polar axis Examples of polar curves are ellipses, cardioids and lemniscates: Any equation written in Cartesian coordinates can be converted to one in polar coordinates using the trigonometric relationships: \| $\cos \theta =\dfrac{x}{r}$ \| $x=r\cos \theta$ \| \| $\sin \theta =\dfrac{y}{r}$ \| $y=r\sin \theta$ \| \| $\tan \theta =\dfrac{x}{y}$ \| $x^2+y^2=r^2$ \| Definition of Arc Length Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve - Deriving the arc length formula In rectangular coordinates, the arc length of a parameterized curve (𝑥(𝑡),𝑦(𝑡)) for 𝑎≤𝑡≤𝑏 is given by: $\displaystyle{L}={\int_{{a}}^{{b}}}\sqrt{{{\left(\frac{{\left.{d}{x}\right.}}{{\left.{d}{t}\right.}}\right)}^{2}+{\left(\frac{{\left.{d}{y}\right.}}{{\left.{d}{t}\right.}}\right)}^{2}}}{\left.{d}{t}\right.}$ - To find the arc length in terms of polar coordinates, first write the curve in terms of parametric equations: $r=f(\theta) \\ x=rcos(\theta)=f(\theta)\cos(\theta) \\ x=rsin (\theta)=f(\theta)\sin(\theta)$ - We can derive the parametric formula for finding the arc length by replacing the parameter t by θ: Example Find the arc length of the cardioid for r(θ) = 1 + cos(θ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π $x(\theta)=(1+\sin(\theta))\cos(\theta) \\ y(\theta)=(1+\sin(\theta))\sin(\theta) \\ r~'(\theta)=-\sin(\theta)$ ... therefore $L= \displaystyle {\int_0^{2\pi} \sqrt { (r ( \theta))^2 + (r'(\theta))^2 } ~d \theta = \\ \int_0^{2\pi} \sqrt { (1+\cos \theta)^2 + (-\sin \theta )^2 } ~d \theta = \\ \int_0^{2\pi} \sqrt { 2+ 2\cos \theta } ~d \theta = \\ \int_0^{2\pi} \sqrt { 4{\cos}^{2}{\left(\frac{\theta}{{2}}\right)}}~d \theta =~8 }$ Applications Polar coordinates are appropriate in situations where the object being considered is linked to direction and length from a center point in a plane. In celestial mechanics, polar coordinates can be used to plot planetary orbits. Since there are bodies moving around a central point, it is easiest to use polar coordinates for such planets. Given the fact that any planetary orbit is an ellipse, the Cartesian form of an elliptical curve is: $1=\dfrac{(x-h)^2}{a^2}+\dfrac{(y-k)^2}{b^2}$ Where h is the horizontal displacement of the curve, k is the vertical displacement of the curve a is the radius of the curve in the x direction, and b is the radius of the curve in the y direction. In a planet’s orbital curve, there is no displacement in the y direction. Therefore, the value k is 0. One can convert the Cartesian equation into the parametric form of an elliptical curve in a few simple steps: Finally, one can use values from planetary data (values a,b, and c) to get the polar form of a curve for any planet: Now, we can plug in each of the values for every planet to obtain... Nasa explains solar system dynamics well through orbits and Kepler's Laws: User: n/a - Added: 11/9/10 Links http://study.com/academy/lesson/polar-coordinates-definition-equation-examples.html	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.113721	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84471/overview", "title": "Arc Length In Polar Coordinates: Calculus 3 project by Meredith Lapidas", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56664/overview	Cell Plasma Membrane components (Chapter 5 Openstax) Overview Corresponds with Chapter 5 of Openstax Biology 2e Types of Cellular Transport through the cell's membrane This video lecture discusses tonicity, diffusion, passive transport. Corresponds with Chapter 5 of Openstax Biology 2e	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.126028	08/05/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56664/overview", "title": "Cell Plasma Membrane components (Chapter 5 Openstax)", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74421/overview	Manage Your Time Overview LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: - Understand the relationship between goals and time management. - Consider how your priorities impact your time. - Identify your time management personality. - Assess your current use of time. - Understand the basic principles of time management and planning. - Use a calendar planner and daily to-do list to plan ahead for study tasks and manage your time effectively. - Explore time management tips and strategies. - Identify procrastination behaviors and strategies to avoid them. Manage Your Time Manage Your Time Goals And Time When you have a long-term goal and break it down into mid-term and short-term goals, it leads to the question, “What do I need to do today in order to achieve my goal?” This question is at the heart of time management. Your goals guide how you spend your time and resources. Having clearly defined goals with specific deadlines leads you to be deliberate in planning your time and makes it easier to establish an effective time management system. Identifying Your Priorities Thinking about your goals gets you started, but it’s also important to think about priorities. We often use the word “priorities” to refer to how important something is to us. We might think, This is a really important goal, and that is less important. In reality, priorities don’t work quite that way. It doesn’t make a lot of sense to try to rank goals as always more or less important. The question of priority is really a question of what is more important at a specific time. You shouldn’t have to choose between these, except at any given time. Priorities always involve time: what is most important to do right now. Time management is mostly a way to juggle priorities so you can meet all your goals. When you manage your time well, you don’t have to ignore some goals completely in order to meet other goals. In other words, you don’t have to give up your life when you register for college, but you may need to work on managing your life and time more effectively. But, time management works only when you’re committed to your goals. Attitude and motivation are very important. If you haven’t yet developed an attitude for success, all the time management skills in the world won’t keep you focused and motivated to succeed. Identify Your Time Management Style People’s attitudes toward time vary widely. One person seems to be always rushing around but actually gets less done than another person who seems unconcerned about time and calmly goes about the day. Since there are so many different “time personalities,” it’s important to realize how you approach time. Try the following activity to help you identify your personal time management style. Activity 1: Identify your Time Management Style The following self-assessment survey can help you determine your time-management personality type. Read each question in the Questions column. Then read the possible responses. Select one response for each question. Each response should reflect what you probably would do in a given situation, not what you think is the “right” answer. Put a checkmark in the My Time Management Type column next to your likely response. \| QUESTIONS \| RESPONSES: Which response most closely matches what you would do? In the right column, check one response (a, b, c or d) for each question. \| MY TIME MANAGEMENT TYPE \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 1 \| Your instructor just gave your class the prompts for your first essay, which is due in two weeks. How do you proceed from here? \| a. Choose a prompt and begin working on a thesis immediately. Better to get it out of the way! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Read over the prompts and let them sink in for a week or so. You’ll still have one more week to finish the assignment, right? \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Read the prompts and maybe start playing around with ideas, but wait to really start writing until the day before. You swear it’s all in your head somewhere! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Look at the prompts the morning that assignment is due and quickly type up your essay. This makes you late for class, but at least you got it turned in on time. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 2 \| You are working on a group assignment that requires you to split up responsibilities with three other classmates. When would you typically finish your part? \| a. First. Then you’re done and don’t have to worry about it. Plus it could give you time in case you want to tweak anything later. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. After one or two of the others have submitted their materials to the group, but definitely not last. You wanted to see how they approached it first. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Maybe last, but definitely before the assignment, due date and hopefully before any of the other group members ask about it. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Definitely last. You’ll wait until everyone else has done their work, so you can make sure you are not duplicating efforts. Whatever, this is why you hate group work. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 3 \| Your instructor just shared the instructions for your next assignment and you read them but don’t quite understand what he’s asking for in a certain part. What would you probably do? \| a. Send the instructor an email that afternoon. When he doesn’t respond that night, email him again. This is your worst nightmare—you just want to know what he wants!! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Send him an email asking for clarification, giving yourself enough time to wait for his response and then complete the assignment. Better to be safe than sorry. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Try to figure it out for yourself. You’re pretty sure what he’s trying to say, and you’ll give it your best shot. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Don’t say anything until after the assignment is due. Other people in the class felt the same way too, probably! \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 4 \| The course you are taking requires you to post in a weekly discussion forum by Sunday night each week so the class can talk about everyone’s posts on Monday. When do you submit your posts? \| a. Tuesday night, after the first day of class that week. Then it’s out of the way. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. Thursday or Friday night. You want to let the week’s discussion sink in a little so you can collect your thoughts. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. Sunday night. You always forget over the weekend! \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. Monday at 3 AM. That still counts as Sunday night, right? \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 5 \| You have an important assignment due Monday morning, and you have a social/work/family obligation that will keep you busy for most of the weekend. It is now the Wednesday before the assignment is due. How would you approach this dilemma? \| a. You already finished it yesterday, the day it was assigned. Done! \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, and you manage this by chipping away at it over those 3 days. …Little. By. Little. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. You tell yourself that you’ll finish it by Friday night, so you can have your weekend free, but you still have a little left to do on Sunday—no big deal. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. You tell yourself that you’ll take the weekend off, then stay up late on Sunday or wake up early on Monday to finish it. It’s not a final or anything, and you have a life. \| Ο Improviser \| \|\| \| 6 \| You have to read 150 pages before your next class meeting. You have 4 days to do so. What would you most likely do? \| a. 150 pages divided by 4 days means… a little less than 40 pages a day. You like to chunk it this way because then you’ll also have time to go over your notes and highlights and come up with questions for the instructor. \| Ο Early bird \| \| b. 150 pages divided by…well … 2 days (because it’s been a long week), means 75 pages a day. Totally doable. \| Ο Balancing act \| \|\| \| c. 150 pages, the day before it is due. You did this to yourself, it’s fine. \| Ο Pressure cooker \| \|\| \| d. How much time does it take to skim the text for keywords and/or find a summary online? \| Ο Improviser \| Assessing Your Responses Which of the four basic time-management personality types did you select the most? Which did you select the least? Do you feel like these selections match the student you have been in the past? Has your previous way of doing things worked for you, or do you think it’s time for a change? Remember, we can all always improve! Learn more below about your tendencies. Review traits, strengths, challenges, and tips for success for each of the four time-management personality types. The Early Bird - Traits: You like to make checklists and feel great satisfaction when you can cross something off of your to-do list. When it comes to assignments, you want to get started as soon as possible (and maybe start brainstorming before that), because it lets you stay in control. - Strengths: You know what you want and are driven to figure out how to achieve it. Motivation is never really a problem for you. - Challenges: Sometimes you can get more caught up in getting things done as quickly as possible and don’t give yourself enough time to really mull over issues in all of their complexity. - Tips for Success: You’re extremely organized and on top of your schoolwork, so make sure you take the time to really enjoy learning in your classes. Remember, school isn’t all deadlines and checkboxes—you also have the opportunity to think about big-picture intellectual problems that don’t necessarily have clear answers. The Balancing Act - Traits: You really know what you’re capable of and are ready to do what it takes to get the most out of your classes. Maybe you’re naturally gifted in this way or maybe it’s a skill that you have developed over time; in any case, you should have the basic organizational skills to succeed in any class, as long as you keep your balance. - Strengths: Your strength really lies in your ability to be well rounded. You may not always complete assignments perfectly every time, but you are remarkably consistent and usually manage to do very well in classes. - Challenges: Because you’re so consistent, sometimes you can get in a bit of a rut and begin to coast in class, rather than really challenging yourself. - Tips for Success: Instead of simply doing what works, use each class as an opportunity for growth by engaging thoughtfully with the material and constantly pushing the boundaries of your own expectations for yourself. The Pressure Cooker - Traits: You always get things done and almost always at the last minute. Hey, it takes time to really come up with good ideas! - Strengths: You work well under pressure, and when you do finally sit down to accomplish a task, you can sit and work for hours. In these times, you can be extremely focused and shut out the rest of the world in order to complete what’s needed. - Challenges: You sometimes use your ability to work under pressure as an excuse to procrastinate. Sure, you can really focus when the deadline is tomorrow but is it really the best work you could produce if you had a couple of days of cushion? - Tips for Success: Give yourself small, achievable deadlines, and stick to them. Make sure they’re goals that you really could (and would) achieve in a day. Then don’t allow yourself to make excuses. You’ll find that it’s actually a lot more enjoyable to not be stressed out when completing schoolwork. Who would have known? The Improviser - Traits: You frequently wait until the last minute to do assignments, but it’s because you’ve been able to get away with this habit in many classes. Sometimes you miss an assignment or two, or have to pretend to have done reading that you haven’t, but everyone does that sometimes, right? - Strengths: You think quickly on your feet, and while this is a true strength, it also can be a crutch that prevents you from being really successful in a class. - Challenges: As the saying goes, old habits die hard. If you find that you lack a foundation of discipline and personal accountability, it can be difficult to change, especially when the course material becomes challenging or you find yourself struggling to keep up with the pace of the class. - Tips for Success: The good news is you can turn this around! Make a plan to organize your time and materials in a reasonable way, and really stick with it. Also, don’t be afraid to ask your instructor for help, but be sure to do it before, rather than after, you fall behind. People also differ in how they respond to schedule changes. Some go with the flow and accept changes easily, while others function well only when following a planned schedule and may become upset if that schedule changes. If you do not react well to an unexpected disruption in your schedule, plan extra time for catching up if something throws you off. This is all part of understanding your time personality. Another aspect of your time personality involves the time of day. If you need to concentrate, such as when writing a class paper, are you more alert and focused in the morning, afternoon, or evening? Do you concentrate best when you look forward to a relaxing activity later on, or do you study better when you’ve finished all other activities? Do you function well if you get up early, or stay up late, to accomplish a task? How does that affect the rest of your day or the next day? Understanding this will help you better plan your study periods. While you may not be able to change your “time personality,” you can learn to manage your time more successfully. The key is to be realistic. The best way to improve your time management is to take an honest look at how you are currently spending your time. Assess Your Use Of Time The best way to know how you spend your time is to record what you do all day in a time log, every day for a week, and then add that up. First, you want to take your best guess at how you are currently spending your time so you can compare that with how you are actually spending your time. This helps you identify the areas you need to work on. Activity 2: Where Does the Time Go? See if you can account for a week’s worth of time. For each of the activity categories listed, make your best estimate of how many hours you spend in a week. (For categories that are about the same every day, just estimate for one day and multiply by seven for that line.) \| Category of activity \| Estimated Hours per week \| Actual Hours per week \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Sleeping \| \|\| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \|\| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \|\| \| Working (employment) \| \|\| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \|\| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \|\| \| Attending class \| \|\| \| Studying, homework, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \|\| \| Transportation to work or school \| \|\| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \|\| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \|\| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \|\| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \|\| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \|\| \| Reading for fun or other interests done alone \| \|\| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \|\| \| TOTAL (168 hours in a week) \| Now use your calculator to total your estimated hours. Is your number larger or smaller than 168, the total number of hours in a week? If your estimate is higher, go back through your list and adjust numbers to be more realistic. But if your estimated hours total fewer than 168, don’t just go back and add more time in certain categories. Instead, ponder this question: Where does the time go? We’ll come back to this question. Next, print the Time Log and carry it with you throughout the week. Every few hours, fill in what you have been doing. Do this for a week before adding up the times; then enter the total hours in the categories in Activity 2. You might be surprised that you spend a lot more time than you thought just hanging out with friends, or surfing the Web or playing around with Facebook or any of the many other things people do. You might find that you study well early in the morning even though you thought you are a night person, or vice versa. You might learn how long you can continue at a specific task before needing a break. Time Log \| SUNDAY \| MONDAY \| TUESDAY \| WEDNESDAY \| THURSDAY \| FRIDAY \| SATURDAY \| \| \| 6-7 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 pm \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 6-7 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7-8 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8-9 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9-10 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10-11 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 11-12 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 12-1 am \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 1-2 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 2-3 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 3-4 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4-5 \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5-6 \| Establishing A Time Management System Now that you’ve evaluated how you have done things in the past, you’ll want to think about how you might create a schedule for managing your time well going forward. The best schedules have some flexibility built into them, as unexpected situations and circumstances will likely arise during your time as a student. For every hour in the classroom, college students should spend, on average, about two to three hours on that class reading, studying, writing papers, and so on. Look back at the number of hours you wrote in Activity 2 for a week of studying. Do you have two to three hours of study time for every hour in class? Many students begin college not knowing this much time is needed, so don’t be surprised if you underestimated this number of hours. Remember this is just an average amount of study time—you may need more or less for your own courses. To be safe, and to help ensure your success, add another five to ten hours a week for studying. To reserve this study time, you may need to adjust how much time you spend on other activities. Activity 3 will help you figure out what your typical week should look like. Activity 3: Where Should Your Time Go? Plan for the ideal use of a week’s worth of time. Fill in your hours in this order: - Hours attending class - Study hours (2 times the number of class hours plus 5 or more hours extra) - Work, internships, and fixed volunteer time - Fixed life activities (sleeping, eating, hygiene, chores, transportation, etc.) Now subtotal your hours so far and subtract that number from 168. How many hours are left? ____________ Then portion out the remaining hours for “discretionary activities” (things you don’t have to do for school, work, or a healthy life). - Discretionary activities \| CATEGORY OF ACTIVITY \| HOURS PER WEEK \| \| Attending class \| \| \| Studying, reading, and researching (outside of class) \| \| \| Working (employment) \| \| \| Transportation to work or school \| \| \| Sleeping \| \| \| Eating (including preparing food) \| \| \| Personal hygiene (i.e., bathing, etc.) \| \| \| Chores, cleaning, errands, shopping, etc. \| \| \| Volunteer service or internship \| \| \| Getting to classes (walking, biking, etc.) \| \| \| Subtotal: \| \| \| Discretionary activities: \| \| \| Organized group activities (clubs, church services, etc.) \| \| \| Time with friends (include television, video games, etc.) \| \| \| Attending events (movies, parties, etc.) \| \| \| Time alone (include television, video games, surfing the Web, etc.) \| \| \| Exercise or sports activities \| \| \| Hobbies or other interests done alone \| \| \| Time on the phone, texting, Facebook, Twitter, etc. \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| \| \| Other—specify: ________________________ \| Activity 3 shows most college students that they do actually have plenty of time for their studies without losing sleep or giving up their social life. But you may have less time for discretionary activities, like video games or watching movies, than in the past. Something, somewhere has to give. That’s part of time management and why it’s important to keep your goals and priorities in mind. Below is an example of a student’s weekly schedule, with designated times for class, work and study time. Kai’s Schedule Since Kai’s Spanish class starts his schedule at 9:00 every day, Kai decides to use that as the base for his schedule. He doesn’t usually have trouble waking up in the mornings (except on the weekends), so he decides that he can do a bit of studying before class. His Spanish practice is often something he can do while eating or traveling, so this gives him a bit of leniency with his schedule. \| Sunday \| Monday \| Tuesday \| Wednesday \| Thursday \| Friday \| Saturday \| \| \| 7:00 AM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 9:00 AM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 10:00 AM \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Spanish 101 \| US History I \| Work \| \| \| 11:00 AM \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| Intro to Psychology (ends at 12:30) \| College Algebra \| \|\| \| 12:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| Spanish 101 \| \|\|\|\| \| 1:00 PM \| Spanish 101 \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Work (start 12:30 end 4:30) \| Spanish 101 \| \|\| \| 2:00 PM \| US History I \| Work \| Work \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\| \| 3:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 4:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 5:00 PM \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| College Algebra \| \|\|\|\| \| 6:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 7:00 PM \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 8:00 PM \| Intro to Psych \| Intro to Psych \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 9:00 PM \| US History I \| US History I \| \|\|\|\|\| \| 10:00 PM \| Creating a Planner Now that you know what you need to be spending your time on, let’s work on getting it put into a schedule or calendar. The first thing you want to do is select what type of planner or calendar you want to use. There are several to choose from. The following chart outlines some pros and cons to different systems. online calendars, weekly calendars, monthly calendars and wall calendars. \| Type \| Example \| Cost \| Pros \| Cons \| \| Weekly Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Monthly Planner \| $5-$15 \| \| \| \| \| Daily Planner \| $5-$10 \| \| \| \| \| Electronic Calendar \| Free \| \| \| \| \| Dry Erase Calendar \| $15 – $20 \| \| \| What Goes in Your Planner? Now that you have selected your planner, it’s time to fill it in. But what goes in it? Well, everything! Start by putting in your top priorities and then move on to your discretionary time. Priorities - Class time - Work Time - Designated study time (2-3 hours per hour in class) - Assignment due dates (check your syllabus) - Exam dates and quizzes (check your syllabus) - Appointments - Birthdays of family and friends Discretionary Time - Social events - Parties - Exercise - Club activities - Church activities Reminders - Birthdays - Anniversaries - Holidays Your schedule will vary depending on the course you’re taking. So pull out your syllabus for each class and try to determine the rhythm of the class by looking at the following factors: - Will you have tests or exams in this course? When are those scheduled? - Are there assignments and papers? When are those due? - Is there any group or collaborative assignments? You’ll want to pay particular attention to the timing of any assignment that requires you to work with others. Remember your goals. Does your schedule reflect your goals? Set your short and long-term goals accordingly. Ask yourself the following: - What needs to get done today? - What needs to get done this week? - What needs to get done by the end the first month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end the second month of the semester? - What needs to get done by the end of the semester? Don’t try to micromanage your schedule. Don’t try to estimate exactly how many minutes you’ll need two weeks from today to read a given chapter in a given textbook. Instead, just choose the blocks of time you will use for your studies. Don’t yet write in the exact study activity, just reserve the block. Next, look at the major deadlines for projects and exams that you wrote in earlier. Estimate how much time you may need for each and work backward on the schedule from the due date. Plan Backwards As a college student, you will likely have big assignments, papers, or projects that you are expected to work on throughout the semester. These are often tricky for students to schedule since it isn’t a regularly occurring event, like a weekly quiz or a homework assignment. These big projects often feel overwhelming so students have a tendency to shy away from them and procrastinate on them. This often results in a lot of last-minute stress and panic when the deadline is looming. A way to plan for these big projects is to plan backward. Start at the final project and then figure out all the steps that come before it and assign due dates for yourself. For example, you have a research paper due May 1. Start there! \| Assignment \| Due Date \| \| Research Paper Due \| May 1 \| \| Final Draft \| April 28 \| \| Rough Draft \| April 21 \| \| Final Outline \| April 7 \| \| Find sources \| March 24 \| \| Thesis statement \| March 17 \| \| Select topic \| March 10 \| You have now created a series of assignments for yourself that will keep you on track for your project. Put these dates in your planner the same way you would any other assignment. Establish A To-Do List People use to-do lists in different ways, and you should find what works best for you. As with your planner, consistent use of your to-do list will make it an effective habit. Although we call it a daily list, the to-do list can also include things you may not get to today but don’t want to forget about. Keeping these things on the list, even if they’re a low priority, helps ensure that eventually, you’ll get to it. Just as there are several options for planners, there are different types of to-do lists. Check your planner to see if it has one incorporated. If not, get a small notebook or pad of paper that you will designate as your to-do list. Of course, there’s always an app for that! Your smartphone likely came with a Reminder App or another type of To-Do List app. There are also many free apps to choose from and there are apps to help you manage your homework and assignments. Take a few minutes to look through your options to pick the best one for you. Your To-Do list should be a reflection of your goals and priorities and should support your planner Your To-Do List should answer the question, “What do I have to do today, this week, this month?” Here are some examples of different to-do lists. Use whatever format works best for you to prioritize or highlight the most important activities. Here are some more tips for effectively using your daily to-do list: - Be specific: “Read history chapter 2 (30 pages)”—not “History homework.” - Put important things high on your list where you’ll see them every time you check the list. - Make your list at the same time every day so that it becomes a habit. - Don’t make your list overwhelming. If you added everything you eventually need to do, you could end up with so many things on the list that you’d never read through them all. If you worry you might forget something, write it in the margin of your planner’s page a week or two away. - Use your list. Lists often include little things that may take only a few minutes to do, so check your list anytime during the day you have a moment free. - Cross out or check off things after you’ve done them—doing this becomes rewarding. - Don’t use your to-do list to procrastinate. Don’t pull it out to find something else you just “have” to do instead of studying! Time Management Strategies Following are some strategies you can begin using immediately to make the most of your time: - Prepare to be successful. When planning ahead for studying, think yourself into the right mood. Focus on the positive. “When I get these chapters read tonight, I’ll be ahead in studying for the next test, and I’ll also have plenty of time tomorrow to do X.” Visualize yourself studying well! - Use your best—and most appropriate—time of day. Different tasks require different mental skills. Some kinds of studying you may be able to start first thing in the morning as you wake, while others need your most alert moments at another time. - Break up large projects into small pieces. Whether it’s writing a paper for class, studying for a final exam, or reading a long assignment or full book, students often feel daunted at the beginning of a large project. It’s easier to get going if you break it up into stages that you schedule at separate times—and then begin with the first section that requires only an hour or two. - Do the most important studying first. When two or more things require your attention, do the more crucial one first. If something happens and you can’t complete everything, you’ll suffer less if the most crucial work is done. - If you have trouble getting started, do an easier task first. Like large tasks, complex or difficult ones can be daunting. If you can’t get going, switch to an easier task you can accomplish quickly. That will give you momentum, and often you feel more confident in tackling the difficult task after being successful in the first one. - If you’re feeling overwhelmed and stressed because you have too much to do, revisit your time planner. Sometimes it’s hard to get started if you keep thinking about other things you need to get done. Review your schedule for the next few days and make sure everything important is scheduled, then relax and concentrate on the task at hand. - If you’re really floundering, talk to someone. Maybe you just don’t understand what you should be doing. Talk to your instructor or another student in the class to get back on track. - Take a break. We all need breaks to help us concentrate without becoming fatigued and burned out. As a general rule, a short break every hour or so is effective in helping recharge your study energy. Get up and move around to get your blood flowing, clear your thoughts, and work off stress. - Use unscheduled times to work ahead. You’ve scheduled that hundred pages of reading for later today, but you have the textbook with you as you’re waiting for the bus. Start reading now, or flip through the chapter to get a sense of what you’ll be reading later. Either way, you’ll save time later. You may be amazed at how much studying you can get done during downtimes throughout the day. - Keep your momentum. Prevent distractions, such as multitasking, that will only slow you down. Check for messages, for example, only at scheduled break times. - Reward yourself. It’s not easy to sit still for hours of studying. When you successfully complete the task, you should feel good and deserve a small reward. A healthy snack, a quick video game session, or social activity can help you feel even better about your successful use of time. - Just say no. Always tell others nearby when you’re studying, to reduce the chances of being interrupted. Still, interruptions happen, and if you are in a situation where you are frequently interrupted by a family member, spouse, roommate, or friend, it helps to have your “no” prepared in advance: “No, I really have to be ready for this test” or “That’s a great idea, but let’s do it tomorrow—I just can’t today.” You shouldn’t feel bad about saying no—especially if you told that person in advance that you needed to study. - Have a life. Never schedule your day or week so full of work and study that you have no time at all for yourself, your family and friends, and your larger life. - Use a calendar planner and a daily to-do list. Watch this supplemental video, College Survival Tips: Time Management for Beginners by MyCollegePalTeam6, for a brief re-cap of effective time management strategies. Time Management Tips for Students Who Work If you’re both working and taking classes, you seldom have large blocks of free time. Avoid temptations to stay up very late studying, for losing sleep can lead to a downward spiral in performance at both work and school. Instead, try to follow these guidelines: - If possible, adjust your work or sleep hours so that you don’t spend your most productive times at work. If your job offers flex time, arrange your schedule to be free to study at times when you perform best. - Try to arrange your class and work schedules to minimize commuting time. If you are a part-time student taking two classes, taking classes back-to-back two or three days a week uses less time than spreading them out over four or five days. Working four ten-hour days rather than five eight-hour days reduces time lost to travel, getting ready for work, and so on. - If you can’t arrange an effective schedule for classes and work, consider online courses that allow you to do most of the work on your own time. - Use your daily and weekly planner conscientiously. Anytime you have thirty minutes or more free, schedule a study activity. - Consider your “body clock” when you schedule activities. Plan easier tasks for those times when you’re often fatigued and reserve alert times for more demanding tasks. - Look for any “hidden” time potentials. Maybe you prefer the thirty-minute drive to work over a forty-five-minute train ride. But if you can read on the train, that’s a gain of ninety minutes every day at the cost of thirty minutes longer travel time. An hour a day can make a huge difference in your studies. - Can you do quick study tasks during slow times at work? Take your class notes with you and use even five minutes of free time wisely. - Remember your long-term goals. You need to work, but you also want to finish your college program. If you have the opportunity to volunteer for some overtime, consider whether it’s really worth it. Sure, the extra money would help, but could the extra time put you at risk for not doing well in your classes? - Be as organized on the job as you are academically. Use your planner and to-do list for work matters, too. The better organized you are at work, the less stress you’ll feel—and the more successful you’ll be as a student also. - If you have a family as well as a job, your time is even more limited. In addition to the previous tips, try some of the strategies that follow. Time Management Tips for Students with Family Living with family members often introduces additional time stresses. You may have family obligations that require careful time management. Use all the strategies described earlier, including family time in your daily plans the same as you would hours spent at work. Don’t assume that you’ll be “free” every hour you’re home, because family events or a family member’s need for your assistance may occur at unexpected times. Schedule your important academic work well ahead and in blocks of time you control. See also the earlier suggestions for controlling your space: you may need to use the library or another space to ensure you are not interrupted or distracted during important study times. Students with their own families are likely to feel time pressures. After all, you can’t just tell your partner or kids that you’ll see them in a couple years when you’re not so busy with job and college! In addition to all the planning and study strategies discussed so far, you also need to manage your family relationships and time spent with family. While there’s no magical solution for making more hours in the day, even with this added time pressure there are ways to balance your life well: - Talk everything over with your family. If you’re going back to school, your family members may not have realized changes will occur. Don’t let them be shocked by sudden household changes. Keep communication lines open so that your partner and children feel they’re together with you in this new adventure. Eventually, you will need their support. - Work to enjoy your time together, whatever you’re doing. You may not have as much time together as previously, but cherish the time you do have—even if it’s washing dishes together or cleaning house. If you’ve been studying for two hours and need a break, spend the next ten minutes with family instead of checking e-mail or watching television. Ultimately, the important thing is being together, not going out to movies or dinners or the special things you used to do when you had more time. Look forward to being with family and appreciate every moment you are together, and they will share your attitude. KEY TAKEAWAYS - Your values help shape your goals and your goals help shape your time management. - Identifying your priorities is an important first step to creating an effective time management system. - Models like The Eisenhower Method help you prioritize and avoid unnecessarily stressful situations. - There are unique Time Management Styles and knowing yours will help you create your own system. - Having an accurate snapshot of how you currently spend your time is the first step in creating an effective time management system. - Once you know how you spend your time, you can make a specific plan for how you want to spend your time. - There are different types of planners, including hard-copy and electronic. Find a planner that works best for you and your preferences and habits. - Your planner should reflect your values, goals, and priorities. It should include class time, work time, appointments, due dates, exams, and reminders of special dates. - For big projects, plan backward to ensure you have enough time planned for each step. - There are several options for To-Do Lists including paper and electronic choices. Find a system that works with your planner and that you will actively use. - Implement Time Management Strategies to support your success and ultimately support your goals. - Understand procrastination and the reasons you personally procrastinate. Use this information to incorporate proactive strategies to help you avoid procrastinating. JOURNAL IDEA: AVOIDING TIME TRAPS Now that you have a better understanding of how you are spending your time, write a journal entry that identifies your time traps and what strategies you can implement to overcome those time traps. What is a time trap? A time trap is something you end up spending a lot of time that doesn’t support your goals or priorities. They take up your time, energy and focus if you let them. The way to avoid time traps is to be aware of what your personal time traps are and have a plan for how you will avoid or reduce them. We all have our own personal time traps. What are yours? To help you get started, here’s a list of some common time traps: - Web surfing - Streaming online videos - Video games - Social media - Checking your phone for texts or alerts - Television - Sleeping unnecessarily - Hanging out with friends when there’s nothing really happening - Watching movies from streaming services Directions Look at your Time Log from Activity #2. What were your two most common time traps? How did these time traps distract you from your priorities? For each of your two time traps, come up with two specific plans to effectively avoid or reduce those time traps. What time management strategies can you implement that can support your plans to avoid your time traps? LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Manage Your Time. Authored by: Heather Syrett. Provided by: Austin Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Image. Authored by: Flickr. Located at :https://www.flickr.com/photos/bionicteaching/45191993455. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - The Pomodoro Technique: Study More Efficiently, Take More Breaks Authored by: Gena Ellett. Provided by: The University of British Colombia Located at: https://learningcommons.ubc.ca/the-pomodoro-technique-study-more-efficiently-take-more-breaks/ License: CC BY: Attribution - The Pomodoro Technique. Authored by: Ryan MacGillivray. Provided by: SKETCHPLANTATIONS Located at: https://www.sketchplanations.com/post/179972023741/the-pomodoro-technique-a-super-simple-methodLicense: CC BY: Attribution - Managing Time and Priorities. Authored by: Amy Baldwin. Provided by: Rice University Located at: https://www.oercommons.org/courses/openstax-3/view PUBLIC DOMAIN CONTENT - Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - College Success Provided by: University of Minnesota. Located at: http://www.oercommons.org/courses/college-success/view. License: CC BY: Attribution ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT - The Pomodoro Technique Authored by: Cirillo Company. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=VFW3Ld7JO0w License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License LUMEN LEARNING AUTHORED CONTENT - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution - Provided by: Lumen Learning. Located at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-learningframework/. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.210931	Mireya Chavez-Martinez	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74421/overview", "title": "Manage Your Time", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56812/overview	4.1 Cell Structure 4.2 Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cell structure This video goes over the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure. This video goes over the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure. This video goes over the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure. This video goes over the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.230158	08/09/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56812/overview", "title": "4.1 Cell Structure", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83196/overview	Chapter 2 CAD for 3D 1-30-21 Chapter 3 All-In-One2-11-21 Chapter 4 All-In-One 2-11-21 Chapter 5 3DPrintingTechnologies3-18-2021 Chapter 6 All-In-One JWRW v1.2 Additive Manufacturing (AM) Overview This resource contains materials related to Additive Manufacturing. Feel free to use any of the materials and modify them as needed for your class, If you modify them, please resubmit them to SLAM Resources. Section 1 - Introduction to Additive Manufacturing This chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the fundamentals of three-dimensional printing (3D printing). The reader will get an overview of these paradigm shifting machines, and learn of the history of additive manufacturing, dating back to the 1980’s. This chapter will also cover some of the specialized software that drives 3D printing, as well as the general framework for several popular AM technologies. Some of the objectives of the chapter include: 1) Defining the term “additive manufacturing” (AM), 2) Providing an overview of the history surrounding this technology, 3) Understanding “layers” and the parts of the slicer, the program that drives a 3D printer, and 4) Learning to follow the basic workflow as it applies to nearly all AM machines. Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 2 - Fundamentals of CAD for AM This chapter introduces computer-aided design (CAD) from a theoretical and practical perspective with emphasis as to how they apply CAD to additive manufacturing. The reader will dive into a brief history of CAD and how the software has reached its current state. A discussion /exposure to Autodesk Fusion 360, a free program which introduces tools dedicated to 3D printing design will also be presented. This chapter will evaluate Fusion 360 tools and how they apply to AM. The objectives of the chapter are to: 1) Provide a high-level overview of computer-aided design, 2) Provide a tutorial for Fusion 360’s fundamental design tools, 3) An exposure to additional design environments and capabilities of CAD, and 4) Understand how CAD can be leveraged for use in additive manufacturing Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 3 - Contemporary methods for production Title of work: Contemporary Manufacturing Methods Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: This chapter will introduce to the reader the means of production which have come to shape the face of manufacturing as we know it today. Students will explore the use of molding, CNC machining, and more in mass production, as well as the use of joining and forming to create various parts and assemblies. For each manufacturing technique, advantages, drawbacks, applications, and design considerations will be thoroughly presented. Objectives - Understand the operative concepts behind molding, machining, forming and joining - Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each manufacturing method - Pair each technique with an array of industry-wide applications - Consider the design specifications for each method & how this affects the finished part - Relate this newfound knowledge to additive manufacturing for comparison Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 4 Applications of Additive Manufacturing Methods Title of work: Applications of Additive Manufacturing Methods Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: In this chapter, the reader will be introduced to some of the most common applications of additive manufacturing. While studying each use of this technology, we will delve into precisely why 3D printing has been adopted in this fashion and how this technological and economic advantages have been utilized. Along with technical specifications, individual cases will be presented for each application. Objectives - Know the most common uses for additive manufacturing in industry - Understand how the benefits of 3D printing can be leveraged - Analyze case studies to better comprehend the technology’s usage in the real world - Look at some lesser known applications as well as uses in the near future Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 5 3D Printing Technologies SLAM Data Sheet Title of work: 3D Printing Technology Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: basic physics, chemistry Purpose: In this chapter, students will explore a variety of 3D printing technologies, from the highly popular, such as Fused Deposition Modeling or (FDM) to those that fill niche applications, such as sheet lamination. For each process, the methodology will be explained in detail along with technical specifications and available material types. Students will also learn the benefits and limitations of each process and come to understand the applications in which they are used. Objectives - Understand the numerous 3D printing technologies and how they work - Explore the types of materials that each method may print in - Know the pros and cons of each technology based on their process - Learn of the most popular applications of each method based on benefits & drawbacks Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 6 Design for AM SLAM Data Sheet Title of work: Additive Manufacturing (AM) Design Principles Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Joseph McConnell, Jason Wheeler and Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: Additive manufacturing’s unique perspective on manufacturing has led to innovative products, concepts, and ideas that would not be possible with traditional means of production. However, to utilize this powerful tool, students must understand the rules of design such that their CAD model properly leverages the benefits of the technology. In this chapter, readers will learn how to apply these specifications and concepts to their prints to reduce cost, material use, and weight while maximizing strength and integrity. Objectives - Become aware of the technical abilities of the most popular AM technologies - Learn to optimize a model such that material is conserved - Understand the design features which may not be manufacturable on a 3D printer - Explore the design rules of both polymer and metal AM production methods Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.283413	07/05/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83196/overview", "title": "Additive Manufacturing (AM)", "author": "Richard Wysk" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62524/overview	Cultural Heritage Tourism Overview This PPT introduces students to the concept of cultural heritage and then gets them to reflect on cultural heritage tourism via independent internet-based research and the development of an advertisement. Upper Intermediate ESOL Lesson designed for English MOI Tourism class at a technical institute in Italy. Defines cultural heritage tourism, with examples, and assigns an activity in which students do research on cultural heritage sites and then create a mock advertisement for those sites.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.301019	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62524/overview", "title": "Cultural Heritage Tourism", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93039/overview	Micrograph Bacillus subtilis 48h endospore 1000X p000063 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Bacillus subtilis cells were grown in broth culture for 48 hours at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained with malachite green (endospores) and safranin red (vegetative cells) prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph Light background with mixture of pink rods, pink rods with green endospores inside, and released green endospores.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.318117	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93039/overview", "title": "Micrograph Bacillus subtilis 48h endospore 1000X p000063", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84243/overview	ECE 100--Sample Assignment ECE 100--Syllabus ECE 100: Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education Overview Examines underlying principles of quality practices utilized in early childhood programs emphasizing the key role of relationships, constructive adult-child interactions, and teaching strategies to support physical, cognitive and social/emotional development for all children. This course includes a review of the evolution of the field and introduces the profession of early childhood education. Requires a minimum of 10 hours in a pre-approved early childhood setting and a current TB test, TDAP & MMR vaccine. (This may not pertain to this semester as we are navigating a pandemic) Formerly ECE-121. This course meets the requirement for licensing and the Child Development Permit. Syllabus, Sample Assignment, & Reading List Examines underlying principles of quality practices utilized in early childhood programs emphasizing the key role of relationships, constructive adult-child interactions, and teaching strategies to support physical, cognitive and social/emotional development for all children. This course includes a review of the evolution of the field and introduces the profession of early childhood education. Requires a minimum of 10 hours in a pre-approved early childhood setting and a current TB test, TDAP & MMR vaccine. (This may not pertain to this semester as we are navigating a pandemic) Formerly ECE-121. This course meets the requirement for licensing and the Child Development Permit.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.339178	Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84243/overview", "title": "ECE 100: Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61046/overview	General Biology Fungi Pictures Overview Pictures of fungi for a general biology course. Fungi Pictures Fungus images for general biology course.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.355046	12/27/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61046/overview", "title": "General Biology Fungi Pictures", "author": "Margaret Krone" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71092/overview	Essay 2 Annotated Bibliography and Rubric Essay 3 Final Essay Assignment and Rubric Essay 3 Final Essay Introduction Handout - Conscription and the U.S. Draft Handout - The Quang Ngai Province and the My Lai Massacre Handout -Tips on Reading a Collection of Linked Short Fiction Instructions for This Course Readings from Composition II Suggested Class meeting Discussions Suggested OER Syllabus Composition II Writing Exercises Composition II: The Things We All Carry Overview This course incorporates original OER materials with readings from the novel The Things They Carried, by Tim O'Brien, a gripping and compassionate account of a platoon of U.S. soldiers in the Vietnam War and readings from the textbook Composition II from Lumen Learning. The course will challenge students in their reading and writing skills while providing them with a historical and cultural context to better understand war, peace, and the human condition. Instructor Guides These are documents that explain the main parts of this course and how to deploy them. You will find a syllabus, class discussion prompts, writing exercises, and an outline of the textbook readings. Articles Here you will find some of the articles used in the syllabus. These were taken from the NEA Big Read initiative, "Teacher's Guide." The other articles can be found in the "Reader Resources" guide. Essays and Rubrics This section provides both the main essay assignments as well as their rubrics. These largely come from the textbook Composition II from Lumin Learning, though some have been adapted to better serve this OER course.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.382718	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71092/overview", "title": "Composition II: The Things We All Carry", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117801/overview	Searchable Pacific Northwest History Overview Searchable Pacific Northwest History provides a comprehensive examination of our past that includes geology, Native American culture and traditions, and history from earliest times to beyond 2000 C.E. This searchable chronological series is designed to be interactive making it easy for students to find and record specific information quickly to generate a personal study of history. Traditionally, history is taught as isolated events rather than as interconnected episodes. Multiple events may occur simultaneously but presenting the interaction is problematic. This approach misrepresents the context in which historical events occur. Time is distorted as activities that take months or years are condensed into paragraphs or pages creating an incomplete sense of the effort involved. The internet opens a vast resource of historical material enriching our understanding of the past. Searchable Pacific Northwest History provides students a door into our past by using a computer to study history. Rather than learning about history students can now learn from history through research and writing their own narrative. How to Use This Material Searchable Pacific Northwest History provides the student access to research to be used in generating a personalized study of history. I have chosen to use a format that includes a series of indentions (something like an outline) so Searchable Pacific Northwest History material can be copied and pasted. To assist in organizing the research project download this TEMPLATE paste it onto a computer screen and open it and save it. Using the “document search navigator” (ctrl [Control] F on a computer) students can find the topic they are researching in Searchable Pacific Northwest History. To copy the information, right click the mouse and drag the cursor over the material to turn it gray. Using “copy” (Ctrl C) and “paste” (Ctrl V) this information can be copied and pasted onto the TEMPLATE and saved to generate a new chronological document of their own making in “outline” form. For instance, after copying and pasting the formatted TEMPLATE on a computer, a student might research the activities of Juan Ponce de Leon. Opening Searchable Pacific Northwest History “1500-1599” and placing LEON into the search navigator (Ctrl F) shows Leon is found 21 times in the history. The paragraph “CONQUISTADOR JUAN PONCE de LEON BECOMES GOVERNOR OF PUERTO RICO” on page 4 begins his adventures. This paragraph can be COPIED and PASTED onto the TEMPLATE. (Note: quotations footnoted as to source are carried with the quotation when copied. The next paragraph where “LEON” is found is “SPANISH CONQUISTADOR JUAN PONCE de LEON EXPLORES (TODAY’S FLORIDA)” on page 5. This too can be copied and pasted onto the TEMPLATE following the first paragraph. (Notice that Florida is in parenthesis because it was still unnamed by Europeans so the name is out of sequence with history.) Further examination of 1500-1599 would result in additional information being discovered. Adding this material to the “outline” template would produce a document featuring the exploits of Juan Ponce de Leon in chronological order. Converting the “outline” into sentences would be the task of the student. Additional materials from the internet and other sources such as maps, photos, documents, etc. can be easily added to personalize the project. The complete 5 book series on Kindle (updated on 12/1/22): Why Did I Undertake A Searchable History? Computers have changed the way we can look at history. The study of our past has always been constricted by the space available to present it. The person, topic, or event being studied was confined by the physical limits of books. This constricting of the past is even greater in a history book dedicated to a very broad subject. Each topic must be compressed to fit the space available. These restrictions are no longer necessary with the advent of computers and the internet. The historic material that I have included has had a direct impact on the inhabitants of the Pacific Northwest. I have tried to focus on topics that people who live here, regardless of decade or century, would discuss with their family and friends. My hope is that because it was a topic of conversation and interest to people residing here at one time it may yet be so today. History happens chronologically and in context. However, it is not taught that way. Rather, attention is focused on dates, names and selected topics. For instance, the exploration of Captain George Vancouver might be presented without any mention of the discoveries of Spanish explorers although both investigations occurred simultaneously and sometimes mutually. Also, American sea traders were operating in the same waters while Alexander Mackenzie was actively conducting his overland expeditions to find the Pacific Ocean. Events do not occur in isolation. The topics of missionaries to the Pacific Northwest and Hudson’s Bay Company might be presented without acknowledging both entities were dealing with the same Native Americans at the same time. These interactions had a unique impact on the Indians. Or, similarly Northwest Indian wars and Indian treaties are presented without mentioning the treaties came before the wars. Presenting history one topic at a time, while necessary until now, makes historic context almost impossible. Presenting history one topic at a time also presents a false image of the time necessary to accomplish a task. When students are introduced to the Oregon Trail, attention is perhaps paid to the preparations essential for the journey and the sacrifices necessary. The route West is depicted passing by a series of prominent land features, hardships for the travelers may be indicated, and Oregon is reached three paragraphs or three pages after setting out depending on the detail of the text. There is no feeling for the nine months the journey on foot took to complete. The neglect of the amount of time necessary to accomplish a goal is so frequent in history books that this could, perhaps, account for the instant gratification so often demanded today. Those of us who enjoy reading history are intrigued with adding new information to what we have previously discovered. Each addition provides an opportunity to gain new insight. We are aware that previous generations faced challenges and mysteries much like our own. Discovering how these demands were met, successfully or unsuccessfully, in the past can guide us as we seek answers to our own personal and collective dilemmas. Most history instructors strive to teach their students about history. My goal is to enable students to learn from history. As President Harry Truman noted: “The only thing new in the world is the history you don’t know.” About the Author/Narrator My name is Jim Ruble. I was born in Western Washington and raised in a small village on the shore of the Salish Sea. My professional life was dedicated to teaching primarily Washington State History and United States History at the junior high school level. Of course, I coached for several years. I was active in my local education association serving as president, treasurer and negotiator representing teachers. I also was active in local and state politics. After retiring from teaching I was elected Washington State Senate Sergeant-at-Arms for two four-year terms. I began A Searchable History as a lecture series to supplement the Washington State History textbooks available for junior high student use. I discovered that an understanding of the present is predicated on an understanding of the past. When I was introduced to the computer my research grew exponentially. This document is the result of my life-long interest in history. If you have any questions, feel free to email me at jimrublehistory@gmail.com Book 1, Origin Book1 Overview GEOLOGY (Pages 1-15) In this section of the document you will find a chronological listing of geologic time broken down by Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs relayed in terms of a twenty-four clock. Significant events are noted such as volcanic activities, glacial events, the formation of glacial valleys and river valleys, various mountains, Lake Missoula, Grand Coulee, Dry Falls, Channeled Scablands and Puget Sound are noted. The advent of fishes, reptiles, dinosaurs and mammals are indicated. In contrast, a Chinook Indian legend that attempts to explain the earliest times is also included. NATIVE AMERICANS (Pages 16-115) In this section of the document the earliest people to live in the Pacific Northwest such as Marmes Man, Buhl woman, and Kennewick Man, are investigated as are theories of their origin. Coastal and Plateau Native language and culture are contrasted. Indian beliefs in the spirit world and the role of the shaman are considered. Ceremonial activities such as the potlatch, salmon ceremony and winter ceremony are examined. Class structure including slavery and political life are discussed. Native interaction with the environment, housing, Ozette village, and transportation including canoe making are presented. Fishing and hunting activities and Makah whaling are investigated. Native art work represented by clothing, jewelry, basket making and wood working is explored. Food gathering, cooking and serving, especially salmon, are presented. Attention is also placed on the cycle of life from birth to death. The impact of European and American invaders on native lives are considered. B.C.E.-1499 (Pages 116-135) An understanding of the history of the Pacific Northwest must begin prior to any European contact. This document begins with the Roman Empire and the efforts of early European and Chinese merchants who strived to establish trade. European and Chinese explorers set out to develop trade routes such as the Silk Road, develop cities as trading centers and generate wealth. Viking raiders, crusaders, Mongol invaders and Venice merchant Marco Polo each generated interest in expanding trade. 1500-1599 (PAGES 136-164) Interest in the “New World” was motivated by the rivalry between Portugal and Spain. Spain sent conquistadors Juan Ponce de Leon and Vasco Nunez de Balboa, to the New World to exploit her discovery. Portugal sent explorer Jorge Alvares across the Pacific Ocean to China. Spain continued its New World exploitation with Hernan Cortes, Juan Ponce de Leon, Pedro de Alvarado, Francisco Pizarro, Hernando de Soto and Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. Portugal’s Ferdinand Magellan attempted to sail around the world but he died when reaching the Philippines. His crew succeeded. As Spain reached the Philippines, France sent Jacques Cartier to find a shorter route to China. Portugal created a business monopoly in the city of Macau, China. Muscovy Company was chartered in England to trade with Russia. England took an interest in North America as the Muscovy Company financed two investigations by Martin Frobisher. 1600-1699 (Pages 135-165) France showed an early interest in l’Acadie (Canada) when Francois Grave Pontgrave led an effort to build a colony. Samuel de Champlain explored the St. Lawrence River. Pierre Du Gua de Monts began trade between France and l’Acadie as the colony of Saint Croix Island was established. Massachusetts Bay Company was chartered bringing Puritans to America. Pierre Espirit Raddison with his brother-in-law Medard Chouart, Sieur des Grosseilliers explored and traded in the upper Mississippi River region bringing out a fortune in furs. Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), chartered by England, developed a system of trading posts. Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet traveled the Mississippi River almost to the Gulf of Mexico which was later reached by Robert La Salle. York Factory was established by HBC whose trading posts were raided by independent French fur traders. Book 2, Discovery Book2 Overview 1700-1749 (Pages 1-23) Trade expands the reach of nations: British Hudson’s Bay Company operates in Canada, British East India Company opens trade with Canton, China, British South Seas Company begins trade with South America. Independent French-Canadians traders open Fort Michilimackinac in Canada’s interior. Russian fur traders sweep across Siberia, Russia. Cayuse Indians acquire the horse. Vitus Bering conducts two tragic voyages for Russia to northern North America. 1750-1779 (Pages 24-73) France and Great Britain fought the French and Indian War to control the Ohio River region while Spain claimed all of North America. Independent fur traders develop the Canadian fur trade as Americans Alexander Henry (The Elder) and Peter Pond investigate the Canadian interior to the Great Plains. English fur trading brothers Benjamin, Thomas and Joseph Frobisher operate out of Montreal. Scotsman Simon McTavish works the Niagara Falls region. Attention of the British government again turnes to North America as Chief Pontiac’s War erupted. Great Britain dominated her American colony passing the Townshend Acts resulting in the Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party, Declaration of Independence and the Battle of Lexington and Concord. Captain James Cook leads a scientific expedition to the North Pacific for Great Britain as far as the Arctic Ocean. Canadian free traders form the Michilimackinac Company in Canada to compete with Hudson’s Bay Company. Nine independent Canadian trading posts are established near the Straits of Mackinac west of Lake Superior. 1780-1789 (Pages 74-204) American traders Peter Pond and Alexander Henry the Elder work the Lake Athabasca region of Canada. Canadian North West Company is chartered. Company employees, known as Nor’Westers include wintering partners who conduct trade with the Indians and voyageurs who provide transportation. America’s Revolution ends but the nation’s boundaries remain undefined. United States Constitution is ratified and George Washington is elected president. North West Company’s Alexander Mackenzie leads an expedition from Fort Chipewyan on Canada’s Lake Athabasca to reach the Pacific Ocean. Traversing the Peace and Great Slave rivers, Great Slave Lake, Great Bear and Mackenzie rivers he mistakenly reaches the Arctic Ocean. Suffering through rapids, ice, freezing weather, mosquitoes and mutiny Mackenzie leads his men across 1,080 miles of wilderness in forty-one days before returning to Fort Chipewyan. 1790-1799 (Pages 205-491) Commandant Francisco de Eliza leads a fleet north to defend Spain’s claim of San Lorenzo (Nootka Sound). Spanish Army Captain Pedro d’Alberni and his soldiers are stationed at Fort San Miguel (1790). Lieutenant Salvador Fidalgo establishes Spain’s second colony in the Pacific Northwest. Nunez Gaona is located at Neah Bay on the coast of Washington (1792). Sailing expeditions are sent to investigate the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound, Clayoquot Sound, Barkley Sound, the Gulf Islands and the Gulf of Alaska. American Captain Robert Gray sails Columbia Rediviva from Boston back to the Pacific Northwest. He purchases land from the natives of Clayoquot Sound, names Adventure Cove and builds Fort Defiance there -- all while generating hostility with the natives. Gray sails south to trade discovering Grays Harbor and the Columbia River -- America’s only claim to what is now Washington State. British Captain George Vancouver sails the Discovery to the Pacific Northwest accompanied by Chatham commanded by Lieutenant-Commander William R. Broughton. Vancouver, Broughton, Peter Puget, Joseph Whidbey and James Johnstone thoroughly investigate the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound naming hundreds of geographic features which remain on maps today. Vancouver charts the Strait of Georgia along with Spanish lieutenants Galiano and Valdes. Vancouver next conducts a thorough investigation of Alaska waters. Book 3, Exploration Book3 Overview 1800-1809 David Thompson was named North West Company chief geographer and made a partner. Thompson, his wife Charlotte and their three children crossed Western Canada several times surveying and trading with the Indians. He carried several fortunes in furs east to the company’s Montreal headquarters. North West Company developed a transcontinental transportation system. Its Eastern Division linked Grand Portage on Lake Superior with Hudson’s Bay using large canoes manned by Montreal Boatmen. Western division linked Grand Portage with the wilderness using small canoes manned by voyageurs. Supplies traveled west; furs were carried east. Spain ceded her claim to North America vacating her colony and fort at Nootka Sound and selling her continental claim to France. Spanish attention focused on exploiting the resources of Central America. President Jefferson purchased Louisiana Territory from France. 1810-1819 Manuel Lisa’s St. Louis Missouri Fur Company’s Fort Raymond at the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers was visited by Andrew Henry who traveled with sixty trappers and established Henry’s Fort at the Three Forks of the Missouri River. Henry abandoned Henry’s Fort and built Fort Henry on the Snake River. North West Company’s Columbia Brigade pushed up the North Saskatchewan River bound for Rocky Mountain House. Piegan Indians harassed the brigade. David Thompson tried a new route West up the Athabasca River. He opened Athabasca Pass and wintered at Boat Encampment before continuing on to survey the Columbia River from source to mouth. John Jacob Astor created the Pacific Fur Company. He planned two expeditions to the Pacific coast, one overland and the other by sea. Astor’s Land Expedition under Wilson Price Hunt was filled with hardship, suffering and death. Astor’s Sea Party aboard the Tonquin under Captain Jonathan Thorn resulted in Astoria being built at the mouth of the Columbia River before the Tonquin was destroyed in an explosion. 1820-1829 Company wars led to the folding of North West Company into Hudson’s Bay Company. George Simpson was assigned to the Columbia Department. Fort George (Astoria) remained the headquarters for the department. Dr. John McLoughlin was named Chief Factor of Fort George. Fort Vancouver replaced Fort George as Hudson’s Bay Company headquarters for the Columbia Department Dr. John McLoughlin diversified operations to include lumbering, crop farming, sheep and cattle raising. Coastal trade was carried out by Hudson’s Bay Company’s Maritime Department. Competition came from American ships such as the Owyhee under Captain John Dominis. Sailors on Owyhee carried smallpox which devastated the native population as Indian villages became ghost towns. General William H. Ashley hit on the idea of supplying trappers in the field who traded goods with the natives for pelts. He established the Rendezvous system that required wagon routes be established from St. Louis to gathering places in the Rocky Mountains. 1830-1839 Annual Rendezvous became the method of supplying trappers in the field who worked the Wyoming and Montana area. Rocky Mountain Fur Company and other freight companies delivered caravans of goods from St. Louis to annual Rendezvous in the Rocky Mountains. Pacific Fur Trading Company carried goods from St. Louis to Santa Fe opening the Southwest. Catholic priests had followed French-Canadian trappers into the wilderness since the earliest arrival of Europeans to North America. Indian Ignace La Mousse studied the Catholic faith and settled among the Flathead Indians of Montana. They sent four young men to St. Louis seeking “Black Robes.” Spokane Garry studied the Church of England faith in Winnipeg, Canada. Garry opened a makeshift school among his people. Catholic Father Norbert Blanchet and Father Modeste Demers opened a mission in Oregon’s Willamette Valley and Washington’s Cowlitz Valley. Hudson’s By Company dominated its Columbia Department politically and economically. Canoe brigades carried supplies from, and furs to Lake Superior. Fur brigades penetrated the interior of the Columbia Department. Willamette Valley Methodist missionaries greeted the “Great Reinforcement” when they arrived aboard the ship Lausanne. Exuberant expansionist James K. Polk was elected President of the United States. He called for American jurisdiction over Oregon settlers. Oregon Country was plagued with nationalistic and racist feelings. Whitman’s Waiilatpu Mission was attacked on November 29, 1847. Thirteen people including the Whitmans were killed initially. Organic Act creating Oregon Territory was signed by President Polk August 14, 1848. Joe Lane was named territorial governor. Colonel William Loring led the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen over the Oregon Trail to provide protection to travelers and settlers alike. Book 4, Settlement Book 4 Overview California gold spawned get-rich-quick dreams in Oregonians who less than a decade before had been completely dependent on Hudson’s Bay Company for their protection and livelihoods. Married men, bachelors, boys, military deserters and frustrated missionaries were among the first of the 49ers. Very few made fortunes, some made enough money to invest in other schemes, most made very little. Many more made money mining the miners: farmers sold their harvests at fantastic prices, eggs sold for $1-$3 each, butter at $6 a pound, Long Beach oystermen could get almost any price they had the guts to ask. But the real money was made by Midwest timber barons who milled the seemingly endless old growth cedar and fir trees into dressed limber, piled it on fleets of ships and sailed to San Francisco to attempt to appease the insatiable appetite for building material. Change was rapid. Oregon Territory’s government hanged five participants in the Whitman tragedy. Millard Fillmore became president on the death of Zachery Taylor. Congress passed the Oregon Donation Land Law giving 320 acres of land to qualified (not Indian) settlers. Treaties written with six Indians tribes were almost immediately broken by resentful land grabbers. The U.S. Senate refused to ratify any of the treaties with Oregon Territory Indians to the confusion of Indians and settlers alike. Wanapum Indians lived along the Columbia River below the mouth of the Snake River. For centuries they practiced a religion known as Washani (dancers). Smohalla the Dreamer was accepted as a prophet and holy man. He opposed Christianity and told natives that if they returned to their old ways The Changer would drive off the invaders. This was the foundation of the Indians’ Dreamer Religion. Indian schools opened to impose American culture on native children in Washington Territory. Squaxin Island school educated Squaxin and Puyallup children. Puyallup School for Indian Education opened to provide a more convenient location. St. Anne’s Mission and Boys Day School opened on the Tulalip Reservation. The first Indian Boarding School in the United States opened on the Yakima Indian Reservation. Election of Abraham Lincoln brought Civil War to the nation. When Lincoln issued his call for support Washington Territory rallied. Women of the territory contributed clothing and hospital supplies in greater amounts than any other state or territory in the Union. Women’s voting rights had been discussed in the Washington Territory legislature in 1866 and 1869 to no avail. Abigail Scott Duniway published The New Northwest, a weekly women’s suffrage newspaper, in Portland. Suffragist Lizzy Ordway served as secretary of the Washington Women’s Suffrage Organization. Her efforts resulted in the territorial legislature granting women the right to vote in school elections. Fifteen Thurston County women were among the first to vote in America when they cast ballots in the school election November 1870. Lizzie Ordway was elected School Superintendent of Kitsap County. Lumbering boomed in Washington Territory to meet local needs and California demands. Old growth stands of public forests were frequently raided by timber pirates. Steam powered sawmills efficiently, if dangerously, turned out dressed lumber to be carried south by fleets of sailing ships hauling lumber. Northern Pacific Railway linked Duluth, Minnesota and the Great Lakes with the West coast September 11, 1883. Railroad companies sold the glories of the Pacific Northwest to Americans and Europeans alike even as the railroad bought politicians in Olympia and Portland. Washington Territory experienced a flurry of railroad construction projects as tributary shortline railroads stretched into coal fields, wheat growing regions and forest lands. Northern Pacific Railway’s Stampede Pass Tunnel through the Cascade Mountains linked the transcontinental track with Tacoma. Tacoma became the home of Foss tugboat company and the Ryan ore smelter. Washington Territory Legislature passed women’s suffrage on November 23, 1883 providing women the vote on local issues. Only Wyoming and Utah territories had enacted women’s suffrage earlier. Members of Seattle’s small African-American community rejoiced as they became the first politically organized group of black women ever to vote in the United States. However, women could not participate in national elections as federal laws denied the right. Canadian railroad builder Jim Hill dreamed of a privately-owned transcontinental rail line. He undertook his goal by linking together short line routes into his Great Northern Railway. He built his “Coast Line” track to connect Seattle with the Canadian Pacific transcontinental rail terminal at New Westminster, B.C. Scheduled international train service from Seattle began in 1891. From Seattle Hill also laid track toward the Cascade Mountains to link with his mainline transcontinental track under construction from the east. Washington State experienced a booming economy. Farmers led the way as farms blessed with good climate, rich soil. abundant rainfall and a long growing season became very productive. Oystermen began to harvest oysters with such abandon they depleted stocks and fish canneries did the same. Northern Pacific Railroad developed the land along the Yakima River when the railroad’s Yakima Land and Canal Company built the Sunnyside Canal and sold irrigatable land. But Washington’s principal industries were extractive in nature: lumber and mining returned huge profits for company owners. Financial crisis again hit America as the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad went into bankruptcy. President Cleveland was sworn into office for a nonconsecutive second term. He did little to address the growing crisis. New York Stock Exchange crashed on June 27, 1893. Business activities slowed, Farm prices for crops and land dropped ever lower and unemployment swept across the nation. Men wandered the countryside looking for work. Public opinion began to slowly swing toward governmental activism and intervention to help the poor. U.S. Navy battleship Maine was sunk under mysterious circumstances in the harbor of Havana, Cuba February 15, 1898. William Randolph Hearst and his chain of newspapers assumed Spain had plotted the treachery. America declared war and a patriotic frenzy was ignited. The First Washington Volunteers under Colonel J.H. Wholley answered the call. Seven officers and one hundred-forty of these men suffered casualties. The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War. Critics accused the U.S. government of using the Maine as a pretext to gain an empire in the ten-week war. Book 5, Development Book 5 Overview Gold rushes continued to enrich the nation and bolster the state of Washington. Socialist colonies sprung up in Pierce, Skagit and Island counties. Industrial Workers of the World radicalized the labor movement and women struggled to gain voting rights. Boarding schools deprived native children of their culture and Indian families of their children. An interurban transportation system linked towns and cities providing passenger and freight service. Prosperity led to political reform: women in Washington regained voting rights; cities attacked local crime; and state voters demanded accountability from political leaders. Europe marched off to war as Germany attempted to expand its empire. The United States joined in the “war to end wars” as ancient European empires collapsed. Boeing built airplanes to supply the war effort. Unions took advantage of wartime needs with strikes to improve wages and working conditions and expand the labor movement. Having supported the victors, America’s economy rapidly expanded. Communists organized in American to attack the capitalist financial system. In response a “Red Scare” swept the nation. Automobiles replaced the interurban transportation system. Prohibition attempted to diminish crime and social problems. Women’s voting rights were added to the U.S. Constitution. Electricity divided America into urban “haves” and rural “have-nots.” Economic Depression made everyone “have-nots.” Economic Depression spread poverty, destroyed the nation’s confidence and crushed American values. Drought-stricken mid-westerners driven by poverty fled to the coasts. White males took shelter in “Hoovervilles” while women and children faced homelessness, scarcity and fear in families or alone.” Europe again erupted in war as Adolf Hitler imposed his will. President Franklin Roosevelt promised Americans a “New Deal.” Imperial Japan imposed its will on Asia. America faced two wars simultaneously. Washington’s Japanese Americans were gathered in “Camp Harmony” before being shipped to internment camps. Women temporarily entered the work force to produce war goods in astonishing amounts. Atomic Power, born in part in Washington State, unleashed the threat of total annihilation on an unsuspecting world. Victory provided America economic prosperity and an opportunity to return to a male-dominated capitalistic society. America rescued Europe as the Marshall Plan provided, food, equipment, money and expertise to a stricken continent. North Korea with the support of Communist China invaded South Korea destabilizing Asia. America strived to achieve the “American Dream” but minority Americans did not qualify. Communists in the USSR detonated a series of atomic bombs. American children practiced “duck and cover” drills in schools as adults contemplated nuclear annihilation. Washington state and national politicians reignited the “Red Scare.” Nuclear war was very narrowly avoided by the U.S. and USSR. The Civil Rights Movement expanded from the South across the United States. Washington Indians demanded their treaty fishing rights be honored. Civil Rights marchers demanded minority groups be included in society. America entered the conflict in Viet Nam to stop the spread of Communism and entered the “Space Race” for the same reason. Boeing engineers made advances in air transportation, but the USSR led in space until American Neil Armstrong walked on the Moon. America expanded the war in Viet Nam into Cambodia as campus protests across the nation led to college students being killed. Vice-President Spiro Agnew resigned from office for taking bribes before the Watergate scandal forced President Richard Nixon to resign from office in disgrace. Economic recession resulted in education funding being cut in Washington. Teachers went on strike in school districts across the state. Disasters hit Washington’s logging industry when Mt. Saint Helens erupted destroying timber and powdering the state with volcanic ash. When the Northern Spotted Owl was placed on the endangered species list 30,000 timber jobs were lost. HIV/AIDS devastated America and the world. Crime alarmed the Puget Sound region as serial killer Ted Bundy was captured but the “Hillside Strangler” took his place. White supremacists conducted a statewide crime spree. A criminal syndicate led by the sheriff operated in Pierce County. State political leaders were convicted of corruption. The Green River Killer preyed on young women. Iraq invaded Kuwait. The United Nations Security Council authorized military intervention in Iraq August 29, 1990. Army reservists were called to active duty across the United States as protestors took to the streets. President George H.W. Bush ordered Operation Desert Storm (First Gulf War) launched against military targets in Iraq and Kuwait. A cease fire was declared after 100 hours of devastation. Iraq threatened to build nuclear weapons. President George W. Bush announced a Second Gulf War and ordered more than 100 airstrikes on Iraq before announcing an invasion March 20, 2003. The Communist government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) began to experience politically independent pressure as nationalist movements emerged in several of the republics. A coup to overthrow the Soviet Union president failed, but as the world watched in amazement the government disintegrated. President Mikhail Gorbachev resigned December 25, 1991 ending the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Native Americans exerted their treaty rights. Tacoma’s city and port and the city of Fife had expanded onto Puyallup Indian reservation land. The Puyallup Tribe sent eviction letters to farmers and landowners. Negotiations resulted in the tribe acquiring a $162 million settlement. In a court case Washington State treaty tribes retained the right to harvest shellfish even on private property. Makah Indians, reviving a protected ancient tradition, conducted a successful whale hunt December 1994. Teacher strikes continued culminating in a stateside strike. Governor Booth Gardner and legislators took up education reform but ignored education funding. Commissions and Task Forces proposed that student learning goals and teacher accountability were the real issues facing education. Local school districts saw their funding slashed as corporate lobbying for billions of dollars in tax breaks and other benefits began. WASL (Washington Assessment of Student Learning) testing was imposed to acquire a high school diploma. Problems of wide variations in individual schools’ performances and inconsistencies in test scoring soon surfaced. Controversy forced WASL testing to end in 2009. Teachers in districts across the state went on strike as legislators focused attention on student testing rather than lack of school funding. Washington courts addressed the funding crisis and the state supreme court ruled legislators were in contempt of court for not meeting their paramount duty to fund education. Local and international events were of concern as The Green River serial killings continued for ten years. The United State entered a series of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Trade agreements with Europe and Asia were reached but rioters in Seattle protested the World Trade Organization agreement. Boeing absorbed its competitors and moved its headquarters out of Seattle. Several billionaires called Washington their home. Sound Transit began to link the cities and towns of King, Pierce and Snohomish counties with a transportation network reminiscent of the Interurban system.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.416914	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117801/overview", "title": "Searchable Pacific Northwest History", "author": "Student Guide" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108602/overview	The Complete Subjective Health Assessment Pain Assessment-A Case Study Overview Case Study for Pain Assessment using the PQRSTU method. Identifies how to find objective and subjective cues for pain. Case Study-Pain Assessment Part 1 1. B and E 2. A and C 3. A, C, and D 4. A 5. C You have been assigned Mr. Edmund, who is a 30 year old patient who arrived in your facility yesterday following a motorvehicle accident. In the emergency department he was diagnosed with fractures of left ribs 6-8, left humorus fracture, and bilateral lung contusions. His arm was set and splinted in the emergency department last night. He has multiple bruises, abrasions and lacerations to his face, left arm, chest and abdomen. You review his most recent vital signs and note the following: R-26, P-110, B/P-140/86, Temp 36.8 C. Upon arrival in the room, you note Mr. Edumund is lying in bed with his eyes closed and is grimacing. He is lying very still and refuses to move. He tells you he is "very sore from the accident". You decide to use the PQRSTU assessment ( Lapum et al, 2019) to assess his pain and you note the following: respirations are shallow and about 26 per minute, radial pulse is strong and rapid at 112 bilaterally, L arm is in a splint, fingers are swollen and bruised but he reports sensation and is able to move them, lungs are clear bilaterally but diminished in the bases. Mr. Edmund is not on any oxygen and his oxygen saturation is 96%. He states he is unable to take a deep breath or cough. He states when he takes a deep breath he gets a immediate stabbing pain in his L side. He can not get comfortable and states nothing makes his pain any better. He states he hurts all over but his main concern is the severe pain in his left ribcage. He reports that as an 8 of 10 on the 0-10 numeric pain scale your facility uses. He states he has not had any pain medication since he left the emergency department last night. 1. Identify all of the following that are subjective assessments related to pain (more than one may be correct) A. Oxygen Saturation of 96% B. Reports when he takes a deep breath he gets an immediate stabbing pain C. Bruising and abrasions on his face D. Cast in place on his left arm E. Reports pain of 8 out of 10 on the numeric scale 2. Identify all of the following that are objective assessments related to pain (more than 1 may be correct) A. Respiratory Rate of 26 B. Reports when he takes a deep breath he gets an immediate stabbing pain C. Facial Grimace D. Splint in place on his left arm E. Reports pain of 8 out of 10 on the numeric scale 3. Which of the following cues might indicate a patient is experiencing pain? A. Facial Grimace B. Pulse oximeter reading of 96% C. Pulse rate of 112 D. Refusal to move 4. After getting Mr. Edmund pain medications, what would the prudent nurse focus on first to prevent further complications? A. Having Mr. Edmund deep breath and cough and use a spirometer B. Getting Mr. Edmund up to walk C. Giving Mr. Edmund pain medication on a regular basis D. Elevating Mr. Edmunds L arm to prevent swelling 5. Based on your assessment what is the primary nursing concern at this time? A. Preventing swelling of Mr. Edmunds arm B. Keeping Mr. Edmunds pain at a "0" rating C. Preventing respiratory complications D. Walking Mr. Edmund to the bathroom Reference: Lapum, J; St-Amant, O; Hughes, M; Petrie, P; Morrell, S; and Mistry, S. (2019). The Complete Subjective Health Assessment. eCampusOntario. https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/healthassessment/part/preface/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.442182	Case Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108602/overview", "title": "Pain Assessment-A Case Study", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95539/overview	CT_adipose_kidney_400x, p000136 Overview CT_adipose_kidney_400x, p000136 CT_adipose_kidney_400x, p000136 CT_adipose_kidney_400x, p000136	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.464066	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95539/overview", "title": "CT_adipose_kidney_400x, p000136", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95075/overview	simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_100x, p000119 Overview simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_100x, p000119 \| one layer surface cells top layer is flat \| simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_100x, p000119 simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_100x, p000119 \| epithelia \| Anatomy, p000119 \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.477657	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95075/overview", "title": "simple squamous epi_lung alveoli_100x, p000119", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78283/overview	Production of OER Worklow Overview This workflow can help you understand the major steps in the production of OER and manage your own progress towards creating OER. Key questions are asked at various points and direction to support from library. We ask faculty and departments authoring open content to engage in this process in order for their OER to be recognized. This work, created by Billy Meinke and University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 International license - Revisions by Regina Gong at Lansing Community College and OPEN SLCC. Production of Open Educational Resources (OER) Workflow This workflow can help you understand the major steps in the production of OER and manage your own progress towards creating OER. Key questions are asked at various points and direction to support from library. We ask faculty and departments authoring open content to engage in this process in order for their OER to be recognized. This work, created by Billy Meinke and University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 International license - Revisions by Regina Gong at Lansing Community College and OPEN SLCC.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.495794	03/17/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78283/overview", "title": "Production of OER Worklow", "author": "Liliana Diaz" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/17962/overview	Rhetorical Appeals Overview This module covers four rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, logos and kairos. Section 1 This module covers four rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, logos and kairos.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.512760	10/19/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/17962/overview", "title": "Rhetorical Appeals", "author": "Lauren Williams" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94561/overview	الفيديو التفاعلي Overview يهدف الموقع الى ان يتعرف الطالب على الفيديو التفاعلي واستخداماته في مجالات عده ويحتوي الموقع على تاريخ ونشاه الفيديو التفاعلي ,وتعريف الفيديو التفاعلي ,واهم مكونات الفيديو التفاعلي , وخصائصه , واستخداماته , واهم مميزات وعيوب الفيديو التفاعلي ." الصفحه الرئيسية الفيديو التفاعلي مرحبا بكم في موقع الفيديو. التفاعلي إعداد/ أحلام خشافة. إشراف/ أنور الوحش الموضوعات \| مكونات الفيديو التفاعلي \| تعريف الفيديو التفاعلي \| تاريخ ونشاه الفيديو التفاعلي \| \| اهم مميزات وعيوب الفيديو التفاعلي \| خصائص الفيديو التفاعلي \| استخدماته في العمليه التعليمية \| من نحن نحن طلبة تكنولوجيا التعليم والمعلومات الدفعة التاسعة شعبة المعلومات المستوى الثالث تاريخ ونشاه الفيديو التفاعلي ديو التفاعلي "ديسك" سنة 1973م وانتشر في الولايات المتحدة سنة 1978م وفي أروبا 1982 م كانت تطبيقاته مختصره في البداية على الاقلام المتحركة التجارية وفي سنة 1982م استخدم نظام الليزر في الكمبيوتر وادى الى ظهور الأسطوانات المدمجة (السي دي_ والروم)فزادت سعته في الفيديو ديسك ومن ثم ظهرت الأسطوانات المدمجة التفاعلية واصبحت متاحة تجاريا منذ عام 1922م ثم ظهرت محاولات الوحدة بين الفيديو ديسك والبطاقة الفائقة الهارد كارد ساعدت الى تخزين صور ثابته ومتحركة على الفيديو ديسك . في نهاية الثمانينات وبداية التسعينات من القرن 20 بدأت مشروعات الفيديو التفاعلي لا كنة لم ينتشر في المدارس بسبب ارتفاع سعره . تعريف الفيديو التفاعلي عبارة عن مزج الحاسب الالي بالفيديو ليتاح للمتعلم فرصة التفاعل مع البرنامج الموجود على شريط او قرص بطريقة تسمح له بتعلم الافكار واكتساب الخبرات والجديدة في الموقف التعليمي ويرى بآرونز جون 2015م هو خليط لبيئة الوسائط المتعددة التي تنتقل مميزات الفيديو التعليمي والكمبيوتر المساعد للمتعلم بحيث تتيح للمتعلم التفاعل والاستجابة لتقديم المعلومات ت السمعية والبصرية مكونات الفيديو التفاعلي تشمل انظمة الفيديو التفاعلي على المكونات التالية: الأجهزة التعليمية: وتشمل الكمبيوتر وأدوات الإدخال ووسائل التخزين وأجهزة الصوت. إدارة المعلومات: دورها تحديد وتجميع وتخزين أداء المستخدم وتفاعله مع النظام. ب ا رمج الفيديو التفاعلي: وتشمل أدوات متعددة للتأليف . نظم التأليف: وهي تتطلب قد ا ر قليلا من المعلومات عن البرمجة لتصميم الشاشات لغة التأليف: ونعني بها لغة البرمجة وتمتاز لغة التأليف بالمرونة خصائص الفيديو التفاعلي يتسم الفيديو التفاعلي بالخصائص التالية: 1- يجمع بين كل من ميزات كل من الفيديو والكمبيوتر من خلال البرامج التعليمية 2- يسهم في ايجاد المشاركة الايجابية الفعالة بين المتعلم والبرنامج. 3- يسهم توفير زمن المتعلم. 4- يراعي خصائص المتعلم وحاجاته المختلفة. 5- يساعد على إتقان التعلم، لما يقدمه من تغذية ا رجعة وتعزيز فوري لاستجابات المتعلم . 6- التحكم الذاتي من خلال عرض للفيديو والحاسوب أثناء عملية التعلم 7- التفاعلية ؛ حيث يقوم المتعلم باستجابات أثناء عملية التعلم . استخدامات الفيديو التفاعلي من استخدامات الفيديو التفاعلي في التعليم كما يلي . قواعد البيانات البصرية: كأداة للشرح والتوضيح في المحاض ا رت التعليم والتعلم التفاعلي: أداة إرشاد:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:05.534568	Full Course	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94561/overview", "title": "الفيديو التفاعلي", "author": "Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84317/overview	The Working Writer: An Open Composition Textbook Overview This is a sixteen-chapter open textbook for freshman composition. Chapter 01: Academic Reading Congratulations! You have started the book. Many people do not consider themselves to be avid readers—you may think you are among their numbers—but everyday reading is incredibly common, and most people have a more well-developed literacy than they may think. Even if you claim that you do not like to read, you still likely read more than you realize. Whether reading from a screen or a magazine—maybe walking and reading your phone at the same time, browsing episode synopses or reading the subtitles on a streaming service, or waiting in the checkout line browsing the tabloid headlines—you do a fair amount of reading every day. Written language is only one of many ways to transmit information, though it is quite adaptable. Historically, cultures thrived after the development of written language. As societies have developed and become more complex over time, so too have the methods we use to communicate. And although written text is only a crude approximation of our thoughts, written language is the common denominator by which we communicate ideas with others. Today, people have a variety of backgrounds and reading situations, and literacy rates vary throughout the population. The everyday reading to which we’ve become accustomed is perhaps the most-important way to share our thoughts with one another. Increased literacy rates have led to higher standards of living, as reading allows us to challenge our assumptions, assume new identities, inhabit lives different from our own, experience the unfamiliar, and widen our perspectives: - It is unlikely that you have been followed by a uniquely persistent green eggs and ham peddler, though you may have once been reluctant to try something only to later discover that you liked it. - Maybe you have never lived in an ancient magical castle, but you have likely spent time running through the halls of Hogwarts in your mind. - Perhaps you have not faced off against an oppressive regime in a dystopian landscape, but you have likely read through a hero’s perilous journey and lived to tell the tale. Reading affords us insight into the world, seen from the perspective of someone else—a person of another background, another gender, a different race, nationality, ability—written communication provides us the opportunity for shared experiences: through reading we can practice empathy. As the world becomes more interconnected, shared experiences with and empathy for others reminds us that our own perspectives are not supreme. Through histories, records, and stories, reading both connects us to each other’s pasts and helps us envision and shape our shared future. Written communication is an efficient and effective way to disseminate information. For example, you’re reading this handbook (or a pdf of this handbook) right now. Because we have yet to find the best voice-over artist for the audiobook version, you are stuck reading the text. Reading is common in the college classroom because it is an excellent way to discuss ideas. Embrace the pun: reading helps instructors to get everyone on the same page, which is important considering the variety of backgrounds and experiences everyone brings to class. As a college student, reading is expected of you in your classes, and it will likely be a major component of your coursework. Many classes will carry with them a heavy reading load consisting of a variety of sources like the required textbook(s) for the course, linked online reading, or additional supplementary materials such as reports, files, essays, or stories. As you read through your syllabi and progress through your courses, you may find that several of your assignments are simply listed or referred to as “readings.” You should not let this name instill within you a sense of complacency. Although it may not seem like it, reading just a few pages can be a time-consuming activity. Reading for your college courses—reading for this Composition Course—may frequently be a time-consuming activity, because reading requires your participation. As you read academically, you will experience new ideas and terminology, and require time to think about and process this information. First, reading new material takes time (more so if you prepare by first reading the headnote or embarking on some light research into the contexts surrounding the assigned reading). Understanding, analyzing, and evaluating the information—making annotations in the text, looking up any words that need definition or further clarification, asking questions of the material—all of this takes additional time. Finally, giving yourself some space and ultimately re-reading and reflecting on the text takes even more time. When instructors ask their students to read something for class, accompanying the request is an implicit assignment of interacting with the material in a meaningful way. Assigned readings provides students with a context for entering into a larger conversation. In most cases, your instructors will not expect you to be an expert on the assigned reading, though they will seek discussion. Ask questions of the texts you read in your courses and share your thoughts with your classes. An Exchange of Ideas Talking about writing is important. Although readers can all agree on what words are sprinkled on the page, they might not agree on what that writing means. Writings are like entries into an ongoing conversation. When writers choose to voice their position on a topic, they are becoming a participant in the larger discussion, offering their views in position to those who have written on the topic before them and in light of different contexts. If no one hears that writer’s voice, however—if no one reads what they have written—the conversation ends. The audience participates in this conversation by reading thoughtfully when considering the author’s points. Most conversations are not meant to be won or lost and dominating a discussion does not provide one an advantage. It is not as if speaking for a majority of the conversation makes one victorious or precludes others from saying their piece. Thinking about topics can be recursive—thoughts may loop back on themselves time and again as new information becomes available and contexts change—and large, cultural conversations may exist in several iterations before returning to a point already made. Ideas change with time and perspective; listening to others can help clarify your own thinking on a topic. But a conversation does not necessarily mean a solution. Writers are not always looking for reasons or answers, searching for causes or beginnings, seeking action or results; sometimes writers are simply expressing themselves, or writing for exercise, or inquiring for understanding, for sympathy, for someone to listen—looking for an audience. It is the combination of these the text and the audience that equals criticism. The exchange of ideas looks something like a mathematical formula: Text + You = Criticism The word “criticism” has negative connotations—harsh judgement or otherwise bad feelings—but in this case it means interpretation. A critical reading of a text is a thoughtful consideration of its contents and construction. Just as important as what a text says is how you read that text—your experiences, biases, proclivities, the time and effort you put into considering the writer’s points—everything you bring to the conversation will influence how you read the text. What the audience might get out of a text is influenced by what they bring into it. As a participant, the reader has an outsized interpretation in the exchange of ideas. Approach readings with an open and considerate mind. Written communication is an integral component of sharing ideas so encountering new texts with an open mind and a willingness to learn is vital to the exchange. Before responding to something, think first about what you have read. Joining in on a conversation without first listening to what’s being said might result in a misunderstanding. Rather than hearing what is being said, listen for what others are saying. Hearing is an auditory activity, just one of the five senses. Listening means thinking about what you hear: consider the larger contexts, the presentation of the material and its implications, and what the writer is trying to communicate. When you listen to others—really listen—you must be willing to acknowledge the validity of other viewpoints, regardless of whether you agree with them. Be thoughtful when you listen, rather than thinking of how you might respond to a certain point. Only after participating in the conversation through listening is it appropriate to add your own voice the discussion with and about the text. Engage with the text itself, seek out discussion with other readers, read critical reviews of the work, research the topic independently, read up on the author or creator of the work and use these inquiries to inform your own opinions. Consider the larger contexts surrounding the text: - Who wrote this? - When was this composed? - Under what circumstances? - Is there anything readers should know about this text before reading it? Careful reading and consideration of a text leads to the ability to participate in more conversations. Responsible engagement with writing is one of your duties as a college student. Your instructors have taken time to select the materials in their courses with their students’ education in mind. As a reader—as a participant in the exchange of ideas—it is your responsibility to show a dedicated commitment to reading and engaging with those materials. Critical readings—listening to what is being said in the conversation—can sometimes provide a great opportunity for self-reflection. Review your own thinking. Consider why you feel the way you do, and apply the skills of critical reading to your own thoughts. Reading Critically Have you ever read a post online then commented on it, only to realize that you misread the post in the first place? Have you ever found yourself reading an assignment for class, and though you have read each word in every sentence for the last several paragraphs—sometimes more than once—you cannot remember anything specific about what you have just read? It can even feel like a dissociative action, as if your eyes have just been moving over the words without your brain really thinking about them. Maybe you were daydreaming or thinking about what you might have for lunch. Or maybe instead you have been involved in a conversation with a friend or family member. Just as you are sharing with them your thoughts, you see them look up from their phone, not having listened to a word you said, and ask, “What?” Perhaps you even repeated yourself after an exaggerated sigh. Reading—even listening to someone speak—takes effort. Critical reading is the concentrated effort of focusing on what you are reading and why it matters. Even if you read each word, if your mind is elsewhere while you are reading, you will not understand what is written or why it may be important. The commonality of sharing and discussing ideas is valuable and thinking critically about a text can be rewarding. Take a positive interest in what you read and try to pay close attention to what you discover in the text. Ask yourself how the text affects you. If you are having trouble getting started—if you believe that the assigned reading has no bearing on your life whatsoever—consider how you might feel if the topic were directly concerned with you or someone you know. Try to make connections between what you read and your daily life, or the lives of the people you care about. - Think about how what you read might affect your education, your hobbies, interests, friends, family, transportation, health, environment, etc. - Imagine how what you read may affect your future. - Consider how past versions of yourself might respond to what you read. - What might they think of it? - Reflect on how you may have changed since. Flex your awareness and envision all the different, diverse audiences may read the same text as you—imagine the unique experiences they have that might relate to the story, or the different jokes at which they might laugh—the audiences who might not share your opinions or your experiences but are still reading the same text. A Reading Process Before you embark upon a reading assignment, first put yourself in a good place to read and get comfortable. If you have a favorite chair or desk where you read—if you have perfected a routine which helps you study—return to those familiar places. Mentally prepare yourself to learn by adopting a positive attitude. Limit distractions. Seclude yourself from your phone and other screens (unless you are reading on one). Find a quiet area away from friends and family. Focus on discovery. As you approach a text for the first time, ask yourself what you know about it. Some readings will include headnotes, or important biographical information about the author and/or contextual information about the work’s publication. Other readings may require a bit of research on your end. Knowing relevant background information on the topic on which you are reading can inform your interpretation of the material. Common questions you might ask yourself when you read a text for the first time: - What is this topic? Is this something I should be concerned about? What are other people saying about this? Is this something I have seen in the news? In someone’s post online? - Who is paying for this? Who is getting paid for this? Have I ever heard of this publication? Is this publication known for anything? Is it reputable? - Who is this author? Is she known for something? Have I seen him somewhere before? How credible is this person? Does this author display a bias in their work? When you take the time to make a commitment to reading critically, it is best to give yourself every advantage to succeed. Establishing a process for reading can help you work your way through texts of various lengths and difficulties. For example, you might begin with this basic premise: RAwR - Read (or otherwise consume) the material [R] - Annotate the work [Aw] - Reflect on what you read [R] Read the Material Whatever it is, you will have to read it. After you have read it once, you should read it again. Reread it after that. Then read it again. Multiple readings of a text allow for deeper critical inquiry. As you read over a text again and again, different ideas may grab your attention on each readthrough, or your focus may shift from the content to its delivery. Careful reading (and rereading) of a text will allow you to speak with greater certainty when discussing it. If you think you have read a text enough, test yourself. Can you accurately summarize its main points? If you cannot, read the material again until you can. Then read it once more. When you begin reading, you should approach the text with an open mind, but without a pen in hand. Stopping to write, then restarting your reading may disrupt your rhythm, so it is best to try and avoid taking physical notes through your first read of the material, though you can certainly make mental notes of areas to which you would like to return. On subsequent readings of the text, include annotations. Annotate the Work Annotations are in-text notes written on the page by the reader and can be evidence of critical thinking and active reading, as making annotations means the reader is quite literally engaging with the text while reading it. Annotations need not be comprehensive—notes you make on the page can be as simple as scribbling symbols or asking questions in the margins—but whatever notes you leave in the text should help connect your thinking to your reading. Common annotations include: - highlighting important information - providing definitions of key terms or phrases - circling or underlining words - adding stars, bullets, or other symbols to the text to denote significant ideas - using punctuation such as question marks and exclamation points to identify areas of inquiry or amazement. On the following rereads of the text, update these annotations and add to them pertinent information in the margins of the page. In your writing assignments, you can return to these early annotations for ideas and inspiration, or even include and cite borrowed information from the readings as appropriate. Reflect on What You Read Reading is a personal act. Although your instructors may expect you to identify certain concepts in a piece of writing, the experience of reading is wholly your own, and what you may feel reading something may not be what others feel (which is expected). When you complete your first reading of a text, before you begin rereading and making annotations, consider your initial reaction. Ask yourself what you are feeling. Are you offended? Surprised? Angry? Then think about why you feel the way you do. Next, offer an evaluation of the piece. Write in the margins of the text, on the back of the page, in your notebook, on your device—wherever—just take the time to record your initial thoughts. - Do you agree with what the author writes? - With how the author writes it? - What were its strengths? - Its weaknesses? - Which parts did you enjoy? - What did you dislike? As you reread the text, you will have the opportunity to see how your thoughts about the writing can change over time. Analyze the text through detailed examination with additional questions before rereading it. - Who is the intended audience? - What is the author’s purpose? - What are the larger contexts? TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 01 - If you are reading on a screen, especially for an extended amount of time, turn on dark mode (if available), close or minimize all other windows, turn off any other screens and/or music, and turn on another light beyond your computer monitor to reduce the strain on your eyes - When beginning any assignment, carefully read its instructions. Read them again. Then read them again. Make sure you understand what is required of you before you start. - Analyze before you synthesize: before you can incorporate a selection from a reading into your own writing, you must understand it in its larger contexts and be ready to explain them to your own readers. Providing the audience with well-reasoned analysis alongside your selections will help them to see the topic as you do. - Test yourself to see if you can write a sentence summary after a paragraph of particularly challenging reading. - Annotate your readings even if you are not specifically asked to by your instructor. Chapter 02: Academic Writing Are words really the best representation of thought? Are your thoughts limited by constraints of your language? In an exchange of ideas, thought-to-thought communication would seem to be the least encumbered. But if you could choose to communicate telepathically, would you? It seems like an obvious choice, though opening your mind to others is a scary proposition. Have you ever thought things you have chosen not to say? Have you thought better of something before saying it aloud? Have you ever said something out loud and immediately regretted it? Wished you had said nothing at all? Or maybe you have been on the end of an insult or cruel joke, and been unable to offer a timely retort, only to come up with the perfect comeback much later. Written communication may not be the most-effective method of communication, but it gives you time to think before you act. If authors were able to think their words into their texts without having to write them—without going through the process of outlining, drafting, rewriting, revising, writing again—if writers could just shortcut the process and deliver their texts into the world, would those thoughts be worth reading? The best thoughts are not impulses but are carefully devised. The best writing is rewritten, and revision is a process of rethinking. Because thoughts can sometimes get lost in the transfer between brain and fingertips, where handwriting and lackluster typing skills do little to help, writing can sometimes be a frustrating process. It is through this process, however, that writers can think critically about the topics on which they write. Recall last chapter where the text asks you if you like to read. How do you feel about writing? You are in a composition course, and this is a composition textbook, after all. How much of the last chapter do you remember? How many times have you read it? Many great thinkers organize their thoughts spatially. They construct great palaces of the mind through which they walk to help aid in memorization of concepts. If you were to adopt this process and use it not only to improve memory, but also as a way to reconsider ideas—looking at them from different angles or perspectives, prodding them and moving them around, testing them against the perceptions of the guests who you might receive in this virtual space—you might find the idea of spatial investigation an effective aid to writing for class. If we were to all do the same, these palaces and their contents might be wildly different, each constructed and staged with familiar thoughts, informed by our distinct experiences and the limits of our imaginations. As different as each palace might be from each other, they would still share some commonalities, or conventions: walls, roofs, doors, windows, and other universal features of houses. Just as these virtual structures of the mind have aided great thinkers for thousands of years, so too the essay is a construct to house your thoughts. Its form can be shaped and structured to meet your own specifications, though the general models of academic writing all share some similarities. The practice of writing helps one organize their thoughts. Communicating effectively is part of a well-rounded college education. It is not enough to simply arrive at a solution without explaining your reasoning. In math and science classes, instructors expect that students show their work by writing-out the steps describing how they achieve their results. Because you are in college, your instructors will expect you to express your ideas in writing. Academic writing demands that you support your assertions with critical thinking and reason. Composition is akin to showing your work, or how you think; it is the process through which you make your thoughts visible. The Essay As a college student, you are expected to be able to express yourself effectively through writing. Although your schoolwork will vary from class to class and assignment to assignment, your instructors will have high expectations when it comes to academic writing. Your work should represent your ability to think critically, organize, analyze, and evaluate concepts, and/or create work representative of your ideas. Additionally, instructors will expect you to think about how you share your thoughts, such as the presentation of your ideas, your writing style, or the correctness of your usage. The essay is the standard form or medium for critical discussion across the disciplines. In most composition classes, drafting and revising essays is the primary process for communicating complex ideas. An essay is a detailed and focused examination of a topic. It is very likely you have written essays before. Maybe you are familiar with the fundamental five-paragraph construction common to high-school essays, or perhaps you have written narrative essays of your own for college or scholarship applications, or for publication online. The first essayists began writing in French and English in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and the essay as a form of both communication and critical thought has been popular with thinkers ever since. The essay has been used for both professional and personal rumination on topics ranging from the objective to the abstract and has since been adopted in education as an unofficial standard by which students formally share ideas in the classroom. As you write for your classes, you will find that different instructors focus or emphasize distinct aspects of your writing. In your composition courses, your instructors are more interested in seeing your thoughts in writing than they are a pristinely formatted document. Each instructor will have some discretion for what they see as fit or correct, though communicating your ideas through writing should be your primary goal. An effective academic essay often represents an entry into the conversation of a topic. The majority of academic essays are formal and adhere to a set of conventions not unlike those discussed in this book. They fit well-established patterns which govern construction and formatting. While the use of these patterns will almost certainly vary by instructor (always check both your syllabus and assignments for specific instructions), you should expect to write somewhat differently than you speak. Although informal/personal essays still have a place in the college classroom, the majority of academic writing is formal, and adheres to the appropriate conventions. Writing an academic essay is comparable to entering the conversation; each essay follows a thread in the greater conversation of academic discourse. Entering academic discourse—actually writing those essays—can be challenging. Writing is time-consuming, but what someone learns is not measured alone by how long it takes them, or how much effort they put into it. Offering your perspective to readers means opening yourself up to critique—not only of your writing style and the correctness of your usage, but also an evaluation of how you think—and it can be difficult to listen to what others are saying if you do not like what you hear. Listening is a means of participating in a conversation—that is no less true in this chapter than it was in the last chapter—but the purpose of this book (and your composition course in general) is to help you write. You participate in academic discourse through your writing projects. Engaging with others in discussion does not mean you have to “win” the conversation. You can still be an active participant by asking questions of others’ ideas, analyzing the work of others, seeking clarification of their points, including additional voices in support and dissent of the original, defining vague concepts, evaluating what you have read, or in some other way interacting with the topic. Whatever you choose to write about, in whatever medium you feel best expresses it, writing is the process of making sense of your thoughts. This process maps your thinking, or shows your work, so that others can follow you to the same conclusions. Drawing a map of your thought process allows you to retrace your steps and revise your reasoning. Think of writing as an exercise in discovery: you are not simply recording what you know, spilling knowledge from your brain to the page; rather, you are actively learning as you compose, rethink, and revise your work. Writing Perspectives For each writing situation you encounter, you will adopt an ethos, or an identity that embodies your perspective. An ethos is an appeal to shared values and beliefs that can act as the foundation for explaining your views to readers, as mutual feelings can make readers more receptive to your ideas. Your perspective on the topic will shape how you write about that topic. Although you may feel strongly one way or another going into a writing project, you should remain open-minded as you work through your thoughts. For example, if you have ever lived or worked with a friend, perhaps you have had to balance your living or working relationship with your friendship. In these particular contexts, you may have had to compartmentalize your thoughts, or adopt a different perspective when interacting with your friend. In academic writing, your instructors may ask you to approach a topic from an assigned perspective, even one that you might not think is valuable. Such instances provide you an opportunity to challenge your own thinking and exercise your imagination. When considering how to construct and develop any writing perspective, keep in mind your authority to write on the topic, your purpose for writing, the audience to whom you are writing, and the larger contexts surrounding the topic. Authority The ideas you include in your essay matter because they represent your perspective, but that is not enough to warrant their inclusion in an academic writing project. It is your responsibility as a writer to demonstrate that your thoughts have value. When you engage in academic writing, you contribute to the ongoing conversation as an authority on the chosen topic. Your authority exhibits to readers the expertise you bring to the conversation. While you may not be the foremost expert on the topic, you can still demonstrate your credibility through the inclusion of pertinent information and a careful use of the standard edited English common in composition classrooms. In most writing situations, instructors will expect you to write formally. This means: - using creative and clear prose - adopting an even tone - using words precisely - avoiding references to yourself and the audience (such as first- and second-person pronouns, like I/me and you/your) - writing-out contractions (cannot instead of can’t) - and using a mix of both concrete and abstract ideas, as well as various sentence structures. Formality and correctness in essays will go a long way in establishing your credibility. Do you believe appearances matter? While surface-level appearance may not have as much value as what lies beneath, the presentation of your ideas is important. Have you ever found a typo in a textbook? I assure you, there are certainly some mistakes in this book, and they may detract from the message. Frequent errors or typos may send the wrong message to readers: if it appears to the audience that you have not taken the time to proofread and correct small mistakes, the audience may assume you have not been careful with your research, or the topic in general. Even if your perspective is compelling, or your position is reasonable, if you fail to make yourself understood or give reason for the audience to doubt your credibility, you might find yourself unable to communicate your thoughts, and leave the project feeling frustrated. As the authority in a writing situation, you should be able to answer the following questions: - Why am I writing on this topic? - To whom am I writing? - What additional information do readers need to know to understand my perspective? - What does my perspective offer that others do not? Purpose Approach each writing situation with an idea of what you plan to achieve, what you hope to discover, or what you want the audience to know or do after having read your work. When writing academically, you will likely be evaluated with a grade or score, but that should not be your only incentive; you should feel motivated to accomplish or learn something in each writing project. Going into a writing project with numerous questions you want to answer can help propel you through your research. Answering these questions throughout the process can help maintain momentum and direction, enriching your understanding of and reinforcing your authority on the topic. Look at each assignment as an opportunity to discover new ideas. As you begin the writing process, review your initial questions and ask yourself what you would like to learn. Your research and organization will inform not only the content and rhetorical pattern of your final essay, but also how you think about the topic. Here are some modes of writing and purposes: - Expository essays inform readers - Analytical essays explain complex ideas - Argumentative essays assert the validity of a position Next, ask yourself what you would like the audience to do with the information you provide. Do you want readers to learn something? Would you like readers to acknowledge your experience or your viewpoint? Do you want to convince the audience to adopt your position? Do you want them to act on what they have read? Finally, ask yourself if there is anything you must explain to the audience for them to see the topic from your perspective. Keeping this in mind throughout the writing process will help you generate audience-specific content. Audience Think about an advertisement. Maybe it is funny, or compelling, or its jingle gets stuck in your head all the time, or perhaps it just really annoys you on your trip to and from class each day. Ask yourself what it is about the advertisement that makes it memorable. What sticks with you—the jingle? The graphics? The message? How does the advertisement target an audience? We are exposed to targeted advertising every day, from ads on the websites we visit, to suggested products when we make online purchases, in the applications on our phones, and even through sponsored content in our social media feeds. Advertisements are fantastic examples of advertisers knowing their audiences. Advertisements for children’s toys, for example, appear on channels that feature cartoons or other children’s programming, and are broadcast at specific times of the day when they will be seen by kids. Or if you have ever been out sick from work or school, stuck and home and glued to the couch, you have likely endured daytime television and several commercials for life insurance plans, aging, retirement, and end-of-life considerations, advertisements for workman’s compensation or personal injury lawyers, weight-loss fads, and as-seen-on-TV products. The advertisers that air these commercials choose programs, channels, and airtimes where they believe the advertisements will have the most-effective reach. Knowing the person to whom you are talking influences not only the way you speak to them—your attitude and the words you use—but it also informs the topic of conversation. While topics of school, work, and home lives may sometimes overlap, many of the conversations that happen within these specific contexts are localized in their respective environments. In your own experiences, consider how the way that you might phrase a question to a family member is probably different than how you might ask the same question of a friend, and you might not even put the question to an acquaintance. Video games, television programs, and films are all rated for specific audiences based on the nature of their content. Some conversations or topics are reserved for intended audiences, just as viewer discretion is sometimes advised. Similarly, the way that you write informally, outside of the classroom, is not only different in how you write, but also what you write about. Messages that you compose to your friends on your device will likely follow different rules and cover different topics than essays you might write in class. It is not only that the mediums are different, each with their own conventions, but also the audiences are distinct, and each have their own needs and expectations. As part of the literary exchange, the audience has a say in the transfer of information. The listener is an integral part of the conversation, which requires the writer to anticipate and craft appropriate changes in subject matter, tone and diction. Dramatic differences in audience are easy to notice—how you might address the president or a foreign diplomat, for example, would differ greatly than how you might greet your best friend—but subtle differences in audience may not be as easy to identify. Before any writing project, while still in the planning stage of the writing process, think about who your target readers are, what expectations they might have, and how you can best connect with them (or at least get your ideas stuck in their heads). For each writing project, imagine the audience who will read your work. Are you writing for experts, or novices? For the general public, or a very specific audience? Maybe one special person in particular? Although your instructors may have specific instructions for each writing project, you should consider the general audience one that is diverse. Readers are your instructor and your peers in the class, all of whom come from a variety of backgrounds and life experiences. This audience is also professional, considerate, and eager to read your work; as such, they must be treated respectfully. While writing is your own exercise in thought, the medium and the audience exert some influence over the exchange of ideas. Identifying an audience does not mean that audience agrees with your position or even understands your perspective. It is your duty as the writer to demonstrate critical thinking by showing the readers the topic as you see it. Just because you have experienced an event or held an idea does not mean that others share your experiences or beliefs, let alone accept them. If you first establish yourself as a credible and reliable authority with an explicit and meaningful purpose, the audience is likely to listen to what you have to say. In anticipating the needs of the audience, you must provide appropriate context for your perspective. Context Context matters. Perhaps you have done your homework on the bus ride home from school, which feels much different than doing your homework on the bus ride to school. Or imagine, for example, planning a going-away party, buying an ice cream cake, and asking all your coworkers to sign a card for your retiring colleague. Would the party, cake, and card be appropriate if that same employee had been fired? What happens around you—what has been said in a conversation—when and where you are when you say something influences the meaning of what it is you say and do. When thinking about the context of a topic, examine its setting, the when and where related to the topic. Would you rather help a friend move into a new apartment on a sunny summer Sunday afternoon, or on a Wednesday in the middle of winter, during the dead of night, amid a raging sleet and snowstorm? If you were loading those boxes into the back of a truck at 3 a.m. behind a local business, would you feel differently about your actions? When you engage with others through academic discourse, you must consider the background surrounding the conversation. Research its history and add something relevant to the discussion. A topic will have greater meaning to an audience who is directly involved with or affected by it. Build a connection between readers and the topic. Draw the audience in by involving them with the topic. Draw connections through geography, cultural identity, or appeals to a shared ethos. Is the topic current? If it is not, examine the historical significance of the topic. Look for examples in the cultural zeitgeist, or shared attitudes and values of its historical setting. Then explain to readers why this is an opportune time to reopen the conversation and offer them your perspective. If you are bringing attention to an age-old problem, alert the audience to that fact. Explain that this is not going away, and without appropriate attention, will continue to be a problem. If the topic is only burgeoning, explain to readers from where it comes. Give the audience enough information to understand the topic and its place in the world. Identify the frequency and modulation of the topic: is this something people have been discussing? Is it in the news? Does it feel like you encounter the topic no matter where you turn? If so, it may be worthy of a deeper understanding, and you can provide that to readers with appropriate contextual information. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 02 - The word essay originally comes from the French verb essayer, meaning “to try or attempt.” The essay with which you end up is only one version of a lengthy process stretching backwards to when you first began thinking about writing. - In the context of your classes, writing an essay can be a daunting prospect. The process is time-consuming and takes considerable effort, but do not worry if you find it difficult, because all things worth doing take time. An essay is: - Critical thinking (your ideas) - Collaboration (with evidence) - Communication (for an audience) Your writing situation/identity is: - Your authority to write on this topic - What you hope to achieve by writing on this topic - Tailored to a specific audience who needs to know the larger context to appreciate your perspective - Define specialized terminology where need be, avoid slang and words associated with those in the know Help readers understand specialized diction or jargon Chapter 03: A Writing Process Do you remember learning how to tie your shoes? While you may be pretty good at it now, you were not always. It is most likely that your shoe-tying skills are the result of hours and hours of practice—even if you do not consider it that. Tying your shoes is probably not something you regard as a skill, but it is a process which you have practiced, and are unlikely to give up (at least for quite a while). We have all wanted to give up on something because we felt we were not good at it. But quitting is rarely an effective method of improving. Would your inability to do something perfectly keep you from ever trying it again? If you do something a few times, find yourself bad at it, do you just stop trying to improve? For example, you may be pretty good at a game. Maybe you can consistently beat your siblings and your parents, and every now and again your friends even struggle to keep pace with your scores. All in all, you win more than you lose. Perhaps you could enter a small local tournament and not embarrass yourself; heck, you might even do well. But if you were to fail in that tournament, would that be it? Would failing be reason enough to give up the game? Would you feel content with your abilities and stop trying to improve? Instead imagine for a moment that you wanted to get even better at this game. Say you wanted to win the next tournament. What would your first step be? Would you hire someone to rough up the competition the night before the tournament? Maybe hire someone to call in a bomb threat before the final rounds, erasing any of your potential losses from record? Even if these were your (admittedly problematic, not to mention felonious) first thoughts, accomplishing them would still be a process, and that is where this scenario is headed. If you wanted to improve your skills so that no one could beat you, you might first begin by practicing the fundamentals of the game. You might stay up late practicing, or wake up early and play again before you go to class. You might begin training outside of the game, as well, developing sympathetic skills and strategies as you aim to improve your abilities in the game. But practicing by yourself can only take you so far. Eventually, you will likely need to expand your habits. You might begin by doing some research, first by finding videos online, watching enthusiasts and professionals and even studying their techniques, and then visiting and reading specialized websites or even commenting on discussion boards dedicated to playing the game. You might also seek the help of others. Find people who are looking to improve, just like you, and practice alongside them. Share ideas and information, test yourself against them in practices and scrimmages. Or find a coach or other outside voice to help guide, direct, or lead you through the process of improving. How long do you think it would take to close the gap in skill between other tournament participants and yourself? Would this be an overnight transformation? Of course not: getting better at something takes time. Going through the necessary steps to reach your goal is a process. And although processes can be time-consuming and arduous, they provide us with a framework for improvement, and ultimately, achievement. Practice is an iterative process, which means it never truly ends. It is one iteration followed by another. After completing any stage in an iterative process, you could return to another and begin again. Each stage in the process builds on the previous, even if they are practiced out of order. Returning to the game scenario—after having become the champion of a local tournament, would you be finished practicing? Would there not still be room for improvement? Could you win Regionals? The State Championships? Nationals? Could you become the best in the world? Even the best at what they do must continue to practice, train, or refine their skills in order to hold onto their titles. The process of practicing helps maintain some skills and progress to new ones. As state-of-the-art techniques are developed, practice helps you incorporate those skills into your own play. There is always room for improvement or refinement. Using a process for incorporating new information into a routine aids in the absorption of that material. When you encounter new situations, you can then return to this process and apply it—maybe not perfectly—to your new situation. In doing so, you are using an established practice to aid you in discovering and consuming new data. Outside of school, you may have to complete a written component of an application for a job, grant, or scholarship. Maybe you will have to write and deliver a speech in front of a large audience at your sister’s wedding, or perhaps a friend will ask you for a letter of recommendation or support in the application for a new job. In your own job, you may be asked to draft a letter, or assemble a report. At some point in the future, you will most likely have to write something professionally, even if it is only an email or internal memo. It is possible that you have not had to write very often, so it would follow that you may have had very few opportunities to practice your writing process. But there are many real-world situations where you will find it advantageous to first think about the writing project, then compose multiple drafts before producing and proofreading your final copy. Whatever your writing project, clear communication is important. Using a process to approach and dissect a writing project will help you assemble and present your perspective clearly and effectively. This process can provide you a convenient template for producing quality writing and thinking when processing new assignments. Putting the process into action will help you move from in-class note-taking to actually composing your assignments. Practicing this process will help you develop replicable habits that you can apply in other writing situations beyond this course. The more practice you have with your own personal writing process, the more comfortable you will feel moving though its iterative stages. A Practical Process Rather than thinking about writing projects in terms of results, instead approach them with a sound process. Getting a good grade on an essay feels nice, but it may not be indicative of a repeatable process which you can apply to any writing situation. Additionally, results-based thinking can make it harder to identify your mistakes, or areas in need of improvement. Having a practiced approach to writing assignments can save you time and frustration in the long run, but this writing process is not infallible. Different writing projects may require different approaches—this is not intended to be a comprehensive method to crafting perfect essays (there is always room for improvement, right?)—however, this model can provide some structure when approaching a writing assignment. It is not this book’s goal to drill into your head any singular method of writing, because the process will vary from person to person. Instead, you should learn to understand, exert control over, and hone your own writing process. So long as you follow the directions and complete what is asked of you in your writing assignments, feel free to shuffle these stages and experiment with your own methods. The more you practice with your own process, the more you will learn about what works for you, and what you can skip over. You may find yourself breezing through some stages for some assignments, and really struggling with other stages for different classes. Balance your approach based on the course requirements. This writing process is as simple as it is iterative. It is a process whose stages you can return to time and time again. The recursive nature of repeating the steps of the writing process will help you think critically about the topic from many different perspectives. Thinking about the project consists of brainstorming ideas, planning the development of your essay, and even procrastinating before completing the assignment. Drafting the project includes the many iterations of drafts you compose as you rethink and revise your work, from your first rough draft to your final copy. Improving your work involves revision, development of your main points, reflecting on your work, and editing and proofreading your final copy. And if your class is portfolio based, you may be asked to work through these steps more than once. Step 1: Think Thinking about what and how you might write is the first stage of any writing project. From the moment you receive the assignment, you begin thinking (or trying to put off thinking) about your work, planning how you will spend your time, and brainstorming ideas on which to write. Although this stage appears distinct from those of drafting and improving, it is also a crucial component in both. This iterative progression will help you make informed decisions about the content and style of your work throughout the writing process. Procrastinate? It is very easy to procrastinate. It is usually much easier to not do something than it is to do it. After you have received a writing assignment, you will have limited time to complete it. Almost every writing project you encounter for the rest of your life will have some deadline attached to it, though the writing assignments you receive in college are likely to be those with which you have the most experience (and have some of the shortest turn-around times). It is perfectly understandable that you might use some of this time to procrastinate, though you should keep in mind that the time you spend avoiding the assignment is part of the thinking stage. While some of practices of procrastination can be beneficial—for example, straightening up one’s working space can act as a physical representation of reorganizing their thoughts in preparation for the writing task at hand—each moment you spend doing something other than working on your assignment is one that you cannot get back before the deadline. Procrastinating can also be an exercise in creative thinking. As you avoid thinking about the assignment in innovative new ways, you still have its directions, requirements, and due date hovering around the back of your mind, reminding you that the deadline is looming ever-closer. When working through different experiments in procrastination, you may eventually—even accidentally—conjure some surprising thoughts about the topic, your perspective, or the assignment itself. When you procrastinate before you begin your actual work, it is vital that you keep the deadline in mind. Wasting time can leave you with too little to go through the stages of the writing process multiple times. The best practice is to begin thinking about your assignment as soon as you receive it by carefully planning how you will spend your time working on the project before its due date. Plan After you first receive a writing assignment, read it carefully. Typically, when an instructor assigns a writing project to their class, they will take questions on the assignment. Use this as an opportunity to clarify any ambiguities you have regarding the parameters of the project, such as its instructions, requirements, components, and especially its due date(s). Read the assignment again and make a realistic schedule which you believe you can maintain. If you are overly ambitious in your planning (or excessively rigid in scheduling), you may not leave room for improvisation when things come up in life. Furthermore, this could exhaust your enthusiasm for the project immediately, then you find yourself avoiding it until the last minute. A large aspect of the thinking stage is planning and navigating your way through the rest of the writing process in a timely manner. Make a list of what you would like to accomplish in each stage of the process and consult a calendar to give yourself plenty of time to complete each item on your list. When allotting time to each stage of the process, break down each stage into smaller components and think about what you will still need to complete in those stages: - Think Plan how you will spend your time- Brainstorm a topic though exercises - Research possible topics - Consider your perspective - Generate questions - Draft - Develop a working thesis statement - Write a first draft, second draft, third, and so on… - Improve - Revise and rewrite multiple drafts - Reflect on what you have written - Develop your work though additional research - Proofread for errors in style and usage and edit your work Dividing your assignments into smaller tasks will help you maintain momentum in your writing and can contribute to a positive attitude throughout the process, as it may give you a sense of completion to check items off a list. Outline If you have chosen the topic and already completed research in preparation for the writing project, you can begin to plan how you might formulate and present your ideas throughout the essay. Creating an outline, or a general summary of your main points and support, will help you begin putting your essay together in the drafting stage. Religious Symbolism in The Matrix (1999) - Introduction - Hook: Reincarnation - Context: Religion, iconography, symbolism, allegory - Working Thesis Statement: The Wachowski siblings employ Buddhist and Christian symbolism to explore the theme of rebirth in The Matrix. - Christianity in The Matrix - The story of the “Neo” Jesus - Morpheus as John - Trinity as Mary - Cypher as Judas/Lucifer - Dialogue - Representation through settings and actions - The story of the “Neo” Jesus - Buddhism in The Matrix - The story of the “Neo” Buddha - The search for enlightenment as personified through other characters - Dialogue - Representation through settings and actions - The story of the “Neo” Buddha - Conclusion - Symbolism beyond The Matrix - Christianity - Buddhism - The Future of The Matrix - Symbolism beyond The Matrix Remember that when you outline for yourself (not an assignment), you do not necessarily need to follow the strict rules of outlines--it is ok not to use full sentences and not to use roman numerals. Find an outlining system that works best for you. Brainstorm If you understand the writing project and have a plan of attack squared away, and your assignment has a specific prompt, you should address that prompt in your work. Directions for choosing a topic may seem restrictive; on the contrary, they make beginning a project easier. Specific limitations on the scope of your writing project provide parameters which make selecting a topic less daunting, as there are fewer options available. If you are free to choose the topic, however, you might face some difficulty in getting started. Choosing to write on a single idea when there is practically an unlimited number of deserving topics to select causes many writers to put off that decision until the last minute, leaving them little time to change their minds if they find their selection uninteresting. Choosing several possibilities, then asking questions about and researching those topics may be one of the best ways to generate ideas for a writing project. If given the opportunity, write about something that you enjoy. You have a better chance to remain enthusiastic about a writing project centered around your interests and will likely spend more time on the writing process if you enjoy what you are writing about. If you have recently been consumed with a certain book, video game, television program, film, stream, hobby, activity, or whatever, use that writing project as an opportunity to explore that new passion. If there is an activity that has been taking up a lot of your time, there is a good chance that it has been occupying a lot of your thoughts, as well. If your interests do not appeal to you as a suitable topic for a writing project, instead examine aspects of your own life about which you would like to learn more. Consider facets of your daily life—things you encounter all the time but about which you may know little detail—broad topics such as your employment, education, transportation, your environment, relationships, and personal health—talk to your friends and family about potential topics and ask them for suggestions if you find yourself unable to come up with anything. Not only can these excerpts from your personal experiences provide you with workable topics to begin exploring in your writing projects, but going through the process of writing about your life can be an opportunity to think critically about the experiences you have had. Think deeply about the topics you like to talk about with friends. Consider if there is anything you have recently completed of which you are proud. Ask yourself if there are events from your past that you would like to examine in greater detail. You may choose to work with topics on which you have written before. This is an especially worthwhile endeavor if you want to update your knowledge of the topic, if your position on it has changed, or if there have been recent developments in the larger conversation surrounding the topic. Read over your old work and look for ideas that interest you or that you would like to investigate further. If you do choose a topic on which you have written before, avoid the impulse to copy and paste your old work into your new writing project. Instead, read over your original writing, return to your old sources and look for updates. Supplement these by seeking out updated information and reconsider your original position in light of what has changed since you first wrote it. If you have your choice on the topic of your writing project, but you are still unsure of what you will write about, several brainstorming exercises can be useful in generating ideas. When planning how you will spend your time, give yourself ample opportunities to employ these techniques in selecting a topic. Not only can these brainstorming exercises help you choose a topic, they may also help you develop your perspective on that topic. Review Your Notes Review your notes and look for intriguing ideas that you have come across in your studies. If you have felt drawn to particular concepts or subjects in your classes, ask yourself what interests you about these ideas. Read through old essays, tests, and projects in your favorite subjects. Raid your own writing. Review your posts online and with whom you shared them. Return to old conversations and messages with friends. If you keep a diary or journal, read over your old writing to see what has been on your mind recently. Or revisit an old entry or topic that you want to explore more. You might even begin keeping a journal in your own classes, or at least reading over and compiling your notes periodically. Reading over your own writing throughout the semester may help you generate ideas and can yield additional opportunities for critical thinking. List Creating lists is an effective and efficient method of organizing your thoughts. Listing what you need to buy at the grocery store, for example, might begin with a peek inside your refrigerator and pantry, followed by a mental walkthrough of the supermarket, organizing the items you need in the order you would see them in your walk through the store. Or if you were making a list of the chores or tasks that need doing, you might order your lists logically. For example, if you were cleaning the kitchen, you would sweep the floor before mopping it, then waxing or polishing it. When using a list to brainstorm ideas for the topic of a writing project, you need not concern yourself with how you organize items on the list. Because you are trying only to generate ideas, it is common to not follow a logical pattern. You can always organize your thoughts later in the process. To begin generating ideas for the topic, open your list with a concept related to the assignment or a subject you have been studying in the course. If your instructor has assigned readings in the class, consider using the topic of one of those as the first item of your list. Next, list all the different ideas and associated words that come to mind when you think of the opening concept or subject. For example, when thinking of creating lists, I began making the following list: - Bullet points - Shopping lists - Chores & tasks - Calendars (on the fridge and on the phone) - To do lists - Top-10 lists - Top 100 Billboard - Listicles, Buzzfeed, etc. - End-of year countdowns - New Year’s resolutions - Bucket lists - Hitlists? - No-fly lists - Notebooks - Planners - Post-it notes - Writing in pen on the back of my hand - Pinning notes to jackets for schoolchildren - Sending notes home with kids - Listsonic (a shared listing app my family uses) - Fridge magnets - Crossing items off the list! - Checkmarks - Stars Strikethrough- Adding additional notes, or making corrections to the list on the fly - Trying to maintain parallel construction in each entry - Sometimes drawing lines to show connections After generating a list, look for connections between ideas or themes within the words you have written down. It is possible that some of what you have compiled in your list is not appropriate for an academic essay or is something you have little experience with. Make a note of ideas you would like to research more as possible topics for your writing project. If you believe your list reveals a new direction for your writing, or you have generated a specific idea, you might begin a new list opening with that word or phrase at the top, then start listing the associated words and phrases that come to mind, refining your subject more and more until you have a workable topic on which you would like to write. Freewrite Freewriting exercises ask you to write freely for a specified amount of time. Brainstorming ideas through freewriting can lead you to some new and sometimes unexpected outcomes, because the exercises rely heavily on stream-of-conscious thought. To open freewriting, set a timer for a short period of time (five minutes to start), then begin the timer and write whatever comes to mind. If you can start the exercise with an idea that is somewhat related to your assignment, begin there. If not, do not worry: this technique is primarily focused on generating a substantial quantity of writing, so straying from your original intent is well within the bounds of the exercise. Do not stress about typos, common errors in style, usage, spelling, or any other mistakes while you are writing. Instead, just write as much and as fast as you can. There is no right or wrong when it comes to freewriting, so long as you generate content while the timer counts down. If you cannot think of anything to write, write that down. Literally, “I cannot think of anything to write so I’m writing this down.” If you lose focus, begin describing the pen in your hand, or the paper on which you are writing, the glow from your screen, or the (suspect) cleanliness of the keyboard you are using. If you find yourself rolling your eyes at this very idea, express your feelings about the class, the assignment, this exercise, or the situation in general. After your timer goes off, review your work and see if anything stands out to you. Is there a word or phrase you find repeated in your freewriting? Something which piques your interest? Can you identify common themes in your thinking? Are there ideas or emotions in your writing that you would like to explore? Have you discovered a topic when you were not thinking about it? If not, you can always reset the timer and begin again, or instead push yourself to write for longer periods of time. Loop Looping is a brainstorming technique that builds on freewriting. To begin looping, set a timer for a short period of time, write a controlling idea at the top of the page, then start the timer and begin freewriting on that topic. After the time has expired, read over your writing and highlight words and phrases that are related to the controlling idea at the top of the page. For each word or phrase, begin a new freewriting session with the selected word or phrase written at the top of the page as the controlling idea. After two or three loops, you should see the ideas at the tops of your freewriting exercises becoming more-specific. Recursive loops such as these can be valuable in generating focused topics for writing projects by narrowing the scope of your selection with each iteration. Visualize or Spatialize If listing and freewriting do not work for you—if you consider yourself more of a visual thinker—try creating a visual design that helps you both develop and organize your thoughts. Webbing, or clustering, is a brainstorming activity that begins with a controlling idea, only instead of opening with this idea written at the top of the page, it is located in the center of the page. Radiating out from this controlling idea are a ring of closely associated words, phrases, or other ideas. From each of these, finer lines connect to even smaller, more-specific ideas. Organizing your ideas on the page through clustering or webbing will grant your eyes an opportunity to move over the page in search of additional connections or patterns that may not be apparent until laid out spatially. Drawing out your ideas by hand and searching for connections between them allows you to sift through your thoughts spatially. Shaping your thoughts on a piece of paper permits you to examine their connections from a new perspective. You may even choose to color-code the lines on the page or use symbols to denote additional relationships within the network. Associating similar words, phrases, and ideas together is a good practice of critical thinking and may reveal a specific topic for your writing project. If you are brainstorming in a word processing application, it may have additional features for visual representation. Some programs include a word cloud widget that will create an image of words that are shaped and sized by the frequency at which they appear in any given sample. You may even design your own visual representation to develop and organize your ideas. Sometimes trying to articulate your thoughts visually may even lead to inspiration. Doodling can be an effective exercise to move past conscious thought and spur creative thinking. Working through your own ideas visually can provide an interesting perspective and may help you decide which thoughts are more prominent than others. Question Sometimes the best way to generate ideas or think through those you have is to talk to others. Because people tend to have more experience with verbal communication than they do written, many tend to feel more comfortable talking about ideas, rather than writing about them. Share your thoughts with friends to get honest feedback on your perspective and encounter other viewpoints. Conversations with others afford you the opportunity to listen to their thoughts on the topic, as well as their thoughts on your perspective. Having a conversation with a close friend can be a supportive place to test ideas about which you feel unsure. Initiate a conversation with your friends or family members about some general ideas and see where the discussions lead. Ask them their perspectives on ideas and listen to what they have to say. Interview someone close to you and ask follow-up questions to their answers. If you cannot find anyone, interview yourself. Try creating a list of questions. Ask as many questions about an idea as you can, then set about answering all those you know. Start with the journalistic Ws if you do not know where to begin with this line of questioning. Ask “who?” “what?” “where?” “when?” “why?” and “how?” connected to this topic. The questions you are unable to answer may be a good place to begin research for your writing project. Read and Research Perhaps the best way to generate ideas for writing topics is to read voraciously, discovering new ideas and new ways of thinking as you do. Keeping up with the news, reading updates on your favorite subjects, even reading works of fiction—whatever it is you choose to read—the more you consume, the more perspectives and ideas you will encounter. In general, being well-read will afford you greater authority in your writing situation. For example, if you wanted to write about current events, you might explore both your local newspaper and a variety of larger outlets like national news sources. Reading over the various headlines might narrow your focus, or even direct you toward a specific topic that intrigues you. If you find a story that piques your interest, seek out additional news stories covering that event, as well as other sources that can help provide a larger context for the information you uncover. Of course, you could simply go to Wikipedia and type your subject into the search field. While many instructors will insist you do not use Wikipedia as a source in your work, it is a good website to consult early in the writing process. While the information posted there may not be completely verifiable, the website does provide comprehensive overviews for most every subject imaginable. Begin by reading the linked article or its closest approximation at the top of the search results. During your reading, follow any embedded links that interest you. After moving through a few dozen related pages, you may come across a topic suitable for your writing project. If you are feeling especially adventurous, you could go to the library on campus and ask one of the wonderful reference librarians for advice in finding a topic for your writing assignment. In a last-ditch effort, you might even contact your instructor. Step 2: Draft Draft, used as a verb, means to compose or write. Used as a noun, draft is defined as a preliminary or rough version of something. The drafting stage of the writing process is where you will actually compose the text of your essay, although what you put down on the page is still only part of a larger plan. In your first draft you may simply add greater detail to your initial outline before returning to it later to complete your thoughts and include support. As you sit down to write for any project, remind yourself of the time commitment inherent in the writing process. Get comfortable and give a concentrated effort to your work, but also remember to schedule time for breaks and mental relaxation. Allow yourself time to go over your thoughts as you craft them into your essay. Try setting a timer for 45 minutes, writing as much as you can, and then taking a short break of twenty minutes. Repeat this process through several iterations, as time allows. The Pomodoro Technique is one way to work one your time management skills while drafting. Instead of staring blankly at the blinking cursor on your screen, follow these steps: - Choose your task. Decide on a small, achievable part of your assignment to work on. - Set a timer for 25 minutes. It’s called the “Pomodoro” because it is Italian for “tomato” and many kitchen timers are shaped like little tomatoes. - Work without stopping for 25 minutes. Do not check your phone or the internet or stop to chat with anyone until your timer rings. - Place a small checkmark on a piece of paper to track how many Pomodoro cycles you have been through. - Take a small break (only 5-10 minutes) in which you do something completely unrelated to your work. - Every 4 Pomodoro cycles, you earn a longer 20-30 minute break. Try to use the time you give yourself efficiently and effectively. Play to your strengths and do your best to avoid your weaknesses. If you like to snack while you write, raid your pantry for treats so you avoid being distracted by hunger. If you find yourself browsing the internet absentmindedly or compulsively, try turning off or hiding your phone, or drafting first by hand. The correct amount and kind of coffee, exercise, organization, cleaning, chores, music, or whatever else you incorporate into your process can help you get through this stage by putting you in the right mindset to write. If you are unsure of what your own process entails, a simple and solid approach to the drafting stage is to find a quiet space with no distractions (no screens or notifications) and no interruptions. If you can, devote your time only to writing, and ask friends and family for some space while you work. While the internet is an invaluable resource—not only for finding information, but also for seeking out additional help in preparing and shaping that information—it can also be a tempting distraction, especially if you are composing online or in front of a computer. When you plan to take time in your schedule for writing, limit your use of the internet to issues related only to your work. That said, when you do take a break from reading or research to surf online, pay attention to what you read and what holds your interest. You may find an opportunity to research something which you enjoy. Organize the resources you assemble and keep them readily available. Keep a pen on hand to jot down ideas or notes that might occur to you while writing. If you have created an outline or used some brainstorming exercises for the writing project, refer to them often as you begin drafting. If you ever find yourself at a loss or suffering from a block during the writing process, you can return to your earliest notes for inspiration or direction. Working Thesis Statement Just like an outline or brainstorming exercise, consider beginning your first draft by writing the topic at the top of the page, followed by a working thesis statement. Developing a working thesis statement early in the drafting stage will keep you focused throughout the writing process. The working thesis statement is an organizing principle that dictates what supporting material you might need to provide in your essay so that readers have a clear understanding of the topic and your perspective. When you first craft a working thesis statement, you might not have a complete idea of your position, because you have yet to do a lot of in-depth research. Throughout the writing process, you will have opportunities to update your thesis statement and shape the scope of your work. The more specific your working thesis statement, the more manageable your research might be. Limiting the scope of the topic and your perspective on the topic will allow you to focus your research on only relevant information. That said, do not let your thesis or your research dictate your thoughts; make your thesis statement your own. With both the topic and working thesis at the top of the page, you will be able to refer to them throughout the draft and compare every paragraph you write to both the topic and thesis, ensuring that you stay focused within the bounds, or scope, of your writing project throughout the drafting stage. Everyone moves through the stages of the writing process differently. You need not necessarily write your essay in order from beginning to end. After composing the thesis statement, try writing the most-important body paragraphs first, followed by the introduction and conclusion. Knowing the content of the body paragraphs may make it easier for you to compose your introduction and prepare the audience for what they are about to read. In the first iteration of your draft, do not give much thought to typos, mistakes in punctuation, spelling, or usage, or any other lower order concerns common to the drafting stage. Even high-order concerns like organization and analysis can be reworked later. At this stage in the writing process, it is crucial to focus on generating content and getting your thoughts down in writing. Writing is certainly not easy, and it takes a lot of practice to be good at, for sure. But practice is the point of the writing process. Thinking, drafting, and improving is a process that is ongoing. If you sit at your computer for a few hours and hammer at the keyboard until you have a thousand or so words, you have achieved something. Just a few paragraphs make a notable accomplishment and act as evidence that you have created something. Writing is a skill you should be proud of, regardless of whether you think you are any good at it, or if someone else ever reads it. Anything you get onto the page—even if it remains unfinished—is both evidence of your hard work, and practice for improving your skills. Step 3: Improve The writing process is iterative because it never really ends, even if the work is published. In the thinking and drafting stages, you may be struck by a stray thought or inspiration, prompting a change in perspective. Or after having drafted several copies, while reading you may continue to find small errors or mistakes which need fixing. Or perhaps during the process, you may uncover new information which means reworking your writing at its core, rethinking your work. Or you may just be unsatisfied with the results: Walt Whitman famously revised his Leaves of Grass after its initial publication a half a dozen or so more times until his death (in fact, the last of these is sometimes known as the “deathbed edition”). Almost everything you have ever read in a book or magazine—or watched on television, seen in a film, or played in a game—almost everything worth reading or watching or playing is not a first draft, but has gone through many iterations. Almost everything that has ever been published has gone through a similar process as this; they all began as drafts seeking improvement. To improve your own writing, you may need to revise your work, develop your ideas in greater detail, reflect on your effectiveness in communicating a perspective, and almost certainly proofread and edit your work. Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Plans change. If you were to make plans today to hang out with a group of friends next week, would you feel the plans could not be changed? Would you consider the plans firm, or would you feel like you had to reconfirm them with your friends in the days leading up to the event? Our lives are unpredictable, and plans might change for a myriad of reasons. Maybe after you have made the plans with your friends, your work or family schedules change, or you come down with an illness, or some other responsibility arises which prevents you from following through on the plans you have made. Or perhaps you and your friends had different ideas of what was meant by “hanging out,” and without specific details, none of them took the commitment seriously. When presented with new information, you must measure that against your previous commitments or understandings. When given new data, apply it. Similarly, if you come across new information during the writing process, your initial plans may change. Because the writing process is centered around your thinking about a topic, when you discover new information, you may alter your perspective along the way. Revision is not only the action of rewriting your work, it is a way of rethinking it: rethinking is the writing process. Rethinking happens within and between all stages, and you have been revising the whole time: trying out different topics and perspectives when procrastinating or planning, rethinking your schedule, revising your work as you draft, deleting words here or there, substituting one for another, and generally questioning the effectiveness of your choices throughout the writing project. The most successful essays go through several iterative drafts before submission. Nothing is beyond revision—everything in your draft could potentially be changed—you might even change the topic altogether. It can be incredibly tempting to feel your work is completed after having planned and produced a draft. Writing is not easy and generating a large volume of writing is something of which to be proud. But hitting the target word or page count is only one aspect of the assignment. You should concern yourself primarily with communicating your ideas effectively. When rethinking and developing your work, focus on higher-order concerns such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. Clarity in expressing your thoughts should be the aim of your finished product, and while an early draft will contain a number of great ideas, you may have trouble in expressing them succinctly to the audience. Begin by revisiting your working thesis statement. Your thesis should show readers your perspective on the topic. If it does not make a point related to the topic, the audience may not understand your perspective, leading to a miscommunication. If your thesis statement is clear and specific, and your essay focused, each body paragraph will further the discussion on the topic in relation to your thesis and readers will recognize your position. To test for unity throughout your writing, first highlight your thesis statement. Then in the margins of your draft, write a quick summary of each paragraph. Compare these summaries to the thesis statement and identify within each paragraph the topic sentence or controlling idea. Each topic sentence should both address a point connected to your thesis statement and the summary you have written in the margin. Finally, read over each paragraph once more, looking for any sentences or phrases that seem out of place with their topic sentence or the summary you have written in the margin. If you find that your essay lacks unity, you will have to rethink how you are communicating your ideas, maybe even return to your brainstorming exercises or outline. Inspiration may strike at any time, and when it does, you might have to return to an earlier stage of the writing process and rethink and/or rewrite large sections of your work. Substantial revision of your work can lead to changes in your overall organization. Never hesitate to make sweeping changes to your document—if you ever feel hesitant to chop up your work, try saving the changes as a new file, renaming the document to note its progression—just make a new draft, leaving your initial draft intact. For example, try naming each new iteration of the file with a subsequent decimal, so that your first draft is essay 1.0, and your second is essay 1.1, the next essay 1.2, and so on. Even if you do not make large changes to your writing, saving several versions of your work is a good idea so that if one version of the file is lost or damaged, you will not lose all your work. If you write by hand, double-space your drafts (skipping a line between each line of writing) and make photocopies of each, adding notes in the margins and between the lines as you read over them and revise. As you revise, it is important to take time off between your drafts. It is best to clear your mind and approach each session with a fresh perspective, and it is unwise to spend too much time doing anything, as it can result in stagnation of thought or burnout of enthusiasm. Return to the thinking stage of the writing process and allot yourself plenty of time for drafting, developing, and supporting your ideas, as well as time for crafting quality rewrites. Develop To develop what you have already written, ask yourself if your work provides readers with enough content, and if that content you include aligns with your purpose. Developing your content through revision means including more examples, analysis, and precision when returning to unfinished or disjointed thoughts, completing them so that the audience can see the topic from your perspective. When you begin developing the content of your work, first read over your most-recent draft. Next, return to the assignment and reread it before rewriting anything. Review again the assignment’s instructions and requirements to see whether your essay fulfills them. Make sure that you have fully answered each of the writing prompt’s questions and followed all directions carefully. If you find that questions remain unanswered, or that your draft needs additional work, make note of it on the page and seek to address those areas in your next iteration. Review the components of the writing identity that best represents your perspective: know your purpose for writing, write authoritatively in your approach to the topic, and help readers understand your position by providing the appropriate context where necessary. At this stage of the process, focus on higher-order concerns that threaten to destabilize your essay. Look for egregious errors in organization, style, or correctness that might prevent readers from understanding your perspective. You may even try reading your work aloud to listen for any sentences that are incorrect, unclear, or just sound weird. Read your work aloud to help find errors you might otherwise miss with your eyes. Reflect Throughout the writing process, you should ask yourself, “how can I make this better?” In between each draft and throughout each stage of the process, you should reflect on your writing and your efficacy at communicating your ideas. Working on a writing project for a while should lead to discovering new information about the topic. As you encounter different resources, ask yourself if your understanding of the topic has changed, and if so, how. Even if you have not discovered anything new that you would like to add to your work, you should question the effectiveness of your communication. Although concepts and subjects may appear clear to you, the audience may not see things from your perspective. Read through your own work as if you were the audience, then revise it from that perspective. It is better to produce too many drafts than it is too few. Begin or add to a writing journal. Reflect not only on the topic and how you feel about it, but also the process of writing it. Consider the larger context and the conversation you are entering with your work. How does your voice add to it? Are you satisfied with your contribution? What have you learned from this writing project? Has your perspective changed? It is possible that your expectations will change during the writing process as well. Perhaps you began with a very large topic and through research and drafting have narrowed the scope of your project. Maybe your research has surprised you, or drafting takes longer than you expected, so you must amend your writing schedule. Ask yourself if you can improve your writing habits. Take stock of your own writing process and ask yourself if there are things you might change for your next assignment. Identify successful practices to incorporate into your next writing project. Pinpoint problems you can avoid in your next endeavor. Finally, even after you have submitted your assignment and no longer plan to work on it, keep reading up on the topic. Plan to keep learning more about, or even to write on it in another class. Save your work for future reference because you may someday return to this topic, perhaps with a new perspective. Edit The last component of revision is the careful copyediting and line editing of your writing. Copyediting, sometimes known as proofreading, means combing over your document seeking out and eliminating technical errors in consistency, grammar, syntax, punctuation, and spelling. Line editing focuses on stylistic choices, or how you use language to communicate. If you know you tend to make a particular kind of mistake—frequently misspelling a word, or using semicolons incorrectly, for example—use this stage of the writing process as an opportunity to search for those errors. Look for notes from instructors marked on your previous writing assignments and aim to prevent repeated mistakes. Read over your peer reviews and consult your notes from the writing center. Read your essay backward, sentence-by-sentence, to identify small errors you might otherwise miss. After having written several drafts, you might find that you have more or less memorized the context and wording of your essay, or you might have several different iterations of the drafts on your mind; reading through your writing backwards will help remove the context from each sentence and paragraph, so you will be able to focus on a close line-by-line edit of your work, looking for common errors and typos. If you are typing your work on a computer using a word processor, take advantage of the tools included within that application. Pay attention to the alerts of the program displayed on the page; many word processing applications incorporate visual warnings highlighting errors in spelling, grammar, or usage. That said, these programs will not always catch every mistake and sometimes make errant or incorrect suggestions. Read over your own work for common misspellings, especially in the names of authors and authorities, unrecognized typos, or correct spellings but incorrect usages of words that the word processor may not detect. Most instructors have a passing familiarity with Microsoft Word, the word-processing program available at no charge to all SCC students, though many instructors will have experience with a variety of applications. Review the assignment for requirements or standards in style or usage, such as grammar, syntax, punctuation, and spelling. Some instructors may ask that you refrain from using slang in your writing, abstain from using contractions, or restrain yourself from repeating forms of the verb to be. Look over your course syllabus or assignment instructions for requirements regarding document formatting. Many will default to the current edition of MLA (Modern Language Association 8th edition) or APA (American Psychological Association 7th edition) or some other standard for style, but instructors may also have their own additional requirements. Neglecting to pay attention to all of the details of an assignment may cost you points on your writing project. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 03 - Visit your instructor during their office hours, communicate with them frequently regarding deadlines and requirements - Use the LRC, ACE center, and other services available to you at SCC - Make friends and ask them to review your work - If your class has peer workshops or group editing sessions, take advantage of them Chapter 04: Thesis “Cool story, bro.” Have you ever began telling a story where before you finish, you come to the realization that the story is not going anywhere? In the middle of the whole ordeal, you notice that the audience’s expectations are far too high, and that your story lacks a satisfying point or conclusion. Maybe you cannot even remember why you began telling it in the first place. Perhaps when wrapping up, you look around at the expectant faces and quickly conclude your story, mumbling quickly how you found twenty dollars on the ground. Hooray? Without a clear point, your story may just go on until someone stops you to ask a question, or until everyone’s attention just drifts away. Maybe you have participated in a conversation where you raised a point, but soon after forgot why you raised the point, only to change the subject. Without a well-defined purpose, information can lack relevance and the audience may lose interest in the topic. Engaging in the exchange of ideas means contributing meaningfully to the conversation by demonstrating the value of your position to the audience. The object of both spoken and written communication is to share your ideas with others, but how you share those thoughts can be influenced by the ideas themselves. Of all your ideas on a topic, one takes preeminence over the rest. This main point of your communication is supported by smaller, parallel ideas, effectively organized over a solid contextual foundation. The thesis statement is the central idea to any piece of writing, containing both a topic and a position on that topic. If one were to divide the essay into only two pieces—the thesis statement and everything else—everything else would be responsible for explaining, developing, or otherwise supporting the thesis statement. As the most-important element of the essay, the thesis represents a distillation of your thinking in a sentence or two. If you are unable to articulate your position succinctly, you may not be communicating effectively with the audience, inviting misunderstanding. You will most frequently craft thesis statements when writing essays for your classes; however, all academic writing should have a main point, and you might find yourself structuring short responses centered around thesis statements in various situations. A thesis statement establishes boundaries during the construction of your work. Referring often to your main point will keep you focused throughout the writing process and direct the way you communicate your ideas. Because the thesis is central to how you think about the topic, it is inherently subjective. Your perspective is yours alone, and making your position understood can be a worthwhile but difficult endeavor. If you are considering a topic but are unsure of how you feel about it, going through some brainstorming exercises early in the writing process can help bring additional ideas to the forefront of your mind. You can always update your thesis statement throughout the writing process but doing so will likely require you to alter the focus of your research as well as the structure and content of your writing. An explicit thesis explains to readers why your perspective on the topic is reasonable and valuable. When composing a working thesis statement, you should be able to expressly identify both the topic and your position on that topic. Your position, or perspective, is a writing identity consisting of your authority, purpose, audience, and the larger context surrounding the topic. Topic + Your perspective on that topic (authority, purpose, audience, context) = Working Thesis Statement - Hotdogs are gross. topic \| a perspective on that topic \| - The government should raise the minimum wage. a perspective on a topic \| that topic \| - Recycling is important. topic \| a perspective on that topic \| In writing projects for your classes, your thesis statements should be clear enough to address these and one additional point. An explicit thesis statement should explain to readers the topic, your perspective on that topic, and why they both matter. Making clear these three elements to the audience requires communication of critical thinking supported by collaboration. - Hotdogs are gross because they are bad for your health. topic \| perspective \| why this matters \| - The government should raise the minimum wage perspective \| topic \| to keep up with inflation and rising costs of living. why this matters \| - Recycling is important. topic \| a perspective on that topic \| to cut costs when sourcing materials for manufacturing. why this matters \| Topic The topic of your essay is the issue on which you have an opinion or hold a position. At first glance, readers should be able to identify the topic of your essay, so it is important that you avoid generalities. If you plan for an audience to invest time in your essay, they should know what they are reading. Your goal should not be to deceive readers, but to invite them into your work with specific and precise writing. Try to phrase the topic as something more than just one or two words. The more specific the topic, the more focused your approach to developing and supporting your position will be. Implication is the enemy of your early drafts. Beginning with an explicit, easy-to-identify thesis statement will keep you on point as you draft and revise your work. Choosing a topic that interests you can make it easier for you to devote your time and energy to successfully completing the writing project. If you write about the topic passionately, there is a good chance that the audiences will find the topic interesting too. Choose a topic about which you want to say something. You can practice this by crafting working thesis statements using placeholder phrases such as the following: - “In this essay, I plan to demonstrate how…” - “This essay will show that…” - “I believe that…” Your (Writing) Perspective It is not enough to write generally on a topic; the thesis statement must say something about that topic and why it matters. Select a topic in which you are interested to help you decide how to approach your writing project. Determine your perspective by adopting a position based on your authority on the topic, your purpose for writing, the audience to whom you are writing, and the larger contexts surrounding the topic. Embrace a writing identity, or a position on the topic, to determine the best way to explain the importance of that topic to readers. Consequently, this identity will also influence how you shape the development of your work. When fashioning this identity, explore your own connection to the topic: ask yourself what it is you wish to say about this topic, and how your unique perspective might contribute to the ongoing conversation. Though you may be unsure of your perspective as you begin writing—especially if you are writing on a controversial topic or just discovering a subject—both your research and the iterative stages of the writing process will help you begin to shape or provide more definition to your perspective. This position should not just be a general accumulation of facts or observations that everyone can make. Identification alone adds little value to the conversation. Communicate to readers what your perspective adds to the conversation instead of what has already been written regarding the topic or your position. Authority Because the thesis makes an assertion about the topic, specifics matter. A vague or undefined thesis does not present an opinion, argument, or position. Offer a nuanced perspective on the topic to craft a quality thesis statement. While it is prudent to remember that your opinion is subjective, it is also true that some opinions are more informed or insightful than others. A valuable opinion is informed, reasonable, and creative. To establish the authority of your perspective, it is imperative that you first inform yourself. Study the topic extensively before committing yourself to an opinion. Careful and thorough research will lend authority to any point you make. The writing process requires discovery, so seek out quality information. Consult credible and verifiable sources; incorporate the wisdom of others into your own position. Be reasonable with any assertions you make. Making outrageous claims, stretching the truth, or fudging the details of the topic can undermine your position and forfeit the good faith readers bring to the work. The audience may be less-inclined to value your opinion if they have reason to believe it is duplicitous, disingenuous, or in any way less than honest. Although inciting readers to an emotional response may attract them to your perspective, earning their trust through a frank exploration of the topic will demonstrate to them your authority. Make the thesis statement specific by saying something worthwhile. Recognizing and stating facts will do little to explain your position to the audience. Write with authority—the writing project has your name on it—show readers the value of your opinion by taking a definitive stance. Command the topic with conviction: believe in what you write. Purpose Knowing why you write will help you plan how you write. When establishing your perspective, ask yourself what you would like to achieve with your writing project. Writers frequently write to inform, to tell a story, to explain, to argue, to evaluate, or to corroborate. As you begin writing, you may not have a clear purpose in mind, though moving through the writing process will help you discover new ideas and may provide you with a goal for your work. If the topic is relatively new, or there has been a recent development in the conversation, try structuring your perspective on that information. In these instances, your purpose might be to inform through description or to explain through analysis. If you would like readers to respond to your work—if your goal is to call them to action—offer the audience direction in your perspective. Craft a thesis statement that sets forth your expectations for them from the beginning of your writing project. As you move through the writing process, your opinion may change through the discovery of new information, and with it, your purpose. Because the thesis statement is the central idea to your writing project, if you change your thesis statement, you will need to revise your entire essay around that new idea. Audience As you define your perspective, it is vital that you understand for whom you are writing. This knowledge helps identify what the audience already knows, what your perspective can provide readers, and will aid you in making stylistic choices in your composition. Develop a thesis with a target audience in mind so you can express yourself appropriately and effectively. Anticipate the needs of readers by addressing their questions, concerns, and counterarguments before they make them. Ask yourself what the audience must understand to appreciate your perspective and use precise diction to make your position specific without weakening its effectiveness. Your perspective should interest the audience but should also represent what you feel or what you want to say about the topic. If the audience is disinterested in what you have to say, they might never learn your point. Remember, even though this essay is an extension of your thought—it is based on your opinion—you must still communicate with the audience. Consider using examples to universalize larger ideas and draw readers in. Connect with the audience by providing context which explains that your thesis statement affects them. Exert influence over readers by demonstrating yourself to be an informed and reasonable thinker. Context An explicit thesis statement always answers the hypothetical question, “so what?” The larger context surrounding the topic informs readers why the topic matters in the first place. Context is an additional framework, or background information necessary to understand the topic and your perspective on the topic. - Routine maintenance of a locomotive’s braking system is important for the longevity of the engine, especially if that locomotive is meant to have a life beyond its current uncontrolled high-speed sprint off a bridge-still-under-construction into the chasmal ravine below. context \| Deciding what kinds of and how much context to include in your writing project means first identifying what it is that you know about the topic and what it is that you need to learn. To develop an informed opinion on a topic, you will need to research, analyze, and evaluate the current conversation about that topic. Repeat this process when thinking about the audience: identify what you believe general audiences already know about this topic and what they need to discover to understand your perspective. Appropriate background information helps readers understand your position on the topic and come to their own conclusions. If you provide enough context, the audience should have enough information to make a reasonable evaluation of your perspective. Thesis Development If you have chosen the topic, but do not know how to begin defining your perspective, start by asking various questions about the topic. Return to questions you developed when brainstorming ideas for your topic. Aim to establish a working thesis statement by answering a series of specific questions about the topic, narrowing your focus with each question. The more-detailed your questions are, the more-specific their answers will be. Thoughtful questions lead to detailed answers, resulting in strong thesis statements. The thesis statement is not a question itself; it is a statement which provides resolution to a question by answering it. No matter your perspective, every topic is approachable through questions. Although you may feel like you know a topic well, there will always be more to learn—even experts have gaps in knowledge—there will always be more/new questions to ask. It is possible to restructure almost any request, assignment, or writing situation into a question. Rephrasing your writing prompts as questions can help you begin developing your thesis statement by searching for answers. For example, you might be assigned a question that reads: Explain the effects of long-term exposure to video game violence in young children. You can rewrite the prompt above as a question by restructuring the command into a query: How does long-term exposure to video game violence affect young children? Begin your draft with a possible working thesis statement. Develop several working thesis statements—points that may change throughout the process—to weigh the value of your ideas against one another. A simple working thesis at the top of the page can keep you focused throughout the drafting stage, acting as an immediate reference against which you can compare the controlling ideas of your supporting paragraphs. Your working thesis statement may change throughout the writing process. Writing is a map of thinking, after all. As you move through the process, you will discover new information and learn new ideas; if your thoughts on the topic change, so too should your writing. Learning is exploring, and illuminating new vistas means making changes to the map. Your thesis should not dictate your research: do not neglect relevant information simply because it does not fit the writing identity you are trying to construct. A good thesis is informed by research, not controlled by it. Scope Because it is impossible to cover every detail about your chosen topic, and since many instructors impose upper-limits in word count anyway, limiting the content of your writing to only the most-pertinent information is vital to communicating effectively with readers and the overall success of your writing project. The scope of your thesis statement refers to the level of detail you provide in choosing the topic and the extent and range of larger contexts necessary for understanding your perspective. Limit the scope of your thesis statement to narrow the focus of your writing. Specifics in your thesis, such as spatial or temporal parameters, can outline a framework for development. While many topics are universal, if you target a specific audience, you may increase the effectiveness of your thesis statement. For example, readers might be less likely to engage with an essay on federal minimum wage regulations than they would an essay on current minimum wage laws in their own city, county, or state. Or in your own life, you may be more willing to read a review or watch a trailer for a film you plan to see, rather than read a review or watch a trailer of a film you have no interest in viewing. Because your working thesis statement acts as a guideline during the drafting stage of the writing process, adjusting the scope of thesis will result in changes to the size, shape, and content of your work. The scope acts as the boundary of the topic. Limit the scope of your thesis statement to show readers what is important to your topic and what is not. Knowing the audience will help you begin to determine the scope of your thesis statement. When establishing the scope of your thesis, ask yourself what the audience needs to know about the topic to understand it. It is possible that while you are somewhat familiar with it, readers may not be. This is especially true of your perspective: you probably feel very comfortable with your own ideas, although they may be completely foreign to the audience. Try to offer a reasonable, informed, and creative perspective that helps readers see the topic as you do. - Hotdogs are gross topic \| a perspective on that topic \| and should not be sold in the school cafeteria limited context \| because they are bad for students’ health. why this matters \| - The federal limited scope \| government should raise the minimum wage a perspective on a topic \| that topic \| to keep up with inflation and rising costs of living. why this matters \| - Large-scale industrial limited scope \| Recycling is important. topic \| a perspective on that topic \| to cut costs when sourcing materials for manufacturing. why this matters \| Unity Because your working thesis statement dictates the scope of your writing project, it is imperative that everything in the essay connects to the thesis statement. A well-constructed essay has no room for tangents or diversions into unrelated material. Disjointed construction threatens the unity of your work. Unity within your writing means that everything on the page connects to your thesis statement. These body paragraphs support the thesis by providing additional information or development of the topic and your perspective on the topic. Each paragraph you write must pertain to your main idea, even if they do not support it. For example, concessions to opposing arguments and counterarguments to those positions in a persuasive argument are paragraphs that may not support the thesis, but connect to it. Thesis Map At its core, a thesis statement is an idea and a brief layout of information necessary for thinking about that idea from a particular perspective. A thesis map is a conceptualization of the thesis and its support, popular in five-paragraph essays. You may be familiar with the construction of the five-paragraph essay: introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. In this structure, the thesis statement is typically the final sentence of the introductory paragraph and establishes a three-point plan of development in support of the primary claim. This three-point plan is sometimes known as a thesis map. Following the primary claim, these three points provide readers with the scope of the topic and a layout of the essay, hinting at what information the essay addresses. For this reason, thesis maps are a good tool for the writer during drafting and workshop evaluation. Although your instructors will likely ask you to break away from the five-paragraph essay, you can use the idea of a thesis map to your advantage. Answering three specific questions in your thesis can hint at the development of your thesis statement: - The topic - What is your perspective? - Why does it matter? After you answer these three questions, ask yourself how you know your perspective is true or how you can prove that it is true. If your thesis statement answers all three of these questions explicitly, readers will have a sense of what the essay is meant to accomplish, and you will be able to return to this thesis (map) to help structure and organize your essay throughout the revisions of the drafting stage. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 04 - Often, the thesis is located within the first two paragraphs. It appears in the introduction, though some writers use an additional introductory paragraph to establish tone, or provide details on context, or otherwise grab the audience’s attention. - Generally, it is a good idea to remove yourself from the presentation of the topic by avoiding the use of first-person pronouns such as I and my (unless writing a narrative which allows for the use of first-person pronouns). Chapter 05: Paragraphs It is commonly said that time flies when you are having fun. Have you ever had fun enduring a long meeting with an ambiguous agenda and no scheduled breaks? Or maybe you have sat through a class that did not have a syllabus or a clear plan for the period. In these situations, time can drag on for what seems like forever. Finding yourself in a position similar to these can be awkward; stepping out for a moment can be challenge if you do not know whether or not you may miss important information; or if you would like to raise a point, you may be unsure if there will be an opportunity to speak up; or maybe you feel as if there is simply too much information to process in a single session. Reading a wall of text with no paragraph breaks is very similar to this information overload. It may be that you have read a friend’s essay, and it was missing paragraph breaks. Or more commonly, you may have read a post online without any line breaks. Engaging with slabs of text like these can be disheartening and confusing. Approaching a long block of text without any paragraphs is akin to sitting through a long event with no schedule. Reading those blocks can be a chore in and of itself, as lines without paragraph breaks often ramble with only tenuous coherence from beginning to end. In writing, paragraphs allow for mental breaks—they provide readers with an opportunity to pause for a moment, think about what they have just read, make or follow annotations, look up definitions, or read forward or backward to search out connections—paragraphs give the audience time to absorb the material they read. Because these breaks provide opportunities for engaging with the text, paragraphs are a formatting tool that aid audiences in active reading. In academic writing, paragraphs typically act as divisions within an essay that indicate separate thoughts, themes, or subjects. Paragraphs guide readers through the content of the essay by organizing its larger ideas into digestible bite-size pieces. These smaller specialized sections develop and support the essay’s thesis statement. Paragraphs provide the structure for a rhetorical development of your ideas. They might describe the topic, provide examples, offer definitions, or analyze processes. Paragraphs can be used to advance ideas through cause and effect, division and classification, comparison and contrast, or other generic patterns. Most of the content of essays is delivered through paragraphs. Paragraph Construction If writing is a map of thinking, paragraphs represent the short journeys between landmarks on the map. It is the composition and combination of these legs that reveal the larger route and mark the distance traveled. Paragraphs are the essential unit of measurement within an essay. Each paragraph is a landmark representing a single major idea, concept, or point in support of your thesis statement. When you set about designing your roadmap, return to your initial plan and working thesis. Sketch out the major points you want to address in your work, and then outline the different paragraphs you will develop in support of your point. Construct a paragraph around each of the major ideas you want to share in your work. Do not concern yourself with the placement of each of these paragraphs at this point; just write them as they come to you or organize them where they make sense. As you move recursively through the stages of the writing process, you can always rethink organization and move paragraphs around the essay. Each paragraph in your essay will resemble a smaller version of as essay itself; just as the thesis statement is the main point of your essay—and that thesis is supported by topic sentences and their paragraphs—so is each topic sentence the main point of its own paragraph, and each topic sentence is supported by the rest of the sentences in its paragraph: Thesis Statement \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| Topic Sentence 01 \| Topic Sentence 02 \| Topic Sentence 03 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| Examples \| Evidence \| Knowledge \| Support \| Data \| Reason \| Information \| Illustration \| Proof \| Topic Sentences The topic sentence is the main point of a paragraph. It acts as the controlling concept of that paragraph, providing parameters for content included within that paragraph. The topic sentence of each paragraph should develop, connect, or in some way pertain to the thesis statement, even if it does not expressly support it. Control the content of your paragraphs with topic sentences that fit with the overall purpose of your essay. A single, easily identifiable main point in each of your paragraphs will aid readers in understanding the topic and your perspective on that topic. Topic sentences may support the thesis statement through exemplification, illustration, analysis, support, explanation, or any other generic pattern of development. These topic sentences will also help you in writing paragraphs. You can make sure that each sentence you include in the paragraph relates to the main point of that paragraph. Sentences that fail to connect directly to the topic sentence may be better suited for another paragraph in the essay, or they fall outside the scope of your main point altogether and can be eliminated from your draft. If a paragraph is structured deductively—beginning with an assertion and analyzing its components—the paragraph will begin with a topic sentence. A paragraph’s topic sentence is commonly its first, but that is not always the case. A topic sentence may follow a brief introduction or transition, or if building a case inductively—assembling concepts into a larger assertion—the paragraph will conclude with the topic sentence. Although it is best to consider how you plan to advance the paragraph when placing the topic sentence, you might begin your first drafts by organizing information deductively, so that the controlling ideas appear first. This method will help you stay focused on developing the controlling concept of each paragraph as you move through the drafting stage of the writing process. If you find that the controlling idea of a paragraph is simply too large for that single paragraph to contain sufficient information, you may need to make the topic sentence more specific. Narrowing the scope of your controlling concept will help you eliminate extraneous information. On the other hand, complex topics may require several paragraphs of development or context. You can also thread a single idea through multiple paragraphs by using transitions that show readers the relationship of each paragraph to its neighbors. Structure Paragraphs, like the essay itself, follow the same patterns of universal organization: time, space, and logic (highlighted in chapter eight of this book). If a paragraph describes a concrete object, the content of that paragraph is likely organized spatially. If a paragraph presents a process or a sequence of events, the content of that paragraph would probably be ordered sequentially. Among others, common logical constructions for paragraphs might include easiest to understand to most difficult to understand, most common to least common, or least controversial to most controversial. If you choose to use a rhetorical pattern in the development of your essay, you should adhere to any specialized rules regarding its use. For example, if making a comparison between two objects, you might develop your paragraphs either criterion-by-criterion or in chunks (see chapter thirteen for further details). Or if composing a persuasive argument, you might include a paragraph of concessions or counterargument. An evaluation essay might contain a paragraph or more of summary. Typically, the first sentence of a paragraph should alert readers to its content, even if it is not the topic sentence. As you draft, it is routine to both structure and order your paragraphs as the information comes to you. When you revise your work and organize your ideas, you will find it advantageous to revise the structure of your paragraphs until you discover the most-effective way to deliver it to readers. A common thought is that paragraphs need to be a specific size. Students often cite five to seven sentences as the appropriate paragraph length. While this may be true in practice, you should not draft each paragraph with a target sentence count in mind. For the audience to understand your position, paragraphs must expand on their topic sentences in an informed, reasonable, and creative voice. Development, rather than length, is the primary determinate of the size of your paragraphs. Provide enough content to make your case, but not so much that readers lose interest. The complexity of the topic and your perspective on that topic, as well the purpose of the topic sentence, factors into determining how long your paragraphs will be. When drafting, conceptualize paragraphs as points of your thesis that you want to address. Naturally, some thoughts will be more complex and require additional context; do not worry if your paragraphs are unequal in size or distribution. As each topic sentence deserves its own explication, some paragraphs will likely be larger than others. At times you may find one of the topic sentences requires quite a bit more support than others. When this occurs, consider using transitional phrases or sentences indicating the continuation of your point from one paragraph to the next. Because topics will vary from class to class and assignment to assignment, there is no set number of paragraphs that any essay should have. When thinking about the length of your work, review both the assignment and your initial plans to ensure that you have addressed everything you need, then concentrate on a thorough development of those ideas for readers. Underdeveloped paragraphs are very common in early drafts. You can always develop your ideas by adding more proof, examples, or details. Sometimes paragraphs will offer a sentence of conclusion or summation before transitioning to the next idea. If you feel that your paragraphs are ending too quickly—maybe you feel as if you are abruptly cutting off a main point—you might want to add a sentence of finality before transitioning to your next paragraph. Transitions Typically, each paragraph is its own idea, but that is not always the case. Some paragraphs work in concert to provide context or thorough analysis. Every paragraph should feel connected to the previous and lead smoothly to the next. Readers should be able to follow the organization of your thoughts through the body of your work. Transitional words and phrases help guide the audience between different paragraphs in your essay by highlighting each idea’s relationship to another. Many writers refer to this network of relationships as the “flow” of a writing project—how information in the work connects to itself—and this current should move smoothly and easily so that you readers understand how each component fits together in your work. Flow is also known as coherence, meaning that everything is unified with the thesis statement, as well as connected and consistent in its presentation. So long as your reader can follow a logical progression through your paragraphs, you are communicating effectively. Although each paragraph represents its own idea, it is inherently connected to those that precede and follow it through its relationship with the thesis statement. While the topic sentences of each paragraph may have little to do with one another individually, taken in the larger context of the thesis statement, a logical connection must exist between them. As the writer, it is your responsibility to show the relationships between these ideas to your reader. Transitions between these ideas can help establish these relationships and guide the audience through your thoughts. Transitions are commonly used to begin a fresh paragraph introducing a new idea, or to begin a separate paragraph providing examples of the idea introduced in the previous paragraph. - Also, furthermore, in addition to, then If a paragraph requires a great deal of explanation in support of its topic sentence, you might find that adding additional specific examples would make the paragraph too lengthy. In this case, you might transition into a second paragraph that contains numerous examples. Such a paragraph would likely conclude with a sentence tying it back to the topic sentence of the first. - For example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate Transitions between paragraphs can be used to deemphasize or highlight concepts, to stress the importance of a point raised earlier in the essay, to introduce a subtopic or smaller component of the previous paragraph, to focus on a smaller, more-detailed facet of something introduced in the previous paragraph, or otherwise show readers the relationship between ideas in your work. Other common transitions are used to indicate time, place, sequence, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, or other generic or rhetorical patterns. - As a result, beyond, consequently, earlier, farther on, finally, first, however, last, later, on the other hand, similarly, therefore, until recently If you are organizing information chronologically, or putting a series of events in sequential order, it will feel natural to use words such as “First,” “Second,” and “Last.” Be wary of using these transitions to organizing non-sequential information, as readers may not understand the ordinal numbered organization of your paragraphs. Finally, there are some phrases that you do not want to rely on to begin a paragraph or transition your thoughts. If each paragraph begins with “Next” the audience will feel like they are reading a list, rather than a well thought-out essay. “As stated above” “As I said before” and “See above” are redundant and unsophisticated ways of introducing your next thought. Words and Phrases Writers often repeat key terms and definitions to establish relationships between ideas. These words, as well as memorable or special phrases, link paragraphs together throughout the body of your work. The first stage of ninjutsu training—spiritual refinement—requires plenty of patience and self-discipline. While turtles may exert supreme self-control, they are limited by their very nature. Discipline can be a demanding practice for teenagers, regardless of whether they are mutant turtles or not. Training in spiritual refinement takes not only a resigned student, but a tolerant teacher. Repeating key words and phrases in different paragraphs shows readers that the ideas are connected; moreover, repeating terms and phrases lets readers know that they are important. Parallel Ideas and Structures Have you ever driven through a subdivision and noticed repetitions in the home designs, or paid attention to a repeating background in a cartoon or video game? Repetition of design, material, and construction helps establish coherence in a larger body of work. Parallel designs—structures that are similar to one another—can alert readers to the similarities between different ideas in separate paragraphs throughout the essay. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 05 Finally, a couple special notes: - Single-sentence paragraphs can be used for effect, but should be used sparingly, and may not be appropriate for formal writing projects - Indent the first line of each paragraph ½” or Tab - An essay’s conclusion should always be its own paragraph - When using dialogue, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes Chapter 06: Introductions & Conclusions It is said that, “you only get one chance to make a first impression.” Introducing yourself to others can be daunting for this reason. When writing, however, you can revise, fix, improve, or tweak your introduction time and again. Drafting gives you many opportunities to make the best first impression. In written communication, the introduction includes preliminary information that precedes and leads up to the primary content. A good introduction commands the attention of the audience and enriches their interaction with the text, keying readers into the content and tone of that material. Many introductions, like greetings, set forth the content and tone of the material that follows them. Introducing yourself to a stranger over the phone, for example, typically includes stating your name, organization, and the reason why you are calling. Jumping into the message of the call without this initial information can lead to unmet expectations, confusion, or misunderstanding. Even answering the phone adheres to this convention through the more-or-less standardized greeting, “Hello?” Entering conversations with others may be the most frequent contact we have with everyday introductory phrases and expressions. We tend to greet friends as we see them, maybe asking, “What’s up?”–even if the question is not meant to be answered. When writing emails, texts, messages, letters, or whatever else, we tend to open our communications with a greeting, like “Dear,” or “To Whom It May Concern:” Introductions may preface a story to first put the events of the narrative into context. You might employ an introduction to explain to the audience why they should not rush to judgment on the topic or suggest that the audience may not know the true cause of an event, even if they are familiar with its effect. Or instead you may use the introduction to offer a preliminary phrase as a disclaimer before saying something. Many television programs start with a cold open, where the narrative begins without first displaying the title of the show and its credits. In television production, cold opens were developed as a practical way to save time in explaining the main characters or the plot—information that was sometimes reserved for a lengthy opening credits sequence—by placing the episode’s narrative arc in context for the audience. In the heyday of broadcast television, these cold opens had the additional benefit of “hooking” viewers into the show, perhaps keeping them from changing stations during the commercials of the show’s sponsors that often followed the opening credits. Contemporary television programs, films, and video games may use cold opens to introduce content to the viewers or first establish the tone of the material. For example, television homicide procedurals use the cold open to allow writers to introduce the crime and its victims, providing parameters for the case and the episode’s content. Comedies employ cold opens to house a throwaway joke alerting viewers to the overall mood of the program. Films such as The Matrix, The Dark Knight, and Raiders of the Lost Ark begin with memorable cold opens. Some video games even employ the cold open. Red Dead Redemption 2, Grand Theft Auto 5, The Last of Us and other recent games start with a short playable sequence that helps establish the tone, content, and mechanics of the game. Furthermore, these attention-grabbing sequences excite viewers: if something has a bland, predictable, or off-putting introduction, audiences are less likely to give it a chance. Powerful introductions are meant to free audiences from the tyranny of choice. With seemingly unlimited options available to us in our very limited allowances of time, choosing the right television program, game, or film can be a daunting task. The fear of missing out, or of making the wrong decision, can lead to a decision paralysis where we never invest our time in anything substantial. A thorough introduction can compel readers to complete the reading and not quit partway through. Introductions make the audience aware that they are about to receive important information. In your own writing, memorable introductions and conclusions establish the parameters of your work for readers and draw them into the topics. Introductions can help put your thesis into context, and conclusions can point readers toward their next step. By providing an entryway into the topic and framing your point, introductions allow you to build your essay so that the audiences sees the topic from your perspective. A solid introduction should shield readers from the asking themselves, “What have I gotten myself into!?” Introductions Introductions are a specific type of paragraph that acquaint the audience with the topic of the essay, your perspective, and a brief background. As there can only be one opening to your essay, a personable voice with a compelling position welcomes the audience into investing their time in your work. A good beginning commands the audience’s attention, explains to them the relevance of the subject, and makes a reasonable claim about the topic. Generally, an introduction consists of three major components: - Hook - Context - Thesis The hook draws readers into the text, the context makes your position understandable, and the thesis delivers the topic and your perspective on the topic. Do not let the beginning of your essay become a roadblock to your writing: it is not necessary to write your essay in order. When you begin your writing project, your working thesis statement may be vague. It is possible that you might not know the larger contexts surrounding the topic or have yet to define your perspective on it. Sometimes it is only during the writing process that you discover information you might want to include in your introduction. Drafting allows you to compile your thoughts in whatever method you find most effective, then later reorganize those ideas into something wholly more coherent. Many writers compose introductions only after completing everything else in the writing project. Some writers find it easier to write an introduction acquainting the audience with the material only after they have composed and reworked that material. Because it can be difficult to write a compelling introduction, saving it for the end of your writing plan can prevent you from getting stuck at the outset. When drafting your introduction, return to your initial outline or consult the thesis map of your working thesis to provide additional guidance for readers. While this may result in a formulaic introduction, it can also provide a solid framework from which to begin. As you feel more comfortable moving through the stages of the writing process, you can begin to challenge standard notions of construction. In any case, it is best to know what the guidelines are before you might break them. Hook The hook, sometimes called the lead-in, or lede, draws readers into your writing. The hook captivates the audience by making the personal, topical, local, or in some other way interesting and approachable. When developing the hook of your writing, try to look at it from the audience’s point-of-view and appeal to that. Plea to the emotions of readers, or pathos, by crafting a lead-in that shocks readers, or makes them laugh, cry, or emote in some other way. The hook can solicit feelings of sympathy or pity, so long as they are appropriate for the topic and tone of your writing. Or use a hook to engage with the audience’s ethos, or shared values or beliefs. Appeal to logos by introducing readers to a problem before suggesting a solution. Draw readers into the topic by presenting something that seems amiss. Arouse their suspicions by introducing them to a problem of which they are unaware. Pique their curiosity by explaining to them a misconception they might have. If you use the hook to identify a problem, include in your introduction an outline for a solution. It is easy to complain, but much harder to offer a sensible solution. If your lead-in identifies a problem, the rest of your essay should provide its resolution. Use the hook to quote an authority or invoke an image with which many people are familiar. The Statue of Liberty, for example, is meant to welcome to America those who seek liberty, justice, and refuge on her shores. Reference the monument in the hook of the introduction to signal to readers the content and tone of what follows. Assure readers with a hook that reminds them of something with which they are already familiar. If the topic of your writing project is uncommon, compare it with something similar, more familiar to the audience. Or instead use the hook to contrast the topic against something. Opening with a quotation or image may require attribution, so that readers catch the reference you are making. Attribution means naming the speaker or otherwise referencing their authority when including their words. Use only quotations or images that fit with the topic and tone of your work. Instead of using an image or quotation in support of your perspective, you might include a quote, or proverb, or image or whatever in order to contrast it against the topic or your perspective. Whatever you do, grab the audience’s attention quickly. Keep introductions concise—they are merely the appetizer to the main course of body paragraphs. A hook is not effective if it is boring, predictable, or cliché, and opening an essay with a question, definition, or complaint is a common practice in writing. Therefore, if you choose to develop your lead-in using one of these methods, avoid mechanical or stilted constructions (like “In today’s society”) which might cause the audience to lose interest in the topic before you have made your point. Questions are frequently misused as lead-ins, using speculation to support generalized analysis in lieu of anything definitive. It can be tempting to open an essay with a question. Throughout the writing process you have generated a lot of questions, from brainstorming topics to asking questions to answer with your working thesis statement—it seems natural to incorporate a question into the introduction preceding your thesis. A question may pique readers’ curiosity, but if you do use a question as your hook, make sure you can provide the audience an adequate answer. If you are unable to answer a question you have used as a hook, the audience may feel cheated, or that you have not done enough research to reach a conclusion or provided enough analysis to answer the question in your work. It can also seem unsophisticated and formulaic to rely on a rhetorical question to begin your project. Lead-ins phrased as questions that you might read online or see in the news, keep in mind Betteridge’s Law of Headlines. Paraphrased, the law states that if a headline is posed as a question, it can be answered “no.” A headline phrased as a question can almost assuredly be answered in the negative because were the answer to the question an affirmative, the headline would declare the answer instead of asking the question. For example, the commonly-published headline, “Have Scientists Discovered the Cure for Cancer?” would almost certainly be written “Scientists Discover Cure for Cancer” were the discovery true. The question, rather than the declarative, allows room for error, for speculation. The same is true for lead-in questions. Definitions may not interest readers who already know the meaning of what you are defining. Even references to dictionaries such as Webster’s or the Oxford English do little to draw readers into your writing if the definitions are commonly known. Open with a definition only if you believe it will interest readers. Use your own voice to give new meaning to a word or explain a term or phrase as you see it, so readers will be eager to continue reading your perspective. Context In addition to grabbing the audience’s attention, the introduction should introduce the topic. If the topic of your writing project is uncommon or new, the audience might be unfamiliar with its basic concepts. The introduction explains to readers what they must know to consider the topic by explaining the larger contexts involved. Often, this contextual information bridges the gap between the hook and thesis statement. The context you provide in the introduction effectively acts as a disclaimer for your thesis statement. If any information exists that the audiences need to know before they read your thesis statement, the context of your introduction provides it. This information helps readers decide in what light or through what lens they should view the material you provide. Furthermore, the material you provide as context—description, facts, jokes, uncomfortable personal details, whatever—context helps establish the tone of your work. In journalism, including context in the introductory paragraph means answering the five 5 W’s. In your own drafts, this is a great place to begin: explaining the who, what, where, when, why, and how of a given topic will provide your reader with pertinent information and may help shape your own perspective on that topic. Some ideas may be better shared through narrative. Telling a story, like giving a case study, can sometimes provide a suitable context for making a point. If your thesis statement can be made into the subject of an intriguing story, opening with a didactic narrative—a story meant to teach a specific lesson—can make for a compelling contextual introduction to the topic. Thesis Above all, the introduction includes your thesis statement. Although you may write a complex introduction that spans multiple paragraphs, make your point before pivoting to the body paragraphs to provide support for it. An essay’s introduction is often organized inductively, narrowing from larger contextual ideas to a specific thesis statement. In such instances, it is trivial for writers to open with overused or generalized phrases along the lines of “in today’s society,” or “in the world today” before moving toward the main point. In any case, many instructors look for the thesis statement at the end of the introductory paragraph. Title The title of a piece announces your ideas to the world. Give your work a descriptive designation that fits the topic, purpose, and tone of your essay. The title acts as a preliminary hook to your writing. Before readers ever begin the introductory paragraph to your writing, they will have encountered its title. Namely, the title should draw the audience into your work and introduce them to its topic. When crafting a title for a writing project, consider how you would like people to find it were they searching for it. Think about indexing your work as you might use hashtags. The title of your work should help readers sort your writing into a larger category, but also invite readers to explore your work with further investigation. It should be both descriptive and intriguing, which is easier said than done. A title not only hints at the topic of a work, it also acts as a way to label or categorize a piece of writing. Just like composing your introduction, it is easier to title your work after you have finished it, rather than naming it at the outset of the writing process. It is likely you will encounter something that might work as a title after researching and moving through the iterative stages of the writing process. Or maybe instead after completing your essay you will be reminded of something that encapsulates your work. Do not let finding the perfect title keep you from getting started on your writing project; work through a few iterative stages and circle back to naming work. Examples: - Vampyres, Zombies, and Sea Monsters: Gothic Interpretations of Jane Austen’s Novels - Teddy’s Terrors or Roosevelt’s Rangers?: The Rough Riders - And All That Jazz: Hollywood and Its Impact on Modern Language - Revisiting Revisions in Lear: The Cuckoo King’s Artful Amendment - The Widening Gyre is Man’s Funeral Pyre: How “The Second Coming” Will Again Fail Humanity - The Formalists’ Fallacy, or If It Weren’t for My Horse, I Wouldn’t Have Spent That Year in College: A Critique of New Criticism Conclusions If the introduction is akin to the cold open, the conclusion might be the post-credits scene: the stinger, or tag. The conclusion is your last bit of contact with the reader, and like goodbyes, adheres to expected conventions. Essays conclude with a culminating paragraph just as conversations close with some brief words or a common phrase: “Goodbye,” or “See you later,” or something as simple as “Peace.” Readers expect a conclusion. As your ideas culminate at the end of a writing project, the conclusion becomes your last chance to stress to the audience the validity of your thinking, the value of your perspective, or the importance of the topic. The conclusion satisfactorily ends the primary content with a statement of finality on the topic’s main points. Close with a memorable completion of your thoughts on the topic and the information included in the essay. Do not introduce new points of discussion or offer additional evidence in support of your position. After providing the audience the content of your material, offer them a parting thought on what to do with it. Rather than feeling tacked on or routine, the conclusion should read as the logical extension of your thoughts. Bookend your body paragraphs with thematic introductions and conclusions. For example, if examining a before and after scenario, you might use the conclusion to reflect on the differences between the two states, or how you have changed since an event. If evaluating a subject, you might use the conclusion as a final recommendation to take action based on your review. Conclusions that seek to motivate their readers to action may offer suggestions on how to apply the information contained in the essay. Such closings might include ideas of what readers can do next, how they can get involved, or who they may contact. For instance, if an essay extols the virtues of democracy, it might conclude by encouraging its readers to register to vote. The conclusion can provide readers an opportunity to think about what they have read. It may hint at what comes next: a dire warning if the situation fails to change, broader implications or repercussions, or future predictions of what may come. This final paragraph is also an opportunity to return to the hook or lead-in you included in the opening of your work. If your introduction begins with a quotation or image, revisit that quotation or image in light of the information included in your work. If you introduce a problem, stir the suspicions of the audience, or otherwise pique their curiosity, conclude with a reasonable resolution to that aberration. If you open with a story, conclude that narrative. Your introduction and conclusion should not be carbon copies of one another. Although they may be connected thematically, each paragraph should serve its own purpose. Avoid the impulse to simply summarize the points you have made in your work. Instead, take into account that readers have learned a great deal from your work, and model your conclusion accordingly. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 06 - In general, avoid single-word titles - Capitalize all words in the title except for articles (a, an, the) and prepositions—unless they are the first word of the title or subtitle - Use subtitles to add clarification, much like you might see in movie sequels - When concluding shorter writing projects, avoid summarizing your main points or restating your thesis—this is a useful technique for large essays—audiences do not need reminding - Your conclusion might resemble your introduction, but it should not be a copy of it. Chapter 07: Organization What is the best way to organize the apps on your phone? Is it to leave them on the home screen and weave them in between widgets? To collect them in folders by sorting them into similar groups? Or instead to leave them wherever they may install, in whatever order you first downloaded them? It is likely that the way you organize the contents of your phone, your notebook, backpack, desk, room, or whatever other space you keep differs from the way that others might organize theirs. As individuals have different preferences and needs, their methods and reasons for structuring things will vary greatly. Organization is the method of employing order to a grouping of things or ideas. How you choose to organize information can affect how others may interpret that information, and you can shape their understanding by adjusting or tinkering with the relationship of one idea to another throughout the drafting process. For example, you may be more likely to raise the first point on a topic because you feel more strongly about that point than you do others. In this example, the audience might infer from the prominence of the first point you raise that it is of substantial importance. Organization can reveal patterns in the way we think and help us put those patterns into practice when we communicate. Organizational structures are inherent in communication. When you speak to someone, you compose your sentences (knowingly or not) according to syntactical rules (formal or informal) which dictate the order of the words and phrases in your speech. Organized written communication governs the sentences printed on the page with rules regarding grammar, syntax and punctuation, and also their spatial organization from left to right, followed by line breaks, and marked with indentations and new paragraphs. In formal writing, the essay follows an organizational hierarchy where the thesis statement controls the topic of the essay, and the paragraphs supporting the thesis are shaped and directed by topic sentences which in turn explain the thesis. Various modes of development will have their own patterns for structuring information that can enhance the effectiveness of the material. Imagine an argument, for example: by anticipating the doubts of a skeptical audience, a writer may choose to address those concerns earlier in the essay, demonstrating an open-minded or all-encompassing approach to the subject. When organizing the content of your own work, it may be easiest to structure your material as it comes to you in the drafting stage of the writing process. When drafting, consider beginning with the fundamental thesis-mapped, five-paragraph essay, but moving beyond it in subsequent drafts. As you revise your work and reshape your writing, rethink how you organize the information in your draft. Return to organizational patterns you employ in your brainstorming sessions: how you choose to group ideas together may reveal not only how you conceptualize relationships between those ideas, but also may help identify a logical structure or pattern. Because organization can be subjective—if given the same opportunities, there is no telling if two individuals would use the same method to structure anything—knowing what is logical to readers can be difficult for writers to ascertain. To this end, universally-recognized methods of organization are another great place to begin when thinking about how you might structure your material. Universal Methods of Organization Universally-recognized methods of organization are easily-identifiable and help make information intelligible to many audiences. Structuring content according to time, space, or logic aids not only in the audience understanding the material, but also in how you draft and organize that content during the writing process. Temporal Organization As far as we know, there seems to be only one direction to travel through time. Because all people experience the progression of time in a single direction—forward—and perceive time in a similar manner, temporal organization, or chronological order, is a universally-understood method for organizing action or events, especially when recreating a series of events to explain a larger concept. If you write about a series of events, arrange them in the order they occur. Learning the order of events may take some research, especially if you are combining or synthesizing multiple viewpoints, accounts, or experiences, but the research you put into your organization will make your writing easier for readers to understand. As you write, be wary of falling into the post hoc trap. Post hoc ergo propter hoc is a logical fallacy which reasons that one event is solely the result of an event that precedes it. When establishing the relationship between events in a series, it is important to remember that simply because two events happen one after another, the former is not necessarily the cause of the latter. When looking for connections between events, search for causation instead of correlation. Narratives are usually organized chronologically, as every story has a beginning, middle, and end. When writing a narrative, if you choose to subvert temporal organization—for example, including a flashback or a glimpse of future events—you must signal to the audience that the material is presented out-of-order. If readers are confused, they may misunderstand your position or lose interest in the story. Phrases that place the events in the story in relation to one another help the audience stay connected to what happens in the narrative. Consider how flashbacks are presented in video games, television, and film. Often the colors or quality of the image differs from its normal presentation, or the mediums use time and location headers on the screen, to provide a context or setting for the events that are about to unfold. Terms that imply temporal organization: - First, second, third - Before, earlier, next, after, later - Last, finally Spatial Organization Ordering ideas is an abstract thought, whereas ordering concrete objects is something that can be done in the real world. Offering a physical description of an object or subject enables the reader to see it as you do. When organizing information spatially, choose a starting point and move steadily in a single direction, painting an image in the minds of readers. Use description to help the audience see the topic as you do. Spatial organization frequently appears in process analysis and cause and effect rhetorical patterns. For example, the water cycle describes a process whose steps have a physical relationship to one another: water collects in puddles and pools, evaporates into the air above, condenses in the atmosphere, then precipitates down to begin the cycle anew. Or consider Newton’s Third Law, which states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Describing physical interactions in a writing project requires spatial organization. Spatial organization may connect objects from left to right, front to back, top to bottom, inside to outside, or any other number of linear approaches. Prepositions often describe objects in physical relationship to one another and may signal spatial organization. Terms that imply spatial organization: - Beside, beyond, in front of, behind - Above, below, next to, around - Underneath, upon, within, outside Logical Organization This method encompasses any number of organizational strategies that follow a logical reasoning in their structure. Most universally-understood methods of organization that you encounter every day have a logical reason behind their ordering. In mathematics education, students are first taught to identify and count numbers before learning how to add, subtract, multiply and divide them. Each stage of the process incorporates and builds upon the material which precedes it. Complex concepts such as algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus are typically taught in a similar order for the same reason. When playing a new video game for the first time, it is likely players will find the initial stages less difficult than those that follow. Many games are designed to introduce more demanding combinations and challenges as players progress through the game. Not only are video games, television programs, and films rated by age, but they are also organized by their content. Many media are easily searchable by the content they offer, by the characters they feature, the actors who perform in them, or by their writers, directors, producers, or production studios. Retailers, content providers, and other distributors tend to group similar goods with one another: if a product is attractive to an identifiable audience, a similar product may hold that same appeal. While these represent only a few of the many different approaches to logical organization, two overarching logical structures supersede all others: deductive and inductive reasoning. Use these two basic methods of organization to explain an idea and support it with evidence. Deductive reasoning begins with an assertion, then unpacks that assertion with additional information in support of the claim. Inductive reasoning tallies several different instances before inferring a logical assertion based on those instances. While detectives like Batman and Sherlock Holmes may use observation and inductive reasoning to reach their conclusions, your essays will typically follow a deductive pattern, where the introduction contains your thesis statement, making an assertion about the topic, and the following paragraphs provide evidence in support of that thesis and prove your claim to be reasonable. An essay like this might make a claim then support it. For an example of deductive reasoning, imagine you were to look at a model made from LEGO bricks. If you were to examine the LEGO bricks using deductive pattern, you might first observe the completed model, then disassemble it piece-by-piece to see what different components it includes and how they factor into its construction. If you were to examine that same pile of bricks inductively, you might begin by observing the differences between the bricks, taking note of the shapes and colors that comprise most of the pile, drawing conclusions about what kind of set, licensed property, or product line they make come from. In doing so, you could make a reasonable assertion as to what one might build out of the bricks. Inductive organization builds tension as readers follow along with the information you provide them. If you present your assertion effectively, your readers may come to the same conclusions as you. Terms that imply logical organization: - Easiest to most-difficult - Universally accepted to most-controversial - Least-complex to most-complex Suggested or Thematic Organization Common thematic patterns arrange material according to its order of importance, present ideas from the most-popular to least-popular, or use an established system to rate content, so long as all subjects are compared to one another or the same scale. Organizing material by its importance, popularity, or rating is another subjective method to order your content. If you employ one of these methods, keep in mind your purpose and audience when you draft. If you choose to employ thematic organization, you might have to explain or justify to readers the choices you make. Depending on the nature of your writing project, you may simply follow the suggested thematic pattern of the assignment or source material. While some genres of writing adhere to prescribed methods of organization, your instructors may have specific rhetorical patterns or organizational strategies in mind for your assignments. Coherence Whatever method of organization you choose to employ, it is vital that your work reads coherently from beginning to end. Coherence in communication, or the flow of your writing, means the ability to be easily understood. If readers are unable to grasp the relationships between the sentences within your paragraphs, or if the audience believes the paragraphs of your essay are disconnected or inconsistent in their organization, those same readers will not understand your perspective on the topic. Coherence is crucial when supporting your perspective, offering reasoning for your position, or otherwise providing details or evidence for your thesis statement. To help establish coherence, look for opportunities to: - Repeat words - Repeat ideas - Use transitions to establish relationships between ideas Coherence within and between sentences, and within and between paragraphs, means that the audience can see how the content and presentation of your material is both connected and consistent. Readers should be able to trace the associations between your ideas through the paragraphs of the essay and follow the progression of information from introduction to conclusion. All grammatical, syntactical, and stylistic choices should be reasonable and consistent throughout the work. Adhere to established guidelines and course requirements above all else. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 07 - Throughout your classes and within your assignments, you will find that individual instructors may have specific requirements for the structure of your work - Just as if you take a new job that has its own filing or organizational system, you are responsible for learning and adhering to it Chapter 08: MLA Documentation (8th edition) Information travels across mediums now faster than ever, and always-evolving modes of communication continue to shape how we communicate with one another. Documentation helps keep track of how that information is borrowed, sampled, remixed, or otherwise employed across the spectrum of written communication. Most of the writing projects in your classes require you to document the sources you research and incorporate into your work. In nearly all fields of study, documentation is the process of using standardized techniques and systems to reference contributing material. These systems incorporate formal citations within and at the end of texts to identify all borrowed information. As a piece of writing is reflective of your thinking and represents your contribution into a larger conversation, it is necessary to show readers the connections between your ideas and those of others. The thesis contains your perspective, an opinion supported by facts. Documentation creates verifiable references by giving credit to or acknowledging the contributions of others. Use citations to borrow, challenge, or build upon the ideas of others and provide future participants in the conversation a method for tracing its history. Audiences can more effectively engage with a text by following its citations through a standardized method that is both comprehensive and navigable. In the humanities, the standardized style of documentation is MLA—named after the Modern Language Association, an organization committed to the research and study of language—MLA documentation is flexible and modular, and tasks writers to integrate outside materials purposefully, citing traits common to a variety of different sources. In academic writing, it is necessary to include citations for all material you borrow and include in your work. Citations are not only required when borrowing the words, expressions, phrases, or work of another, but also must be provided when using their ideas as well. Acknowledging the contribution of others is a requirement of thorough research. Presenting another’s work as your own is plagiarism, even if it is not necessarily intentional. Accidental theft or improper documentation is still plagiarism. Academic dishonesty muddies the relationship between instructor and student, sowing distrust and inhibiting discovery: nothing is learned through plagiarism. If an instructor or the institution turned a blind eye toward it, unchecked plagiarism could discredit the college altogether, and by extension, the value of the degrees earned there. Avoid plagiarism by providing a citation any time you include in your work material from an outside source. Typically, you will need to provide citations after you summarize, paraphrase, or quote material from an outside source. Acknowledge these sources in your work through formal documentation. Accomplish this through two primary citation requirements for essays: - Works cited page - In-text citations Works Cited Page The works cited page is a major component for MLA documentation. Appearing at the end of a work, it identifies and organizes the borrowed material in that work. This alphabetical list provides readers formal identification of the contributions of others to your own research. MLA style requires that you document sources along nine core elements: author, title of source, title of container, other contributors, version, number, publisher, publication date, and location. Nearly every entry on a works cited page shares some of nine core elements and including as many as possible provides readers a complete citation. These elements follow a standardized order and represent common traits among a wide variety of sources, though they are by no means comprehensive. Most sources will not have each element present, and not every core element is relevant to each source you will encounter. Include as many as possible and be flexible in your documentation, but modularly. Do your best to fit the correct information into each corresponding core element. If a source is lacking a core element, skip that element and move on to the next. Include information necessary to employ citations purposefully but be wary of sources with too few core elements. Furthermore, some sources require additional elements if published or found within other publications. Core elements appear in citations in the following order: Core Elements of a Formal Citation \| \| Author or creator \| . \| Title of source \| . \| Title of container or publication \| , \| Other contributors \| , \| Version or edition \| , \| Volume and/or number \| ,/, \| Publisher or producer \| , \| Date published or updated \| , \| Page Number or URL \| . \| The core elements follow this order and use this specific punctuation for each works cited entry. Periods appear only after the author or creator, the title of the source, and at the very end of the entry. Ignore articles at the beginnings of words (A, An, The) and alphabetize by the first present core element each source listed on your Works Cited Page. When formatting the works cited page, double-space all entries, and format a hanging indent on the left-hand side of the page. A hanging indent makes it easier for readers to identify your sources quickly as they move between the in-text citations in the body of the text and the works cited page. Author or creator The creator is typically the author, or the individual principally responsible for creating the work. Sometimes though, the creator may be the person with whose name the work is associated. Whoever it is, most-commonly the creator’s name will appear prominently near the beginning of the work. A work with a single author: Bechdel, Alison. Fun Home. Houghton Mifflin, 2007. @carterjwn. “Yo @Wendys how many retweets for a year of free chicken nuggets?” twitter, 5 Apr. 2017, 7:31 pm, twitter.com/carterjwm/status/849813577770778624. Accessed 9 Jan. 2019. Chance the Rapper. “The Man Who Has Everything.” Single, 2018. Spotify. spotify:track:3woRy7uxzl1lO2XO99oHsN. Herbert, Frank. Dune. Ace Books, 1999. Hern, Alex. “No-deal Brexit Would ‘Devastate’ UK Gaming Industry, Says Report.” The Guardian, 30 Nov. 2018, www.theguardian.com/games/2018/nov/30/no-deal-brexit-would-devastate-uk-gaming-industry-says-report. Accessed 12 Dec. 2018. Twain, Mark. The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson. BookRix, 2014. EBSCOhost eBook Collection, 0-search.ebscohost.com.archway.searchmobius.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1469693&site=ehost-live. u/Unidan. “I am ‘The Excited Biologist!’ AMA!” Reddit, Condé Nast Digital, 25 Apr. 2013. www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1d42co/i_am_the_excited_biologist_ama/. Accessed 1 Dec. 2018. When a source has multiple creators or contributors, list them in the order they appear on the cover or title page of the source (the order in which they are credited); however, if that source has three or more creators or contributors, list only the first of them and replace the remainder with a comma and the Latin expression et al., meaning “and others.” A work with two authors: Diamond, Michael and Adam Horovitz. Beastie Boys Book. Penguin Random House, 2018. Lennon, John and Paul McCartney. “Love Me Do.” Please Please Me, Original recording remastered, Capitol, 2012. McCartney, Paul and John Lennon. “From Me to You.” Please Please Me, Original recording remastered, Capitol, 2012. Rosa, Alfred and Paul Eschholz. Models for Writers. 13th edition, Bedford/ St. Martins, 2018. Zendle, David and Paul Cairns. “Video Game Loot Boxes Are Linked to Problem Gambling: Results of a Large-Scale Survey.” PLoS ONE, vol. 13, no. 11, 21 Nov. 2018, pp. 1-12. A work with three or more authors: DJ Khaled, et al. “No Brainer.” Single, 2018. Spotify, spotify:track:5WvAo7DNuPRmk4APhdPzi8. Huang, Vivan, et al. “The Association Between Video Game Play and Cognitive Function: Does Gaming Platform Matter?” CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, vol. 20, no. 11, Nov. 2017, pp. 689-94. Milligan, Peter, et al. X-Statix: Omnibus. Edited by Jennifer Grünwald, Marvel Comics, 2011. If the focus of your work employs the source for something other than its primary creator, such as the work of another contributor, begin your entry with that focus. If an additional contributor provides a type of contribution distinct from the primary creator—such as an illustrator working alongside an author on a book—make note of that contribution. Bell, Zoë, stunt performer. Thor: Ragnarok. Directed by Taika Waititi, performances by Chris Hemsworth, et al., Walt Disney Studios, 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80186608. Garland, Alex, director. Annihilation. Skydance Media, 2018. Gribben, Alan, editor. Mark Twain’s Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. By Mark Twain, NewSouth Edition, NewSouth Books, 2011. Gibbons, Dave, illustrator. Watchmen. By Alan Moore, Reprint edition, DC Comics, 2014. Sis, Peter, illustrator. The Book of Imaginary Beings. By Jorge Luis Borges, translated by Andrew Hurley, Penguin, 2005. Thewlis, David, performer. “The Shame Wizard.” Big Mouth, season 2, episode 3, Danger Goldberg Productions, 5 Oct. 2018, Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80183790. Tolkien, J. R. R., translator. Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Christopher Tolkien, HarperCollins, 2014. Williams, John, composer. Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Directed by Rian Johnson, performances by Mark Hamill, et al., Walt Disney Studios, 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/title/80192018. Wilson, Emily, translator. The Odyssey. By Homer, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017. If the focus of your work is on something other than the primary creator—for example, if you were writing a review of a film, concentrating on the director’s contributions to the film, you would likely begin that works cited entry with the title of the film; whereas if you chose to center your essay on the sound direction or fight choreography instead, you might begin the citation by naming the composer or stunt coordinator, respectively. Ex Machina. Directed by Alex Garland, performances by Domhnall Gleeson, Alicia Vikander, and Oscar Isaac, A24, 2014. Jumanji. Directed by Joe Johnston, performances by Robin Williams and Kirsten Dunst, TriStar Pictures, 1995. Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Directed by Rian Johnson, performances by Mark Hamill, et al., Walt Disney Studios, 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/title/80192018. Whatever the focus of your citation, all names should appear in your writing project as they do in the works you are citing. Do not refer to individuals with familiarity or take liberties with nicknames or shortened versions of their names. If a work is published with no signed creator, skip over that element and begin your entry with the title of the source. A work published without a named creator: Beowulf. Translated by Seamus Heaney. W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. The Holy Bible. Holman edition, A. J. Holman Company, 1914. LSAT Logic Games. Edited by Robert Webbing, et al., 2nd edition, Research & Education Association, 2012. MLA Handbook. 8th edition, The Modern Language Association of America, 2016. The Qur’an. Translated by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, Oxford University Press, 2008. Title of source Following the creator, the title of the source is the second core element of any citation. A source’s title is usually displayed noticeably at the beginning of that source, often near the creator’s name. When recording titles of sources in your citations, note that capitalization and punctuation are standardized in MLA style: - Capitalize the first letter of each word in the title except for the following parts of speech: conjunctions, prepositions, and articles (there are capitalized if they are the first word of the title or subtitle, however) - A colon always separates the title from the subtitle, even if an em dash (—) or another form of punctuation appears in the original work Bechdel, Alison. Fun Home. Houghton Mifflin, 2007. Cho, Alexander. “Muslim Cool: Race, Religion, and Hip Hop in the United States.” Cinema Journal, vol. 57, no. 1, Fall 2017, pp. 182-85. Farmer, John, John Azzarello, and Miles Kara. “Real Heroes, Fake Stories.” New York Times, 14 Sep. 2008, pp. WK10. Herbert, Frank. Dune. Ace Books, 1999. The Holy Bible. King James Version, Christian Art Publishers, 2013. Kroll, Nick, performer. “The Shame Wizard.” Big Mouth, season 2, episode 3, Danger Goldberg Productions, 5 Oct. 2018, Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80183790. Mangum, Jeff, songwriter. “Holland, 1945.” In the Aeroplane Over the Sea, by Neutral Milk Hotel, Merge Records, 1998. Spotify, spotify:track:4iwMhMvcTqukn1n3NVjb2N. Rosa, Alfred and Paul Eschholz. Models for Writers. 13th edition, Bedford St. Martins, 2018. Ware, Chris. Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth. Pantheon, 2003. If the work you are citing is independent and represents the entirety of the source, or is a larger publication and contains the source, italicize the title. If, however, the source appears as a smaller part of a larger publication, enclose the title in quotation marks. This notation helps readers easily identify and find the sources you incorporate into your work. Title of container or publication When the source is published as a part of a larger piece of work, it is said to be contained in that publication. The container identifies to the audience where you found the source. For example, you might find a short story or a poem published in a literary magazine, or an article or review printed in a newspaper or published on a website. Farmer, John, John Azzarello, and Miles Kara. “Real Heroes, Fake Stories.” The New York Times, 14 Sep. 2008, pp. WK10. Harkin, Patricia. “The Reception of Reader-Response Theory.” College Composition and Communication, vol. 56 no. 3, 2005, pp. 410-25. Hern, Alex. “No-deal Brexit Would ‘Devastate’ UK Gaming Industry, Says Report.” The Guardian, 30 Nov. 2018, www.theguardian.com/games/2018/nov/30/no-deal-brexit-would-devastate-uk-gaming-industry-says-report. Accessed 12 Dec. 2018. Huang, Vivan, et al. “The Association Between Video Game Play and Cognitive Function: Does Gaming Platform Matter?” CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, vol. 20, no. 11, Nov. 2017, pp. 689-94. “The Shame Wizard.” Big Mouth, season 2, episode 3, Danger Goldberg Productions, 5 Oct. 2018, Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80183790. “USS Callister.” Black Mirror, season 4, episode 1, Zeppotron, 29 Dec. 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80131567. Whitman, Walt. “Song of Myself.” Leaves of Grass, Bantam, 2004, pp. 23-76. Publications that act as containers themselves are usually self-contained, so their titles are italicized; however, you may find publications that are contained in or accessed through larger publications, databases, or services, such as an published article you find searching through the LRC’s databases, a televised episode of a program appearing on Netflix, or a song published on an album available for streaming through Spotify. In your documentation, you can account for sources encapsulated in larger sources by creating a secondary publication element at the end of your citation. If your citation includes one or more containers or publications, you must include locations for each of them. Examples of nested containers: Bijan, Stephen. “Street Fighters: The Arcade Fraternity.” Virginia Quarterly Review, vol. 93, no. 3, Summer 2017, pp. 94-105. MasterFILE Premier, http://0-search.ebscohost.com.archway.searchmobius.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=123906413&site=eds-live&scope=site. Chaos Chaos. “Do You Feel It?” Committed to the Crime, Barsuk Records 2014. Spotify, spotify:track:3lOok0REf4j3790abX26PR. “The Light Bulb Scene.” BoJack Horseman, Performances by Will Arnet, et al., season 5, episode 1, The Tornante Company, 14 Sep. 2018. Netflix¸ www.netflix.com/watch/80200242. “USS Callister.” Black Mirror, season 4, episode 1, Zeppotron, 29 Dec. 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80131567. Other contributors People other than the creator may contribute to a source, such as editors, translators, or illustrators. If their participation in the material is relevant to your work, identify their contributions in the citation. Before each name, include a description of their role or contribution to the source. Borges, Jorge Luis. The Book of Imaginary Beings. Illustrated by Peter Sis, translated by Andrew Hurley, Penguin, 2005. Fight Club. Directed by David Fincher, performances by Brad Pitt, Edward Norton, and Helena Bonham Carter, 20th Century Fox, 1999. Neutral Milk Hotel. “Holland, 1945.” In the Aeroplane Over the Sea, written by Jeff Mangum, Merge Records, 1998. Spotify, spotify:track:4iwMhMvcTqukn1n3NVjb2N. Homer. The Odyssey. Translated by Emily Wilson, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017. Losh, Elizabeth and Jonathan Alexander. Understanding Rhetoric. Illustrated by Kevin Cannon and Zander Cannon, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2014. Moore, Alan. Watchmen. Illustrated by Dave Gibbons, DC Comics, 1987. Twain, Mark. Mark Twain’s Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. Edited by Alan Gribben, NewSouth Edition, NewSouth Books, 2011. Common contributions like edited by, illustrated by, and translated by can be described with simple phrases. Include only the most-relevant contributors who are vital to the work. Specific and sizable contributions merit notation; not every contributor, performer, or cast member warrants inclusion in the citation, especially if their contribution is not the focus of your work. Version or edition The source may be an edition or version of a work that appears in multiple forms and may contain discrete differences within each form or medium. If this is the case with the source, your citation must note of the publication’s release by its edition or version. Editions or versions of texts represent revised or updated publications or include other additions such as forewords. These versions can vary greatly from one another in their content and presentation, so identifying this core element is crucial to accurate documentation. Texts such as the MLA Handbook are updated regularly, and the edition number changes with each subsequent overhaul. The rules in this chapter are based on and sampled from from the 8th edition of the handbook. Religious texts like the Bible may appear in various forms—such as the King James Version and the Children’s Illustrated—and their edition or version should be used to identify which release of the publication you are citing in your work. MLA Handbook. 8th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2016. Herbert, Frank. Dune. Ace trade paperback edition, 2005. Herbert, Frank. Dune. Special hardcover edition, Ace, 2005. The Holy Bible. Holman edition, A. J. Holman Company, 1914. LSAT Logic Games. Edited by Robert Webbing, et al., 2nd edition, Research & Education Association, 2012. Rosa, Alfred and Paul Eschholz. Models for Writers. 13th edition, Bedford/St. Martins, 2018. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Folger Shakespeare Library, Simon & Schuster, 2003. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. No Fear Shakespeare, study guide edition, Sparknotes, 2003. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Sandra Clark and Pamela Mason, Third Series, Reprint edition, The Arden Shakespeare, 2015. Shelly, Mary. Frankenstein. Dover thrift, Dover Publications, 1994. Shelly, Mary. Frankenstein. Norton Critical, 2nd edition, W. W. Norton & Company, 2012. Volume and/or number If the text you research is too large to be printed in a single book, it may be separated into volumes. Or if the source you include in your work is part of a larger continuation, it may be a numbered entry in a sequence. When you consult a source that is part of a multivolume set, you must include in your citation the core element of its volume and/or number. Typically, a volume is comprised of a series of numbered issues. For example, each year of a journal may be represented by a single volume number, while the individual issues published that year would each have their own number. In each new volume, the numbering may begin anew. Sometimes, these issue numbers may not be numbers at all; instead you may find a source that publishes quarterly or seasonally, and “number” or otherwise distinguish their issues accordingly. Both terms are typically abbreviated, written as vol. and no.; however, not all volume and number entries will be so explicit, and may even follow their own ordering systems. Television programs, for example, may be categorized by season and episode, or series and episode. Harkin, Patricia. “The Reception of Reader-Response Theory.” College Composition and Communication, vol. 56 no. 3, 2005, pp. 410-25. Hill, Daniel. “Ain’t It Grand?” The Riverfront Times, vol. 38 no. 3, 16 Jan 2014, pp. 8+. Nilsen, Anders. “The Beast.” Mome, Summer, Fantagraphics Books, 2005, pp. 56-71. Nilsen, Anders. “Event.” Mome, Fall, Fantagraphics Books, 2005, pp. 23-38. “USS Callister.” Black Mirror, season 4, episode 1, Zeppotron, 29 Dec. 2017. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80131567. Publisher or producer The publisher or producer is the entity or group primarily responsible for making the source available to audiences. This may also be the organization responsible for paying for the source to be made, researched, or published. The publisher or producer of material—just like its creator—is liable for the content of that material. As such, sources that fail to identify their publisher or producer have little value, as no one else stands behind what is written. Bechdel, Alison. Fun Home. Houghton Mifflin, 2007. Fight Club. Directed by David Fincher, performances by Brad Pitt, Edward Norton, and Helena Bonham Carter, 20th Century Fox, 1999. Kerouac, Jack. On the Road. Penguin, 1991. O’Malley, Bryan Lee. Scott Pilgrim 1: Scott Pilgrim’s Precious Little Life. Color edition, Oni Press, 2014. Saramago, Jose. Seeing. Translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Harcourt Books, 2006. Vandermeer, Jeff. Annihilation. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2014. If you are having trouble identifying the publisher or producer for a source, look for the copyright symbol (©) and owner of that copyright. In books, the publisher is often indicated on the title page or copyright page (also known as the edition notice). If the book is published by a small imprint of a larger publishing house, ignore the imprint name and use that of the larger publication company. In some cases, the publisher or producer may have a similar name to the title of the publication—for example, The New York Times is published by The New York Times Company—in such instances, you may simply omit the publisher and move to the next core element. Dockteman, Eliana. “Everyone’s a Superhero.” TIME, vol. 186, no. 9/10, Meredith Corporation, 7 Sep. 2015, pp. 76-80. Gustines, George Gene. “Digital Enhances the Comic Book Experience.” The New York Times, 14 June 2018, B5. Van Buskirk, Eliot. “Vinyl May Be Final Nail in CD’s Coffin.” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 29 Oct. 2007, www.wired.com/2007/10/listeningpost-1029/. Accessed 29 Nov. 2018. Films and television programs are usually the product of several companies or organizations working in concert with one another, but you need only document the entity primarily responsible for making the work available to audiences. Get Out. Directed by Jordan Peele, performance by Daniel Kaluuya, Blumhouse Productions, 2017. The Lego Movie. Directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, Warner Bros. Pictures, 2014. Rick and Morty. Created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon, Williams Street, 2019. The Simpsons. Created by Matt Groening, Gracie Films, 2019. Websites are published by various entities, including, small businesses, major corporations, governmental organizations and other public institutions. The publisher or producer of a website may not be easily identifiable, although many can be found listed at the bottom of each page alongside the copyright notice. Not all copyright holders are publishers, such as websites who host content but are not involved in producing it, such as YouTube; websites like these are additional containers. Baard, Mark. “Will Genetic Engineering Kill Us?” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 16 Apr. 2003, www.wired.com/2003/04/will-genetic-engineering-kill-us/. Accessed 25 Oct. 2018. irs.gov. Department of the Treasury, 2019. “Pit and Chimney Furnace.” Primitive Technology, 16 Dec. 2018. YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7nqBgklf9E. Accessed 27 Dec. 2018. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 2019. Date published or updated A source may be issued on more than a single publication date, especially if it has remained in publication for a long time. Conversely, it may have only been recently published, and updated as information develops. A core element to a citation is a date of publication. Because the source may have a variety of possible origins, it is necessary to pinpoint for audiences the specific publication you reference in your work. Including a source’s date is important when demonstrating to readers that your information is up-to-date and relevant. This core element notes when the source was published or last updated. If a source has multiple dates listed, use the most-recent, and include only the most meaningful publication information in the date. Cite the date of that text that you use. Baard, Mark. “Will Genetic Engineering Kill Us?” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 16 Apr. 2003, www.wired.com/2003/04/will-genetic-engineering-kill-us/. Accessed 25 Oct. 2018. Whether or not you record the full date depends on the source. Write in your citation the most-recent date as it appears on the copyright page. Sometimes it will remain to your discretion how detailed the date needs to be in your entry. You may find it necessary to include only the year, or you may choose to include the specific day and month if it fits your purpose. Periodicals typically have their publication dates listed on the covers or title pages and are sometimes published irregularly; issues may appear yearly, seasonally, monthly, weekly, daily, or (increasingly-infrequently) even multiple times a day. Record the date according to MLA standards, beginning with the day, followed by the month and year. Page Number or URL (also known as Location within a larger container or publication) If a source is printed in a larger piece of writing—such as an article in a newspaper, a story in a magazine, or post published online—that source is said to be contained within the publication at a specific location, such as page numbers, disc numbers, or a URL. This final core element informs readers where exactly they can find within a larger publication a source cited in your work. The format of a source’s location is tied to its medium. For print sources, the location typically refers to page numbers or other indicators of the source’s physical location in the larger publication. If you find an article or essay in a book, for example, that source would only represent a few pages of the larger publication. The location within the larger container are the inclusive page numbers of the source material. While in-text citations include only the page numbers on which the borrowed material appears, references on the Works Cited Page include all of the source’s page numbers. Location may also refer to another piece of information. An episode of a television show on a DVD collection may list the disc number. A piece of art may be located in a museum or gallery. In the Works Cited entry, these numbers are preceded by a p. if the source is only a single page, or pp. if it is a series of pages. Harkin, Patricia. “The Reception of Reader-Response Theory.” College Composition and Communication, vol. 56 no. 3, 2005, pp. 410-25. Hill, Daniel. “Ain’t It Grand?” The Riverfront Times, vol. 38 no. 3, 16 Jan 2014, pp. 8+. Baard, Mark. “Will Genetic Engineering Kill Us?” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 16 Apr. 2003, URL. Accessed 25 Oct. 2016. The location of an online work is commonly indicated by the URL (Uniform Resource Locator), or address. MLA notes that you should include URLs in your citations (omitting http:// from the address), though your instructors may have different requirements. While URLs are not very effective in print, many assignments are completed online, and including links in your citations on the works cited page can take readers directly to your sources. For each website you include in your works cited page, your instructor may ask that you add an additional core element at the end of the citation: the date you last retrieved information from the source. Close each entry with the words “Accessed on” followed by the date. If the source is removed or updated significantly following your date of last access, this date will indicate to readers that these revisions are not included in your work. Baard, Mark. “Will Genetic Engineering Kill Us?” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 16 Apr. 2003, URL. Accessed 25 Oct. 2018. “Pit and Chimney Furnace.” Primitive Technology, 16. Dec. 2018. YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7nqBgklf9E. Accessed 27 Dec. 2018. Van Buskirk, Eliot. “Vinyl May Be Final Nail in CD’s Coffin.” Wired, Condé Nast Digital, 29 Oct. 2007, www.wired.com/2007/10/listeningpost-1029/. Accessed 29 Nov. 2018. In-text Citations The other major component to MLA documentation is in-text citations, sometimes known as parenthetical references, or endnotes. These are in-text labels (set aside in parentheses) which connect individual pieces of borrowed material to their respective full citations on the works cited page. In-text citations (with attributions) show readers where you include borrowed material. In-text citations are different than footnotes in that they do not provide clarification or additional information; they only link identification keyed to entries on the works cited page. A typical reference contains only the creator and location within the source, such as an author’s last name and a page number. Examples of in-text citations here: Victor Frankenstein finishes building his creature on a November evening (Shelley 34). If you name the author or creator in the text surrounding the borrowed material, you need not include that author or creator’s name in the in-text citation; provide only the location in parentheses. In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Victor completes his creation on a “dreary night of November'' (34). If the work has two authors, include both names. In the words of The Beatles, “Love, love me do” (Lennon and McCartney). If the work has three or more authors or creators, use only the first name followed by et al. The single “Walla Cam” features the repeated lyric, “Wala Cam” (Chance the Rapper, et al.). If the source is only a single page (most content hosted on websites, for example, does not span across multiple pages as it would in print). “Vinyl's popularity has been underreported before” (Van Buskirk). If the source you are quoting is itself quoted in a larger source, use qtd. in. "‘The Consumer Electronics Association said that only 100,000 turntables were sold in 2004. Numark alone sold more than that to pro DJs that year,’ said Chris Roman, product manager for Numark” (qtd. in Van Buskirk). TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 08 - While researching, take note of all the source’s publication information: look for the required core elements - Capitalize and title the Works Cited Page as such - Common knowledge, such as biographical and historical information found in reference materials, need not be cited - Be wary of using sources with too few core elements. If the material you find in your research has no named creator, source, or publisher, who is responsible for its content? Without knowing who publishes material, you will probably not be able to effectively evaluate it - Websites often list their copyright holders at the bottom of the page - While in-text citations include only the page numbers on which the borrowed material appears, references on the Works Cited Page include all the source’s page numbers (not the entirety of the publication’s page numbers) - Do not start your works cited list on a separate document. Just space down a bit from your draft to keep a running list of your citations in the same file. Chapter 09: Style Some people might embrace a fashion of their own through the clothes they wear, how they style their hair, or the way they modify or decorate their bodies. Others may describe themselves by naming the music they listen to, the television programs and films they watch, or the video games, books, or other media they enjoy. Some people distinguish themselves from others with the way they carry themselves, the words they use, their accent or the rhythm with which they speak, or the words they use when they talk, or some other combination of traits altogether. Even the absence of a unique style is a characteristic unto itself. Whatever it may be, there is likely a style that you consider you own, an identity you think best represents who you are, or the person you want others to see. While you may not control how others see you, you can present yourself to the world as you like. From the pictures and descriptions you post online, to the links, videos, and information you share with friends and family, to the usernames or video game handles or tags you use with others online, the way you shape your interactions with others exemplifies your style. The style you choose to present to others does not necessarily define you, but it will influence how others see you, and may suggest to them how you feel about a topic or subject. For example, a bumper sticker or decal on a car may communicate a message to other drivers about the beliefs of the driver, but that same sticker will likely inform what those other drivers think or how they feel about that driver. Managing the way you present your identity to others is a delicate balancing act between doing what is expected of you and showing others only what you want them to see. What is normal, anyway? What is expected of you will depend on the situation in which you find yourself. People tend to dress appropriately depending on the situation, just as they often tailor their styles for what is correct or appropriate at any given time. For the most part, people like to dress for an occasion. Perhaps your position at work requires you to wear a uniform. If you had a choice, you might not wear it, but because you value the position—or maybe just want to keep the job—you dress appropriately for work, and tailor your style accordingly. While shorts might be more comfortable, especially during a Midwest summer, perhaps you are required to wear pants. Maybe your own workplace has asked you to remove your jewelry, cover a tattoo, or change the color or style of your hair. Or maybe instead your relatives are visiting for the holidays, and your mother asks you to wear the shockingly-pink bunny footie pajamas your great aunt made you. Even if you feel as if the fuzzy bunny outfit does not fit your style, you may wear it anyway, knowing it will make both your mother and great aunt feel good. It may be that you dress to impress for important occasions. Perhaps you put a lot of time and thought into your Halloween costumes. Or you might wear your favorite outfit for situations like an interview for a new job (with no formal dress code), a first date, or the beginning of this class. Certainly, you have changed outfits to fit with the occasion, because it is unlikely you are wearing formalwear or a costume to this class. It is similarly improbable that you have attended a formal function, such as a wedding, in your pajamas. Adopting a style that is appropriate for academic writing is akin to changing your clothes to fit the situation: style dresses up the message. Of course, what is appropriate changes over time and with society, and is pressured by technological, environmental, educational, and political factors. Throughout the 20th century numerous fashions were looked down upon: bloomers, slacks, zoot suits, bikinis, miniskirts, bellbottoms, baggy pants, saggy waistbands, halter tops, baseball caps, long hair, short hair, no hair, facial hair, and many others. You may have even encountered restrictions like these in your own high school dress code, yet still found ways to express yourself. Conforming to standards while still maintaining your own style can be difficult. Engaging with the writing process and rethinking your style means revising the presentation of your ideas until the audience sees what you want them to see. This style need not be monolithic; your writing style may change depending on the requirements of the writing project, but your style should always reflect who you are and what you believe. When writing academically, you should stay away from casual writing and instead embrace a formal voice or writing identity. You might write in various styles for different classes or subjects. In your English classes, for example, you might adopt a different voice for your essays than you would for your lab reports in chemistry. Or you might write differently in a film or art review in a humanities course than you would in a speech for a communications course. The ability to adapt to your specific writing situation is an admirable skill which takes a lot of practice to develop. As you rethink your writing project and move recursively through the stages of the writing process, challenge yourself to find a style for your work that is both appropriate and effective. In your own academic writing projects, thorough research and careful reading will acquaint you with new experiences and perspectives, informing your own position and style. Developing your methods as a writer means experimenting with your position and your voice, or how you communicate the topic and perspective. Voice In composition, your voice is the way you write, or how you communicate information to the audience. Voice is a combination of mechanical elements like grammar, syntax, punctuation, and spelling, as well as stylistic choices like tone, diction, and point-of-view. Not only must your voice be dynamic for different writing projects, but it must also be appropriate for the medium though which you express yourself. Writing for different situations, with different purposes in mind, requires changes in your style, or the voice with which you communicate. Informal communication has few standards, but your classes will challenge you to develop your own writing identity while adhering to the conventions of formal writing. For example, consider how you might deliver the same bad news to different crowds using different mediums. Think of something that has recently been bothering you, then imagine how you would write about it in: - A journal or diary entry for yourself - A message to your friend - A tweet for the public to see - An essay for a class The voice you use to deliver the same information through these mediums varies depending on the audience, how you feel about the material, and the medium itself. Style is subjective, and while each medium may have its own conventions or appropriate stylistic choices, your instructors will certainly have opinions about what is good, fashionable, or correct. When writing for class, your voice should be clear and your style appropriate for your position and audience. An approachable style allows the audience to engage with your work. For formal writing projects, you should assume an academic standard of English, or at the very least a voice reserved for other professional situations. Formal writing situations such as these require appropriate contexts, so informal references to readers (second-person pronouns like you and your), slang terminology, and other informal stylistic choices may not resonate with all audiences. When you speak, your voice has its own rhythm, timbre, texture, other qualities. While it is not exactly a representation of you, it does help identify you. Your voice may be like those of members of your family, but it is still your own, at least in how you use it. Just as you might identify a close friend or family member—or maybe an actor—by their voice alone, so too might you recognize a writer by their writing alone. In your classes, your instructors will want you to embrace a voice conducive to academic conversations. Readers will expect you to adopt a professional writing identity and communicate formally. Most formal writing asks that you maintain a grammatically active voice, meaning the subject of a sentence performs the action prescribed by the verb. - For example, this sentence uses the active voice - In this sentence, the passive voice is used. - Who is using the passive voice in the sentence? The subject acts upon the verb, whereas in passive voice grammatical constructions, the noun phrase or object is acted upon by the verb. Passive voice is useful when the actor is unknown or is an unimportant detail. - Thieves stole our car. (active) - Our car was stolen. (passive: by whom?) - Textbooks collect and transmit information. (active) - Textbooks are used to collect and transmit information. (passive: by whom?) Tone Maybe you have been warned in the past not to take a certain tone (or “that” tone) with someone. While we may all have different definitions of what that tone may be, it is understood that someone’s attitude when speaking can affect how their audience hears what is being said. In verbal communication, the tone of someone’s voice can inform the listener’s expectations. Tone of voice may suggest something different than what their words truly say. In written communication, tone is your attitude about the topic, or your attitude toward the audience (sometimes both). If you are friendly, it should come across to the audience in your voice. Because tone reflects your emotions, it may be earnest, helpful, sarcastic, honest, delighted, disappointed, jaded, excited, skeptical, sorrowful, angry, shocked, outraged, or any number of other feelings. Your feelings on the topic will inform your perspective, thus the tone you take in your writing will reveal to the audience how you feel about the topic. However you choose to style your writing, your tone must be appropriate for both the topic and the audience. Maintain an even-handed approach to your tone throughout the writing process. A disrespectful or glib examination of a tragedy, for example, may turn readers against you. If you are unnecessarily flippant or lighthearted, your reader may doubt your commitment to research and to the topic at hand. Conversely, a serious-minded discussion of a trivial occurrence may leave readers wondering what purpose your essay really serves or whether you are misleading them. In some cases—humor and outrage, for example—tone may be used against the audience’s expectations; however, your purpose for writing will in large part help shape the tone of your writing project. If you are trying to argue for the validity of your claim, or to persuade the audience to share in your opinion, an earnest or forthright tone may help convince them of your rationality. If your goal instead is to affront the audience, spurring them with a shocking statement may be necessary. An incendiary or confrontational tone may unsettle readers and draw them into your work—or it may turn them off completely. Diction In composition, diction is your word choice, or the terms that you use in your writing. Appropriate diction is indicative of the quality of your vocabulary and your understanding of the topic. Choosing the best words to use in your writing requires considering the audience when drafting your work. For example, if you were writing an essay which required you to research sugary carbonated beverages, you might use the term soda in your work, instead of regional variants like pop or coke. Or if you were to tell someone about a video you posted online, would you say you shot, made, or filmed the video? Choosing the correct words for use in your own writing means considering both their denotations and connotations when rethinking your work. A word’s denotation is its dictionary definition. Denotation tends to be objective, or neutral, generally referring to the most common or generally accepted meaning of the term or expression. A word’s connotations are all the associated meanings and feelings attached to that word. Connotation varies depending on the context in which the word is used, who the audience is, and what the speaker’s purpose is. Because connotation is subjective, it can assign positive or negative values to words, or favorable or unfavorable views to topics depending on the audience or context. When searching for the right words to include in your work, you may struggle to find the terms you seek to express your ideas. Both research and reading during the writing process can help expand your vocabulary by exposing you to new meanings, words, and phrases related to the topic. Choosing correct and precise words is imperative in making yourself understood to the audience and signaling to them that you are an authority on the topic. The more precise your diction, the less likely readers are to misunderstand your meaning. General terms—words such as stuff and things—leave room for confusion, as their meanings and connotations vary greatly. Offer specificity in your diction to narrow the scope of meanings in your writing. General and specific are not opposites; rather, they describe a scale that changes depending on the purpose, context, and audience. For example, you may have reached an impasse when trying to choose what to eat with family or friends. You might answer the question, “What do you want to eat?” somewhere on this scale, where the answers range from more-general to more-specific: What do you want to eat? - Nutrients - Food - Solid food - Something sweet - A rich dessert - Ice cream - Chocolate ice cream - Skinny Cow brand chocolate ice cream protein cookie sandwiches Or this example: - Activity - Exercise - Athletics - Team sports - Basketball - College basketball - Community college basketball - SCC Cougars basketball When choosing the best word, it is best to remember not to use slang, or highly-technical language in your writing. Terms like these may be familiar to people who frequently use them in their profession, or to people who share common interests, but slang and jargon are not understood by everyone, and typically do not have a place even in everyday conversation, let alone a formal writing project. Unless you are writing for a highly-trained or specialized audience, refrain from using jargon unnecessarily. Your goal should not be to confuse the audience or obfuscate your point. Instead, your mission should be to communicate clearly and effectively with readers. For example, a radio announcer might describe a baseball at-bat with a lot of jargon or specialized expressions: “The pitcher checks on the runner, gets his sign from the catcher, and fires it home. It’s a strike, right down the pipe, clocking in at 99 through the heart of the strike zone. The count is 0-1. Now the southpaw gets his signal from the backstop, looks back at the runner at first, and delivers from the stretch. The pitch is just a bit outside, and the umpire raises a finger on each hand to signal the count is even at 1-1. The pitcher again checks on the runner, gets his sign from the catcher, and begins his throwing motion. Here’s the pitch: the batter swings and lifts what looks to be a long, lazy flyball to left field. The fielder settles underneath it and makes the catch. He looks the runner back and throws it in to second. The runner can’t tag and retreats back to first. If you’re keeping score at home that’s an F7. One out.” If listeners are unfamiliar with the sport and its rules, they will be lost and unable to understand what happens in the game. In your writing projects, if readers are unfamiliar with the topic, the tone and diction of your writing may hinder their understanding. You want your writing to be communicative. The audience should be able to understand what it is that you are saying. If you use terms that are outdated, incorrect, or inappropriate, the audience may be less likely to recognize your position. Ultimately, your diction effects how you are perceived by readers. Figurative Language Figurative language is diction whose meaning is the opposite of literal language. It is usually associated with artistic writing, but we use figures of speech in everyday communication as well as to provide imagery for readers that is descriptive, emblematic, or otherwise representative of your ideas. Use figures of speech to clarify, magnify, or enhance the power of your thoughts. Figurative language is used for effect and can personalize a writing style. Illustrative images and comparisons engage with readers’ imaginations: using figurative language requires you trust the intelligence of the audience. Include in your writing projects expressions, vivid descriptions, a variety of sensory details, and rich comparisons to enliven your prose and help readers see a subject from your perspective. Simile is a figure of speech comparing dissimilar things using a comparative word such as like, as, or than: - Sly like a fox - Lazy as a dog - Faster than a speeding bullet - Nervous as a long-tailed cat in a room full of rocking chairs - “It’s like rain on your wedding day” (not irony) Metaphor is a figure of speech comparing dissimilar things without using a comparative word: - Time is money - Life is pain - Time flies when you’re having fun - “Cry ‘Havoc!,’ and let slip the dogs of war.” Analogies are comparisons between two things used to provide explanation or clarification: - Explaining a joke is like dissecting a frog: although you may understand it better, it dies in the process. - Like sands through an hourglass, these are the days of our lives - “Life is like a box of chocolates: you never know what you’re gonna get.” Clichés are common expressions that have diminished meaning through overuse: - Push the envelope - Think outside the box - Shift the paradigm Idioms are figures of speech that describe something that is neither literally true nor logically connected to the expression: - Rain cats and dogs - Chew it over - Sleep on it - Kick the bucket - Burn another bridge Hyperbole or exaggeration means stretching the truth for effect: - Everybody knows… - Nobody goes there anymore. It’s too crowded. - “I’m starving.” Understatement plays down the value of something, typically for very dry comedic effect: - “The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated.” - The Troubles When using figurative language, you must be a reliable authority. Use limiting qualifiers (such as some, many, and most) and avoid relying on hyperbole like ad populum to earn the trust of readers. Point-of-View It is common to make assumptions about the audience of a piece of writing, but these assumptions may not always be correct or even appropriate. Using second-person pronouns such as you or first-person plural pronouns like we may define readers in ways contrary to their own viewpoints. Avoid using pronouns that locate your point of view in the first- or second-person point-of-view in formal writing. While we all have biases, we are likely only aware of some, while others remain unseen. When drafting you may not notice if implicit bias creeps into your position or your voice. When moving through the stages of the writing process, it is important to try to read your work as others may see it. In academic writing, for example, a long-standing (and outdated) tradition was to denote unknown actors or individuals as male or masculine. For example, an outdated sentence might read: Each of the students completed his homework. In this sentence, the pronoun ‘his’ refers to the singular antecedent ‘each;’ however, as you are probably well aware, not every student is male. Contemporary academic writing avoids this by embracing the gender-neutral singular ‘their.’ In today’s classroom the same sentence would read: Each of the students completed their homework. Always be sensitive when addressing the following in your own work: - Stereotypes - Gender or sexual orientation - Including pronoun use - Race - Ethnicity - Nationality - Religion - Political affiliation - Age - Class - Ability - Mental well-being TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 09 - Some instructors look to limit their students’ use of the verb “be” - Was/is/were/are/am - These verbs don’t necessarily provide as much description as other verbs - Don’t use contractions - Know words and phrases that you overuse - Look to avoid them or change it up - Use a thesaurus app Chapter 10: Usage Written communication can be frustrating. It is sometimes difficult to make yourself understood to readers and adhere to the grammatical rules that govern academic writing. Speaking is often much simpler and something with which most of us are comfortable, or at least have more experience. When you communicate verbally, you cannot misspell words or misuse a semicolon. Verbal communication is largely informal, forgiving, and more fluid in policing grammatical structures. When you communicate something to others, does it matter if you get some of the details wrong, so long as the audience understands the general idea? The answer to this question will certainly vary depending on who you ask, what they are trying to communicate, and who their audience is. You might speak differently with your friends than you do your coworkers, or you might write for yourself in another way than you would for an academic writing project. In fact, speaking the way you write in class could be weird in some situations, just as writing the way that you speak could be awkward when writing for class, in terms of both content and voice. It is not very often that you might include citations, extended definitions, or direct quotations in your day-today conversations with others; similarly, you may find that personal information, curse words, slang, atypical spellings, or nonstandard sentence constructions (such as sentence fragments or run-ons) are used only infrequently in academic writing. Whatever your topic and purpose, your goal should be to communicate clearly and effectively. If the audience is unable to understand your writing because sentences do not follow logical constructions; or readers must stop repeatedly to look up definitions; or if the audience misses important details because they are trying to decipher the organization of or usage in your writing; or if your prose keeps them from getting your point, you are not communicating productively. One of the goals of this course is that you improve your written communication skills. In order to communicate effectively, you must adhere to contemporary community standards. If the audience is constantly tripped up by misuses in punctuation or spelling, they may find your writing tiresome and become uninterested in your work. Common errors and typos may also cause you to lose the trust of the audience. If readers think that you cannot be bothered to compose logically grammatical constructions—to write clear sentences, or at least revise your work—they may also question the effort of your research or your knowledge on the topic. Repeated mistakes can damage your credibility as both a writer and researcher. Of course, many writers want their work to not only be correct, but also be memorable. Sitting at the computer, staring at a blinking cursor struggling to write the best introduction—or trying to craft the perfect status update, tweet, or snap for the situation—can be maddening. Even when writing informally, you may feel pressured to follow the unspoken rules or conventions of communication. Have you ever found yourself struggling to write a short, heartfelt note to someone inside a birthday card, anniversary card, or sympathy card? It can be not only difficult but also stressful to find the right words for the occasion. Or perhaps you have made a comment on the internet and someone corrected your grammar? While a mistake in grammar in an online posting may not affect your position or damage your credibility, it may not feel so great to be corrected, either. Imagine completing a writing project for work or school. Would you submit a report to your supervisors full of typos? An essay loaded with simple mistakes in punctuation? A letter of application to a potential employer with ungrammatical constructions? If you were applying for a job, grant, or scholarship, you would most likely want to present yourself in a favorable light to increase your chances of selection. In professional and academic situations, it is crucial to know and follow the rules—not only for your own credibility, but also for the reputation of the institution on whose behalf you are writing. Studying usage may not be the most exciting endeavor; however, knowing and using these rules to produce sentences that draw readers in is an effective method to communicate your ideas. You have probably learned about grammar in the past, most-likely component-by-component. Maybe your English or Language Arts classes in grade school and middle school included lessons on the parts of speech. Perhaps you diagrammed sentences in high school. This chapter may help guide you to improving your written communication at the sentence-level; you can apply this to all your writing projects, both formal and informal. As you move through the writing process, consider how this guide can help you develop your sentences effectively. Crafting memorable and productive prose can be taxing, but there are surefire ways to improve your writing that involve rethinking and revising it. When you review your work during the improve stage of the writing process, look for opportunities to edit your work in ways that promote effective communication. Because writing is mapping thought, you should want the audience to be able to easily read that map. Improve your communication through effective sentence construction. Think about how many words it takes you to convey an idea and do your best to eliminate unnecessary words and phrases from your writing. Effective Sentence Usage There exists a fair amount of variability in how you express your ideas in writing, though most sentences are one of four sentence types: - Simple - Compound - Complex - Compound-complex Use these sentence styles to balance the importance of your ideas, or to emphasize some aspects over others. The most basic complete sentences contain only a subject and predicate, which may be as simple as a noun and a verb. The predicate of a sentence says something about the subject of that sentence. People cheered. Wind blows. She wonders. They drove. A phrase, or a group of words that acts as a single unit, does not contain a subject and predicate. A group of words that acts as a noun is known as a noun phrase and can function as a subject or object in a sentence. The aspiring professional gamer hopes to find enough time to practice. The first semester of college demands a lot of his time. After she crams for her midterm math exam, she plans to play online with friends. A clause is a group of words that contains a noun and a verb. The dog is happy. He wags his tail. I have bacon. An independent clause can stand alone as its own sentence because it contains both a subject and predicate. The cat plots against us. She sharpens her claws. We live in fear. Independent clauses express the main idea of a sentence. If the sentence is a single independent clause, that clause must be the main idea. Such sentences are simple. The dog stands behind me. The cat stalks above. Raising pets is complicated. Of course, an independent clause suggests a dependent clause. Dependent clauses sometimes express incomplete ideas as though they were complete thoughts. Write in complete sentences by avoiding fragments. Including sentence-ending punctuation alone does not remedy a sentence fragment. The fish watches with great interest. Because he has money on the cat. The fish watches with great interest because he has money on the cat. Because he has money on the cat, the fish watches with great interest. ____________________________________________________ I’m surprised he knows a bookie. Who will give him favorable odds. I’m surprised he knows a bookie who will give him favorable odds. ____________________________________________________ I keep my eyes trained on the cat, but the dog stares only at me. Holding the bacon. I keep my eyes trained on the cat, but the dog stares only at me, holding the bacon. A compound sentence is a combination of two or more independent clauses. These sentences are effective for showing readers related concepts and giving ideas equal importance. Connect independent clauses in a compound sentence to one another by using a coordinating conjunction and a comma. The student completed her essay, and she found enough time to practice her game. She got an A on her assignment, and the gamer rewarded herself with a new controller. And is only one of the seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. You can easily remember these seven conjunctions with the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS. Coordination shows readers that two or more ideas are of equal importance within a sentence. If two clauses would be sentences on their own, you can join them together with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Reading is a great way to spend time, for it calms me. Janet R., our Roomba, is an effective vacuum cleaner, and robots are the future of housekeeping. I am not taking a trip for pleasure, nor am I taking a trip for business. My friends and I are looking forward to the next season of Attack on Titan, but I not-so-secretly don’t want the series to end! Remembering your significant other’s birthday is important, or so I’ve been told. I love going to amusement parks, yet I have an unreasonable fear of rollercoasters. Kim enjoyed building a garden, so she spent her spring planting. Comma splice A comma splice connects two independent clauses with only a comma, omitting the coordinating conjunction. Use a coordinating conjunction following the comma. Luke wants to go to the station, his uncle needs him to work the farm. Luke wants to go to the station, but his uncle needs him to work the farm. ____________________________________________________ The museum sells astronaut ice cream, I know that it is one of your favorites. The museum sells astronaut ice cream, and I know that it is one of your favorites. ____________________________________________________ Making a mixtape is difficult, I made you a playlist instead. Making a mixtape is difficult, so I made you a playlist instead. Run-ons A run-on sentence is comprised of two or more independent clauses connected without any punctuation or conjunctions. Ska music is very danceable it usually has a lot of energy. Ska music is very danceable because it usually has a lot of energy. ____________________________________________________ I try to ride my bike every day it sometimes rains I can’t always ride it. I try to ride my bike every day, but it sometimes rains, so I can’t always ride it. ____________________________________________________ Using an app to monitor and track your caloric intake can help you lead a healthier life logging every meal and snack is key. Using an app to monitor and track your caloric intake can help you lead a healthier life, so logging every meal and snack is key. You may correct a run-on by using a semicolon to connect the two independent clauses if the subjects of the sentences are closely related. Typically, a semicolon puts one clause in the context of another using a transition or conjunctive adverb such as however. Transitions help establish connectivity and keep readers on the path of your thinking. Just as subordination and coordination help your readers understand which parts of the sentence are most important, using semicolons with conjunctive adverbs and transitions will aid your audience in following the flow of your writing project. Luke wants to go to the station; however, his uncle needs him to work on the farm. The museum sells astronaut ice cream; I know that it is one of your favorites. Making a mixtape is difficult; therefore, I made you a playlist instead. Ska music is very danceable; it usually has a lot of energy. Using an app to monitor and track your caloric intake can help you lead a healthier life; logging every meal and snack is key. You can also correct a run-on by writing its clauses as their own sentences, subordinating one of the clauses, or using a comma and coordinating conjunction between them. Subordination shows readers that two or more ideas have unequal importance. The main idea of a sentence is typically expressed in an independent clause, whereas smaller or minor ideas are located in dependent (subordinate) clauses and phrases. Complex sentence = independent + dependent A complex sentence uses a dependent or subordinate clause to differentiate focus or importance between the ideas expressed in its clauses. Because spelling is so difficult, I typically write with a dictionary app open. If you eat all your meat, you can have some pudding. Before California was a state, it was a territory. Since you’ve been such a good sport, I’ll cool it with the examples. Common subordinating conjunctions: After, Although, As, Because, Before, If, Since, That, Though, Unless, Until, When, Where, Whether, Which, While, Who, Whom, Whose Coordination and subordination help eliminate series of too-short sentences, resulting in choppy prose. When combined within the same sentence, coordination and subordination create compound-complex sentences. Compound-complex = subordination + coordination A compound-complex sentence is a combination of two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. These types of sentences are useful in highlighting the importance of one idea or clause in a sentence over another. They also tend to build on each other in a cause/effect sequence, showing that an action must happen before a reaction. Unless you make reservations, Private Kitchen won’t serve your party, so you had better call ahead if you want to take the family there. I understand his position, even if I don’t agree with him, but that doesn’t mean that I condone his actions. Although they couldn’t say with any certainty if our insurance will cover the repairs, the agents were happy to hear that we weren’t hurt in the accident, or so they said. Make it easy for readers to follow your thinking. The map that you draw for the audience should be clear and direct. Effective use of clauses, punctuation, and grammar can aid readers in their journey through your writing project by contributing to the coherence of your work. This “flow” is a combination of connectivity and consistency in your writing. To help develop the coherence of your own prose, use parallelism in grammatical structures, places items in series, partner ideas, and employ coordinating and subordinating conjunctions to direct readers through your thinking. Similarly, use pronouns in place of nouns and noun phrases and make sure they agree in number and kind with their antecedents. Parts of Speech Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns and noun phrases. The word for which the pronoun is a substitute is called its antecedent, or referent. Pronouns must agree in number with their antecedents. Subject and object pronouns refer to people and things. \| Singular Subject \| Singular Object \| Plural Subject \| Plural Object \| 1st person \| I \| Me \| We \| Us \| 2nd person \| You \| You \| You \| You \| 3rd person \| He, She, It, They \| Him, Her, It, Them \| They \| Them \| Personal and possessive pronouns denote ownership. \| Singular Possessive \| Plural Possessive \| 1st person \| My, mine \| Our, ours \| 2nd person \| Your, yours \| Your, yours \| 3rd person \| Her, hers, his, their, its \| Their, theirs \| Intensive and reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis and reception. \| Singular \| Plural \| 1st person \| Myself \| Ourselves \| 2nd person \| Yourself \| Yourselves \| 3rd person \| Herself, himself, itself, themselves (singular they) \| Themselves \| Two of the most commonly confused pronouns are who and whom. These relative pronouns begin subordinate clauses and questions. Who is used for subjects, and whom for objects. Other relative pronouns include whose, which, and that. At Comic-Con, Brian got to meet Deadpool, who is his favorite superhero. He got to meet Deadpool, whom you will meet later. Whoever collects the most tickets probably spent the most tokens. The mentor to whom I was assigned has been very helpful in introducing me to the organization. Whom did you say won the tournament? That which does not kill us makes us stronger. Whose cat is in my kitchen? Which of these is yours? Demonstrative pronouns identify other nouns. This, That, These, and Those all point to specific nouns either implied or located within the sentence itself. Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things that are not specific. All, Any, Anybody/Anyone/Anything, Each, Either, Everybody/Everyone/Everything, Few, Many, Neither, No one/Nobody, None, Nothing, One, Several, Some, Somebody/Someone/Something Everybody knows argumentum ad populum is a logical fallacy. Nothing is owed to anyone. The few that made it are lucky. Either is fine with me. Some things are best left unsaid. Others should never be forgotten. Indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on the context in which they are used. The antecedent will help you determine whether the pronoun is singular or plural. Some of the cookies are missing. Some of the milk is gone too. Just as pronouns must agree in number and kind with their antecedents, so must verbs agree with their subjects. Avoid shifts in person and number; the number of subjects should agree with the verb (singular vs. plural). Turtles can be trained in the ways of ninjutsu. The tortoise is a stubborn student, incapable of learning any martial arts. Be especially aware of compound subjects, collective nouns, and nouns that appear plural but are not. The United State Military is comprised of five branches: Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, and Coast Guard. Our class is writing cards and making care packages to send overseas to the troops. Six-dozen cookies should complete this plate. Proper nouns Proper nouns are distinct from common nouns in that they are the names of specific or individual people, places, or things. Because these nouns are specific, they must be capitalized. Proper \| Common \| Cousin Steve \| my cousin \| Nintendo 64 \| a video game system \| the Mississippi River \| a river \| St. Charles Community College \| a community college \| Cottleville \| a small town \| the Midwest \| a midwestern state \| English \| composition \| March \| spring \| Dr. Acula \| the doctor \| Make it easy for readers to follow your thinking by avoiding shifts in verb tense. Verb tenses show readers when things happen in a sentence in relation to when the sentence occurs. \| Simple \| Perfect \| Continuous \| Perfect Continuous \| Present \| It happens \| It has happened \| It is happening \| It has been happening \| Past \| It happened \| It had happened \| It was happening \| It had been happening \| Future \| It will happen \| It will have happened \| It will be happening \| It will have been happening \| Verb tenses differentiate time for the audience. \| Simple \| Perfect \| Continuous \| Perfect Continuous \| Present \| It is \| It has been \| It is being \| It has been being \| Past \| It was \| It had been \| It was being \| It had been being \| Future \| It will be \| It will have been \| It will be \| It will have been being \| Beware of irregular verbs—verbs that do not follow the regular pattern of conjugation. Modify your ideas with adjectives and adverbs (rhetorical limiters or qualifiers) to add precision to and avoid overgeneralizations in your writing. Adjectives and adverbs provide clarity, depth, and texture to your writing. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, whereas adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. The blue truck ran the stop sign. Just before the accident, the car’s tires screeched loudly. The crash was inevitable. The twisted, crumpled vehicles lay in the middle of the intersection. Luckily no one was injured. The police arrived eventually. Most adjectives and adverbs come in one of three flavors: positive, comparative, and superlative. Use comparatives when examining two subjects and superlatives when examining three or more subjects. Positive \| Comparative (-er/more) \| Superlative (-est/most) \| Good \| Better \| Best \| Bad \| Worse \| Worst \| Smart \| Smarter \| Smartest \| Dumb \| Dumber \| Dumbest \| Silent \| More silent \| Most silent \| Happy \| Happier \| Happiest \| Terrifying \| More terrifying \| Most terrifying \| Accommodating \| More accommodating \| Most accommodating \| Thick \| Thicker \| Thickest \| Of the two ducks, the blue was better. Out of all the ducks drawn in class, this duck is the best. The blue duck is the most beautiful bird I have ever beheld. As the strongest dodgeball player, he must throw the ball judiciously. On his final exam, he performed well. Billy is the luckiest boy in the first grade. Comparatives and superlatives cannot modify absolutes. Something, for example, cannot be more perfect or most unique. Prepositions and prepositional phrases Prepositions also add specificity to your writing by modifying a noun with a phrase. Such phrases often act as adjectives or adverbs in sentences. Over the hills and through the woods to grandmother’s house we go. There are many prepositions, but the most common can be identified with a simple exercise that pairs the word with a simple noun phrase: ________________ the meadow ________________ the fence ________________ the cottage Because prepositions modify nouns and pronouns, they establish a relationship with those words. Sometimes the relationship is spatial: Aboard, above, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, down, from, in, inside, into, near, next to, off, on, onto, opposite, out, outside, over, past, round, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, unto, up, upon, within, without Other times the relationship is more abstract: About, after, as, concerning, considering, despite, during, except, for, like, of, plus, regarding, respecting, since, than, till, unlike, until, with Punctuation Punctuation marks function as road signs throughout the map of your thinking. Sentence-ending punctuation and internal punctuation help direct readers through your thoughts, denoting individual ideas and expressions from one another. Common Errors in punctuation can prevent readers from understanding your perspective by confusing the action and/or meaning of your sentences. While imperfect punctuation may not prevent your readers from understanding your perspective, it can make the journey a little more arduous. Commas are the most-common punctuation mark, appearing nearly twice as often as all other marks combined, so it is no wonder that they are frequently misused. Commas clarify meaning inside sentences. Without commas, parts of a sentence would collide into one another, confusing meaning: While we were eating the dog snuck out the back door. You may do a double take and reread this sentence to make sure the subjects aren’t actually eating a dog, and once you see the “snuck out the back door” part which doesn’t make sense if the diners ate the dog, you may realize that you read it wrong, and you try again to read it the correct way. This takes time though, and with a simple comma after the word eating, the sentence clearly and effectively portrays what it meant to portray from the beginning, and the dog is safe from being eaten, but it may get into some trouble because it snuck out the back door. Commas help organize information in your sentences in four major ways, through: - Coordination - Introduction/subordination - Separation/serialization - Insertion As you learned in the beginning of this chapter, coordination and subordination connect and introduce ideas within a sentence. A comma indicates to readers that one clause has come to an end and that another is about to begin. The clumsy giant fell from the beanstalk, and the ground shook when he crashed into the field. I was sick with worry about the test, but our professor isn’t even here today. Randy owns a go-kart, so it’s entirely possible that Taylor might have asked him to go for a ride. A comma also follows introductory words or phrases, as well as clauses that precede the main idea of your sentence. Most commonly, these word groups function as adverbs, usually explaining where, when, how, why, or under what conditions the sentence’s main idea takes place. When the sun rises in the West, only then will you know that the world has gone topsy-turvy. Tripping over the dog, he fell into the coffee table and spilled soup all over the couch. However, his grandma uses a lot of Scotch Guard, so the couch was no worse for wear. Stan, please mail this letter for me. Having nothing else left to do, I reluctantly began my homework. Periods The period is the most-commonly used mark of sentence-ending punctuation; that is to say, most sentences end in periods. End claims, declarative statements, and every sentence that isn’t a question or an exclamation with a period. This is a declarative statement. Today is a day that ends in a Y. Sometimes a sentence explains that someone asked a question although the sentence doesn’t ask a question itself. Jesse asked if we were going to the arcade later. Kris asked whether he should eat beforehand. Periods are also commonly used in abbreviations. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Sr., Jr. A.A., B.A., M.A., Ph.D., R.N. a.m., p.m., i.e., e.g., etc., etc. Exclamation Marks The exclamation mark should be reserved for sentences and phrases that express excitement. Use exclamation marks sparingly for special emphasis; if you use them too frequently, readers may not understand which sentences or phrases are extraordinary or exceptional. Wow! I can’t believe that this frozen yogurt place lets us put free unlimited toppings on our frozen yogurt. This is outrageous! Question Marks If you ask a question directly, end the sentence with a question mark. What do you mean I have to pay for all of these toppings? This is an outrage? Colons A colon directs readers by grabbing their attention and indicating the words that follow are of significance or importance. A colon appears at the end of an independent clause. What follows may be a list, a phrase or word that renames another noun, a question, or even another independent clause (if it provides clarity on the first). A poorly balanced breakfast might include the following: diet soda, marshmallows, one piece of chewing gum, school glue, and lip balm. Some of my favorite breakfast delicacies are General Mills staples: Cinnamon Toast Crunch, Trix, Lucky Charms, Sprinkle Spangles, Sir Grapefellow, and of course, Baron Von Redberry. Some of the most memorable cereal spokespeople are animals: Sugar Bear, Tony the Tiger, Dig’em the Frog, and Cornelius the Rooster. Never forget the immortal words of Toucan Sam: “Follow Your Nose!” Breakfast is the key to your morning’s ignition: you need it to get started. The colon is also used in subtitles, greetings, ratios, and time notation. Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus Dr. Strangelove, or: How I Stopped Worrying and Love the Bomb To whom it may concern: To the office of the registrar: 1:2, 5:7, 1:100 1:00 a.m., 4:20 p.m., 9:00 p.m. Semicolons as Supercommas If a series of items includes internal punctuation—such as a noun that renames another noun—use a semicolon to distinguish between items in the series. Classic science fiction sagas that have been adapted to video games include Star Wars, both the original and prequel trilogies; Star Trek, the original series, The Next Generation, and various other titles; and Dune, which has been adapted only twice since its initial publication. Hyphens Compound nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs sometimes appear as a single word, sometimes as two separate words, and sometimes as a hyphenated compound. A hyphen connects two words that act as a single adjective preceding a noun. The all-knowing rock of wisdom is missing from its pedestal. Some no-good scoundrel probably made off with it during my nap. The last time it went missing, I found it in the cushions of our well-worn couch. Additionally, you can use a hyphen to avoid confusion and make your meaning clear. During the pit stop, the team re-tired the car in under two seconds. After the victory, the driver retired from competitive racing. Dash (or em-dash) The dash is a versatile punctuation mark, often used to indicate additional information within or at the end of a sentence. Use a dash: - To establish parenthetical information that you want to explain, to emphasize, or on which you want to expand - To indicate a shift in thought - In conjunction with parenthetical commas to help rename another noun in the sentence. All the scraps of paper that we’ve been saving—receipts, canceled checks, tax returns, proofs of purchase—are now digital, preventing clutter and unnecessary waste. Everything Tim had been working toward—realizing his dreams, buying that jet-ski from his cousin’s neighbor, asking for time off to develop his comedy—came to fruition when he met Eric. Not everything about our unscheduled layover is awful—the cookies are free. Running at full speed, Charlie planted his foot, took aim at the football, and kicked with all his strength—only to fall on his head as Lucy pulled the ball away. Making a shopping list of ingredients for tacos—corn tortillas, cherry tomatoes, onion, cilantro, salsa verde, and chicken—helped me realize that I want pizza instead. The original members of the Avengers—Thor, Iron Man, the Hulk, Ant-Man, and the Wasp—have all appeared in the film adaptations of the comic books. Brackets and parentheses Words and phrases encapsulated in parenthesis often act as asides or digressions from the main idea, though they may also add additional or supplemental information. Limit your use of parentheticals; too many detours from the main path may lead readers astray from your main point. The original five X-men (Angel, Beast, Cyclops, Iceman, and Jean Grey) have all starred in their own limited series since their initial publication. James S.A. Corey (the shared penname of Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck), the author of The Expanse series, has also written one Star Wars novel. Parentheses may also encapsulate (1) numbers, (2) letters, or (3) other symbols to identify individual items in a series. Brackets are used in MLA documentation when you replace or insert information into a direct quotation. The brackets indicate to readers where you have made changes to the original in the name of coherence. For example, you might modify a selection of text from this chapter from its original second person point-of-view: “This chapter may help guide you to improving your written communication at the sentence-level; you can apply this to all your writing projects, both formal and informal.” To the third person: “This chapter may help guide [readers] to improving [their] written communication at the sentence-level; [students] can apply this to all [their] writing projects, both formal and informal.” Ellipsis An ellipsis is made with three periods. When employing MLA documentation, use both an ellipsis and brackets together if you have removed information from a direct quotation: […] For example, the previous selection of text from this chapter can be shortened with an ellipsis and brackets: “This chapter may help […] you develop your sentences effectively.” Make omissions such as this sparingly. If you remove too much material from a direct quotation, readers may question the context and content of the selection. Creative use of ellipsis and brackets may distort the true meaning of a selection. “This film is not very good, unless you want to waste your time and money. Other than the first fifteen minutes, there is not enough suspense to keep the audience on the edge of their seats for three hours of plodding exposition.” “This film is […] good […] and […] there is […] enough suspense to keep the audience on the edge of their seats […].” Apostrophes An apostrophe denotes possession when used with a noun—and unless the word ends in an s—always appears with an s. Possessive nouns show readers who owns what. Mario’s overalls Luigi’s gloves Yoshi’s saddle If the subjects of the sentence possess jointly, only the second subject includes the apostrophe. If the two subjects possess independently, both subjects include apostrophes. Mario and Luigi’s third video game is fantastic. Mario’s and Luigi’s overalls are bespoke. Sometimes possession may seem a little awkward or abstract: The work of an hour An hour’s work The bottom line of the company The company’s bottom line The last nerve of Eric Eric’s last nerve Plural nouns that end in s include an apostrophe with no additional s. The safety glasses’ lenses protected her eyes from any debris. The hobbits’ journey to Mordor was harrowing. The Cardinals’ playoff chances are middling. Apostrophes also are used in contractions to indicate missing letters. Original \| Contraction \| It is \| It’s \| Do not \| Don’t \| Cannot \| Can’t \| Is not \| Isn’t \| Had not \| Hadn’t \| Should not \| Shouldn’t \| Must have \| Must’ve \| You have \| You’ve \| Could have \| Could’ve \| Would have \| Would’ve \| Should not have \| Shouldn’t’ve \| An apostrophe and the letter s are sometimes used to make plural letters, numbers, and words that appear as words, as well as abbreviations Do you have any old 45’s we could try on the record player? How many H’s are in the word withholding? Those pants look so 1990’s. Did you complete your ACT’s? Don’t tell me you’ve forgotten your ABC’s! When revising your work, review your usage and word choice. Many commonly misused words can disrupt readers from understanding your meaning. The following are typical usage errors: A/an Accept/except All right/alright Apart/a part Bad/badly Can/may Capital/Capitol Cite/site Complement/compliment Data/datum Definitely/defiantly Effect/affect Father/further Good/well Its/it’s Lay/lie Lead/led Less/fewer Maybe/may be Passed/past Principal/principle Quote/quotation Should have/Should’ve (not should of) Than/then There/their/they’re To/too/two Your/You’re TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 10 - Murphy’s Law states that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Muphry’s Law states that if you try to correct someone’s grammar online, you will inevitably make an error in your correction. - Vague pronoun references make for confusion - Avoid references to the reader (2nd person pronoun: you) - Adopt standardized usage - Technology problems vs technological problems Chapter 11: Exposition Fact vs. opinion: this time it’s personal! Readers have recently become accustomed to seeing terms like “fake news” and “alternative facts.” When a topic is known as controversial, it can be difficult for people to agree on what the facts actually are. Fact-checking information by researching its source and evaluating its credibility is a laborious task, which sometimes makes it problematic to separate fact from opinion. Opinions are subjective viewpoints originating from individual perspectives. Opinions express what you understand to be the truth, but others may disagree with your position. Facts are objective, observable, and indisputable. Because of these qualities, facts excel as evidence in supporting a position. Facts can help convey reliable information by explaining, identifying, or exposing the truth. If your goal is to inform readers, it is best to provide them with facts. The fact-filled materials with which you have worked during your time in school—dictionaries, encyclopedias, newspapers, journals, and textbooks—are expository, sources meant to reveal to readers truthful information. These explanatory materials are not experiential, but instead aim for neutrality or objectivity in how they present information. Some of the writing you produce in college will be based on your own experiences, such as personal narratives—these writing projects may ask you to write about and reflect on your own experiences—but most of the written work you produce will be expository. Essays, lab reports, book reports, profiles on individuals, locations, or events, and other expository writing projects strive for objectivity when presenting information to readers. Because expository writing is constructed with facts, it is a rhetorical foundation on which many other genres build their structures. When you need to provide the audience with a clear picture of something, you might turn to an expository rhetorical strategy like description, definition, or exemplification. Writing an expository essay can include synthesizing reliable outside information into your own work; therefore, expository writing often requires research. Expository writing establishes the conversation on a given topic by drawing on various credible sources to outline that topic. These essays tend to present their main points in explicit, straightforward thesis statements. These thesis statements are supported with exhaustive examples, evidence, or other reasoning that allows readers to accept your information as factual. The audience must see facts such as descriptions, definitions, and examples as true, accurate, or otherwise reliable. Your goal is to demonstrate to readers that your sources are dependable and their information credible. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Description Description uses additive details to provide readers an overall impression of a person, place, or object. This representation gives the audience an idea, sense, or feeling about the subject. If your purpose is expository, description may help readers understand better the topic by clarifying information, providing additional material such as finer points or specifics, or using language to establish a dominant mood. You can paint subjects as you want readers to see them using clear and accurate description, so nearly all essays employ some level of description. For example, process analysis might describe different physical attributes of a process, such as the size or shape of cookies to be balled out in a recipe, where narrative might describe the setting or character. When constructing a description, narrow your focus by limiting information to only specific and relevant details. Concrete subjects, rather than abstractions, are much easier to describe because these subjects are observable. Imagine, for example, that after a long study session you accidently left a notebook in the library. If you called back later in the day looking for your notebook, a vague description of the notebook and where you last saw it might not yield the results you want. If instead you had to describe to the police your stolen car, or if you were to make flyers for your missing pet, you would want to provide your target audience with plenty of information so that they could effectively help find what is missing. A good description includes abundant relevant details and allows others to see the subject just as you do. Just because you have seen your subject before does not mean that the audience has. Maybe you can clearly picture it in your head, but can others? Use description to paint for readers a vivid word-picture but include only details that advance your purpose. If you were writing a narrative about a life-affirming whitewater rafting experience, details such as the other rafters’ hair color or pizza topping preferences may not matter to the story. While facts such as these may be accurate, they are also unlikely to fit with the purpose of the writing project (affirming your life). Important details might include information such as the water and air temperatures, the unseen dangers lurking below the water’s surface, and the lifelong friends accompanying you on the trip. Be as specific as possible without venturing into what may distract readers. Vague, fuzzy, or unnecessary details add little, and may even detract from what you set out to accomplish with a writing project. Include only details that help shape readers’ understanding of the topic. Provide them with an overall impression by describing solely relevant details, organized logically from a consistent perspective. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Definition In verbal communication, a person’s tone of voice can sometimes indicate that they are using a word in a nonstandard way. The listener is meant to understand this subtext, so long as they are familiar with the use of the word. Understanding meaning is fundamental in communication, so knowing the specific usage of a word allows us to fully consider its denotations and connotations. If the speaker and listener—or writer and reader—do not share the same definition of a word, its use can lead to misunderstanding. Definitions, or the meanings of words, help develop an expository writing project by providing readers clarification. The audience is more likely to engage with the text if they understand it easily (and do not have to pause to reach for the dictionary). When examining words or subjects, consider if the definition you provide must be objective or subjective. Objective denotations are those understood by all, where subjective connotations are impressionistic, and may alter the tone of the material in the eyes of each reader. Refer to the purpose of your writing project when defining words or subjects: if your purpose is expository, strive to remain objective. Words and their meanings change over time, and it is only through cultural exchange, circulation, and use that these changes occur. Cool words can become uncool, popular words unpopular, and acceptable words taboo as their denotations transform, or their connotations change, or as their audiences vary. If the reader and writer have different definitions of a word in mind, the meaning of a sentence can change: - Did you see him land that nollie? That kid is stupid good! - That dude dances like crazy, he is so rude! - (Referring to the Nintendo Power Glove) “It’s so bad!” Definitions are only successful if their meanings are clear to both reader and writer. Formal Definition The most common place to find a word’s meaning is the dictionary. Writers sometimes turn to this expository text for additional clarification in understanding a term. The listed, literal meaning of a word, or what is primarily understood to be meant by that word, is a word’s denotation, or formal definition. Formal definitions are almost always brief and support another rhetorical pattern in a writing project. When providing a formal definition, a single sentence of explanation most often suffices, but sometimes you will need to include additional context for the term, especially if the term is controversial, complex, or highly-technical. Extended Definition An extended definition is longer and more-detailed than a one- or two-sentence explanation of a term. If the subject of your definition is controversial, complex, or highly-technical, an extended definition may be something as large as an entire essay or article. Extended definitions may: - Provide the history of a term - Offer additional examples of a term - Describe a topic and its parts in detail - Compare synonyms or other similar subjects - Contrast the word with its antonyms or other meanings - Explain where others may be mistaken when defining the term - Recontextualize a word, or explain a new meaning to the audience While a subject’s denotation is objective, its connotation may be subjective. Even so, an extended definition provides a comprehensive explanation to readers. When developing an extended definition, think about what you must define for the audience and why. For example, have you had to explain Pokémon to your grandparents? Do the people in your life use the same words for things as you do? Do they know the correct or appropriate words for complex ideas? Do they misuse terms? What terms is the audience comfortable with? What might they misunderstand? It is probably that you have had to explain your likes or hobbies to friends or family members who may not have understood them. In defining a subject, it is necessary to take into consideration what the audience already knows and what information you can provide them. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Exemplification Exemplification is the rhetorical strategy of providing examples to develop a point. Factual examples offer clarity and provide support for an idea, allowing readers to better understand the topic. To show readers the importance of your idea, for example, you might include a litany of statistics from various reports, or instead craft a narrative or a human-interest profile—both patterns of development provide readers with examples of your topic. When using examples to provide clarity or evoke interest, a series of small instances may suffice. When using examples to explain or persuade, a delimited scope of examples with a more-detailed examination of these fewer instances may be more productive. Sometimes extended exemplification can be more effective than a quantitative list. Examples allow others to see things as you see them, making the unfamiliar more accessible. Good examples provide clarity for readers and help them understand your position. Well-developed examples are appropriate for the purpose of the writing project and are tailored to the audience. When explaining planes in geometry, for instance, using a shadow as an example makes the concept easily understood to a wide variety of students. Exemplification is used in almost all academic writing, as it is a surefire way to provide direct evidence in support and clarification of a point. Examples used in support of your perspective should be relevant, credible, and trustworthy. Without authoritative examples—without facts backing your opinions—claims you make are unconvincing and unsupported. If your examples do not support, clarify, or otherwise help readers understand your point, those examples may be ill-suited to your purpose. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 11 - Look for expository verbs on the writing prompt: define, record, name, state, list, identify, locate - No matter what rhetorical patterns you use in the development of an expository essay, you must always consider the audience. Consider the following questions regarding your readers: - Who is the audience? What can you assume about them? Does the medium of your writing suggest a specific audience? - What do they already know about your topic, and what must you explain to them? Many audiences are comprised of people with varying experiences, levels of knowledge, - How can you draw in their interest? How might your topic appeal/apply to them? - What can you do so that they trust your account of the facts to be the best? - Consider your own opinions about the topic—are they apparent in your writing? What is the difference between informing someone and arguing for your position? - When writing exposition, mind your tone: sound like you know what you’re writing about, but don’t be pretentious. Employ an easy-to-understand, trustworthy tone that is confident, neutral, informative, and reliable - Because you are reporting only the facts to the audience, you omit your own opinion. You’re aiming to explain something to readers—let them think about it rather than trying to convince them how to think about it. Your goal should be to provide enough information that the audience can make up their own minds on your topic. - Don’t use a term in its own definition Chapter 12: Narrative Some theorists think that fiction is what separates humans from animals. They suggest that human beings’ ability to imagine scenarios in our minds—and the need to connect with others—is representative of a kind of thinking that makes us different from other creatures. In this sense, fiction is not indicative of imagination in literature, but is useful in understanding the perspectives of others. A narrative is an account of events, or a story. Narratives are not necessarily fictional tales, they are the true stories too: everything has a history, story, or beginning. People search for answers, reasons, causes, look for explanations, make predictions, so everything becomes a story along the way. Telling stories is a great method for spreading knowledge because those narratives tend to be interesting as well as memorable. Stories create shared spaces for the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of audiences vastly different from one another. Through these imagined stages, readers can empathize with individuals whose lives would otherwise be completely unimaginable. On this stage of imagination and empathy, narratives can be used to shape the expectations of the audience. Narrative Conventions In academic writing, you may have to tell a story which recreates events for readers. These stories will either be short or comprehensive narratives. A short narrative may be a component of a larger essay. You may find yourself including a short narrative inside a larger essay to provide an example or illustrate a point. Short stories act as narrative detours that enhance other rhetorical patterns and appeal to audiences’ emotions. On the other hand, a comprehensive narrative is an extended story, which comprises most of the writing project. This type of narrative is a complex story with lots of characters, settings, action, or other moving parts, and may be an entire essay unto itself, such as a personal narrative that explores a major change in your life. Whatever the size of the story, every narrative includes conventions common to storytelling. Plot What happens in a story is the plot. The action of the story (even if it does not feel very actiony) is what move the plot forward through a sequence of events. For example, in some stories the action may simply be a conversation between two characters, or the thoughts or observations of an individual over time. Narratives frequent literature, video games, film and television. In these mediums, the narrator is the voice in a story that describes the action in the story, acting as a conduit between the reader and the plot of the narrative. Plot is comprised of events, sometimes grouped together into larger scenes or chapters. Most narratives are organized temporally, moving through a sequence of events in a chronological order, because what happens in the beginning of the story usually exerts an effect on what follows. Most plots can be simplified into a short form (beginning, middle, and end), though many experts may describe and map the plot of a story differently. Gustav Freytag, a 19th-century German novelist, developed a popular pyramid for mapping dramatic structure which applies to almost all narratives, for example. The scope of a narrative should encompass all necessary information. Every story has a beginning. When crafting a narrative, take the audience back to the start of the events so that readers have enough context to understand the important elements of your story. This middle of a story might be best described as building tension, anticipation, or drama as you work toward the turning point, or climax of the narrative. This rising action reaches a head at the climax, and the plot shifts direction and/or characters change. The falling action typically follows very rapidly before the resolution in the conclusion. The end of a story does not necessarily take place at the height of the action; instead, many times a story will only conclude after weighing the contents of the story in a larger context. For example, if the narrative is personal, you may reflect on how you have changed since the events in the story and your retelling of the story. That said, some readers will never be satisfied with a story’s ending and will always want more or want to know what happens next. For instance, consider a narrative arc as you might if you were bored in class. Picture looping a loose rubber band around your index finger and thumb, then pulling back one side of the rubber band, further and further, until it is tight. Imagine then letting go of the edge of rubber band. As the potential energy you have stored in the rubber band is released, the whole thing flies forward off your fingertips. Deciding how you will kill some time in class and getting the rubber band in place is equivalent to the beginning of a story, where a writer may introduce the setting, characters, and plot. Pulling the rubber band tight between your fingers is the rising action, the tension reaches it peak at the climax, or turning point (where you let go one the end you hold), and the rubber band flying off your fingers, falling to the floor represents the falling action. Picking up the rubber band before anyone notices is comparable to a story’s resolution. Just as your actions result in a change to the rubber band, so too do the events of the plot result in a change within the characters of the story. Some stories start in the middle of things, or in media res. Instead of a linear beginning, middle, and end, readers are thrown into the middle, and have to depend on the author to fill in the blanks about the beginning of the narrative, which usually happens through flashbacks, dialogue, or descriptions of the past. Characters Character can refer to a couple of concepts: - A personage (person-like thing, or anthropomorphized entity) in a story - The quality of one’s morals or values While this section is focused on the first definition, the second is closely related. The values of a character may come to light as the plot of a story progresses. Narratives are populated with characters, who may interact with one another using a written representation of spoken communication, or dialogue. Characters experience the events of the plot, and in good writing, they can be used to examine ideas. Specialized characters, such as the protagonist and antagonist take on outsized roles in a narrative. The protagonist is the main character of the story, while the antagonist is the force that opposes the main character. It is common that a story’s protagonist is a hero, but that is not always the case. The protagonist need not be heroic, much less a good person. Similarly, the antagonist need not be evil, or even a person at all. When crafting a narrative, give careful attention to how other characters engage with the story’s protagonist. Characters’ interactions with the protagonist, the words that characters use to describe or talk about the protagonist, or what they might think about the protagonist can all communicate ideas to the reader about that protagonist. When writing a narrative, craft good characters that are believable as individuals, rather than copies of the main character or extensions of your personality. Well-written characters speak with their own voices, follow their own agendas, and sometimes behave contrary to what one might expect. Setting A narrative’s setting refers to the time and place where the events occur. A descriptive setting can help the audience put the story’s plot, its characters, and their actions into context. The time in which the narrative takes place can be specific (a certain time of a certain day in a specific year), or very general (winter, the future, the distant past); the action of the story may take place over the span of a few moments or may stretch thousands of years into the past or future. The time in which a story is set may influence the reader’s expectations: - The far-flung future vs. the ancient world - High noon vs. midnight - Wednesday morning stuck in class vs. Saturday afternoon at a friend’s house - Sunshine on a breezy day vs. chilling wind and rain Similarly, the place in which a narrative takes place and be specific or general—your home; St. Louis; Missouri; the moon; under the sea—and influences the plot. How might the following locations affect the climax of a love story? How might these settings change a family vacation? - An active volcano - A deserted beach - A creepy, dilapidated mansion - A crowded waterpark - The security line at an airport Be clear in establishing your setting. Add description through sensory details. Include only details that dovetail with your tone and emphasize details of the setting that enhance your story. Sensory Details Sensory details in a narrative represent or appeal to the five senses. These details can help provide realism and add particulars to a story that help readers see things from your perspective. Meaningful details can make stories more interesting, and the messages they carry more powerful. Varying the amount and level of sensory details you include in your work will aid in introducing or describing new material. As you move between ideas or events in the narrative, you might focus on different sensory details in each paragraph or scene. Sensory details may be reflective of the tone of your writing or the setting or may indicate to readers larger thematic ideas, as well. In an expository essay, for example, where your purpose may be to describe something to the audience so that they may observe it objectively, it would be advantageous to report the topic with a serious tone, using literal descriptions of events and objects rather than figurative language, which relies on imagination. In a narrative, however, where you want the audience to experience events as you do, metaphor may help make your point clearer. You might, for instance, compare a person to an inanimate object, such as a rock, to either imbue them with strength or suggest that they are lazy. For example, consider how the air might smell sodden just before a downpour, or how you might notice the sound of rustling leaves or feel your hair whipping in your face as the wind picks up before the sudden deluge. Dialogue Dialogue is a conversation between characters in a narrative. As you include the thoughts and actions of characters in a story, you must also give consideration to the words they say and how they say them. It is important that each character have their own voice so that the audience accepts characters as individuals, rather than thinly veiled plot devices or facsimiles of each other. Use a range of verbs to introduce dialogue and complement the tone of each scene or idea. Different verbs may indicate different tones, moods, and feelings. Consider how various verbs can change the context of dialogue: - The student said… - …whispered nervously - …mumbled absentmindedly - …added awkwardly - …yelled, shouted - …cried out - …interrupted - …cursed under their breath - …lamented that there were so few examples TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 12 - Review your narrative for coherence: is the story connected and consistent through the beginning, middle, and end? - We all have tendencies when it comes to verbal communication--for example, using conversational filler words such as ‘like’ or ‘um’ to fill awkward silences, gesticulating with our hands, or subverting chronological order when retelling a narrative (like completing a side quest in a video game--but sometimes we may be unable to name our own habits without outside help. To create believable dialogue, try recording yourself speaking with friends and family to get an idea of how your conversations flow, or how other people speak - When using dialogue, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes Chapter 13: Analysis Curiosity is part of human nature. Analysis helps satiate the hunger for knowledge. Have you ever taken something apart in the hopes of finding out what made it work, or if it was broken—what made it stop working? Analysis is the process of breaking something down into its core components in order to study them and how they interrelate. Analysis is invaluable to learning about new topics because it changes the nature of understanding. Examine smaller components of larger concepts to produce greater depth and breadth in comprehension. The classic example is that of the television remote control. Maybe you have experienced the remote working sporadically as you try to operate the television. In trying to diagnose the problem, you employ analysis. You may start by removing the battery cover to see what size and how many batteries the remote needs to operate. If that does not work, your next step might be seeking out the instruction booklet or search for codes online in the hopes of reprogramming the remote. Next you may test and/or replace those batteries, but if that change fails to fix the remote, you might have to find a screwdriver to take the whole thing apart. In disassembling the remote control, the right tools make the difference. Of course, you could easily smash the remote against the floor to spill its guts, though you might have a tough time in reassembling it later. If your goal is to learn how the remote works or what is keeping it from working, analysis is the correct tool for the job. Having a goal in mind will allow you to select the right tool for the job. Educator and psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed a system for classifying goals in learning: lower-order concerns of this taxonomy begin with remembering, understanding, and applying knowledge, followed by higher-order concerns like analyzing or evaluating that knowledge and even creating with that knowledge. Using the correct screwdriver allows for a thorough disassembly of the remote control. That same screwdriver also allows you to put the remote back together after you have taken it apart. If you can analyze a larger concept, you may be able to recreate that idea for others by joining together its smaller components. For example, you might first: - Study the operations of an equation so that you can replicate its function - Examine the construction of a building to apply its methods in your own design - Investigate the cause of an adverse effect to search for a workable solution - Sort, categorize, or divide items or ideas based on your conclusions to inform others Deductive analyses such as these begin with a general principle or idea before examining finer components that support or otherwise explain that general principle. Many professional and academic writing projects will ask you to analyze a subject to gain a better understanding of it. Conducting a survey requires you to read over and analyze the responses of its participants, allowing you to draw conclusions. Similarly, to establish a rule or pattern, you must make observations and draw conclusions from those experiences. At work you may have to provide an overview or report of your department to your coworkers and supervisors, requiring a detailed list of responsibilities and results. Presenting information such as that in a chart or graph provides visual analytical representation of subjects along two or more axes. In academic writing, composing a persuasive argument is easier if you analyze positions opposed to your own. Doing so will allow you to understand and address the concerns of a wider audience, as well as concede points and offer counterarguments where you can. In other writing projects, establishing a principle to divide subjects into categories or classifying subjects by already-established criterion demands an analysis of those subjects. Only by learning what things are made of can one separate them: comparing or contrasting things against one another requires an examination of smaller characteristics of the larger subjects to find similarities or differences in their composition. Whatever the situation, thorough analysis provides accurate results. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Compare/Contrast Every day you are faced with numerous choices. From the moment you rise in the morning to the minute you fall asleep, you consider thoughtfully many of the choices you make throughout the day. Deciding between possible alternatives using comparison or contrast engages analysis and can lead toward evaluation. Comparison showcases similarities between subjects, whereas contrast reveals differences between subjects. When your alarm goes off, you might ask yourself, “Should I hit the snooze button and sleep for five more minutes, or do I need to get out of bed and begin my day?” In making an informed decision, you might consider how long it takes you to get ready in the morning, or the density of traffic along your morning commute, or even the amount of studying or reading you would like to complete before class. You might then contrast those thoughts against the idea of staying in your warm bed and recapturing the dream you were just having, then having to skip breakfast altogether, or at least grab some fast food on your way to school and eat while cramming in a quick review in the hallway before class begins. In getting ready in the morning alone, we must make many choices where we contrast different sequences of events in our minds (even if they are not this simple, or either/or decisions): - Shorts or pants? - Hair up or down? - Contacts or glasses? - Fruit or cereal? - One quick round of Fortnite? - Homework or phone time? Comparison and contrast are not limited to two choices—you can compare or contrast as many subjects as necessary to make your point. In fact, the larger your sample size, the more-informative your results. Incorporating comparison or contrast into your own writing should provide readers with information. Although your analysis may not be comprehensive or absolute, it will provide value to the audience because it affects your perspective. “It’s like apples and oranges.” This idiom is often used to describe subjects that have little or nothing shared between them. If someone says this expression to you, they mean that the two subjects in discussion are beyond comparison. The expression means comparing one to the other is fundamentally unfair, will result in a skewed perspective, or is an otherwise fruitless endeavor. But apples and oranges? Both are fruit! Both apples and oranges are spheroid, part of the same food group, found in the same department in grocery stores, and both share co-starring roles in the backwards idiom, “apples and oranges.” While it may be more beneficial to contrast the two fruit—to point out the differences between them: how and where they grow, their origin, cultivation, cost, and nutritional content—it seems easy enough to draw comparisons between the two subjects as well. Where comparison acknowledges the similarities between subjects, contrast shows the differences between them. The contrast of unlike subjects illuminates discrepancies between those subjects and aids in evaluation by highlighting one subject’s advantages over another’s by casting one in relief of the other. Contrast is especially useful if your goal is to elevate one subject over another in the eyes of the audience; using this rhetorical strategy, you can demonstrate to readers the advantages of your position against the deficiencies of another. With analysis like this, you may be able to convince readers to acknowledge your position as reasonable and your argument as valid, or even persuade them to adopt your viewpoint. Comparison and contrast frequently appear together, though they are two separate rhetorical strategies used for different reasons (even if they do often accompany each other in the same paragraph or essay). When making informed choices, we tend to compare and contrast different subjects against one another to see which decisions might prove advantageous. We also compare and contrast similar subjects to one another—class times, work schedules, taco take-out menus, pizza toppings—to establish preference or status. In any case, it is common that we both compare and contrast subjects when making a decision. Structure or Form There are two structures you might employ when developing a comparison or contrast in your work. You can choose to examine your subjects one at a time in large chunks, or detail individual criterion across all your subjects. Where chunking can help give overall impressions of subjects, criterion-by-criterion organization illuminates specific details of each subject. Chunking your comparison or contrast means focusing on all the criterion or points of a single subject before moving on to the same criterion or points of the next subject. If you choose to chunk your material, maintain parallelism in your lists: use the same criterion or points for each subject, arrange those criterion or points in an identical order in each paragraph, and use consistent grammatical structures for each. Introduction: includes hook, context, and thesis statement \| \|\|\|\|\| \| Criterion 01: How and where they grow \| Criterion 02: Origin and Appearance \| Criterion 03: Cultivation \| Criterion 04: Cost \| Criterion 05: Nutritional Content \| Chunk 01: Apples \| Grow on trees found in temperate environments \| Turkey; can be red, green, yellow. \| Spring planting, below 32 degrees, harvest August to October, takes 3 years for fruit at least \| $1.09 for one \| 95 calories, 19 grams sugar, and 3 grams fiber. \| Chunk 02: Oranges \| Grow on trees found in subtropical environments \| China; can be orange in color \| planting at anytime if in tropical climate, above 32 degrees, harvest depends on planting, takes 3 years for fruit at least. \| .59 for one \| 80 calories, 14 grams of sugar, and 3 grams of fiber \| Conclusion \| Criterion-by-criterion construction means comparing or contrasting your subjects on a single point in each paragraph. If you choose to organize your writing project along specific criterion, begin by choosing a handful of the most-pertinent points. As you move through the writing process you may encounter additional criterion you want to include in your work, but you should begin with the points most well-known to the audience. If you revise your comparison or contrast by adding more material, return to the structure you use to analyze those criteria. Introduction: hook, context, and thesis statement \| \| Criterion 01: How and where they grow \| Apples \| Oranges \| \| Criterion 02: Origin \| Apples \| Oranges \| \| Criterion 03: Cultivation \| Apples \| Oranges \| \| Criterion 04: Cost \| Apples \| Oranges \| \| Criterion 05: Nutritional Content \| Apples \| Oranges \| \| Conclusion \| Sometimes these patterns suggest themselves: when making a comparison between then and now, for example, you may find it easier to chunk the time periods so that readers can see the whole of the similarities or differences in context. Whichever pattern you choose to employ, arrange your subjects in a logical order, one that best suits your purpose and audience. Avoid disrupting the flow of your comparison or contrast by including transitions that show readers the relationship between criterion and subjects. For example: - On the other hand, - In contrast, - Similarly, - Likewise, - Continuing on, - Alternatively, When comparing or contrasting subjects, analysis will reveal what those subjects have in common or what they lack. Sometimes comparison and contrast are best presented using figurative language such as analogy and metaphor. Analogy An analogy compares subjects and used to explain or clarify one of the subjects by analyzing how it is like the other. In this sense, they work as written reasoning because they explain to readers how subjects are equivalent. Analogies are used to aid understanding: they can help provide clarity to unknown concepts by comparing them to recognizable objects. Similarly, they can be used to explain unfamiliar theories by comparing them to familiar ideas. You may have experience with analogies from standardized tests like the SAT or ACT, though these sections may have long since been removed: - Ink : pen :: Lead : ? - Bark : dog :: Meow : ? Incorporating analogies like these into your work is an example of active learning because it requires applied reasoning: in order to successfully use an analogy in your writing, you must first conceptualize the comparison in your ideas. Analogies within a sentence or paragraph can immediately help define new terminology by putting it in context. Analogies help develop arguments through comparison. The more similar the subjects, the more powerful the analogy. That said, if you use an analogy to persuade readers, you must support your claim with evidence. Be wary of the slippery slope logical fallacy, wherein you make a false comparison asserting that because two subjects are similar in one way, they are also similar in other ways. Analogies in argument typically posit that what is true in one situation is or will be true in another situation. For example, one might argue against drug prohibition in America based on the country’s experiences with the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Because analogies are form of figurative language, they are subjective—their meaning may vary from person to person. The audience may not share your perspective on the topic, or they may not agree with your approach to the subjects of your comparison. Incorporating analogy in your writing encourages active learning because you must shift your thinking on a subject, anticipating how others might see it. Developing analogies in your own writing may require thinking about a topic in a new way to better explain that topic to those unfamiliar with it. If your analogy is unclear, or the audience is unfamiliar with the subjects you are comparing, readers will be confused and may misunderstand the point you are trying to make. If the audience is unable to see a logical connection between the subjects of your analogy, readers may begin to doubt your authority or may misunderstand your meaning. Metaphor Metaphor describes a subject in a way that, while not literally true, helps explain another subject through comparison. Metaphor helps create an impression by comparing subjects to vivid expressions, though those expressions may not resemble what they mean. Metaphors are a specialized kind of comparison, used to compare dissimilar ideas or objects—that is to say, things not of the same kind of type, but radically different from one another. For example, maybe you have a friend who is not: - The brightest bulb - The sharpest knife in the drawer - Roundest object in a pouch full of very round objects In these abstract metaphors, the two subjects being compared (your friend and a common object) are not of the same type, or—to use another metaphor—these two subjects are not cut from the same cloth. While the two subjects in this metaphor are very dissimilar, you can use illustrative comparison to tell others what you think of your friend’s intelligence. Anthropomorphizing objects—assigning human-like qualities to non-human things, such as animals or vehicle (like in many Disney films)—uses metaphor to humanize subjects, appealing to pathos, or the audience’s emotions. In order to humanize, personify, or anthropomorphize a subject, you must first be able to recognize in it human-like qualities. In doing so, you think about your subject in a new light. Drawing out this comparison in writing is a practice of active learning. Extended Metaphor An extended metaphor is one that continues beyond its original subjects and imagery, extending outward from that initial comparison to include additional characteristics. Extended metaphors draw out and solidify comparisons. For example, if you were to use a metaphor comparing the money to liquid, you might develop an extended metaphor using terms and phrases such as these: - Pool of resources - Liquid assets - Cash flow - Revenue streams - Make it rain - Divert or channel income - Pour money into something - River of cash - Trickle of income - Revenue will run dry - The bubble will soon pop - Squeeze blood from a stone - If you go broke, you are sunk Mixed Metaphor A mixed metaphor begins the comparison with a specific subject, but in the middle of the metaphor shifts to another subject, so that the original meaning is lost. Consequently, the comparison falls apart and the metaphor makes little sense. - “If we can hit that bullseye, the rest of the dominos will fall like a house of cards. Checkmate!” Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Cause and Effect We often learn more from our mistakes than we do our successes, though both can be mined for knowledge. Newton’s third laws states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, or more simply, that actions have consequences. A causal analysis examines why something occurs. Seeking out the inception of an effect teaches us what caused it. Knowing what effects an action might set in motion may lead to a more responsible or measured implementation of those causes. Cause and effect is a rhetorical strategy that establishes the relationship between events by linking causality between them. Causality is the idea that we can trace an event backward through time to find its origin Any given effect is the consequence of an immediate cause, which itself is the product of an ultimate cause. An immediate cause is the event that changes the moment and whose outcome in an effect. It is the event immediately preceding an effect. An ultimate cause, or inciting incident, is what sets the events in motion, resulting in what may develop into a series of effects, sometimes becoming new causes themselves, propagating a string of even more effects. Causal Chain Reaction Perhaps you are familiar with the term “chain reaction.” A chain reaction, or cascade, occurs when a series of events unfolds on its own, unchecked by outside influence. Sometimes powerful effects themselves can become the impetus of a new reaction, starting off a string of events that can later be identified as a causal chain. When searching out the ultimate cause for an effect, be way of committing post hoc ergo propter hoc reasoning. Although we understand events to occur in temporal order, that does not necessarily mean that the latter events were the result of the former event. People tend to look for order where it may not exist, sometimes using flawed analysis to make a case for cause and effect. Misappropriation of this rhetorical strategy can lead to making tenuous connections between unconnected events, creating a false narrative of causality. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Division & Classification Division and classification are both methods of analyzing a subject, though they differ in practice. While they may differ from one another (and sometimes occur separately as rhetorical patterns), they often accompany one another in execution. - Division is a process of categorizing subjects based on a rule or principle. - Classification is a process of placing subjects into already established or recognized categories. Which process you choose to employ largely depends on your subject and purpose. For example, consider how television programs and films are already classified into preestablished categories. Using a single rule or principle, how might you divide them into categories of your own? Create a rule, establish a basis, or make up a principle to divide subjects into separate categories. Choose this principle to learn what happens when applied to various subjects. Or instead, classify new subjects by placing them into already-established categories to see how they compare to standards. Rhetorical Strategy/Pattern: Process Analysis A process analysis relates a series of events to one another by arranging them in a logical order in order to explain how something happens or occurs. The two types of process analysis are the how-to and how-it-works. The how-to process analysis provides readers with instructions or directions which lead to a final product or desired results. To help your readers complete a how-to process analysis, you may have to explain to them why certain steps are necessary, encourage them to complete the process or see it though, and/or offer them tips, tricks, or hints that will help them reach the desired results or final product. The how-it-works process analysis explains to readers how something occurs or how it is done without explaining to them how to do it. This type of process analysis is meant only to provide information, not to achieve a final product or desired results. This is the type of process analysis you would encounter on an informational tour or a behind-the-scenes look. Whatever the type of process analysis, temporal organization will likely be the best form of organization. So that your readers can easily follow along, it is crucial to explain to them how each step is connected to that which precedes it. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 13 - Perhaps you have heard the local advertisements which claim that IMO’s pizza is the “square beyond compare.” Do you believe this pizza is incomparable to other pizza? Or is the ad suggesting we contrast IMO’s against other pizza? Chapter 14: Argument The word argument may conjure images of verbal disagreements growing into heated debates, or outright bickering. Arguments may call to mind the idea of two people raising their voices at one another, trying to subdue the other through a louder and more-forceful use of words. These kinds of interactions can be unsatisfying and unproductive, as neither party seems to be reasonable, neither listens to the other, and no ideas are truly exchanged. In academic writing, an argument is a reasonable position on a topic. Writers offer arguments to inform others or make a point regarding their understanding, perspective, or beliefs. An argument is a claim that this position is valuable or worth valid consideration. Arguments stress test reasoning, search for faults or flaws in logic, and help people come to alternative conclusions. Although your instructor may have certain expectations for the use of argument in your class, a broad definition of the term will serve you well. Disregard the negative connotations of conflict and reframe the word argument as what you have to say. In terms of an academic essay, an argument is a reasonable and defensible position you hold regarding a topic. Often, when stating your main point in an essay’s thesis statement, you are making an argument. This main point—your informed, creative, reasonable, and substantial opinion—is the basis for crafting your argument. While you may share some similar viewpoints with other people, it is not uncommon for others to see things differently than you do. Because your position is yours alone, making your argument to others is akin to sharing your opinion with them. Your opinion matters because it is your own, and because it is unique, it has value. Your opinion may contribute to a discussion that others are unable to see, provided you support your position. To be valuable, an opinion must be informed, creative, reasonable, and substantial. For example, you may find you act contrarian with friends or family, challenging their positions with opposing viewpoints to get a rise out of them, or to get them to see things from another perspective. Arguments help us confront accepted ideas. Without the introduction of provocative new perspectives, conversations about topics can lapse into stagnation or monotony, reflected in conventional thinking. Develop an argument to help you understand your own position, as well. Just as engaging with the writing process helps you discover new ideas about a topic, so does deliberating different arguments or perspectives on a given topic. Talk to yourself, or argue with yourself, as a tried and true method to test the validity of your thinking or weigh the consequences of an upcoming decision. Even if you feel that you are an expert on your topic, it is important that you try to absorb information from as many quality sources as possible and examine the topic from a variety of viewpoints other than your own. Approaching a topic from multiple perspectives may introduce you to new stories and ideas, which can in turn change your own thinking about the topic. Have you ever found yourself in an argument, but lacking the right combination of words at the right moment to make your point? Verbal disagreements like these can be frustrating. Without sufficient resources at your disposal, your position may feel untenable. If the audience is unwilling to listen to reason, or apathetic toward your position, you may feel like you are wasting your breath. Verbal exchanges can also lead to hurt feelings. Escalation of a disagreement can lead to an argument that is loaded with emotional language, rather than logic. Some people choose to avoid argumentation or confrontation for these reasons. It can be easier to disengage than to change someone’s mind. Written arguments allow you to avoid such frustration. Because the writing process is time-consuming, you will have plenty of time to research and shape your position. By anticipating the needs of the audience, offering concessions when applicable, providing counterarguments when necessary, and including evidence that supports your position, you can craft effective arguments that can inform or persuade readers. As arguments are intuitive, they are built on opinions. Because your argument is built on your opinion, you must support your position with evidence. Facts are absolute: they are not perspectives on a topic, they are observable or measurable qualities of a topic. Where facts are objectively true, opinions are subjective interpretations of ideas and vary from person to person. Depending on your topic, purpose, and audience, some opinions are more valuable or credible than others. For an opinion to have merit—to be valuable in your writing projects—it must be reasonable, informed, and supported by facts. Because facts are objectively true, there is no room for disagreement about them; however, some sources may offer what they call alternative facts. Facts themselves are inarguable, but people frequently disagree on what facts mean. Many people can look at the same data but interpret it differently, just as many people can watch the same film and hold different opinions about it. The facts regarding the film do not change from person to person, but the interpretation of what those facts means will certainly vary depending on each viewer’s own experience. The Rhetorical Triangle: Logos, Ethos, Pathos The rhetorical triangle is a common representation of the components of argumentation. Effective arguments take into consideration the needs of the audience by balancing their use of the rhetorical triangle. Each vertex of the triangle represents an integral factor of an argument: logos, ethos, and pathos. These corners represent appeals to reason, shared ethical considerations, and emotions. An effective argument is centered somewhere within the field of the triangle, influenced by the pull of each vertex. - Appeals to logos are appeals to logic and reason, like facts, figures, reports, and statistics - Appeals to ethos are appeals to shared ethics or beliefs, such as the authority of individuals, entities, or systems - Appeals to pathos are appeals to feelings, or language that is used to evoke an emotional response from the audience You might think of logos, ethos, and pathos as the expressions of the body: logos is “using your head,” ethos is your “gut feeling” or “having the nerve” to do something, and pathos “pulls on your heartstrings.” Do not feel as if you must achieve an equal balance of all three components to craft a successful argument. Your use of appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos will vary greatly depending on the topic of your argument, your position, purpose, and audience. Considering the Audience Offering your opinion can be difficult, especially if you do not think you know enough information about the topic to have what you consider a creative or informed perspective. When beginning an argumentative writing project, ask yourself first what you know about the topic, what the audience may know about the topic, and then figure out what you must learn about it. Research will lead you to conversations on the topic, and after thorough investigation, ask yourself what you can provide readers that other writers might not be able to offer. Show readers what your perspective can contribute to the conversation that might be absent in others’. In your academic writing projects, you may encounter classmates or instructors who disagree with your position on a given topic. Perhaps the best place to disagree with someone is in the college classroom, as it is an opportunity to challenge conventions and confront new ideas. Use each writing project as an opportunity to explore new viewpoints and values. In instances of disagreement, do not distress that because you hold a different opinion than others that they will be unwilling to listen to your perspective. In your classes, readers will be eager to learn your opinion, even if they disagree with it. So long as your position is reasonable and informed, even those who disagree with your opinion will agree that it is valid. When you consider the audience, imagine readers who are at best indifferent to the topic and your position on the topic. Envision readers who may be disinterested, bored, or otherwise occupied, and not feel it necessary to give your argument their full attention. To combat this apathetic malaise, draw readers into your topic by including them in the scope of your thesis statement. Shape your perspective so that it affects the audience. In other scenarios, you may find that readers are openly hostile to your position or are unwilling to even consider your viewpoints. Such cases require that you handle the considerations of the audience carefully, which may include devoting the majority of your argument to addressing their concerns instead of furthering your own. Readers who are the most-difficult with which to engage are those who are entrenched in their viewpoints, often because their positions are closely-related to their core beliefs. Even when confronted with evidence, such readers may shy away from giving argument fair consideration. Unfortunately, not all audiences are receptive to all arguments: if readers are unwilling to listen to reason, you are wasting both your time and theirs trying to present them your argument. Exhaust all available options to convince the audience of the validity of your position. Persuasion Some argumentative writing projects will ask that you not only convince readers of the validity of your argument, but also that you persuade the audience to adopt your position as their own. Persuasion goes further than just establishing your argument as reasonable. In a persuasive argument, your goal is for the reader to agree with you, or even to add their voice to the conversation in support of your position. For the audience to see things as you see them, you must provide appropriate contextual information to establish your position. Summarizing relevant or vital background information, including numerous detailed examples, and offering explanations or definitions where appropriate can affect how readers perceive your position. To develop a balance of appeals in your own writing, think back on the times when you have been persuaded to do something, and analyze those instances for examples of effective persuasive techniques. Were you motivated by reason, by emotion, by appeals to authority, or by shared ethical concerns? What was necessary to change your mind? The best persuasive appeals use a mix of logos, ethos, and pathos. Successful arguments are structured to appeal to their target audiences by using relatable diction, making concessions where necessary, offering counter-arguments where applicable, and including pertinent and valuable information in support of the thesis, or initial claim. Take a holistic view of the topic and consider how those who disagree with your position might look at it. Ask yourself what you can do to convince those readers to change their minds without suggesting that your perspective is the only moral or reasonable position to hold. Encourage the audience to see the topic as you do. Call to Action If you want readers to add their voices to the conversation or act on the topic, close your argument with a call to action. Demonstrate to the audience that they can involve themselves with the topic and affect change or make a difference. Encourage readers to action. The conclusion of an argumentative writing project may ask readers to do something about the topic as you have outlined it through your perspective. For a call to action to succeed, you must provide the audience with the resources they need to get involved. Show readers how to be successful when engaging with the topic. For instance, if your writing project argues that citizens of a democracy have a unique political responsibility, you might conclude by encouraging readers to register to vote. Of if your essay posits the causes of global climate change, you might close the essay by telling the audience recycle more. If you do choose to conclude with a call to action, your tone and diction throughout the essay should be supportive and inspirational. Empower the audience by motivating them to act on the topic. Concessions Every argument is founded on an opinion, and as such, must allow room for dissenting opinions. This does not mean that every position has an opposite opinion of equal weight or value; many opinions are ill-informed, hastily-made, or otherwise unfounded or incomplete. Only arguments made in good faith—those founded on logic and with honorable intentions—express positions on which reasonable readers may disagree. Any valuable opinion of a topic on which others may take multiple reasonable positions provides a perspective supported by evidence. Arguments are often described as having “sides,” as if there were a physical demarcation of absolute positions sharing no overlap. However, when you consider how many sides there are to an argument, you might reconceptualize how you think of argument. If you want to get technical, the argument is the position itself—there could be layers of nuance and context packed into any given argument—so there are as many sides to an argumentative topic as there are viewpoints. That said, only creative, informed, reasonable, and substantial viewpoints are relevant to academic discourse. Because writing projects are limited in scope, you need not make concessions to every viewpoint; only the most-pertinent, relevant, or well-known positions require acknowledgement in your essay. When planning the breadth and depth of your concessions, take into consideration what readers knowledgeable with the topic will expect you to know and address in your writing. Concessions, while they may seem like they weaken your position, can actually help strengthen your credibility as a writer. Making small allowances to dissenting viewpoints suggests to readers that you have studied the topic comprehensively because the prominent arguments are known to you, or after reviewing other reasonable positions, you think yours is best. Thorough research should introduce you to multiple different positions on a topic. Sharing the most prominent or relevant of these viewpoints with readers will allow them to make up their own minds regarding your perspective on the topic. Including concessions to additional germane viewpoints shows that you regard the audience highly—that you trust them to take into account the information you provide and to understand the importance of your position. Furthermore, a commitment to your topic in light of the concessions you make suggests that throughout your research and the writing process, of all the different opinions you have encountered, you have determined this perspective to be the most important. Counterargument It will sometimes be necessary for you to not only acknowledge opposing viewpoints, but to offer a rebuttal to their claims. Refuting incorrect information or material demonstrates to readers that you are well-read on the topic and understand the applicable contexts and conversations surrounding it. When you craft a counterargument, address the key points of the initial claim. Do not gloss over or ignore glaring factual errors in favor of making your point. Look for incorrect information or material presented out of context that might make a perspective seem more attractive to readers. Call out errors where you see them. Ask yourself if the argument you seek to refute is balanced in its use of logos, ethos, and pathos. If it relies too heavily on any one of the vertices of the triangle, try looking for flaws in the approaches regarding the remaining two. It is possible that an argument which relies too heavily on emotion, for example, may not be supported by reason. Maybe you have even felt reluctant to donate old clothes or toys which you have outgrown, if only because they hold sentimental value. An effective counterargument expressly refutes the main point of an argument by providing evidence, rather than just offering an opposing viewpoint or attacking the argument or its arguer. If the argument you seek to refute is balanced in its use of logos, ethos, and pathos, instead look for logical fallacies in its reasoning. Logical Fallacies Logical fallacies are common flaws in reasoning. They appear time and again in popular writing and argumentation, even though they are easy to identify. Arguments that include logical fallacies may lean more heavily on appeals to pathos or emotionally-charged language than those without. Learning these common logical fallacies will help you identify lapses in reason in the arguments you want to refute and avoid using the same logical fallacies when developing your own argument. - Ad hominem: Discrediting an argument based on the character, morals, or values of the person making the argument is an ad hominem fallacy. The content of an argument should be considered apart from the individual making the argument. - Ad ignorantiam: An appeal to ignorance claims that because someone is unaware they are making a mistake, they are not actually making a mistake. Typically, ignorance of the law does not exempt one from its reach. - Ad populum: An appeal to the masses suggests that everyone is doing something, or that or everybody knows something to be the case. This fallacy may also suggest that because everyone does or believes something, that is reason enough to do or believe it. - Begging the Claim/Question: This fallacy assumes the premise of the position to be true before proving it to be or frames the conclusion as an accepted opinion without providing support. - Circular Reasoning: Circular reasoning—or circular logic—restates a position in support of itself. This fallacy typically includes vague diction or complex terminology which can confuse readers. - Either/Or or false dichotomy: These fallacies reduce an argument to only two positions. Because arguments derive from opinions, there are as many sides to an argument as there are reasonable perspectives (more than two). - Fallacy Fallacy: Just because an argument is fallacious, that does not mean its conclusion is false. An illogical construction can sometimes lead to a correct answer. For example, in mathematics, sometimes using the wrong formula or process will yield the correct results. - False Comparison/Moral Equivalence: Comparing unlike subjects results in skewed outcomes. Compare subjects of a similar type. - Gambler’s Fallacy: This fallacy purports that a recurring event will occur because it is “due,” even if all available evidence points to the contrary. The fallacy of thinking that one’s “time will come” leads some to follow illogical lines of reasoning. - Genetic Fallacy: Because a fault is expressed in someone’s genes, they are exempt from the repercussions of their decisions or actions. These fallacies tend to “run in the family” or “cannot be helped” because they are “in the genes.” - Naturalistic Fallacy: Because something is natural it is exceptional. Simply occurring naturally does not denote superiority over others of its kind. - Non sequitur: This is information or material that is not connected or related to the topic or argument in any way. - Post hoc ergo propter hoc: Simply because two events happen one after the other, that does not signal that the latter is a result of the former. Correlation is not causation. - Red Herring: A red herring diverts an argument by introducing a new argument, which may be only tangentially related to the first. Red herrings often appeal to ethos or pathos in order to elicit a response from readers. - Slippery Slope: A slippery slope is a causal argument made without the proof of definitive evidence. This fallacy claims that a relatively small step in a process will set off a causal chain of immense proportions. - Small Sample Size/Hasty Generalization: Information or material extrapolated from too little evidence, too few examples, or unrepresentative evidence leads to conclusions which may not be true or accurate. - Straw Man: A straw man reduces an opposing argument to a simplistic (and sometimes absurd) position, often out-of-line with the initial claim. This “straw man” is easily defeated with a simple counterargument. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 14 - Do not moralize your argument, or suggest that it is the only reasonable position on a topic - Do not insult or provoke readers you try to persuade - Make concessions early in the argument, then provide counterarguments and address logical fallacies - Wrap up the body paragraphs with the development of your position, or appeals Chapter 15: Evaluation People use evaluation every day, even in the seemingly-most-mundane ways. The stores we shop at, the restaurants where we eat—any service we employ—all are subject to reviews from their customers. When people make plans to go out to dinner, but are unsure of which restaurant to choose, they might turn to the internet to search for suggestions, menus, and reviews. After dinner, some might want to see a movie, so they again turn to their phones to seek out film-review websites or watch trailers for what is currently playing at the theater. After the film, everyone will consider their options, and decide whether or not to call it a night. If they want to continue the evening after the movie, some might open a mapping app to look for nearby suggestions, then filter the results according to the reviews left by other customers. At the end of the night, some might take a rideshare home and afterward give a rating to their driver online. In reading this scenario and asking yourself if this is a good or bad evening—or even laughing to yourself because you consider the whole paragraph a mess of terrible examples—you are practicing evaluation, or review. Evaluation is a means of assigning value to something. Because it requires analysis in support of its resulting judgment, evaluation is a higher-order concern which employs critical thinking. People may be more inclined to review something if they have a strong reaction to it. For example, if you have a negative experience with a retailer, you might be more-likely to post online or leave a review that outlines your situation. If you have a wonderful experience where an employee goes out of their way to help you, you may be more-likely to post online or contact the business to express your gratitude and see that the employee is recognized. On the other hand, if you have a typical shopping experience, you are unlikely to leave a review explaining what you consider to be normal. Reviews of different media—films, television programs, video games, books, comic books, whatever—as well as reviews of products and services provide readers with a rubric for assessment or a scale for measurement against similar media, products, and services. Recommendations and evaluations such as these help ensure that consumers make informed decisions, or do not waste their time, money, or energy on substandard practices. In this sense, reviews are practical in helping readers understand the worth of a given subject. For writers, reviews provide an opportunity to express what they think about a subject, and to explain to the audience why they believe a topic is important or valuable. Because evaluations help establish value, reviewers have an ethical responsibility to their audiences. While readers must always weigh for themselves the credibility of an authority, reviewers must work in good faith and do their best to present an unbiased and accurate evaluation. The value of a review may depend on the integrity of the reviewer, publication, or institution, so if the reviewer harbors any preference or tendency, they should make that explicit in their review. In evaluation the reviewer appeals to an ethos, or shared value system: - In class, instructors have a responsibility to their students to grade consistently, fairly, and impartially in accordance with established rubrics and standards - At work, employers have the responsibility to compensate their employees commensurate with experience or accomplishment and review their performances without bias - Online, influencers on social media like Instagram, Twitter, or Twitch have a responsibility to their audiences to divulge if they are being paid for their opinions, or if a post of theirs is sponsored. Because reviewers may exert influence on the subjects they review and the audiences for whom they write, reviewers have a responsibility to be equitable in their evaluations. In your courses, your instructors may ask you to write a review or an evaluation of a subject—a film, book, article, whatever—to press you to engage with the work. Examples of common classroom evaluations: - Conducting a survey crowd-sources a review to a larger group - Asking for a recommendation from a professor requires a brief, professional evaluation from a faculty member - Evaluating yourself or your work in an assignment - Participating in group discussion means evaluating the relevance of the material you wish to discuss, as well as the opinions of others - Concluding a course with an evaluation of the class and its instructor asks that you rate the quality of the course To write a relevant evaluation of something, build a context around the claim you make, establish criterion by which you will judge the subject, and provide evidence that supports your final position. Aa evaluation: - makes a statement about the author’s opinion of the subject’s value - explains the criterion that inform the author’s opinion on the subject - provides evidence in support of the claim or opinion (thesis statement) Context & Criterion To evaluate a subject or review something meaningfully, you must first have a thorough understanding of that subject so that you can identify to the audience how well it adheres to set criterion. Research the subject and acquaint yourself with the conversation around it. What you discover will become the context for your topic; the quantity and detail of the background information you need to include varies depending on your purpose, the medium in which you are writing, and the audience. Criterion are the points on which your judgments are founded. Some subjects have standards that are universally recognized or used in their evaluations, while others will require you to tailor your criterion specific to your purpose and audience. If you are reviewing something technical, specialized, or unique—something with which you believe readers will have had little experience—provide them with comparisons or benchmarks to subjects of similar types and kinds, or contrast them and explain the differences between your subject and others so that the audience can see the value in the criterion. Limit your scope when providing contextual information by including only information relevant to your criterion and audience. When considering how much context you will need to provide readers, consider that the audience may influence the criterion you choose to use in your evaluation. For example, if you were to review a film for two different audiences, you might choose criterion targeted to each group. In writing about a film for a class, you might critique artistic choices or technical aspects behind its creation, such as art direction, cinematography, or symbolism; however, were you recommending the same film to your friends for your next movie night, you might highlight the exciting action, realistic special effects, or memorable acting performances. An audience of your peers may respond differently to the content of your evaluation than an audience of parents of young children, for instance, who might care more about any violence or sex in the film than its use of special effects or the quality of its musical score. Films, television programs, and video games are all evaluated by their content, and adhere to a letter-and-number rating system to inform consumers. These same media are often screened and reviewed by critics who might judge the materials on different criterion entirely, and typically show audiences what they think using another rating system, such as stars, thumbs-up or thumbs-down, or a letter or number grade. If the subject is popular or widely known, it is unlikely you will have to provide much context. If the subject is specialized, however, you can make your evaluation accessible to a greater variety of audiences by including additional information, such as a summary, definitions of terminology unique to that subject, specific background details, or other specialized concerns. Whatever the scope of your context, it is vital to provide enough information to readers to demonstrate that you have an effective understanding of your subject. When writing a review, choose relevant criterion by which you will evaluate your subject. Limit your scope to only the most pressing concerns: similar types of reviews tend to focus on related criterion. Food critics, for instance, might care about the ingredients and techniques used to create a dish, as well as its presentation and the overall atmosphere and service of the restaurant. If you were to evaluate a dish or restaurant, you might consider modelling the criterion for your evaluation after those of successful food critics. Additional research may be necessary to find what major points you should raise in your review. Whatever you choose to include in your review, the audience must understand why the criterion you choose are important to the subject. The reasoning of your selections should not be a mystery for readers to uncover; one of your goals as a reviewer should be to instill within the audience trust in your judgment. Provide enough context so that readers can see the relevance of these criterion to your subject by adequately defining and explaining the value of those criterion. Standards for criterion may be quantitative or qualitative, though most successful evaluations use a mix of both. Quantitative criteria are concerned with the amount, capacity, variety, or quantity, of relevant aspects of the subject, whereas qualitative criterion care about the caliber, condition, nature, or quality, of relevant aspects of the subject. Where quantitative criterion can typically be measured and tend to appeal to reason, qualitative criterion may be more subjective, or experienced. Qualitative values can appeal to an ethos shared with the audience. You might first establish a criterion by which to judge your subject, and then provide examples of your subject’s qualities that reflect that version of your criterion. Some simple questions you can ask that may help you determine criterion: - Has your subject succeeded or failed? - Can it be improved? - Are there alternatives? The criterion you select for your evaluation will also inform your opinion on the subject. As you begin drafting your evaluation, choose criterion that matter to your perspective when reviewing your subject, state the conclusion of your evaluation in your thesis, and support your claim with evidence. Evidence For each criterion you use to evaluate your subject, you will need to include enough evidence to support the reasoning of your evaluation. Throughout your research, you will encounter a great deal of evidence that supports your evaluation of the subject, but because you cannot include it all in your work, you must consider what kinds of and how much evidence is necessary for best communicating with readers your perspective on the topic. In order to accept any evaluation as reasonable, the audience will need to see evidence that explains your rationale. If incorporating quantitative evidence, the material may speak for itself. Be objective, balanced, fair, in your evaluation, and include all relevant examples as they appear in your subject. If relying on qualitative evidence, develop your position relative to common standards and explain to readers how the evidence stacks up against the outlined criterion. For example, what—in your opinion—makes a good burrito? Should it be filling? Cheap? Both? For example, evaluating where you might move is a larger decision that figuring out where you might eat for dinner. Choosing to relocate requires far more research and consideration, as well as more criterion, than deciding what to eat. Anticipate the needs of the audience by establishing yourself as a credible reviewer. Use your introduction to become an authority on your subject. Demonstrate your knowledge and experience with the subject by referencing similar examples, your credentials, or specific information that establishes you as the authority. Let readers know that your evaluation matters, show them what makes your evaluation sufficient, and convince them that your evaluation can lead to a deeper exploration of the subject. TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 15 - Use like reviews for like kinds - How many grapples is a plumbus worth? - What’s the conversion rate of Schrute Bucks to Stanley Nickels? - Do not neglect established criterion: standard qualitative criterion are usually employed for a reason, even if that reason is not immediately clear Chapter 16: Synthesis Research is a reliable method to find an answer you seek. Imagine you had a friend visiting from out of town and they wanted to get the best slice of pizza in town. Would you know exactly where to take them? How might you know that, or—if you do not know—how would you find out where the best piece of pizza is? Would you have to ask around? If you think you know the answer, first ask yourself what makes you qualified to provide such an evaluation to your friend. If you have eaten a variety of pizzas with different combinations of crusts and toppings, then you may be a knowledgeable critic. If, however, you have yet to eat at every pizza restaurant in town or have not sampled a substantial quantity of pizzas from each establishment, your opinion may be ill-informed or lacking authority. It is entirely possible that your friend may judge pizzerias by an entirely different set of criteria than your own, and what you may think amazing, they may consider pedestrian. Faced with this new looming doubt about the power of your pizza palate, you may turn to the internet for a quick search and sort the returns by rating, but what does that rating really tell readers? Who are these reviewers, and are their opinions relevant? In desperation, you might ask around your friends for their suggestions, and finding them varied and unhelpful, turn to scouring old newspaper clippings on microfiche in the basement of the local library, seeking out old food reviews in the musings of the retired local food critic of the town’s now-shuttered newspaper. Or you might begin your own research endeavor, your own analysis. In order to answer the question, you might first establish what makes “the best slice in town” the best. Sketch out a series of criterion, then hit the bricks and begin your research, taking notes throughout your quest to discover the smallest, dingiest pizza dives and their offerings. Only after you feel you have collected enough evidence to make your case, can you compile your notes and draw any conclusions. Finally, offer your very-patient friend a recommendation based on your exhaustive research and examination. Or, your town might have only one pizza place, making this a relatively easy request to fulfil. If you were to write a recommendation based on this research process—seeking out information from online reviews, the opinions of your friends, historical news documents, and your own personal investigations—that recommendation would consist of a synthesis of the materials you examined and the experiences you had. In academic writing, a synthesis is a combination of elements assembled for an express purpose. This composition of components—the evidence and rhetorical strategies you employ in your essay—adds, blends, or incorporates credible voices into your own as a speaker in the larger conversation on a topic. The materials you choose to include and the methods you use to share them with readers steer the conversation, help readers see the topic from your perspective, and shape how the audience engages with the topic. Research is not simply compiling a list of facts or sources that support your position; research is the process through which you seek out and learn new information. Researching throughout the writing process will keep you actively engaged with your materials and the topic. When you seek out sources, you are likely to come across information that you already know, but you are sure to uncover new ideas, as well. Rethinking your topic in light of new information will help direct revision. Even actions as small as reading the headnote or looking up information about the author and title you are about to read can lead to changes in perspective. Rethinking is often complementary to research—as you learn about something new, you may begin to view it from a different position—your opinion is shaped as you process new information. Writing a Research Essay A research essay is essentially an expository or argumentative essay that employs methodical documentation and support of an examination of a topic from a reasonable perspective. A research essay presents readers with a synthesis of relevant information on which the main points of the position are grounded. Brainstorming ideas for a research topic may reveal to you how you conceptualize that topic. Generating a lot of material early on seems like a good place from which to start, but choosing your own topic for a research essay is not merely a matter of selecting a topic on which you think you can write the most; you should choose a research topic about which you want to learn more and about which you can spend a lot of time reading without getting bored. Consider choosing a topic based on something that affects your life. If you have a personal connection to the topic, you may feel more compelled to read and write about it. Think about your familiarity with the topic and ask yourself what it is you want to know more about regarding the topic and why. Use these early inquiries to guide your initial searches. Focus the Scope of Your Topic A single-word topic is too vague to research thoroughly and may overwhelm you if the scope of your research is too general. Early in the research process you will have to narrow your focus, or else you might find all your time consumed by finding and reading sources. You can focus the scope of your topic in many ways, and two of the simplest limiting factors are by time and location. Consider looking at your topic through either an historical or a contemporary lens. You might cap research to a particular time period, examine change over time, or even look toward the future. In terms of location, you might regulate the scope of your topic by looking at it geographically, in an individual locale. Examine the micro or macro: restrict your research to small regions, compare or contrast them against one another, or examine the topic’s relevance to your own community. When outlining the scope of your topic, keep in mind how your purpose and target audience may shape your perspective, the details and contexts you need to fully explore your position, and how you wish to communicate your thoughts to readers. Consider the depth and breadth of materials you will need when thinking about why and for whom are you writing. Establish a context through which to view that topic. Provide readers with enough relevant background and contextual information that they can see the topic from your perspective. When you begin researching the topic, look for current discussions, different perspectives, various voices, updates, or changes in understanding. Seek “newness” and apply these contexts to your perspective. Ask a Research Question Formulate a question you want your research to answer. The more specific your question is, the more focused your research will be. With that in mind, do not feel as if your question is unalterable or that your perspective cannot change while researching. As you begin to answer your research question, your position may shift, and you may want to ask a new question entirely. You can always ask follow-up questions, where you can narrow your focus with ever-more-specific queries. Answer that Question Thoroughly Through Research This is an inductive principle. After gathering large quantities of information, you will have to sift through all of it to build the narrative you wish readers to see. Select ideas that will help you answer your research question then synthesize them into your own unifying idea as definitive working thesis statement. Incorporating what you find into you work helps readers answer your research question. Make a Research Schedule Plan how you will spend the weeks leading up to the due date, including time for writing and revision. It is best to invest a lot of time at the outset of the writing project in choosing your own topic and seeking out a variety of resources. Not only will gathering these sources early give you the time you need to read and adequately assess them, if you change your research question, you will have enough time to complete the project than if you had procrastinated in finding sources. There is no guarantee that the materials you find will be useful, or even relevant to your topic. If you feel that the sources you discover in the research process do not fit well with the topic or your perspective, you will have to return to the drawing board and seek out new sources. It is unlikely you will be able to read through all the materials that you find in the short amount of time that you have to complete the writing project. Search through the tables of contents and glossaries of the texts, which direct you to pertinent chapters or sections and help you decide whether the source is valuable or not. Give yourself additional time to reread and annotate the resources you find useful, as well as time to draft, and revise your writing project. Here is an example of a simple 4-week schedule that focuses on setting goals: Date \| Portion of Project to be Completed \| Nov 4th \| Submit Research Proposal \| Nov 5-7th \| Find 4 Scholarly Sources, Read/Take Notes \| Nov 7-9th \| Find 4 Other Sources, Read/Take Notes \| Nov 10-11th \| Write Annotated Bibliography \| Nov 11th \| Submit Annotated Bibliography (By 11:59pm) \| Nov 12-14th \| Create Outline of Ideas \| Nov 15th \| Draft Intro and Pages 1-3 \| Nov 16-17th \| Draft Pages 4-7 \| Nov 18-20th \| Draft Remaining Pages/Double Check Works Cited Pages \| Nov 21-24th \| Review and Edit Paper \| Nov 25th \| Submit Paper \| Here is a more narrative-style work plan with notes for the student to remember while working: Work Plan October 27th- Become well versed on this topic and start reading resources to pick and learn from October 29th- November 3rd- Begin drafting proposal, print out questions and answer with notes first, then type up formal response. November 4th- Submit Research Proposal after getting someone to read over it for typos November 4th-7th- Find 4 scholarly sources to use for paper, read and take notes. Don’t forget to write down works cited information. November 6th-11th- Start writing annotated bibliography, do not wait until last minute as it will take a lot of time!! November 7th-8th- Find 4 more sources to use for paper, read and take notes November 9th-10th- Write annotations for final 4 sources. This should be easy by now. November 11th- Submit annotated bibliography after having someone look over citations November 12th- Decide what quotes from my annotated bib sources I want to use in the paper. November 13-15th- Make an outline by topic. Draft working thesis statement. Think about the “Call to Action” at the end. Start drafting. November 16th-20th- Continue to draft. Incorporate sources. Keep running Works Cited page. November 21st-23rd- Should be at conclusion by now. Keep reading from beginning to ensure it flows. Check in-text citations for page numbers. November 24th- Should be finished drafting and ready to comb over the paper carefully. Have 2 people read it. November 25th- One last look over the whole thing. Submit research paper! Sources In your writing projects, a source is something from which you can obtain information or knowledge. Sources support the points you make, providing proof, offering examples, and illustrating your opinions. Synthesize a variety of reliable sources into each writing project to show readers a consensus on a point or demonstrate that your perspective is founded on evidence. Establish for the audience your credibility as a researcher and as a thinker by including in your work accurate information from reliable sources. The materials you include in support of your position should be current and relevant to the topic, speak from authoritative positions, and fit with the overall purpose for the writing project. Valuable sources testify to the reliability of your research—and by extension, thinking. Both the way you search for information and the terms you use in that pursuit can lead you to a range of diverse sources. Some of the information you encounter would work for an informal project but will almost-certainly appear questionable or unconvincing in an academic writing project. Selecting the right sources to use in an essay requires careful synthesis, and even further research into what the sources say, and also into the sources themselves. Sources can be trained or popular, primary or secondary. Trained sources are typically professional, scholarly, or otherwise experienced publications such as journals or periodicals that are peer-reviewed, meaning that a group of experts in the field has evaluated the material prior to its publication. These sources, written by trained specialists, often contain the most up-to-date research and thinking and are usually more thorough and technical than their popular counterparts. Popular sources are largely non-academic, published more frequently, and intended for general audiences. They are frequently written by laymen, or writers who may have conducted some research, but are not considered specialists in the field. News periodicals, such as newspapers, websites, and magazines are examples of popular sources which are generally both more accessible and easier to understand than professional sources. Primary sources are the original sources of information, such as authentic documents, personal journals or diaries, contemporaneous witness accounts, or field or laboratory research. Secondary sources, such as books, essays, and journal articles are those that discuss, interpret, and analyze primary sources. The difference between what counts as a primary and a secondary source will vary depending on your topic and the scope of your research. Writing an essay on the violence depicted in a video game, for example, would mean the game itself would be the primary source, and any published criticism of the game would count as a secondary source. Writing a summary of an individual video game critic’s published work, however, would make each of that reviewer’s written critiques a primary source. When you encounter a source that you think will be valuable to your writing project, make a note to yourself how the source helps to answer your research question. Is it trained or popular? Primary or secondary? Did you do any additional research into the source itself? Can you corroborate its information with another reliable source? When you begin drafting the essay later, annotations like these can help you organize your work. Finding Sources It can be intimidating trying to begin a research project. Just getting started is the hardest part for many. If you know that you would like to write about regarding a topic, but do not know the specifics of that topic or have yet to define your perspective on it, consider a quick search on your phone or computer for a brief outline of the conversation. Staring at a blinking cursor will probably not yield any tangible results, but opening your research with a few terms in the search bar of your browser is a reasonable place to begin finding sources. While the results of your initial search may not be reliable, accurate, current, or even useful in your writing project, they will provide a quick overview of the topic and an overview of the larger conversation and contexts. The links you find may be predictable, as well: typing a one- or two-word phrase into the search bar results in familiar links to wikis, popular news sources, and products for sale. If you begin your research into a topic this way, do not feel obligated to use only the first few results your search returns. Many search engines return results containing tailored news stories, targeted advertisements, sponsored content, or display results based on their popularity rather than their relevance or accuracy. Engaging with the research process means sometimes meeting the material on its terms. Go to the LRC! Use the library. The SCC library is right here on campus and a great place to find useful and credible information. The LRC has a multitude of research materials available, though some may be available only at the library itself. If you do not want to go to the LRC in person, call or visit the website, linked on the school’s website, your course Canvas page, and SCC portal, where you can chat with research librarians. Check out the online catalog by using the search bar on the LRC’s homepage. There you can search for books, articles, or a combined search of all the LRC’s materials. Many of the returns from your searches will be accessible to you online, though some materials will be accessible only on campus or via MOBIUS. The reference section of the LRC is located on the first floor, and contains the encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauruses, and other published records and archives. - Ask for help from the wonderful reference librarians. They are superhuman searching machines who can help you find useful credible information to synthesize into your writing projects. - Talk to your instructor. They may have placed texts or materials on hold at the LRC, or if they may be able to recommend further reading on the topic. Off campus, your local library can be a fantastic resource as well. It is likely their book collection will differ from that of the LRC, so you may be able to find additional sources on your topic there. Also, they may have subscriptions or access to more databases or materials that can supplement your research. Evaluating Sources Selecting the best sources to synthesis into your work means evaluating your selections as you research the topic. Even before you begin reading a source, you can do a little preliminary research into the author, the publication, or the publisher. Going into a reading with a bit of context will help you engage actively with the source and evaluate its usefulness in your writing project. CRAAP is a useful mnemonic device used to help remember a series of questions you can employ to evaluate the quality of a potential source: - Currency – How recently was the source published? Is it up to date with current thinking? - Relevance – Is the source useful to your position? - Accuracy – How correct or precise is the information included in the source? - Authority – What credentials does the author/publication have that would allow them to write on/publish the topic? - Purpose – Was the source written/published with intent? Not only must you question whether or not the source itself is valuable, you must also consider its connection to your topic and the position you are taking in the essay. Ask yourself if the source contributes anything to your purpose. You should not try to force a source into your work just because you have found it, or because it is a notable publication or author; instead, include only selections that are strictly relevant to your topic and the positions you adopt in your essay. If a source used in your writing is incompatible with material around it, readers may misunderstand your meaning or become confused. Additional questions you might ask yourself when evaluating a source for use in your essay: - Is the source too technical for general audiences? Can you paraphrase the material? - Is the stance of the source inconsistent with your position? Can you use the source in a concession or counterargument? - Is the source necessary in your essay? Would another source better suit your purpose or audience? Annotating Sources As you collect and evaluate sources, keep track of their publication information. Initially, you may not select a source immediately after finding it, but after more research, or after changing your research question, you may want to return to that source later. Bookmark websites and write down the call numbers of books in the library to keep tabs on your resources as you move through the research process. Locate sources within larger publications and make note of where those sources are located. If you stay on top of annotations early in the writing process, you will easily complete the Works Cited page at its close. As you whittle down the number of sources you plan to synthesize into your work, print out electronic resources and make photocopies of and print materials so that you can take notes on the sources themselves. As you read and reread these sources, the highlights, underlined phrases, and other markings you leave on the page will help you construct your essay in the drafting stage of the writing process. If your writing project requires a works cited page, an annotated works cited page, a works consulted page, a bibliography, or any other documentation of your source material. keeping detailed records of your sources—and writing brief summaries of what you find in them—will help you construct it. Synthesizing Sources After you have collected, read, reread, and annotated your sources, you can begin to incorporate them into your writing project. Refer to your sources as examples or integrate them into your writing in support of your position. Combine your thoughts and words with those of others to inform a position, similar to forming Voltron, or assembling the Avengers or Justice League: your opinion is stronger synthesized with support. In academic writing, it is common to incorporate sources through summary, paraphrase, and quotation; any time you synthesize the thoughts or words of another in your work, you must include alongside it an attribution. Summary A summary distills a piece of writing down to its most-important points. Summarizing something invokes active reading, as you must analyze and evaluate the text to determine what material is pertinent or valuable. Engaging with the text like this requires you to pare away unnecessary information. Do not make the common mistake of restating everything in the original: a summary is not a synopsis. Limit the scope of summary to a recap of the material’s most-important points. Typically, summaries are written to be as objective as possible. As such, the major points you see in a piece of writing should be easily observable to others—that is to say, a summary should not provide a unique insight into the material—the summary should represent a factual retelling of the most-pertinent information. Even so, in selecting what you believe to be the major points or the ideas most-relevant to the topic and your perspective, you are engaging with the source subjectively. To that end, a summary should read as if it has been written by its author. When you summarize information in your work, do so in your own voice. Maintain the tone you have established throughout the draft and continue with your own diction. It is important that you are highly-selective if you choose to repeat key words, phrases, or sentence-structures from the original source, though it is best to avoid incorporating any of these into your own writing to maintain your own voice. When you summarize material from a source, you must also let readers know where you found that material. You can either incorporate its publication information into the text itself using an attributive tag, and/or you can include a parenthetical reference at the end of the summarized material. Paraphrase Paraphrase is similar to summary in that you rewrite the original material into your own words. Unlike summary, however, paraphrase requires that you reword all the material, rather than just its main points. In this light, paraphrase is most akin to translation: doing your best to explain to readers what someone else is saying or writing while using your own words. Paraphrase is a powerful demonstration of active reading skills because in order to translate something effectively, you must not only read it, but truly grasp what it means within an established frame of reference. Your ability to rephrase material in your own voice represents your thorough understanding of the information and its contexts. Because paraphrase includes all of the material, and not only the main points, paraphrase is typically limited to shorter excerpts. It can be time-consuming and cumbersome to paraphrase large selections or passages. Were you to paraphrase a paragraph, for example, your paraphrase would contain all the same information as the original, and would likely be similar in size and function, leaving little room to add your opinion or analysis. Just as with summary, you should paraphrase only in your own voice. Maintain the tone and diction you have established in your draft, do not repeat key words, phrases, or sentence structures from the original. And, just like summary, paraphrase requires that you give credit to the original source. You can include publication information in the text itself using an attributive tag, and/or include a parenthetical reference at the end of the paraphrased material. Quotation Quotation is borrowing exact material from the source and incorporating it directly into your essay with no changes in the material from the original. Incorporation is key to using quotation successfully in an essay. Similar to how summary and paraphrase ask you to put material in your own words without disrupting the flow of the essay, when you include a quotation into your work, it must fit into your writing accordingly. Even though you are copying the original material word-for-word, character-for-character, you must still understand what the quote means and the context in which it is used to successfully synthesize it into your work. Additionally, it should fit with the flow, or coherence, of your voice. Because it is sometimes difficult to put a quotation into the correct context without a lot of background information, quotation should be used sparingly and with great care. Whenever you include material borrowed directly from a source, readers should know who the author of that material is and from where you are borrowing it. Sometimes that means including introductions to material or providing additional context before including the quotation in your essay. Topic Sentence → Quotation → Relevance Introduction → Citation → Explanation Topic Sentence/ Introduction \| Throughout the book series Harry Potter written by J.K. Rowling, Harry looks to Professor Dumbledore for advice and guidance. \| Quotation/ Citation \| At the end of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Dumbledore tells Harry, “It is our choices, Harry, that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities” (Rowling 245). \| Relevance/ Explanation \| Dumbledore stresses to Harry that even though he shares many characteristics with Lord Voldermort and has the potential to be a dark wizard, if he continues to choose light and goodness, he will never be like Voldermort. \| How to Do the Relevance or Explanation: After introducing and citing the passage, you will need to explain the significance: How might this author’s idea relate to my thesis? How does this data add to what I am trying to prove in this paragraph? Why am I putting this quotation in my paper? What am I trying to show here? Never leave any room for interpretation. It is your responsibility as the writer to interpret the information for your reader and identify its significance. Remember, a quote does not speak for itself or prove anything on its own. That is your job! Attribution Attributive tags, or signal phrases, are phrases that identify to readers the author or creator of the material you synthesize into your work. The most basic attributive tags include simply the author’s name and a verb. For example, Fonzie says, “Sit on it!” In this case, the name Fonzie and the verb says show the reader know who is speaking the phrase. In place of the speaker’s name, you might instead employ metonymy, refer to their credentials, or construct a phrase that alerts readers to the speaker’s identity, qualifications, credibility, or other notable information. For example, instead of referring to the president by name, you may simply write: “The president tweeted,” or “A tweet from the White House reads…” Similarly, you might first name author J.K. Rowling in your writing project and then refer to her as “the award-winning author” in the paragraph thereafter. When choosing a verb for a signal phrase, “says” is maybe the most universal. But it is also terribly overused and incredibly nondescript. While says conveys to readers that someone is speaking, it does not provide the audience the tone of voice or attitude that the speaker uses. Instead of using this boring verb, try using verbs that match the tone of your essay, or otherwise highlight the purpose or point of including the synthesized information in your work. Examples of signal phrases and attributive tags: Adds \| Claims \| Contends \| Endorses \| Notes \| Reveals \| Admits \| Comments \| Considers \| Finds out \| Observes \| Says \| Agrees \| Compares \| Denies \| Illustrates \| Points \| Shows \| Argues \| Concedes \| Declares \| Implies \| Predicts \| Suggests \| Asserts \| Describes \| Disputes \| Insists \| Refutes \| Thinks \| Believes \| Concludes \| Emphasizes \| Maintains \| Responds \| Warns \| Other Sources: Interviews If you want to incorporate some additional information into your essay, consider an interview with an expert, or someone who is intimately familiar with your topic. Look to accessible professionals, experts, and public officials before friends and family. Of course, friends and family can make good interview subjects—and may even be the reason why you have selected a topic—although they might not always be suitable subject for an interview on the topic of your writing project. Matching schedules can be difficult and asking for someone’s time can be daunting. Be flexible and allow yourself plenty of time to conduct interviews and follow-ups in your research schedule. If you change your perspective during the research process, you may want to return to your interview for follow-up questions or clarification. Begin with a little preliminary research into your interview subject. Ask yourself why you are interviewing this particular subject, and what you hope to learn from your interview. Before you go into the interview, find out some background information on the subject of your interview and look for connections between your subject and the topic. You may be able to use this information to help shape your questions. Write out your questions ahead of time but know that they may change as you conduct the interview. Plan ahead—it is great to have too many questions rather than too few. It is far easier to forego any superfluous questions as time allows than it is to try and ask thoughtful questions in the moment. Consider writing some follow-up questions ahead of time, so if your subject is willing to expand on a question, you are prepared to continue with that line of query. Avoid questions that can be answered in a single word and ask follow-up questions to their answers to generate more-specific responses. Do not let your subject respond only with generic or simplistic answers. You have chosen this subject for a reason, so get the information you seek from them. If you can, digitize or record (audio/visual) the interview so you can review the material and quote your source directly. Take detailed notes throughout your interview and review them afterward. Fill out any abbreviations or quick annotations immediately after you conclude so that you do not forget their meaning. Finally, listen to or read over your interview and annotate it. Look for opportunities to synthesize it into your work. \| TIPS AND NOTES: SECRETS AND POWER-UPS FOR CHAPTER 16 - When researching at your local library, note that the classification system may differ to the LRC’s: Dewey Decimal System vs. Library of Congress - If you’ve summarized a large amount of material from a source in a single paragraph, end that paragraph with the parenthetical reference - You need not necessarily summarize or paraphrase a source in its publication order: feel free to mix information up (so long as it still makes sense)—if you think you could organize the material more effectively, don’t hesitate. - If you choose to include a quotation, you may make alterations to it only so that it fits grammatically within your work. Any changes you make to the original must be noted on the page. - Changes to quotations - [including words] - Making omissions… - You might also take note of indirect quotations, or quotations within quotations (qtd. in)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.559661	Corey Porter	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84317/overview", "title": "The Working Writer: An Open Composition Textbook", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105770/overview	Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Template Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. How To Remix This Template OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Once logged in, click the remix button on this resource to make your own version of this template. Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. Delete this section and instructions in other sections before publishing. When you are ready to publish, click next to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click publish. Action Plan Both OER and open pedagogy helped my class to bring materials that were more accessible and representative of students' experiences. One of the open pedagogy elements I used in my class was a liquid syllabus (https://sites.google.com/view/esl-a100-liquid-syllabus?usp=sharing) which presented the information in a web-based manner, engaging students and allowing students to navigate through the document more readily. Also, by having a liquid syllabus, I was able to incorporate images that communicated an antiracist and more inclusive environment in my class. OER, on the other hand, allowed me to bring in videos such as "The Danger of a Single Story" by Chimamanda Ngozi Adeche and other open-access materials that are more representative of the experiences of a wide range of students beyond what is traditionally featured in college-reader-type books, normally used in college composition courses. Course Description ESL A100: College Composition Course Description ESL A100 is a transfer-level course, equivalent to English 100, designed to provide additional linguistic support to students. This course focuses on the instruction and practice of essay writing, critical reading and analytical, and polishing of sentence structure, tone and voice. We will also work on helping you develop research skills and practices to incorporate information from researched sources as supporting evidence. Students will be required to spend three hours per semester in the OCC Writing Center, Instructor’s Office Hours, or other equivalent revision activities as determined by the instructor. Learning Outcomes: At the end of the semester, students who have successfully completed this course will be able to: Articulate clear, logical, and adequately supported ideas in an in-class essay that is effectively organized and satisfactorily edited, using correct sentence structure. Demonstrate comprehension of college-level readings by annotating and using them in essays and research-based paper Link to Liquid Syllabus This is the link to my liquid syllabus: https://sites.google.com/view/esl-a100-liquid-syllabus?usp=sharing Antiracist Assignment / Module This module culminated in students writing a persuasive paper that asked them to challenge a stereotype or misconception they have experienced firsthand. We discussed three texts in preparation for this writing assignment. The video "The Danger of a Single Story" by Chimananda Ngozi Adeche provided the core concept they would explore in their essays--the dangers of a single story and our responsibility to "complete the story." We also read the prologue of Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez and examined social labels. We discussed how we identify ourselves and our reactions to the labels others impose on us. Lastly, we analyzed how Ronald Takaki structured his argument in "The Hamful Myth of Asian Superiority." Students modeled their argument after his.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.612886	06/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105770/overview", "title": "Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Template", "author": "Marely Cervantes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83529/overview	The Research Project Overview This is a prompt for the final draft of a research paper following a semester of formative assignments focusing on source evaluation and information literacy. The Research Project The Research Project - Deadline: TBA Purpose The purpose of this assignment is to take the feedback you have received for multiple drafts and to finalize a persuasive argumentative research paper. Because this is a position paper, you must argue for one side of a debatable claim. Remember that the topic of debate must be one which rational people can disagree on. Because your audience is, at best, a skeptical one, you must address the counter-arguments those on the other side will raise. To persuade people from that audience, you must include a variety of sources from across the spectrum for your debatable topic. Based on the above instructions, you have much leeway in choosing your topic. That said, you may not write about the following topics. Abortion Euthanasia Arguing for the validity of a conspiracy theory These are off the table either because of the rancorous nature of debate that often accompanies them or how often these are written about. You are encouraged to write about a topic you care about, but one which you can also take a step back from and view objectively. Over the semester, you've worked on refining your writing. For this essay, you are seeking to demonstrate why your position in the debate is, if not entirely correct, then stronger than other positions. Skills The skills you will sharpen in this assignment include: Formulating a narrowed thesis statement that argues for one side (a position) of a rational debate. Organizing your thoughts into a consecutive paragraphs. Incorporating credible, reliable, and authoritative sources to support your claims. Critical thinking about those sources (analysis and evaluation and synthesis). Citing all borrowed information per MLA requirements in both signal phrases and in-text citations, and in corresponding works cited entries. Presenting your paper according to MLA formatting. Writing in a formal, academic voice. Considering the needs of your audience. Task By this point, you have received feedback from your instructor and peers on two rough drafts, focusing on your arguments, use of sources, and grammar and mechanics. To complete this assignment, you must: Revise your rough draft based on the feedback about your argument that you agree with. Revise the thesis for clarity and accuracy. Make sure it accurately previews all of the major parts of your debatable position. Revise body paragraphs to ensure each connects to a part of the thesis statement. Revise the conclusion to ensure it brings a sense of closure to your argument without raising any entirely new claims. Revise for lapses out of an academic voice. Revise for missing or rough transitions between body paragraphs. Revise paragraphs to ensure all are coherent and unified Revise MLA documentation to ensure every source is properly credited both in the paper itself and in corresponding works cited entries. Revise any grammatical issues. Requirements The final draft must be at least 1,250 words, not including the Works Cited page. The final draft must incorporate at least five (5) sources throughout it. At least three (3) of these sources must come from the library's databases, and they must be from credible and reputable authors and publications. The remaining two (2) sources may come from non-library resources, but these must also be credible, reputable, accurate, and relevant to your topic. The final draft must be typed in plain 12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial), using 1" margins. No cover page is necessary; instead, use the standard MLA heading. Submit the final draft as a single file, with the Works Cited page being the last page(s) of the paper.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.632126	07/13/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83529/overview", "title": "The Research Project", "author": "Mike Kiggins" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18442/overview	Oregon Science Project Hybrid Module #2 - Talk & Equity Overview The Oregon Science Project Module #2 is designed for K-12 and nonformal educators who want to learn more about NGSS, with an emphasis on the central role student discourse and talk play in the K-12 NGSS classroom. It is designed to provide 3-4 hours of work and asks learners to create something new to contribute to the work. Who talks and why? Engaging All Students Why Is Science Talk Important? Individual Work Module #2 Components: Task #1 - Why is Science Talk Important? Individual Work Task #2 - Why is Science Talk Important? Group Reflection and Discussion Task #3 - What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Individual Work Task #4 - What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Group Reflection and Discussion Task #5 - How Do We Increase Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Individual Work Task #6 - How Do We Increase Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Group Reflection and Discussion On Your Own: Components: Readings, visuals, and survey response to prepare for Task #2 Relevance: Choose between primary, elementary, and secondary options Preparation: This individual work portion prepares you to engage in reflective discussion with a small group in Task #2 Questions driving our work together in this module: Q: Why is it important to engage all of our students in science talk? Q: How do students engage in talk during science in your classroom (what protocols, norms, or framing do you use)? Q: How would you like them to engage? Students' attitude, motivation, and identity grealy impact how, and if, they participate productively in science in the classroom. The impact of these traits on student learning vary greatly K-12. Research also shows that it is the teacher's framing of the classroom that is essentail for promoting students' feeling of belonging and participation necessary for them to share their ideas and make their thinking public. "I can do science." "I want to do science." "I belong." Please click on the resources below that best relate to your practice and interests. As you engage with them, think about how you frame your classroom to promote productive participation for your students, and what is needed to include more students. You will need to use these resources to complete Survey #1 at the end of this task below. Once you have completed that survey, you can proceed to Task #2. Primary Resources to Complete this Task Upper Elementary Resources to Complete this Task Secondary Resources to Complete this Task Survey #1 - complete after engaging with relevant resources Why is Science Talk Important? Group Reflection and Discussion In A Small Group: Components: Survey with question prompts to drive reflective discussion. Every person completes their own survey. Relevance: Although the resources vary by grade level, this group task is not grade-level specific. Bring your thinking and reflections from Task 1 so you are ready to contribute to the group discussion. Please collaboratively complete the survey by discussing questions together as each of you fills out your own survey. Survey #2 Why is Science Talk Important? Group Reflection and Discussion What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Individual Work No survey On Your Own: Components: Grade-appropriate video examples and resources (NO SURVEY) Relevance: Choose between primary, elementary, and secondary options Preparation: This individual work portion prepares you to engage in reflective group discussion "Instruction can be designed in ways that foster a positive orientation toward science and promote productive participation in science classrooms. Such approaches include offering choice, providing meaningful tasks and an appropriate level of challenge, giving students authority over their learning while making sure their work can be examined by others, and making sure they have access to the resources they need to evaluate their claims and communicate them to others." - Taking Science to School. Questions from prior work continues to drive your discussion and should be considered as you engage with the materials below: Q: Why is it important to engage all of our students in science talk? Q: How do students engage in talk during science in your classroom (what protocols, norms, or framing do you use)? Q: How would you like them to engage? Please select the grade level that is most relevant for your practice and watch all video segments and engage with any readings or articles. Be ready to bring your observations and questions to your small group discussion in Task #4. As you engage, make connections to your own practice and your vision for increased productive participation by more of your students. Primary Grades Upper Elementary Talk Moves Primer (read pages 7-11) Secondary Discourse Primer (read pages 5-14 paying attention to "discourse moves") There is no survey for this task. Be ready to engage in active discussion around what talk looks like for the next task. What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Group Reflection and Discussion In A Small Group: Components: Survey with question prompts to drive reflective discussion. Every person completes their own survey. Relevance: Although the resources vary by grade level, this group task is not grade-level specific. As a small group, please collaboratively complete the survey by discussing questions together as each of you fills out your own survey. Be sure to bring in your impressions, observations, and wonderings prompted by the resources in Task #3. Survey #3 Group Reflection and Individual Survey How Do We Increase Student Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Individual Work On Your Own: Components: Blog post reading, task analysis survey, exploration of gradeband NGSS storylines Preparation: This individual work portion prepares you to engage in reflective group discussion When we think of framing we are referring to "a set of expectations an individual has about the situation in which she finds herself that affects what she notices and how she thinks to act." - Resources, Framing, and Transfer Please read this short blog post comparing two different classrooms using the idea of framing to set the context for student exploration, learning, and understanding of what they are learning in science as envisioned by the NGSS. Look at these norms and think of your own classroom. As you set the context and frame your classroom for productive participation, look closely to see how you are asking students to productively participate. Below is an example from the Inquiry Project where teachers worked collaboratively when approaching their students to develop norms for equitable participation. Please complete this task analysis survey below on your own by imagining a hypothetical group of students. Please consider a group of students engaged in the task who are similar to students you work with in your own practice. How can the NGSS practices guide planning for rich language use and development by students? One tool that can help us is a task analysis process. Please read the first pages of a relevant grade and/or core idea storyline below in preparation to think about a relevant task to create and analyze that could provide opportunities for productive participation by students by engaging them in NGSS practices. Remember, the task should be very small requiring only 10-20 minutes of work by students. Any larger grain size of task and the task analysis is no longer a useful tool. We are having you use the storyline as a tool because it covers the core ideas of your grade(s) and lets us connect to our ideas of hands-on explorations. You are also welcome to go further into the documents and work from a performance expectation, but the task for this must be at a very small grain size in comparison to the gigantic performance expectations. You will be crafting the task with the support of your small group in Task #5. NGSS Storylines How Do We Increase Student Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Group Reflection and Discussion In a Small Group: Components: Two surveys to drive reflection and creation. Collaboratively complete Survey #4. Utilizing your experience learning more about framing, productive partcipation norms, and task analysis please collaboratively go through Survey #4 below. One at a time each participant should share their draft ideas for a task they planned on their own in Task 5. You will submit your task (remember small grain size!) on this survey and you will be able to see others' tasks as well. Survey #4: Collaborative Survey for Task Creation Here is an image of the 3 dimensions to quickly reference as you create your tasks. Collaboratively complete Survey #5. Each person will have the group analyze their newly created task and then each person submits their survey for their task only. Directions on survey. Survey #5: Collaborative Survey for Analysis of Your Tasks Once everyone has completed the surveys and the discussion has wrapped up: Look at the collective responses and discuss how you could use this in your practice to communicate the importance of talk in the science classroom.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.660380	Cristina Trecha	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18442/overview", "title": "Oregon Science Project Hybrid Module #2 - Talk & Equity", "author": "Robert Fairchild" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67174/overview	Nation Introduction to the Sociology of Family Overview - Describe society’s current understanding of family - Define the sociological imagination and apply it to the study of family - Identify two organizations that provide scholarly information about families - Name the cross-cultural functions of the family - Recognize changes in marriage and family patterns - Differentiate between lines of decent and residence Introduction: What is Family? What is a family? A husband, a wife, and two children—maybe even a pet—has served as the model for the traditional U.S. family for most of the twentieth century. But what about families that deviate from this model, such as a single-parent household or a homosexual couple without children? Should they be considered families as well? The question of what constitutes a family is a prime area of debate in family sociology, as well as in politics and religion. Social conservatives tend to define the family in terms of structure with each family member filling a certain role (like father, mother, or child). Sociologists, on the other hand, tend to define family more in terms of the manner in which members relate to one another than on a strict configuration of status roles. Here, we’ll define family as a socially recognized group (usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society. Sociologists identify different types of families based on how one enters into them. A family of orientation refers to the family into which a person is born. A family of procreation describes one that is formed through marriage. These distinctions have cultural significance related to issues of lineage. Drawing on two sociological paradigms, the sociological understanding of what constitutes a family can be explained by symbolic interactionism as well as functionalism. These two theories indicate that families are groups in which participants view themselves as family members and act accordingly. In other words, families are groups in which people come together to form a strong primary group connection and maintain emotional ties to one another over a long period of time. Such families may include groups of close friends or teammates. In addition, the functionalist perspective views families as groups that perform vital roles for society—both internally (for the family itself) and externally (for society as a whole). Families provide for one another’s physical, emotional, and social well-being. Parents care for and socialize children. Later in life, adult children often care for elderly parents. While interactionism helps us understand the subjective experience of belonging to a “family,” functionalism illuminates the many purposes of families and their roles in the maintenance of a balanced society (Parsons and Bales 1956). How Do We Define Family? People in the United States as a whole are somewhat divided when it comes to determining what does and what does not constitute a family. In a 2010 survey conducted by professors at the University of Indiana, nearly all participants (99.8 percent) agreed that a husband, wife, and children constitute a family. Ninety-two percent stated that a husband and a wife without children still constitute a family. The numbers drop for less traditional structures: unmarried couples with children (83 percent), unmarried couples without children (39.6 percent), gay male couples with children (64 percent), and gay male couples without children (33 percent) (Powell et al. 2010). This survey revealed that children tend to be the key indicator in establishing “family” status: the percentage of individuals who agreed that unmarried couples and gay couples constitute a family nearly doubled when children were added. The study also revealed that 60 percent of U.S. respondents agreed that if you consider yourself a family, you are a family (a concept that reinforces an interactionist perspective) (Powell 2010). The government, however, is not so flexible in its definition of “family.” The U.S. Census Bureau defines a family as “a group of two people or more (one of whom is the householder) related by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together” (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). While this structured definition can be used as a means to consistently track family-related patterns over several years, it excludes individuals such as cohabitating unmarried heterosexual and homosexual couples. Legality aside, sociologists would argue that the general concept of family is more diverse and less structured than in years past. Society has given more leeway to the design of a family making room for what works for its members (Jayson 2010). Family is, indeed, a subjective concept, but it is a fairly objective fact that family (whatever one’s concept of it may be) is very important to people in the United States. In a 2010 survey by Pew Research Center in Washington, DC, 76 percent of adults surveyed stated that family is “the most important” element of their life—just one percent said it was “not important” (Pew Research Center 2010). It is also very important to society. President Ronald Regan notably stated, “The family has always been the cornerstone of American society. Our families nurture, preserve, and pass on to each succeeding generation the values we share and cherish, values that are the foundation of our freedoms” (Lee 2009). While the design of the family may have changed in recent years, the fundamentals of emotional closeness and support are still present. Most responders to the Pew survey stated that their family today is at least as close (45 percent) or closer (40 percent) than the family with which they grew up (Pew Research Center 2010). Alongside the debate surrounding what constitutes a family is the question of what people in the United States believe constitutes a marriage. Many religious and social conservatives believe that marriage can only exist between a man and a woman, citing religious scripture and the basics of human reproduction as support. Social liberals and progressives, on the other hand, believe that marriage can exist between two consenting adults—be they a man and a woman, or a woman and a woman—and that it would be discriminatory to deny such a couple the civil, social, and economic benefits of marriage. A Sociological Perspective on Family: Developing Your Sociological Imagination Sociological Imagination According to C. Wright Mills, the average person lives too narrow a life to get a clear and concise understanding of today's complex social world. Our daily lives are spent among friends and family, at work and at play, and watching TV and surfing the internet. There is no way one person can grasp the big picture from his or her relatively isolated life. There's just not enough time or capacity to be exposed to the complexities of a society of over 315 million people. There are thousands of communities, millions of interpersonal interactions, billions of internet information sources, and countless trends that transpire without many of us even knowing they exist. What can we do to make sense of it all? Psychology gave us the understanding of self-esteem, economics gave us the understanding of supply and demand, and physics gave us the Einstein theory of E=MC2. When I learned of the sociological imagination by Mills, I realized that it gives us a framework for understanding our social world that far surpasses any common-sense notion we might derive from our limited social experiences. C. Wright Mills (1916-1962), a contemporary sociologist, suggested that when we study the family we can gain valuable insight by approaching it at two core societal levels. He stated, "neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both" (Mills, C. W. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. Oxford Univ. Press, p. ii). Mills identified "Troubles" (challenges on the personal level) and "Issues" (challenges on the larger social level) as key principles for wrapping our minds around many of the hidden social processes that transpire in an almost invisible manner in today's societies. Personal troubles are private problems experienced within the character of the individual and the range of their immediate relation to others. Mills identified the fact that we function in our personal lives as actors and actresses who make choices about our friends, family, groups, work, school, and other issues within our control. We have a degree of influence in the outcome of matters within the personal level. A college student who parties 4 nights out of 7, who rarely attends class, and who never does his homework has a personal trouble that interferes with his odds of success in college. But when 50 percent of all college students in the country never graduate, we call it a larger social issue. Larger social issues lie beyond one's personal control and the range of one's inner life. These pertain to society's organization and processes. To better understand larger social issues, we need to define social facts. Social facts are social processes rooted in society rather than in the individual. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917, France) studied the "science of social facts" in an effort to identify social correlations and ultimately social laws designed to make sense of how modern societies worked given that they became increasingly diverse and complex (Durkheim, Émile. 1982. The Rules of the Sociological Method. Ed. Steven Lukes; trans. W.D. Halls. New York: Free Press, p. 50-59). The real power of the Sociological Imagination is found in learning to distinguish between the personal and social levels in our own lives. Once we do that, we can make personal choices that serve us the best, given the larger social forces that we face. We can also better understand the circumstances and experiences of others. Family Culture Another key point in studying the family from a sociological perspective is to understand that all families have some cultural traits in common, but all also have their own unique family culture. Culture is the shared values, norms, symbols, language, objects, and way of life that is passed on from one generation to the next. Culture is what we learn from our parents, family, friends, peers, and schools. It is shared, not biologically determined. In other words, you are only born with drives, not culture. Most families in a society have similar family cultural traits. But, when you marry you will learn that the success of your marriage is often based on how well you and your spouse merge your unique family cultures into a new version of a culture that is your own. Yet, even though family cultures tend to be universal and desirable, we often judge other cultures as being "good, bad, or evil" while we typically judge our own culture as being good. We have to consider our perspective when studying families from different cultures. Are we ethnocentric or cultural relativist? Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge others based on our own experiences. In this perspective, our culture is right, while cultures that differ from our own are wrong. I once visited a beautiful Catholic cathedral, Cathédrale St. Jean in Lyon, France. I fell in love with this beautiful and historic monument to the religious devotion of generations of builders. I learned that it took about 300 years to build, that England's King Henry the VIII married his Italian bride there, and that a few families had nine generations of builders working on it. I left with a deep sense of appreciation for it all. On the bus back to our hotel, we met two American tourists who reacted very differently to their vacation in France. The gentleman said, "These people will eat anything that crawls under the front porch, they never bathe, they dress funny, and they can't speak one *#&@ word of English!" Another more valuable and helpful perspective about differing cultures is the perspective called cultural relativism, which is the tendency to look for the cultural context in which differences in cultures occur. If you've eaten a meal with a friend's family, you have probably noticed a difference in subtle things like the food that is served and how it is prepared. You may have noticed that the friend's family communicates in ways different from your own. You might also notice that their values of fun and relaxation also vary from your own. To dismiss your friend's family as being wrong because it isn't exactly like yours is being closed-minded. Cultural relativists like all the ice-cream flavors, if you will. They respect and appreciate cultural differences even if only from the spectators' point of view. They tend to be teachable, child-like, and open-minded. They tend to enjoy or learn to enjoy the many varieties of the human experience. An ethnocentric person thinks on the level of carrot soup: peel carrots, add water, and boil. The cultural relativist thinks on the level of a complex stew: peel and prepare carrots, potatoes, onions, mushrooms, broth, tofu, and 10 secret herbs and spices, and simmer for two hours. The diversity of the human experience is what makes it rich and flavorful. Family Research The American Sociological Association (ASA) is the largest professional sociology organization in the world. One section of ASA members focuses its studies specifically on the family. Here is an excerpt of that section's mission statement: "Many of society's most pressing problems -- teenage childbearing, juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, domestic violence, child and elder abuse, divorce -- are related to or rooted in the family. The Section on Family was founded to provide a home for sociologists who are interested in exploring these issues in greater depth." (Retrieved 18 May 2010) Many family sociologists also belong to the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR). This council's mission statement reads as follows: "The National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) provides an educational forum for family researchers, educators, and practitioners to share in the development and dissemination of knowledge about families and family relationships, establishes professional standards, and works to promote family well-being." (Retrieved 30 May 2014) There are other family-related research organizations in the world, but these two rank among the largest and most prestigious organizations in the field of family studies. As with all of sociology and other social sciences, science and scientific rigor are paramount. It is not enough to simply study the family from our narrow personal points of view. We have to reach into the larger social picture and see the hidden social processes that teach us how to inform marriage and family therapy, provide useful and accurate data to governmental and policy-making figures, and provides reliable advice that will help the most people in the most efficient way. This becomes a scientific endeavor then to study and examine the family with rules of scientific engagement and analysis. Those earning a Ph.D. in a family-related field learn and execute this science with rigor. If researchers make the results of their study public and present them for critical review by other family scientists, then scientific rigor is even stronger and the findings can be afforded more credibility. For example, studies have shown that the leading factor of divorce is not any of the following: sex problems, failures to communicate, money mismanagement, nor even in-law troubles. What is the leading cause of divorce? Would you believe it is marrying too young? Specifically, if you marry at 17, 18, or 19 you are far more likely to divorce than if you wait to marry until your 20s. This was discovered and confirmed over decades of studying who divorced and which factors contributed more to divorce than others (see chapter 12). The cool thing about knowing the risks of marrying as a teen is that you can choose to wait until you are older, more established in your sense of self, and more experienced in knowing your own likes and dislikes. Cross-Cultural Functions of the Family What are the functions of families? In studying the family, sociologists have identified some common and nearly universal family functions, meaning that almost all families in all countries and cultures around the world have at least some of these functions in common. Economic Support By far, economic support is the most common function of today's families. When your parents let you raid their pantry, wash your clothes for you, or replenish your checking account, that's economic support. For another young adult, say in New Guinea, if she captures a wild animal and cooks it on an open fire, that's also economic support in a different cultural context. I've always been amazed at how far family economic cooperation extends. Some families cooperate in businesslike relationships. In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, there is an established pattern of Italian immigrants helping family and friends emigrate from Italy to Canada. They subsidize each other's travel costs, help each other find employment once in Canada, and even privately fund some mortgages for one another. Each immigrant supported through this system is expected to later support others in the same manner. To partake in this form of economic cooperation is to assume a very businesslike relationship. Emotional Support Emotional relationships are also very common, but you must understand there is a tremendous amount of cultural diversity in how intimacy is experienced in various families around the world. Intimacy is the social, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, and physical trust that is mutually shared between family members. Family members share confidences, advice, trust, secrets, and ongoing mutual concern. Many family scientists believe that intimacy in family relationships functions as a strong buffer to the ongoing stresses family members experience outside of the home. Socialization of Children Socialization of children is covered in more detail in future modules. For now, keep in mind that children are born with the potential to be raised as humans. Through the process of socialization, children must acquire the tools they need to survive in their culture. In addition to learning the basics about how to feed themselves, children also need older family members or friends to take the time to protect and nurture them into their cultural and societal roles. Today the family is the core of primary socialization (where our initial socialization takes place, usualy as children). But many other societal institutions contribute to the socialization process, including schools, peer groups, religious establishments, workplaces, and media. Control of Sexuality and Reproduction The family has traditionally asserted control over sexuality and reproduction. A few centuries ago many fathers and mothers even selected the spouses for their children (they still do in many countries). Today, U.S. parents want their adult children to select their own spouses. Older family members tend to discourage unwed mothers and encourage pregnancy and childbirth only in marriage or a long-term relationship. Unwed Mothers are mothers who are not legally married at the time of the child's birth. Being unwed brings up concerns about economic, emotional, social, and other forms of support for the mother that may or may not be available from the father. Many unwed fathers reject their fatherly obligations. When an unwed mother delivers her baby, it is often the older female family members rather than the birth father who end up providing the functions of support for that child. Most of the live U.S. births each year are to married mothers. Only about 10 percent of teen mothers and 35 percent of all mothers were unwed (retrieved 30 May 2014 SOURCE). This trend of relatively high unwed birth rates suggests that more and more families have less control over sanctioning childbirth only within marriage. On the other side of the coin, it also shows that people are able to exercise more choice in building their family instead of relying on cultural stereotypes and expectations. Ascribed Status Finally, ascribed status is given to children by their families because it is a type of status that is present at birth. With your friends, have you noticed that one or two tend to be informally in charge of the details? You might be the one who calls everyone and makes reservations or buys the tickets for the others. If so, you would have the informal role of "organizer." Status is a socially defined position, or what you do in a role. There are three types of status considerations: Ascribed status is present at birth (race, sex, or class), achieved status is attained through one's lifetime and can be positive or negative (college student, movie star, teacher, athlete, or felon), and master status stands out above our other statuses and can distract others from seeing who we really are. You were born into your racial, cultural-ethnic, religious and economic statuses. Those shaped to some degree the way you grew up and were socialized. By far in our modern societies, achieved status (which comes as a result of your own efforts) is more important than ascribed status (which you're born with) for most members of society. However, the degree of achievement you attain often depends heavily on the level of support your family gives to you. Another consideration about roles is the fact that one single role can place a rather heavy burden on you (e.g., student). Role strain is the burden one feels within any given role. And when one role comes into direct conflict with another or other roles, you might experience role conflict. Role conflict is the conflict and burdens one feels when the expectations of one role compete with the expectations of another role. Marriage Patterns With single parenting and cohabitation (when a couple shares a residence but not a marriage) becoming more acceptable in recent years, people may be less motivated to get married. In a recent survey, 39 percent of respondents answered “yes” when asked whether marriage is becoming obsolete (Pew Research Center 2010). The institution of marriage is likely to continue, but some previous patterns of marriage will become outdated as new patterns emerge. In this context, cohabitation contributes to the phenomenon of people getting married for the first time at a later age than was typical in earlier generations (Glezer 1991). Furthermore, marriage will continue to be delayed as more people place education and career ahead of “settling down.” One Partner or Many? People in the United States typically equate marriage with monogamy, when someone is married to only one person at a time. In many countries and cultures around the world, however, having one spouse is not the only form of marriage. In a majority of cultures (78 percent), polygamy, or being married to more than one person at a time, is accepted (Murdock 1967), with most polygamous societies existing in northern Africa and east Asia (Altman and Ginat 1996). Instances of polygamy are almost exclusively in the form of polygyny. Polygyny refers to a man being married to more than one woman at the same time. The reverse, when a woman is married to more than one man at the same time, is called polyandry. It is far less common and only occurs in about 1 percent of the world’s cultures (Altman and Ginat 1996). The reasons for the overwhelming prevalence of polygamous societies are varied but they often include issues of population growth, religious ideologies, and social status. While the majority of societies accept polygyny, the majority of people do not practice it. Often fewer than 10 percent (and no more than 25–35 percent) of men in polygamous cultures have more than one wife; these husbands are often older, wealthy, high-status men (Altman and Ginat 1996). The average plural marriage involves no more than three wives. Negev Bedouin men in Israel, for example, typically have two wives, although it is acceptable to have up to four (Griver 2008). As urbanization increases in these cultures, polygamy is likely to decrease as a result of greater access to mass media, technology, and education (Altman and Ginat 1996). In the United States, polygamy is considered by most to be socially unacceptable and it is illegal. The act of entering into marriage while still married to another person is referred to as bigamy and is considered a felony in most states. Polygamy in the United States is often associated with those of the Mormon faith, although in 1890 the Mormon Church officially renounced polygamy. Fundamentalist Mormons, such as those in the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS), on the other hand, still hold tightly to the historic Mormon beliefs and practices and allow polygamy in their sect. The prevalence of polygamy among Mormons is often overestimated due to sensational media stories such as the Yearning for Zion ranch raid in Texas in 2008 and popular television shows such as HBO’s Big Love and TLC’s Sister Wives. It is estimated that there are about 37,500 fundamentalist Mormons involved in polygamy in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, but that number has shown a steady decrease in the last 100 years (Useem 2007). U.S. Muslims, however, are an emerging group with an estimated 20,000 practicing polygamy. Again, polygamy among U.S. Muslims is uncommon and occurs only in approximately 1 percent of the population (Useem 2007). For now polygamy among U.S. Muslims has gone fairly unnoticed by mainstream society, but like fundamentalist Mormons whose practices were off the public’s radar for decades, they may someday find themselves at the center of social debate. Residency and Lines of Descent When considering one’s lineage, most people in the United States look to both their father’s and mother’s sides. Both paternal and maternal ancestors are considered part of one’s family. This pattern of tracing kinship is called bilateral descent. Note that kinship, or one’s traceable ancestry, can be based on blood or marriage or adoption. Sixty percent of societies, mostly modernized nations, follow a bilateral descent pattern. Unilateral descent (the tracing of kinship through one parent only) is practiced in the other 40 percent of the world’s societies, with high concentration in pastoral cultures (O’Neal 2006). There are three types of unilateral descent: patrilineal, which follows the father’s line only; matrilineal, which follows the mother’s side only; and ambilineal, which follows either the father’s only or the mother’s side only, depending on the situation. In partrilineal societies, such as those in rural China and India, only males carry on the family surname. This gives males the prestige of permanent family membership while females are seen as only temporary members (Harrell 2001). U.S. society assumes some aspects of partrilineal decent. For instance, most children assume their father’s last name even if the mother retains her birth name. In matrilineal societies, inheritance and family ties are traced to women. Matrilineal descent is common in Native American societies, notably the Crow and Cherokee tribes. In these societies, children are seen as belonging to the women and, therefore, one’s kinship is traced to one’s mother, grandmother, great grandmother, and so on (Mails 1996). In ambilineal societies, which are most common in Southeast Asian countries, parents may choose to associate their children with the kinship of either the mother or the father. This choice maybe based on the desire to follow stronger or more prestigious kinship lines or on cultural customs such as men following their father’s side and women following their mother’s side (Lambert 2009). Tracing one’s line of descent to one parent rather than the other can be relevant to the issue of residence. In many cultures, newly married couples move in with, or near to, family members. In a patrilocal residence system it is customary for the wife to live with (or near) her husband’s blood relatives (or family or orientation). Patrilocal systems can be traced back thousands of years. In a DNA analysis of 4,600-year-old bones found in Germany, scientists found indicators of patrilocal living arrangements (Haak et al 2008). Patrilocal residence is thought to be disadvantageous to women because it makes them outsiders in the home and community; it also keeps them disconnected from their own blood relatives. In China, where patrilocal and patrilineal customs are common, the written symbols for maternal grandmother (wáipá) are separately translated to mean “outsider” and “women” (Cohen 2011). Similarly, in matrilocal residence systems, where it is customary for the husband to live with his wife’s blood relatives (or her family of orientation), the husband can feel disconnected and can be labeled as an outsider. The Minangkabau people, a matrilocal society that is indigenous to the highlands of West Sumatra in Indonesia, believe that home is the place of women and they give men little power in issues relating to the home or family (Joseph and Najmabadi 2003). Most societies that use patrilocal and patrilineal systems are patriarchal, but very few societies that use matrilocal and matrilineal systems are matriarchal, as family life is often considered an important part of the culture for women, regardless of their power relative to men. Currently, most relationships in the United States follow a neolocal residence pattern, where a new couple moves away from their family and establishes a entirely new home. Summary Sociologists view marriage and families as societal institutions that help create the basic unit of social structure. A sociological perspective on families means appreciating the role of large-scale (macro) social forces (like history and social institutions) and using scientific research to gather information. Family may be defined differently—and practiced differently—in cultures across the world, but there are features that are shared by families, as well. Key Terms Key terms found in this reading. You should be able to define all of this important vocabulary. - achieved status - ASA - Ascribed status - Bigamy - bilateral descent - Cohabitation - Cultural relativism - Culture - Ethnocentrism - Family - family of orientation - family of procreation - kinship - Larger social issues - master status - Matrilineal - matrilocal residence - Monogamy - NCFR - neolocal residence - Patrilineal - patrilocal residence - Personal troubles - Polyandry - Polygamy - Polygyny - primary socialization - Role conflict - Role strain - Social facts - Socialization - sociological imagination - Status Questions for Review 1. What does it mean to look at family from a sociological perspective? In other words, when you use a sociological imagination to examine families, what can you see? 2. Summarize the cross-cultural functions of the family. Which of these functions do you think U.S. society finds most important? Which of these functions to YOU find most important? Why? 3. Using your family of origin, your family of procreation, or another kinship grouping (ie: your chosen family) to complete a 'fact sheet' that includes aspects of your family's structure, authority, marriage norms, residence, and decent. Try to find another (real or imagined) family with traits different from yours. How might the differences on the 'fact sheet' contribute to different lifestyles, opportunities, or experiences? 4. Name two organizations that conduct and present useful research about families in the United States. References Altman, Irwin, and Joseph Ginat. 1996. Polygamous Families in Contemporary Society. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, Philip. 2011. “Chinese: Maternal Grandmothers, Outside Women.” FamilyInequality.com, Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://familyinequality.wordpress.com/2011/11/16/chinese-maternal-grandmothers-outside-women/). Glezer, Helen. 1991. “Cohabitation.” Family Matters 30:24–27. Glick, Paul. 1989. “The Family Life Cycle and Social Change.” Family Relations 38(2):123–129. Griver, Simon. 2008. “One Wife Isn’t Enough … So They Take Two or Three.” The Jewish Chronicle Online, April 24. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/lifestyle-features/one-wife-isn’t-enough-so-they-take-two-or-three). Haak, Wolfgang et al. 2008. “Ancient DNA Reveals Male Diffusion through the Neolithic Mediterranean Route.” Proceedings of the National Association of Sciences, November 17. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://www.pnas.org/content/105/47/18226). Harrell, Stevan. 2001. “Mountain Patterns: The Survival of Nuosu Culture in China.” Journal of American Folklore 114:451. Jayson, Sharon. 2010. “What Does a ‘Family’ Look Like Nowadays?” USA Today, November 25. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://www.usatoday.com/yourlife/sex-relationships/marriage/2010-11-18-pew18_ST_N.htm). Joseph, Suad, and Afsaneh Najmabadi. 2003. “Kinship and State: Southeast Asia, East Asia, Australia and the Pacific.” Pp. 351–355 in Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law, and Politics. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. Hammond, Ron, Paul Cheney, and Raewyn Pearsey. 2015. Sociology of the Family Textbook, Retrieved May 22, 2020 from http://www.freesociologybooks.com. Lambert, Bernd. 2009. “Ambilineal Descent Groups in the Northern Gilbert Islands.” American Anthropologist 68(3):641–664. Lee, Richard. 2009. The American Patriot’s Bible: The Word of God and the Shaping of America. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Mails, Thomas E. 1996. The Cherokee People: The Story of the Cherokees from Earliest Origins to Contemporary Times. New York: Marlowe & Co. Murdock, George P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Murphy, Patrick, and William Staples. 1979. “A Modernized Family Life Cycle.” Journal of Consumer Research 6(1):12–22. Museum of Broadcast Communications. 2010. “Family on Television.” Retrieved January 16, 2012. O’Neal, Dennis. 2006. “Nature of Kinship.” Palomar College. Retrieved January 16, 2012 (http://anthro.palomar.edu/kinship/kinship_2.htm). Parsons, Talcott, and Robert Bales. 1955. Family Socialization and Interaction Process. London: Routledge. Pew Research Center. 2010. “The Decline of Marriage and Rise of New Families.” November 18. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1802/decline-marriage-rise-new-families). Powell, Brian, Catherine Bolzendahl, Claudia Geist, and Lala Carr Steelman. 2010. Counted Out: Same-Sex Relations and Americans’ Definitions of Family. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Respers France, Lisa. 2010. “The Evolution of the TV Family.” CNN, September 1. Retrieved February 13, 2012 (http://www.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/TV/09/01/families.on.tv/index.html). Ruoff, Jeffrey. 2002. An American Family: A Televised Life. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Strong, B., and C. DeVault. 1992. The Marriage and Family Experience. 5th ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. “Current Population Survey (CPS).” Retrieved January 16, 2012 (http://www.census.gov/population/www/cps/cpsdef.html). Useem, Andrea. 2007. “What to Expect When You’re Expecting a Co-Wife.” Slate, July 24. Retrieved January 16, 2012 (http://www.slate.com/articles/life/faithbased/2007/07/what_to_expect_when_youre_expecting_a_cowife.html).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.716968	Katie Nutter-Pridgen	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/67174/overview", "title": "Introduction to the Sociology of Family", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113983/overview	PAC Remix 2024 - IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide Overview In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. Section One: Landscape Analysis for Accessibility in OER in Local Context In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. We encourage to explore some of the questions from each category. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. We ask that you complete Parts One, Two and Six of this Section. Part One: Initial Thoughts What is your team's initial goal for this series? The redesign of two courses (ARTS 1304 and ENG 2322) OER with accessibility in mind. Part Two: Introductory probing questions: What does accessibility look like in our organization? How do we measure accessibility? Physical accessibility is addressed via campus-level committee. We have a DSS office which handles course accommodations for students and distributes/communicates those to instructors. We also currently assess accessibility issues in electronic environments (Canvas courses) in a limited form, via the APPQMR process/rubric (which the district has trained a number of faculty in already), but we do not have a standardized approach to OER. What does OER look like in our organization? How do we measure access to OER? At PAC in recent years, we have leveraged institutional funding to support a multi-year/multi-level training program for faculty who wish to incorporate OER into courses or author their own OER. We currently track faculty who have been trained in OER, as well as courses which are coded for OER in Banner; I do not believe we have developed a universalized metric for assessing access beyond these. Part Three: Clarifying questions for accessibility: What are the organizational structures that supports accessibility? DSS office and a campus-level accessibility committee. Teaching and Learning Center (TLC) sometimes takes up some of this conversation, as does district-level faculty development. Who generates most of the accessibility structures/conversation in our organization? The DSS office and the Teaching and Learning Center. Where do most educators get support with accessibility? The most visible place for instructors to see accessibility support is often the letters of accommodation that DSS sends out as a means of accommodation at the beginning of each semester. However, we can do better – adopting Universal Design as a faculty-led pedagogical stance could stave off access issues before they begin. What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to accessibility? Potentially all of them. Our indtended goal is to raise awareness among faculty and provide guiding resources. Part Four: Clarifying questions for OER: What is our organizational structure that supports curricular resources? We have a College Curricilum Committee that oversees the implimentation of Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC) and district procedures. What is our organizational structure that supports OER? We have a college advisory committee and a campus-level OER team. Who generates most of the curricular resources in our organization? Faculty have enthusiastically embraced OER at our campus, and almost 70% have received training to select or generate OER. A large proportion of these faculty are actively using OER. This is complemented by department-level support. Where do most educators get support with curricular resources? See previous answer. What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to curricular resources/OER? Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Math. Part Five: Clarifying questions for Faculty learning and engagement: What Professional Learning (PL) structures have the best participation rates for our educators? Faculty development sessions are offered through the PAC Teaching and Learning Center. There are also some department-level faculty development sessions, but these are uneven across departments. (For example, our English department hosts a series of Teaching Circles each year that have high participation rates. Not every department does this.) We also have a very well-attended, multi-session Faculty Symposium every year that frequently focuses on teaching issues. What PL structures have the best "production" rates for our educators? Professional development offerings that are developed by faculty for faculty have the best production and retention rate at Palo Alto College. What incentive do we have to offer people for participating in learning and engagement? OER Professional Development courses offer within Canvas (paid incentive) - Introduction to OER (1.17 WLU) - OER for the Zealot (2.34 WLU) - OER for Textbook Publication (3.0 WLU) Who are the educators that would be most creative with accessibility and OER? The PAC OER Advisory Committee will begin discussing developing professional development accessibility courses. We expect some of our early adopters to be the most creative with this aspect of OER. Who are the educators that would benefit the most from accessibility and OER? All educators and students will benefit from accessibility and OER. Part Six: Final Probing questions: What is our current goal for Accessibility in OER and why is that our goal? - Create Accessibility professional development course: Modules: Empathy, Usability, Accessibility - Incorporate Universal Design into our “OER for Textbook Publication” course so that textbook authors do not have to go back and retrofit their work – but design these textbooks with accessibility in mind from the start. - Create Accessibility Review Committee for OER produced at PAC, to support goal #2 and add oversight/a “second set of eyes.” Who have we not yet included while thinking about this work? - Student feedback regarding the completeness of accessible resources. What barriers remain when considering this work? - Funding for additional professional development - Faculty feeling “overwhelmed” by taking on access work - Limited prep time, administrative expectations vs. actual faculty workload What would genuine change look like for our organization for this work? - Embrace of Universal Design at the Course/Department level when working with or planning OER, plus committed institutional support ($$) for faculty development toward this purpose, and to compensate faculty for time/labor. - Perhaps an additional position in the organizational chart – like a Director of Universal Design? Housed in TLC? DSS Office? (There are several options that would make sense.) Section Two: Team Focus Identifying and Describing a Problem of Practice The following questions should help your team ensure that you are focusing your collaboration. What is your Team’s specific goal for this series? You may consider using AEM Quality Indicators for Creating Accessible Materials to help add to or narrow your work. What other partners might support this work? What is your desired timeframe for this work? Development during Summer 2024, plan to run Fall 2024 How will you include diverse voices and experiences in this work? Please create a Focus Question that explains your goal and provides specific topics that you would like feedback on. This is what you will share in your breakout groups for feedback. How do we receive feedback from students effectively? Focus primarily on students enrolled on at the college level (excluding ECHS). (Save for during March 14th's session.) What feedback did you receive from another team during the March 14th Implementation Session? Section Three: Team Work Time and Next Steps Sharing and Next Steps What was your redefined goal for this series? What does your team want to celebrate? What did your team accomplish? Please link to or attach at least one resource you have created/adapted. What are your team’s next steps?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.743524	Suzel Molina	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113983/overview", "title": "PAC Remix 2024 - IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide", "author": "Aaron Smith" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124224/overview	DNC/RNC Political Party Review Overview A website review activity for the two political parties using their websites. www.democrats.org www.gop.com DNC/RNC Review Students are to complete two website review projects. Republican National Committee and Democratic National Committee (RNC and DNC) You are to find each of the websites and write an overview of what is found there. Be sure to include things like: A. Describe the issues or things discussed on their main page B. What issues are important to each party (list and explain at least 5 for each party)? C. What do they believe about the role of government? D. What is their leadership structure for the committees/party?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.756698	01/29/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/124224/overview", "title": "DNC/RNC Political Party Review", "author": "Michael Suchowierski" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123634/overview	Introduction to JavaScript: Remix JavaScript Coffee Co. Roleplay Game Overview Introduce your students to JavaScript with this hands-on classroom activity! Students will remix a pre-built roleplay game to create a custom café or restaurant theme. This activity teaches how to dynamically populate a menu, calculate prices using arrays and functions, and personalize a website with creative design choices. Perfect for students with basic HTML and CSS knowledge, this project highlights the power of JavaScript while fostering creativity and problem-solving skills. Remix a JavaScript Coffee Co. Roleplaying Game! Teaching Notes This activity assumes students have basic knowledge of HTML and CSS. If students are new to JavaScript, take some time at the start of the class to explain: - What JavaScript is and how it differs from HTML and CSS. - Why JavaScript is useful for making websites dynamic. - Key concepts like arrays, objects, and functions (using simple examples). You can guide students through the first few steps of the activity as a class. Encourage experimentation and emphasize that this is a creative project. Provide support as needed while students work individually or in pairs. Instructions Access the Example Project: - Open the project: JavaScript Coffee Co. Spy Roleplay Game. - Click "Remix this project" to create your own copy. Understand the Code: - The provided project includes elements you haven’t yet covered. Focus on editing text, images, CSS, and JavaScript arrays. - Notice how JavaScript dynamically populates the menu and calculates combo prices. These are the key features you’ll customize. Customize the HTML: - Change the <title> tag (e.g., "Burger Bistro Combo Game"). - Replace the <h1> in the<header> with a new title matching your theme. - Update the src in the<img> tag to add a unique character image (see step 6). - Change the Edit the Menu and Combo Deals: - Open script.js and update:- The menuItems array to include your new menu options. - The prices object to reflect the prices of your items. - The calculateCombo function to align with your combos. - The - Explain to students how JavaScript arrays and objects work together to dynamically update the page. - Open Style Your Project: - Open style.css to adjust the design:- Change the background color and text colors to match your theme. - Update the chalkboard menu styling in #menu-board , if needed. - Open Generate a Character Image: - Use ChatGPT to create a character image. Provide specific details, such as dimensions (250x250 px) and file type (JPG). - Sample prompt: Create an illustration of a character for a café-themed roleplaying game. The character is a cheerful barista wearing a retro 1950s diner outfit. They have short, wavy hair, a striped apron, and are holding a steaming cup of coffee. The background is a cozy café setting with a chalkboard menu. Make the image a 250x250 pixel JPG for easy use on a website. Test Your Project: - Check that your menu displays correctly, combo buttons work as expected, and the design is responsive to screen resizing. Discussion and Reflection Once the project is complete, discuss or write about: - What would happen if the menu was populated using only HTML instead of JavaScript? Why is JavaScript useful here? - What challenges did you face while working with JavaScript, and how did you solve them? - Why did you choose your theme and design elements? How do they reflect your personality or interests?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.776257	Technology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123634/overview", "title": "Introduction to JavaScript: Remix JavaScript Coffee Co. Roleplay Game", "author": "Information Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88445/overview	Words to know before you read - Immagration and Government ESL 2 Immigration and Government (Academic Intermediate English) Overview In this module, the readings and assignments focus on immigration experiences and government. Students will build vocabulary needed for citizenship, practice writing complex sentences, review citizenship questions, and read and write narratives. Module Objectives and Reading Assignment Immigration and Government For this module, you will discuss questions concerning American government and obtaining citizenship. Readings and vocabulary work will come from government websites concerning citizenship. Objectives - To develop fluency by participation in discussions - To build vocabulary needed for citizenship and understanding American government - To practice answering questions asked during interview to obtain citizenship - To learn about narrative writing and write a short narrative essay - To improve writing skills needed to tell your story. - To practice pronunciation of ed endings Reading Assignment - Before reading, review the vocabulary needed for understanding the reading assignments. Put vocabulary words in your Quizlet app. You may also add words you are unsure of to your vocabulary journal. (Words to Know Before You Read- in Resources- Scroll down.) - Skim Learn about Citizenship and click on the various links in the article to become familar with the informaiton on the site. Then read carefully the sections Should I Become a Citizen and Ten Steps to Natualization. Take notes as reading and mark any unknown words. Remember to ask reporter's questions as you read. - Journal Assignment- Discuss your experience when reading the selected reading. What did you learn from the reading. Did you have trouble reading the articles? Did any of the material discussed surprise you? If you are planning to become a citizen of the US, how can this website help you. What vocabulary words from the reading did you add to your vocabulary journal. Writing Complex Sentences Sentence Structure - Read and review information on Complex Sentences with When and Because. Read the material and listen to video. (<a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/80x15.png" /></a><br />This work is licensed under a <a rel="license") href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.) - Watch the video Simple Compound Complex Sentences (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyVfspf-qIc&ab_channel=TheQuietCreative) - Participate in Discussion telling reasons why you immigrated to the United States. Also discuss any questions you have concerning the video on naturalization. In the discussion use sentences with because and although. Journal – Citizenship and Immigration Sentence Practice - Complete the following sentences. - I am studying in the United States because __________________. - I am studying in the United States although __________________________. - I came to the United States when ________________________. - Now write a sentence that begins with because. Make sure it has a dependent clause and an independent clause. - Because _______________________________ Write a sentence that begins with although. Make sure it has a dependent clause and an independent clause. - Although _____________________________. Now write a sentence that begins with when. Make sure the sentence has a dependent clause and an independent clause Paragraph Practice -Write a paragraph about why you are studying at your college. Your paragraph should have at least six sentences. You should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. Narrative Reading and Writing Narrative Reading and Writing A narrative is a story or an account of events that happened. The base word is narrate which means to tell or give an account of events or experiences. A narrative will usually have a beginning, a middle, and an end. You will find narratives in short stories, fables, diaries, journals, reports, and poetry- anywhere a story is being told. When we tell our friends about our experience getting a driver's license, we are narrating our experience. When nurses interview or check on patient in the hospital, they must write a narrative about the patient's illness and symptoms. If you are in traffic accident, the policemen will ask you to tell (or narrate) the events that led up to the wreck. They will then write the narrative in the report. When you wrote your journal about your first day in ESL class, you were writing a narrative. Watch Writing a narrative Copyright Information: [(By Miss Zaazzey). (2020 April 1 ). How to Write a Narrative [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pf7ywvfCJUo&feature=emb_log Reading Assigment From the textbook PDX Journeys: Studying and Living in the US, Low-Intermediate Novel and Textbook for University ESL Students (PDX Journeys: Studing and Living in the US, Low-Intermediate Novel and Textbook by Amber Bliss Calderó, read "Stephanie's Story, " a narrative of an ESL teacher's first day of class. Before reading, you should complete Part 1, Preview of the reading assignment. You will then read the narative, pages 5-9. After reading, complete exercises 4-7 and exercise 10. Do not forget to add words to your vocabulary journal. Citation: . Bliss Calderón, Amber, "PDX Journeys: Studying and Living in the US, Low-Intermediate Novel and Textbook for University ESL Students" (2016). PDXOpen: Open Educational Resources. 10. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/pdxopen/10 Narrative Writing Assignment Choose one of the topics below and write your story. - My first day in the United States - The Happiest Day of My Life - The Day I Became A Citizen For this assignment you will write a three-paragraph essay. Paragraph 1 - Paragraph one is the introductory paragraph. You should give background information needed to understand your story. The last sentence will be the thesis statement. Sample thesis statements: - My first day in the United States was __________________. (exciting frightening, tiring - you choose) - The happiest day of my life was _____________________. - I will never forget the day I became a citizen. Paragraph 2 - Tell your story. Paragraph 3 - Paragraph three is the concluding paragraph. You can summarize your story and tell what you learned from the experience. Speaking and Listening Assignment Prounciation and Speaking Assignments Pronouncing ed endings in English can be difficult. To review the three rules for pronuncing ed endings review the rules on this webiste and do the practice exercises: Practice pronunciation of ed endings.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.812682	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88445/overview", "title": "ESL 2 Immigration and Government (Academic Intermediate English)", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74965/overview	HEAVY METAL POLLUTION Overview This illustration was prepared by using whimsical app and it describes the sources, effects and control measures of Heavy metal pollution. This illustration was prepared by using whimsical app and it describes the sources, effects and control measures of Heavy metal pollution.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.827866	Sanskruti Parab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74965/overview", "title": "HEAVY METAL POLLUTION", "author": "Interactive" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114473/overview	Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (FCC K.R.Taylor) Overview This template supports faculty and staff as they interrogate their OER and iterate the resource. This template is part of a Canvas course titled Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL. The initial course is offered by ISKME to California Community College faculty and staff and was created with support from the Michelson Foundatin's Spark Grant Program. Background on the Resource and Collaborators Who is on your team and what are their positions at your Institution? Kathryn R. Taylor is an adjunct professor of anthropology for Fresno City College and Reedley College. What resource did your team chose to interrogate? The textbook Explorations: An Open Intivitation to Biological Anthropology. What are your team's goals with interrogating and adapting this resource? The goal of interrogating and adapting this resource is to use it has the textbook for students in my introduction to biological anthropology courses and make it avivable for other professors teaching the same course to use if they want. What impact do you envision this will have on students? The impact I envision this will have on students is that it will lessen their finicial stress and improve student success as they will not have a finicial barrier to recieving thier textbook. What impact do you envision this will have on other faculty and staff at your institution? The impact I envision this having on other faculty and staff at my institutions is that they will see the improvement in student enrollment and success in my courses and become interesting in using OERs for thier own courses. Adaptations to support Open Educational Practices What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of the open licensing on this resource? I am planning to adapt the textbook Explorations: An Open Intivitation to Biological Anthropology for my ANTH-1 (Introduction to Biological Anthropology) courses. The textbook will be hosted on two sites for students to access, LibreTexts campus library for FCC and pdfs will be uploaded to Canvas. Students will also have the option to download the whole textbook or individual chapters from LibreText for free to have offline access. How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? If all I am doing is reviewing and minor edits to the textbook, then this can be completed within a few days to a week. However realistically other things also need to get done throughout the day, therefore a month or two should be bugeted at minumin. I will be the main point person working on this project. How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? I will keep track of the changes with the help of LibreTexts tools for editing pages and checking off items on my to-do list. When looking/reviewing at material for how it will/might impact students in the future I first look at easy of access and use (if students cannot use/access the material then it will have a negative impact), then the amount of student engagement with assignments (when I first which to OERs I noticed that more students were submitting at least an attempt on assignments when previously a small but significant portion did not even try), the last area that I primarily look at is overall grades. Adaptations to support Accessibility What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of Accessibility on this resource? Since the resource that I am adapting is a textbook which will either be viewed online or through pdfs, there are limited ways that I can change the accessibility. The main areas that I will be focusing on is reviewing links to make sure that they are working and formated in an accessible manner, review included graphics to chack the alt text, and review (possibly edit) the formating of tables and data. How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? If all I am doing is reviewing and minor edits to the textbook, then this can be completed within a few days to a week. However realistically other things also need to get done throughout the day, therefore a month or two should be bugeted at minumin. I will be the main point person working on this project. How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? I plan to (and am) go(ing) chapter by chapter to keep track of the changes made using both LibraText and my own do to list. When looking/reviewing at material for how it will/might impact students in the future I first look at easy of access and use (if students cannot use/access the material then it will have a negative impact), then the amount of student engagement with assignments (when I first which to OERs I noticed that more students were submitting at least an attempt on assignments when previously a small but significant portion did not even try), the last area that I primarily look at is overall grades. Adaptations to support UDL What are you planning to adapt to increase the features of UDL on this resource? The main areas that will show increased use of the features of UDL will not be in the textbook itself, but in everything else. The assignments, videos, projections, and discussions will have the largest impact. Which features of UDL are used will depend on the method of the course: in-person, synchronous, or asynchronous. Did your team identify any opportunities to co-create with students and what might that look like? For asynchronous courses the main opportunities for students to co-create with students will be through discussion boards and a create your own exam option. Most discussion boards will have an opinion based prompt allowing for students to personally reflect on the material/topic. For example before a traditional exam a discussion board will be present requesting students to reflect on the topics within the chapters being tested on that they either struggled with or still have questions. Other students and myself will then have time to respond and give personalized help. For the create your exam option students at the beginning of the semester will be given instructions on the requirements, including a grading rubric, they will them have the whole semester to complete this optional assignment which could replace the score of one of their traditional exams. General requirements are that students have to have at least two questions for every chapter covered over the semester, include an answer sheet (short answer questions must have a rough outline of points a response should include), have at least three short answer questions, and the whole exam must be worth between 90-100 points (1 point per multiple choice, true/false, fill-in, or matching with short answer questions between 5-20points). How long will this take and who will be the main point person working on this? Similar to the previous sections the length of time it takes to complete these changes depends on the time I would have. Could take a few days to week if this project is all that I am working on or a month or two if I am also working on other projects and teaching courses. How will your team keep track of the changes and future impact on students and faculty? A massive to-do list will keep track of the changes. I will also look at both student success and engagement to review what the impact of these changes are on students. Sharing your iteration What aspect of this process stretched your thinking about your resource? The aspect of this process that stretched my thinking about my resource the most of how to incorporate the elements of UDL. Using a traditional or OER textbook most have basic text with most photos and data as their multiple means of representation, therefore other elements need to included through assignments and outside material. What next steps is your team considering? The next steps I am considering are to complete a review and edits of the second edition of the textbook through LibreText and focus on the elements of UDL when creating/editing assignments and outside material to go along with the textbook.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.852814	03/22/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114473/overview", "title": "Adapting OER to Incorporate UDL (FCC K.R.Taylor)", "author": "Kathryn Taylor" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123806/overview	2025.1.27 Meeting Overview Private to sub-group Team 3 STEM Transfer Partnership 2.0—UWB/CC (Engineering, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Biology) Mon Jan 27 2025 11:00 am - 12:30 pm Location: Cascadia Colleg--INV121 Introductions Overview of CCRI purpose and STP 1.0 Scope of work from CCRI focus for 1.0 - Subgroups (advising, curriculum, administration) - Deliverables (articulation agreement, student tours & faculty classroom visits, started WAMAP repository) - Surveys (data gathering) - Started but needs improvement (invitations & attendance to events) Overview of STP 2.0 Resources & Documentation 2.0 Scope of work - Scale & strengthen deliverables from 1.0 to new STEM disciplines (ME, biochemistry, chemistry, biology) - Expand focus on data in collaboration with other CCRI partners - Include students in the project - Incorporate parallel work in biotechnology, CUREs, and high school partnerships - Participation in convenings; specialized attendance relative to meeting topics; at least 5 in attendance each time - Group meetings - Student success subgroup (advising, data, events, outreach, engage w student consultants) - Discipline groups (curriculum alignment, classroom connections, experiential learning) - Administration (agenda setting, institutional coordination, selecting student consultants, budget management) - Quarterly large group, Small groups schedule meetings at least twice per quarter (informing Kristina and Jennifer of dates) and supplying deliverables/notes to team (with email to Kristina and Jennifer after meetings) Action items - Break into specialized groups and schedule two meetings for winter quarter, the first meeting for 1.0 group members to share methods and deliverables with new 2.0 members and second meeting to formulate plan for scaling and expanding work for 2.0. - Exchange contact information - Roughly plan meeting times (by week or day/time) - Share with Jennifer and Kristina Follow-Up Tasks Student success subgroup (advising, data, events, outreach, engage w student consultants) Discipline groups (curriculum alignment, classroom connections, experiential learning) Administration (agenda setting, institutional coordination, selecting student consultants, budget management)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.874122	01/15/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123806/overview", "title": "2025.1.27 Meeting", "author": "Kristina Young" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114851/overview	Emerging Technology Panel Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Emerging Technology Panel. This resource includes the session abstract, presenters information, resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, and Recording Session Abstract The Emerging Technologies Panel has convened experts to examine the intersection of technology and OER, discussing innovative tools and approaches that are shaping the future of education. The panelists will delve into cutting-edge developments, opportunities, and challenges presented by emerging technologies in the realm of OER. Presenter(s) - Sean Hauze, Director of Instructional Technology Services, San Diego State University - Helena Marvin, Open Education and Reference Librarian, University of Missouri St. Louis - Jonathan Portiz - Ustadza White, Manager of Library Technical Services and Technology, Yavapai College - Moderator: Alan Levine, Director of Innovation & Community Engagement, Open Education Global Shared Resources - Digital Literacy: Artificial Intelligence and ChatGPT - Real-World Neural Network Architecture - Mystery AI Hype Theater 3000 - XR Pinboard Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.888404	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114851/overview", "title": "Emerging Technology Panel", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114873/overview	A Few OERs Alex Greengaard Remmix, Redesign, Engage: Breathing New Life into OERs Through Intentional Design Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Remmix, Redesign, Engage: Breathing New Life into OERs Through Intentional Design. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), resources, and recording. Session Abstract, Presenters, Resources, and Recording Session Abstract Open Educational Resources (OER) have revolutionized the education landscape by providing accessible, cost-effective learning materials. However, an ongoing challenge is the under-utilization of many excellent OERs due to a lack of engaging design. In this presentation, I will highlight the impact of design on OER effectiveness, exploring how well-designed resources can foster better learning outcomes. I will showcase practical tools and strategies for enhancing OER materials, empowering educators to revamp and remix existing resources. By encouraging a design-focused approach, we can elevate the quality and engagement of OER materials, thus improving the OER ecosystem for both educators and learners while building community in the process. Presenter(s) - Alexander Greengaard, Pima Community College Resources Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.907744	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114873/overview", "title": "Remmix, Redesign, Engage: Breathing New Life into OERs Through Intentional Design", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114874/overview	Advancing Education Through Open Educational Resources at Eastern Arizona College Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Advancing Education Through Open Educational Resources at Eastern Arizona College. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract In the last six years, Eastern Arizona College (EAC) has significantly advanced its educational approach by adopting Open Educational Resources (OER), leading to 14 adoptions and ongoing development of four full and two partial builds. This achievement, largely attributed to the Rural Arizona OER Grant, also enabled the first-time Instructional Designer at EAC. The success of our OER initiative is rooted in a faculty-led approach, supported strongly by administration. We developed a comprehensive OER framework and established a dedicated OER committee, which includes an instructional designer and a librarian, to assist faculty in resource development and address copyright concerns. The committee works in tandem with our Center for Teaching and Learning, offering LMS support and guidance. Our faculty lead monitors progress and provides encouragement, ensuring the initiative's momentum. This collaborative and innovative approach has yielded significant outcomes, including approximately $44,000 in student savings during the first year of the grant, demonstrating the impactful and cost-effective nature of our OER efforts at EAC. Presenter(s) - Nathan Cline, Eastern Arizona College Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.921106	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114874/overview", "title": "Advancing Education Through Open Educational Resources at Eastern Arizona College", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114872/overview	Make Chemistry an OER Overview Archived session from the 2024 Arizona Regional OER Conference. Session Title: Make Chemistry an OER. This resource includes the session abstract, presenter(s), and recording. Session Abstract, Presenter(s), and Recording Session Abstract To date, there are few OER’s for chemistry. However, Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) has adopted and adapted the Openstax General Chemistry OER text. CMU has enhanced and added numerous interactive problems, quizzes, and a grade book to the static Openstax text. Currently, there's a similar effort underway at Yavapai College to enhance a popular OER chemistry text (by the Saylor Foundation) for fundamental chemistry. The static problems in the Saylor text have been converted to interactive ones by using CMU’s authoring tools. This presentation will include an overview of the General Chemistry courses Carnegie Mellon has available online and the progress of the fundamental chemistry OER project at Yavapai College. Presenter(s) - Gino Romeo, Yavapai College - Sandy Raysor, Carnegie Mellon University Recording	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.934944	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114872/overview", "title": "Make Chemistry an OER", "author": "OERizona Conference" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114859/overview	IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide Overview In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. Section One: Landscape Analysis for Accessibility in OER in Local Context In this section, you and your team will engage in a Landscape Analysis to uncover key structures and supports that can guide your work to support Accessibility in OER. We encourage to explore some of the questions from each category. You may or may not answer all of these questions, but this is an offering. We ask that you complete Parts One, Two and Six of this Section. Part One: Initial Thoughts What is your team's initial goal for this series? Our initial goal for this series was simply to develop our individual understandings and capacities in regards to OER and accessiblity and to formulate a strategy for improving the utilization of accessible OER at CLTCC. Part Two: Introductory probing questions: What does accessibility look like in our organization? How do we measure accessibility? Accommodations for students are managed through the dean of academic affairs. Accessibility as a whole is addressed by the colleges Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility committee, of which the library director is the chairman. What does OER look like in our organization? How do we measure access to OER? While we are utilizing a great deal of OER (particularly in our fully-online general education courses), our implementation of OER has been somewhat haphazard without the technical support or strategic planning necessary to make it completely successful for either faculty or students. Part Three: Clarifying questions for accessibility: What are the organizational structures that supports accessibility? Who generates most of the accessibility structures/conversation in our organization? Where do most educators get support with accessibility? What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to accessibility? Part Four: Clarifying questions for OER: What is our organizational structure that supports curricular resources? What is our organizational structure that supports OER? Who generates most of the curricular resources in our organization? Where do most educators get support with curricular resources? What content areas might have the largest gaps in access to curricular resources/OER? Part Five: Clarifying questions for Faculty learning and engagement: What Professional Learning (PL) structures have the best participation rates for our educators? What PL structures have the best "production" rates for our educators? What incentive do we have to offer people for participating in learning and engagement? Who are the educators that would be most creative with accessibility and OER? Who are the educators that would benefit the most from accessibility and OER? Part Six: Final Probing questions: What is our current goal for Accessibility in OER and why is that our goal? Our current goal for Accessibility in OER is to establish clear standards for both accessibility and OER implmentation at CLTCC and to achieve those standards through the development of clear procedures and faculty development in these areas. This is our goal because up until recently OER and accessibility have been handled somewhat haphazardly at CLTCC. Who have we not yet included while thinking about this work? Faculty senate's role in promoting OER and accessiblity has not been explored. There are initial efforts to form a OER Interest Group at CLTCC and these efforts are being promoted through faculty senate. What barriers remain when considering this work? The OER climate or culture at CLTCC is somewhat chaotic. There is no dedicated instructional design department for the college, so teaching faculty are left to their own interests and abilities when identifying, developing or adapting OER for their courses. The accessibility and accommodation landscape at CLTCC is similarly unsettled at the present time. What would genuine change look like for our organization for this work? The outcomes of genuine change in our organization would be a formal procedure for the adoption, adaptation, and utilization of OER in all of our course offerings, accessibility standards for all OER that is used in our courses and training on how to meet those standards, and an ongoing process of quality review of our online courses and their utilization of OER with accessiblity at its heart. Section Two: Team Focus Identifying and Describing a Problem of Practice The following questions should help your team ensure that you are focusing your collaboration. What is your Team’s specific goal for this series? You may consider using AEM Quality Indicators for Creating Accessible Materials to help add to or narrow your work. Our specific goal for this series was to develop a set of best practices for Accessibility in OER at Central Louisiana Technical Community College. What other partners might support this work? There are several departments within CLTCC that might be interested in supporting this work, including disability support services, student services, and e-learning. What is your desired timeframe for this work? Our goal is to form a task force for OER by the start of the Fall 2024 semester, and for that task force to create and disseminate a handbook for faculty interested in adopting, adapting, and creating accessible OER by the end of the Spring 2025 semester. How will you include diverse voices and experiences in this work? In cooperation with an ongoing effort in open pedagogy with the Forest Technology department, we are seeking input on OER best practices from students of diverse backgrounds, industry partners, and community stakeholders. We are also planning to present on our OER initiatives at our system authority's annual conference and also at the state academic library consortium's annual conference.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.956357	04/02/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/114859/overview", "title": "IHE Accessibility in OER Implementation Guide", "author": "Kelly Kingrey-Edwards" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93102/overview	Connecting Libraries with Instructional Design -image Connection and Creation Overview This work, "Connection and Creation" by Andrea Bearman is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 International License. Connection and Creation The benefits of collaboration between librarians and instructional designers. This work, "Connection and Creation" by Andrea Bearman is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.974504	05/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93102/overview", "title": "Connection and Creation", "author": "Andrea Bearman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116979/overview	It's Craft (Not Magic): An Introduction to the Skilled Work of Poetry Writing Overview This book has been developed by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College to support Poetry Writing courses at rural Arizona community colleges. A PDF version and a Microsoft Doc. version of the book are available for download. About This Book This book has been developed to support Poetry Writing courses at rural Arizona community colleges. Authors This book has been assembled by Erik Wilbur at Mohave Community College. Most of the content in this book has been sourced from creative commons licensed materials. Attributions for this borrowed and/or adapted and remixed content can be found at the end of each chapter. Any text, graphic, or video without an attribution should be attributed to Mohave Community College by using the license below. License It’s Craft (Not Magic): An Introduction to the Skilled Work of Poetry Writing by Mohave Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License except where otherwise noted.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:06.992925	06/18/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116979/overview", "title": "It's Craft (Not Magic): An Introduction to the Skilled Work of Poetry Writing", "author": "Erik Wilbur" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77874/overview	Accommodations for General Education Classrooms (ELED) Advice_2_Future_Students_ex2 Advice to Students 1 Brainstorming Web - student examples Class Ground Rules - examples Code Switching Communicating Between Cultures discussion sheet Communicating Role Play Compare Traditional-and-European_Values Components of Sexual Identity CP Brainstorm of interview questions CP Interview Questions CP Interview Questions - student example Cultural Autobiography - instructions Daily Census Family Dementia Daily Census Homelessness Defining Homophobia & Heterosexism (graphic organizer) Disability Awareness Quiz Diverse Associations Survey Diverse Associations Survey - student example Diverse Associations Survey worksheet Diversity Story - student example 1 Diversity Story - student example 2 Drop-Off Area (photograph) Elder Interview - student example (A) [Used by permission] Elder Interview - student example (B) [Used by permission] English Learners in Minnesota Report 2019 Expert Groups Expert Groups: Cooperative Learning Extra Credit Ideas Family Portrait - student example Fry Bread Intelligence Test Grade Worksheet Grounding Worksheet Hate in America - graphic organizer Hello, my relatives Hijab in Spain worksheet How do I fold my name tent? Human Body Outline (worksheet) Iceberg Metaphor for Culture Impact of Class Discussions on Student Cultural Competence Informed Consent for Background Check In Good Hands (photograph) Instructions for Elder Interview Instructor's Closing Message Interconnected Systems of Oppression Keirsey Temperament Sorter Life Values Inventory Mankato Public Schools Demographic book 2020-21 Mapping the Muslim Population Memory Loss: Activities Microculture card sort Microcultures - Top 8 Minnesota Language Survey Mission Statement - student example Multicultural Education for Exceptional Children Nature vs Nurture - student example Nature vs. Nurture (worksheet) Personal Mission Statement Photo Release Form Professional Dispositions Self-Assessment QUAD graphic organizer Questions to Ask New Friends Racial Autobiography Prompts from Pacific Educational Group Self-Assessments Form Self-Assessments Form - student example Service Learning Reflection Process Shadow of Hate organizer - student example Sign-in Roster Template Social Identities Portrait Social Identities Portrait - student example Standards Met Storytelling with Persona Dolls by Julie Rotondo Bissen Student Information Form Student Information Form - student example Test Your Knowledge of Poverty in America Thank-you note - student example Tower of Violence by Scott M. Fearing Tower of Violence (graphic organizer) Human Relations in a Multicultural Society (Instructor's Module Plans) Overview This material is a collection of modules developed for a specific course, Human Relations in a Multicultural Society. The modules are being updated, so check back occasionally to see the new materials. Experiential learning strategies embedded in the modules may be useful for other groups, too. The modules are designed so learners can practice self-awareness and skills that are essential for living and working in a democratic and socially just society. Content, reflection, experiences, and discussion address issues of oppression and social justice related to race/ethnicity, gender, age, class, religion, disability, physical appearance, sexual orientation and nationality. Learners will come to understand groups that have been historically been excluded from the western power and decision-making. Participants will examine mainstream and alternative viewpoints for values, validity, and outcomes, in order to grow their investigative and critical thinking skills. These modules are based on teaching with Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th edition; 2021) by Donna M. Gollnick and Philip C. Chinn available from Pearson Publishing, Hoboken, NJ. Pearson has a test bank, instructor's manual, powerpoint presentations, and many online resources in MyLab. Start Here!! This material is a collection of modules developed for a specific course, Human Relations in a Multicultural Society. The modules are being updated, so check back occasionally to see the new materials. Experiential learning strategies embedded in the modules may be useful for other groups, too. The modules are designed so learners can practice self-awareness and skills that are essential for living and working in a democratic and socially just society. Content, reflection, experiences, and discussion address issues of oppression and social justice related to race/ethnicity, gender, age, class, religion, disability, physical appearance, sexual orientation and nationality. Learners will come to understand groups that have been historically been excluded from the western power and decision-making. Participants will examine mainstream and alternative viewpoints for values, validity, and outcomes, in order to grow their investigative and critical thinking skills. These modules are based on teaching with Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th edition; 2021) by Donna M. Gollnick and Philip C. Chinn available from Pearson Publishing, Hoboken, NJ. Pearson has a test bank, instructor's manual, powerpoint presentations, and many online resources in MyLab. This is the table of contents: - Foundations of Multicultural Education - Race and Ethnicity - Class and Socioeconomic Status - Gender - Sexual Orientation - Exceptionality - Language - Religion - Geography - The Youth Culture - Education That Is Multicultural Theoretical Base and Course Objectives Theoretical Base This author's research since 2010 has suggested that the typical first- or second-year university student has reached the minimization orientation to cultural differences and similarities. This means that the students are likely to recognize the common humanity of all people and value tolerance of differences but likely over-estimate how much they are able to adapt their behavior to cultural differences. Their next developmental task is to consciously balance their successful focus on commonality with a deeper understanding of differences that do not easily “fit” into the familiar frameworks of commonalities. ELE222w Human Relations in a Multicultural Society (3 credits) Course Description Students will learn and practice self-awareness and skills that are essential for living and working in a democratic and socially just society. Course content will address issues of oppression and social justice related to race/ethnicity, gender, age, class, religion, disability, physical appearance, sexual orientation and nationality. Outside of class, each student will complete 18 hours of Service-Learning field experience and 9 hours of Cultural Partnership. Discussion will address groups that have been historically been excluded from the western power and decision-making. Investigative and critical thinking skills where participants examine mainstream and alternative viewpoints for values, validity, and outcomes. Course Objectives - Know about cultural norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Explain the concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Reflect on one’s own strengths, values, needs, and professional dispositions. - Reflect on one’s own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills (reading, writing, public speaking, and researching). - Improve skills for personal communication in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to those with different ideas and values than yours (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). Examples of Assessments - Discussion Board posts: Identify and reflect on examples of bias, discrimination, prejudice, and racism. - Discussion Board posts: Identify and reflect on contributions and lifestyles of various racial, cultural, and economic groups in society. - Cultural Autobiography: Identify and explore personal micro-cultures: Life & Family, Socioeconomic Status, Age & Generation, Sexual Orientation, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Language, Religion/Spirituality, Exceptionalities, Special Needs, and Geography or Region. Describe the impact of each micro-culture on individual development and communication. - Service Learning Reflection Project: Describe the service learning experience. Reflect on the connections that were established; how groups function, communicate and influence individuals; and how individuals influence groups. Describe the communication skills used during the experience. Give anecdotes, behaviors, and examples to enrich the reflection. Standards of Effective Practice addressed by this material [for Minnesota teachers] Subpart 4. Standard 3. Diverse Learners. A teacher must understand how students differ in their approaches to learning and create instructional opportunities that are adapted to students with diverse backgrounds and exceptionalities. The teacher must: 4D - understand how to recognize and deal with dehumanizing biases, discrimination, prejudices, and institutional and personal racism and sexism; 4F. - understand the contributions and lifestyles of the various racial, cultural, and economic groups in our society; Subpart 6. Standard 5. Learning Environment. A teacher must be able to use an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create learning environments that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. The teacher must: 6B. - understand how social groups function and influence people, and how people influence groups; Subpart 7. Standard 6. Communication. A teacher must be able to use knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. The teacher must: 7B. - understand how cultural and gender differences can affect communication in the classroom; 7C. - understand the importance of nonverbal as well as verbal communication; 7D. - know effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques Table of Contents Start Here! Theoretical Base and Course Objectives Module 1: Introduction to the Course and Procedures Module 2: Foundations of Culture [Self-assessments] Ch 1 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 3: Family Ties: Family composition and cultural engagement Module 4: A Sense of Place: Geography/region [Native American] Ch 9 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 5: It’s Time to Talk: Race/ethnicity [European American] Ch 2 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 6: Gender [Latinx American] Ch 4 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 7: Sexual orientation Ch 5 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 8: Language and communication [African American] Ch 7 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 9: Religion/spirituality [Middle Eastern American] Ch 8 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 10: Disability does not mean inability: Exceptionality and Ableism Ch 6 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 11: Immigration/citizenship status [Asian American] Module 12: Socioeconomic status: classism, income, wealth, & poverty Ch 3 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 13: Generation and Age Cohort Ch 10 in Gollnick and Chinn Module 14: Other, e.g., military, education, academics, sports, clubs Module 15: Conclusion to the course Addendum: Syllabus Addendum: Explanation of Routines Addendum: Glossary Addendum: Welcome from the indigenous people of the region Addendum: Diversity Story Addendum: Cultural Autobiography Addendum: Cultural Partnership Addendum: Service Learning Addendum: Resources for Classroom Teachers Addendum: Dozens of Class Activities Module 1: Introduction to the Course and Procedures Class Procedures Arrival Attendance: sign-in Distribute hand-outs Beginning Focus minute Check-in table conversation Each module Diversity story Microculture Ethnic culture Writing workshop Announcements Journal entry Homework assignments Closing Exit slips (muddiest point, something I learned, thank you note, 1.1 Introduction to the module This module assists students to understand the course goals and the instructor's approaches to teaching and learning. 1.2 Module Learning Objectives - Get organized for the course. - Develop a plan to engage in the course. 1.3 Key Terms Culture: Beliefs, attitudes, values, norms, and behaviors shared by a group of people and passed to later generations. Culture is dynamic and changes over time. Human relations: Relationships with or between people, particularly the treatment of people in a professional or community context. Multicultural: Relating to or constituting several cultural or ethnic groups within a society. Patterns that are similar among various groups of people. Pluralistic: A society or community in which people don't have to give up their cultural backgrounds and identifies in order to be a part of the group. 1.4 Materials and Spaces Needed One for each student: file folders (empty), plain copy paper, Student Information forms, Consent forms for background checks, Photo Release Forms, Diverse Associations Survey, Grade Worksheets, tongue-depressor stick, 4x6" index card. Materials for the class: computer and overhead projector, Advice from Past Students, Attendance Roster, Module Daily Census form, pencils, markers, crayons, camera, hand sanitizer, table sanitizer, textbook 1.5 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs Attendance Roster. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: City & State of Birth 1.6 Focus Minute - 1 minute of silence 1.7 Instructor's introduction (See Hello, my relatives attached) 1.8 Review Course Student Learning Outcomes - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Identify one’s own strengths, values, needs, and professional dispositions. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Reflect on one’s own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills (reading, writing, public speaking, and researching). 1.9 Getting Organized - Write last name on File folder - Complete Student Information Form - Complete Consent Form for SL background check - Complete Consent Form for photographs - Complete Diverse Associations Survey - Make Name Tents 1.10 Show the textbook Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson, Inc. 1.11 Review major assignments see syllabus 1.12 Review grading scale 99-100 % =A+ 95-98 % =A 93-94 % =A- \| \| 91-92 % =B+ 86-90 % =B 84-85 % =B- \| \| 82-83 % =C+ 77-81 % =C 75-76 % =C- \| \| 72-74 % =D+ 67-71 % =D 66 % =D- \| \| 0 65% = F \| \| 1.13 Questions and answers Invite students to ask their questions about the course content or procedures. 1.14 Ground rules Together, develop some ground rules or norms about behavior expectations for class. Here are some examples: - Listen respectfully. - Be willing to wrestle with challenging ideas. - Distinguish between opinion and knowledge. - Accept discomfort and ambiguity as necessary for growth. For more ideas, see Guidelines for Classroom Interactions from the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. 1.15 Diversity Story Instructor shares about their family of origin and their social and economic microcultures. 1.16 Small Group Discussion 1. Do you have friends from a culture different from yours? Why or why not? 2. How much time have you spent to learn from someone from a different culture? 3. How comfortable are you in communicating with strangers from cultures different than yours? 4. Tell a story about something you learned from someone from a culture that is different from your own. 1.17 Advice from Previous Students Each student receives a letter/note from a previous student with advice for how to be successful in this class. In small groups, students read the notes and choose the top 3 suggestions to share with the entire class. 1.18 Journal entry Students complete these sentences: - My personal goals for completing this course are: ______________________________ - My commitments to succeed in this course are: ________________________________ 1.19 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 1, Foundations of Multicultural Education, in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 17-minute video lecture for Chapter 1 Foundations of Multicultural Education. - After reading the chapter, respond to questions in the discussion board: (1) . (2) . - Complete the pre-instruction survey about levels of cultural awareness. - Complete Intercultural Development Inventory with username and password provided by your instructor. - Write 1 sentence about your culture. 1.20 Exit slips Each student adds 4 pieces of information to their 4x6" index card: name, hometown, academic major, year in school. References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity #1: Cultural Artifacts Before the beginning of class, invite students to bring an object from home that represents their culture. This idea has been featured in journals on pedagogy as an effective assignment for fostering interpersonal knowledge and setting the stage for interactions in a course (Lee, Williams, and Kilaberia, 2011). During class, students will write about the object (for example, describe it in detail; explicate its meaning; account for why they selected it and how it was associated with meaning in relation to some aspect of their cultural identity). Students then present their cultural artifacts to each other in small or whole-class groups. Extension Activity #2 Watch the 23-minute videorecording, "Them & Us." A lesson plan is HERE. A Study Guide is HERE. Resources Attached Hello, my relatives Class Ground Rules – examples Advice to Students – student example Student Information Form Informed Consent for Background Check Grade Worksheet Photo Release Form Diverse Associations Survey Module 2: Foundations of Culture [Self-assessments] Ch 1 in Gollnick and Chinn 2.1 Introduction to the module In the US, we have an idea that the individual is important. The US has one of the most individualistic cultures in the world. Americans are more likely to prioritize themselves over a group. They value independence and autonomy and personal choices and personal property. So, our consideration of cultural competence is going to begin with the individual and the individual’s family of origin. In this module, students will learn about themselves: learning style, life values, communication style, temperament type, and personal power. Some of these characteristics are attributable to learned culture. By learning about individual differences and similarities, students will practice respecting differences and similarities. In the following module, students will reflect about their families. 2.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 2.3 Key terms Communication: The imparting or exchanging of information or news; the means of sending or receiving information, e.g., reading, writing, talking, listening. Culture: The attitudes, habits, norms, beliefs, behaviors, customs, rituals, styles and artifacts that express a group’s adaptation to its environment; that is, ways that are shared by group members and passed to other generations. Cultural competence: Skills to effectively interact in culturally appropriate ways in a particular circumstance. Family of origin: The significant caretakers, siblings, and others with whom a child grows up. This family is the first social group to which a person belongs. Often this is a person’s biological or adoptive family. Learning style: An individual’s preferred way to absorb, process, comprehend and retain information. The four key learning styles are: visual, auditory, tactile and kinesthetic. Personal power: Strength, confidence, and competence that individuals gradually acquire in the course of their development. An attitude or state of mind rather than an attempt to maneuver or control others. It is based on competence, vision, positive personal qualities, and service. Temperament: A configuration of observable personality traits, such as habits of communication, patterns of action, and sets of characteristic attitudes, values, and talents. It also encompasses personal needs, the kinds of contributions that individuals make in the workplace, and the roles they play in society. Keirsey (2021) describes four basic temperament types: Artisan, Guardian, Idealist, and Rational. Values: Things that are important in the way one lives and works. They (should) determine priorities, and, deep down, they're probably the measures used to tell if life is turning out the way you want it to. 2.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 1, Foundations of Multicultural Education, in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 17-minute video lecture for Chapter 1 Foundations of Multicultural Education. - After reading the chapter, respond to questions in the discussion board: (1) How do you think that ethnicity, gender and religion interact in determining your cultural identity? Give examples; (2) Why is multicultural education important for people in the dominant cultures? - Complete the pre-instruction survey about levels of cultural awareness. - Complete Intercultural Development Inventory with username and password provided by your instructor. - Write 1 sentence about yourself and your culture. 2.5 Materials and spaces needed computer and overhead projector, attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, copies of handouts and worksheets, pencils, crayons, etc. Student work folders, attendance roster, markers, camera, Self-Assessment Worksheet for results of surveys and inventories, internet access and computer memory to process results of inventories. 2.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs attendance roster and places name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: List the people in your family and their birthdate/year. As students arrive, each student reviews their Diverse Associations Survey (which should be in their work folder from the last module). On the newsprint poster, each student shades in a square to symbolize which groups they have rated either 0 or 1 on their surveys. The results are a graphic illustration of the lack of experience the students have with diverse groups. Individual results will be used to determine the each student's service learning placement. 2.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 2.8 Introductions Using the one sentence from homework, each student introduces themselves to the class members. 2.9 Video Watch this 44-minute documentary of Hate in America, to consider the historical roots of bias and racism. 2.10 Self-assessments Use these FREE online resources to think about value-free differences among people. As you complete each survey or inventory, record the results in the Self-Assessment Worksheet, add the description in your own words, and give an example of how you embody that trait. - Keirsey Temperament Sorter - SpeakStrong Inventory - VARK Learning Style survey - LifeValues Inventory - Personal Power Profile 2.11 Theoretical basis for this course: Intercultural Development Continuumtm Share the theoretical basis for this class: the Intercultural Development Continuum. Then, report the group profile generated by the IDI. 2.12 Compare and contrast cultures (part 1) Students create a graphic organizer with 2 columns. Column 1 is the speaker’s culture. Column 2 is the student’s own culture. As they watch presentations, students will make notes about values, religion, music, food, friendships, etc. This will be part of the reflection near the end of the class meeting. 2.13 Diversity story: Scot Zellmer Watch this 37-minute videorecording of Scot Zellmer talking about his culture, as an adult adopted into a Dakota family. 2.14 Compare and contrast cultures (part 2) In small groups, each student shares one thing they have in common with Scot and one thing that is different between them and Scot. 2.15 Make a list of questions to use when interviewing a family elder A significant part of a person’s journey toward engagement with their own culture is their understanding of their family history. The interview of a family elder is one step on the journey. After listening and watching to diversity stories, students will generate a list of questions to use when they interview their family elder. Here are some examples: - How did your family get to [your current hometown]? - What were people like in the community where you spent your childhood? - How did our family change over the years? - Who most influenced you and your values? How did they influence you? About which values? - What religion did our family practice? Why? Where did our traditions come from? - How did our family learn about people who were different than we were? What did we learn? - What was the role of education in our family? Who was able to continue their education? Where and why? 2.16 Announcements and homework for next module - Sign up for a class meeting in which you will share your own Diversity Story with the class members. - Review the course syllabus in the Materials / Content section. 2.17 Exit slips Each student adds 4 more pieces of information to their 4x6" index card: Keirsey Temperament, SpeakStrong communication style; VARK learning style; and major life values. Write a thank you note to our guest speaker. References Brown, D., & Grace, R. K. (1996). LifeValues Inventory. Life Values Resources. https://www.monarchbha.com/wp-content/uploads/BHMT_CC_Life-Values_Inventory.pdf. Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Miramontes, L. G., del Prado, A. M., & Cabrera, H. F. (2007). Culture and the behavioural manifestations of traits: an application of the Act Frequency Approach. European Journal of Personality, 21(4), 389 - 417. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.631. Gautrey, C. (2020, July 7). Your Personal Power Profile. Colin Gautrey’s Influence Blog. https://www.learntoinfluence.com/your-personal-power-profile/. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Guggenheim Productions. (1995). Shadow of Hate [documentary]. YouTube https://youtu.be/TZRKpnbjptM. IDI LLC. Intercultural Development Inventory version 3. Baltimore, MD: IDI LLC. Investigate TV. (2018, October 9). Hate in America [documentary]. YouTube https://youtu.be/xLuXfkZ8AZI. Keirsey, D. (2021). Keirsey Temperament Sorter. The Keirsey Group. https://profile.keirsey.com/#/b2c/assessment/start. Runion, M. (2018). SpeakStrong Communication Style Inventory. Cascade, CO: SpeakStrong. https://www.speakstrong.com/inventory/ VARK Learn Ltd. (2021). VARK Learning Style Questionnaire version 8.01. Christchurch, New Zealand: VARK Learn Ltd. https://vark-learn.com/the-vark-questionnaire/. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity #1: TBD Extension Activity #2: TBD Resources Attached Iceberg Metaphor for Culture Shadow of Hate graphic organizer – blank Shadow of Hate graphic organizer – student example Self-Assessments Form – blank worksheet Self-Assessments Form – student example LifeValues Inventory Keirsey Temperament Sorter Module 3: Family Ties: Family composition and cultural engagement 3.1 Introduction to the module ‘Family of origin’ refers to the significant caretakers, siblings, and others with whom a child grows up. This family is the first social group to which a person belongs. Often this is a person’s biological or adoptive family. Early experiences influence how we see ourselves, others, and the world. There are other contextual influences on our family and on us as individuals, including class, social status, language, and religion, as well as other social and biological kinships. For example, you might have been raised by grandparents, an aunt or uncle, a family friend, or your parents. Families of origin can also include siblings, cousins, or anyone else who lives with you or anyone you define as family. 3.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 3.3 Key terms Family of origin: The significant caretakers, siblings, and others with whom a child grows up. This family is the first social group to which a person belongs. Often this is a person’s biological or adoptive family. 3.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module Read Chapter 9 in the Gollnick and Chinn textbookWatch the 17-minute video lecture for Chapter 9 GeographyAfter reading the text, respond to the questions on discussion board: ( 3.5 Materials and spaces needed computer and overhead projector, attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, copies of handouts and worksheets, pencils, crayons, etc. 3.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs attendance roster and places name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: TBD 3.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 3.8 Compare and contrast cultures (part 1) Students create a graphic organizer with 2 columns. Column 1 is Jon’s culture. Column 2 is the student’s own culture. As they watch presentations, students will make notes about values, religion, music, food, friendships, etc. This will be part of the reflection near the end of the class meeting. 3.9 Diversity story: European American culture Watch the 29-minute video-recording of Jon Steele's description of his cultural background (Part 1). Watch the 12-minute video-recording of Jon Steele's reflection about his cultural background (Part 2). 3.14 Compare and contrast cultures (part 2) Students created a graphic organizer with 2 columns. Column 1 is Jon’s culture. Column 2 is the student’s own culture. As they watched presentations, students made notes about values, religion, music, food, friendships, etc. In small groups, each student shares one thing they have in common with Jon and one thing that is different between them and Jon. 3.15 More Discussion - How did you get your name? What does it mean? What does it mean in your family? - Who is in your family? Why do you consider them to be family? - What do people see when they look at you? Are those things true or not? Why? - Think back 3 generations to your great-grandparents. Who were your ancestors? Where were they? What were they doing? What language did they speak? What was their religion? How did your family get from where your great-grandparents lived to the place you were born? - How old were you when you knew there were some people in the world who were ‘different’ than you? What happened? [religion, race/ethnicity, language, etc.] 3.15 Write your autobiography about your family of origin Draw a picture of your family on one section of your work folder. Share your picture with other students in your small group. 3.16 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 9 Geography in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 17-minute video lecture for Chapter 9 Geography. - After reading the text, respond to the questions on discussion board: (1) Describe how the region in which you grew up (geographic region) helped determine your identity. (2) What impacts might a family’s moving from one school district to another have on their children? - Complete the Fry Bread Intelligence (FBI) test. 3.17 Exit slips Each student adds 4 more pieces of information to their 4x6" index card: childhood region; ethnic background; first language + additional languages; religion or spirituality Write a thank you note to our guest speaker References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity #1: TBD Extension Activity #2: TBD Resources Attached Family Portrait – student example Social Identities Portrait Social Identities Portrait – student example Module 4: A Sense of Place: Geography/region [Native American] Ch 9 in Gollnick and Chinn Notes on the Black Hawk State Park Pow Wow: The Pow-Wow was held annually on Labor Day Weekend in Black Hawk State Park, Rock Island, Illinois beginning in 1940. Sponsor was the Indian Pow-wow Council (a non-profit corporation). Documents within this collection indicate monies earned by this organization were used to help Native American Indians with college expenses. Geography - Region (e.g., Midwest, New England, Southwest, Europe, Africa, etc.) - Location (e.g. urban, suburban, rural) - Environment (e.g. mountains, desert, coast) * = those micro-cultures that are immutable ** = the dominant subcultures Notes re: Mahkato Wacipi park clean-up, make learning kits for students in Grade 6. Sites: buffalo in Minneopa State Park, Reconciliation Park, Dance forms, drums, flint knapping, regalia, bone carving, dreamcatchers, beading, medicine bags with herbs, story of 38+2, raising teepees, Dakota language, reservation life 4.1 Introduction to the module Place is important. Place is the “fusion of human and cultural landscape elements centered on the immediate experience of the world…[including] whole entities, syntheses of natural and man-made objects, activities and functions, and meanings given by intentions… Individual spirit relates and reflects in physical forms, and expresses in rituals and repeated activities which maintain peculiar properties of a place. Thus, personal experience is the essence of a Sense of place (Mohammad et al, 2013).” So, people in different places in the world belong to different cultures. Each group of people shares beliefs and customs and transmits them to other generations. They pass along information and values about social groups, language, religion, history, daily life, art, government, the economy, etc. In order to successfully communicate and work together, we need to make a deep effort to put ourselves in the shoes of others. We must look beyond language to understand identity and deeply held beliefs. 4.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 4.3 Key terms American Indians: A member of any of the indigenous peoples of North, Central, and South America, especially those indigenous to what is now the continental US. Cultural diffusion: The spread of ideas, languages, and customs from one culture to another. Culture: The way of life of a group of people who share similar beliefs and customs and who transmit them to other generations (social groups, language, religion, history, daily life, art, government, economic, etc.). Environment: The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates, e.g., mountains, desert, coast. While the environment itself is not an element of culture, people develop cultural responses to their environment. Globalization: A system that connects countries economically, politically, environmentally, and culturally through a global economy supported by free trade, international corporations, and worldwide labor markets. Human geography: The study of the economic, social, and cultural systems that have evolved in a specific location of the world. Indigenous people: Originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native. Location: The type of community and countryside, e.g., urban, rural, suburban, etc. Migration: Movement to another place, often of a large group of people. Native Americans: A member of any of the indigenous peoples of North, Central, and South America, especially those indigenous to what is now the continental US. Region: An area or division, especially part of a country or the world, having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries, e.g., Midwest, New England, Southwest, Europe, Africa, etc. 4.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 9 Geography in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 17-minute video lecture for Chapter 9 Geography. - After reading the text, respond to the questions on discussion board: (1) Describe how the region in which you grew up (geographic region) helped determine your identity. (2) What impacts might a family’s moving from one school district to another have on their children? - Complete the Fry Bread Intelligence (FBI) test. 4.5 Materials and spaces needed computer and overhead projector, attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, copies of handouts and worksheets, pencils, crayons, etc. 4.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs attendance roster and places name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: number of states you have lived in; number of countries you have visited or lived in. 4.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 4.8 Acknowledge the original indigenous peoples who lived in this region. For information about the peoples who originally lived in a specific area, text a zipcode or city/state to (855) 917-5263 (active in March 2021). For guidelines to acknowledge the original indigenous people groups, see information HERE. 4.9 Watch “Raising the Tipi” (8 minutes) at the 2011 Mahkato Wacipi (PowWow). 4.10 Compare and contrast cultures (part 1) Students create a graphic organizer with 3 columns. Column 1 is Native Dakota Culture. Column 2 is Minnesota Culture. Column 3 is the student’s own culture. As they watch presentations, students will make notes about values, religion, music, food, friendships, etc. This will be part of the reflection near the end of the class meeting. 4.11 Diversity story: Native Americans of Minnesota Watch this 20-minute video-recording of a presentation by the MSU American Indian Student Association. 4.12 “How to Talk Minnesotan” (27 minutes) Sometimes Minnesotans of European heritage are not sure that they have a culture. Watch this Public Television program, “How to Talk Minnesotan” and compare your culture with the Minnesota culture. 4.13 “America by the Numbers: Mainstream USA” (56 minutes) Watch America by the Numbers: Mainstream, USA http://www.pbs.org/video/2365331457/ (about 56 minutes) 4.14 Compare and contrast cultures (part 2) Students create a graphic organizer with 3 columns. Column 1 is Native Dakota Culture. Column 2 is Minnesota Culture. Column 3 is the student’s own culture. As they watch presentations, students will make notes about values, religion, music, food, friendships, etc. See the attachment “Compare Traditional-and-European_Values.” 4.15 Write your regional autobiography In what region did you grow up? What were the migration patterns of that region? Find community facts at https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=0100000US. What types of cultures influenced that region? [indigenous groups; migration from other parts of North, Central, or South America; migration from Europe, Africa, or Asia] How were you influenced by the culture of that region? [religion; food; health; politics; industry and commerce; rural/town/city/metro] What are some cultural characteristics of the region in which you now live? [environment; economy; religion] What are some influences of migration/immigration in the region you grew up? [ethnic diversity; economics; indigenous people] In which region would you like to work? Why? What is the human geography of that region? [immigration; family cultures; global perspectives] 4.16 Class participation activities - Register to vote at VOTE411.org - Join the class in ENGAGE to create your extracurricular transcript - Join the Facebook group page to network with each other 4.17 Journal entry TBD 4.18 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 2 in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 16-minute video lecture for Chapter 2 Race and Ethnicity - After reading the chapter, respond to the questions on the bulletin board: (1) Why is race so important now in terms of social, economic, and political patterns? (2) What have you seen recently that people have been doing to combat racism? What do you think and how do you feel about those actions? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, ……………………. 4.19 Exit slips TBD References As/Is. (2016, February 3). I’m Native, But I’m Not… [video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/NCFPiFTZlHU. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Heutmaker, M. (2015). American Indian Student Association Presentation [video]. MediaSpace https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/Diversity+storyA+American+Indian+Student+Association+presentation/1_zfzn1hgd. Mohammad, N. M. N., Saruwono, M., Said, S. Y., & Hariri, W. A. H. W. (2013). A Sense of Place within the Landscape in Cultural Settings. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 105(2013), 506–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.054. Native Governance Center. (2019, October 22). A guide to Indigenous land acknowledgment. New Brighton, MN: Native Governance Center. https://nativegov.org/a-guide-to-indigenous-land-acknowledgment/. Public Broadcasting Service. (2014). America by the Numbers: Mainstream USA [video]. PBS https://www.pbs.org/video/america-numbers-mainstream-usa/. Sandell, E. J. (2011). Raising the Tipi [video]. MediaSpace https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/Raising+the+Tipi/1_bldf7hhq. Sinte Gleska University/Rosebud Sioux Reservation. [Sintegleskautube]. (1996). The Best Fry Bread [video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/gY3zla4dg-M. Twin Cities Public Television. [TPT Originals]. (1992). How to Talk Minnesotan [video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/oiSzwoJr4-0. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity #1: Learning a new culture: Play MAU! Form a “fishbowl” seating arrangement, with about 6 students in a game circle around a table or counter-top and the remaining students outside the small circle. Those on the outside observe those in the inner circle. The game forbids its players from explaining the rules, and new players are often informed that "the only rule you may be told is this one: There is no talking about Mau.” Part of the traditional experience of Mao is a new player being forced to learn some or all of the rules of the game through observation and trial and error. Thus, new players are not presented with a list of rules, as part of the game is to discover the rules through gameplay. The game’s goal is to be the first player to get rid of all the cards in their hand. A player who breaks a rule is penalized by being given an additional card from the deck. The person giving the penalty must state what the incorrect action was, without explaining the rule that was broken. Extension Activity #2 (10 min) PowWow regalia ppt and PowWow video (10 min) Teach us some words in Dakota language (Hello? Little sister? Big brother?) Extension Activity #3 (5 min) Snacks (Maple candy?? Tea? Meat jerky?) (5 min) Misconceptions about Native American people https://youtu.be/GHdW_LVfn28 (10 min) Compare traditional cultural values with European American values Extension Activity #4 (30 min) Explain and teach beading Resources Attached Fry Bread Intelligence (FBI) Test Compare Traditional-and-European_Values Module 5: It's Time to Talk about Race and Ethnicity [European American] Ch 2 in Gollnick and Chinn Race * -- invented by human beings; specified on census forms; used as a category in research - Caucasian (Whites) ** - African American (Blacks) - American Indian, Eskimo - Asian / Pacific Islander - Hispanic - Other * = those micro-cultures that are immutable ** = the dominant subcultures Ethnicity * - Western European ** - Central / Eastern European - Asian - African - Latino - Other * = those micro-cultures that are immutable = the dominant subcultures 5.1 Introduction to the module On Twitter 03/22/21: President Biden @POTUS "There are simply some core values and beliefs that should bring us together as Americans. One of them is standing together against racism — the ugly poison that has long haunted and plagued our nation. It’s up to all of us to give hate no safe harbor in America." While I appreciate the statement, I'm thinking that racism is a very American value. It's embedded in American institutions and policies. It flows from generation to generation. I want to be anti-racist, but my racism gets in the way. 5.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 5.3 Key terms Anglo-conformity: Perception that the values, norms, and standards of the United States should be extensions of English culture, since the English were the dominant group during the colonial era when the new nation was emerging. Anti-bias: Opposing or prohibiting unfair discrimination against people based on race, religion, etc. : preventing or counteracting bias Bias: A preference or inclination that inhibits impartial judgment. May be implicit or explicit. May be favorable or unfavorable. Ethnicity: Identification of an individual according to his or her national origin and/or distinctive cultural patterns. Prejudice: A negative attitude toward a group or persons perceived to be members of that group; being predisposed to behave negatively toward members of a group. Privilege: An invisible package of assets and advantages which may be counted on but remain invisible to groups of people who have such advantages. Examples include dominant culture groups, such as heterosexual males, whites, able-bodied persons, etc. The privileges may be dependent on ethnic group, geographical region, etc. Race: A social concept with no scientific basis that categorizes people according to obvious physical differences such as skin color Racism: The social categorization of human beings according to color, with one group establishing an artificial superiority to others; an attitude, action, or institutional structure that subordinates or limits a person on the basis of their race. Stereotype: A positive or negative trait or traits ascribed to a certain group and to most members of that group. Tolerance: Awareness of cultural differences without judging any culture as superior or inferior. 5.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 2 Race and Ethnicity in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 16-minute video lecture for Chapter 2 Race and Ethnicity - After reading the chapter, respond to the questions on the bulletin board: (1) Why is race so important now in terms of social, economic, and political patterns? (2) What have you seen recently that people have been doing to combat racism? What do you think and how do you feel about those actions? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz (TBD) 5.5 Materials and spaces needed computer and overhead projector, attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, copies of handouts and worksheets, pencils, crayons, etc. 5.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs attendance roster and places name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: TBD 5.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 5.8 Personal Story Instructor’s personal story of driving into Northern Arkansas (Harrison, AR). 5.9 Time to Talk? Preparation: Write each question for discussion on a separate newsprint and place one sheet at each table. Divide the class into 4 groups. Groups discuss their responses and write notes or draw pictures on the newsprint to answer the question. After 6 minutes, the groups rotate to another table, until each group has responded to each question. - What aspect of your racial or ethnic identity makes you most proud? Why? - When was the first time you had an awareness about your own racial identity? - What messages do you get daily about race? From whom? - Have you ever experienced a situation where your own racial or ethnic identity seemed to contribute to a problem or an uncomfortable situation? What happened? 5.10 Racial and ethnic autobiography Interesting to consider racial and ethnic background. Discuss in small groups: What is your own racial and ethnic background? The Author: Many of my students do not know their own ethnic background, so I share something about mine. What is my own racial and ethnic background? My general answer is “White” or “Caucasian,” but those are really not ethnic backgrounds and “race” is an invention. They are categories on the US Census intended to categorize people for purposes of grouping data and distributing resources. Sometimes, my answer is “European-American,” but that is a general geographic area of my ancestors. I have done a lot of work on Ancestry.com, and I have gotten results of my DNA test. My DNA matches with that of other people who lived in Germanic Europe, England and Wales, Northwestern Europe, and Norway. My DNA matches with that of other people who came from Europe and settled in the Northeastern and Pennsylvania areas of what is now the US. So I have to look at specific people in my family tree to understand their ethnic backgrounds. And if I follow branches back and back and back about 1000 years, I find many, many ancestors who were of the Germanic tribes, grouped by common language structures. The term Anglo-Saxons causes many of us to think of Great Britain. However, even my ancestors in Great Britain had ancestors who arrived there from the Germanic tribal areas and were know, for example, as Angles and Saxons. Sixteen percent (16%) of the US population has German ancestry. This is the largest group named in the US – and yes, guess where the data came from: The US Census. See a list of Germanic tribes in Wikipedia. 5.11 “Adam Ruins Suburbs” Watch the 15-minute episode of “Adam Ruins Suburbs.” 5.12 Mapping Inequality See if students can locate their hometown on Mapping Inequality. I (the author) found the street address of my childhood home in Davenport, Iowa. The lot was classified in 1936 as B2(c): Still desirable. However, that lot was right across the street from an area classified as C3: Definitely declining. In fact, none of this city was classified as "A: Desirable" in 1936. Redlining was so effective that, in 1966, there was only one Black pupil in the entire Sixth Grade class at Madison Elementary School. 5.13 Diversity Story [guest speaker] 5.14 Reflection In small groups, students write 5 big ideas they learned about redlining. In the past, generally, groups identified these 5 big ideas: (1) redlining; (2) Fair Housing Act; (3) racial covenants; (4) specific neighborhoods that were identified; and (5) inherited property wealth (or lack thereof). 5.15 Be anti-racist In small groups, students brainstorm actions that can correct the inequities of redlining. Generally, groups identified resolutions such as: reinvest in redlined neighborhoods; educate people; study redlining in more communities. Download for free the Checklist for Allies Against Racism. It details the specific behaviors that help support and affirm the work in the struggle against racism. The checklist identifies specific steps for individuals to take when they ask, What can I personally do about racism? 5.16 Journal entry Each student writes several paragraphs for their own racial and ethnic autobiography. 5.17 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 4 Gender in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 12-minute video lecture for Chapter 4 Gender. - After reading the chapter, respond to these questions on the discussion board: (1) How are differences between genders determined culturally rather than biologically? (2) In your own words, what is meant by the term “gender diversity”? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz TBD 5.18 Exit slips Write one thing that you will do to work against racism. References Amplifying Black Voices MN. (2021, February 8). Microaggressions: Episode 2 [video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/zUjBUE57-Nk. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Learning Seed. (2004). Them & Us [video]. Chicago, IL: Learning Seed. https://www.learningseed.com/catalog/them-and-us Digital Scholarship Lab. (2021). Mapping Inequality: Redlining in New Deal America. [website] Richmond, VA: University of Richmond https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=6/43.213/-99.47&text=intro. Raible, J. (April, 2009). Checklist for Allies against Racism [monograph]. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska – Lincoln. https://johnraible.files.wordpress.com/2007/05/revised-2009-checklist-for-allies.pdf. No B.S. (2017, October 6). Adam Ruins Suburbs [video]. YouTube https://youtu.be/gxXobjxPiN8. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity #1 Find out about the Mapping Prejudice project. Students participate in online video training and actually join the project to enter information about racial covenants in the Twin Cities area of Minnesota. Students can participate in this project from anywhere in the world. Extension Activity #2 Watch the 10-minute videorecording, "Who is getting expelled from preschools and why?" https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/Who+Is+Being+Expelled+from+Preschools%2C+and+WhyF/1_ycuc4hrv Extension Activity #3 Watch the 58-minute documentary, “Jim Crow of the North.” “Roots of racial disparities are seen through a new lens in this film that explores the origins of housing segregation in the Minneapolis area. But the story also illustrates how African-American families and leaders resisted this insidious practice, and how Black people built community — within and despite — the red lines that these restrictive covenants created.” Extension Activity #4 Watch “Microaggressions.” Microaggressions are defined as “the everyday, subtle, intentional — and oftentimes unintentional — interactions or behaviors that communicate some sort of bias toward historically marginalized groups,” according to Kevin Nadal, author, activist, and professor. This is Episode 2 of the four part video series, Amplifying Black Voices”, which was created to promote understanding, reflection, and conversation, as well as a willingness to examine the often uncomfortable topic of racism. Resources attached Racial autobiography instructions Module 6: Gender [Latinx American] Ch 4 in Gollnick and Chinn D. Gender identity - Male (XY) - Female (XX) - Transgender - Gender neutral - Cisgender - Non-binary - Agender - Pangender - Genderqueer - Two-spirit - Other * = those micro-cultures that are immutable ** = the dominant subcultures 6.1 Introduction to the module This is the first of two modules that relate culture to sex, gender, and sexual orientation. In general terms, “sex” refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. “Gender” is more difficult to define, but it can refer to the role of a male or female in society, known as a gender role, or an individual’s concept of themselves, or gender identity. Gender tends to denote the social and cultural role of each sex within a given society. Rather than being purely assigned by genetics, as sex differences generally are, people develop their gender roles in response to their environment, including family interactions, the media, peers, and education. Sometimes, a person’s genetically assigned sex does not line up with their gender identity. These individuals might refer to themselves as transgender, non-binary, or gender-nonconforming. 6.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 6.3 Key terms Use the poster of Gender-bread Person to illustrate definitions. Agender: A person without any specific gender identity. Bigender: A person whose sense of personal identity corresponds with two or more genders. Cisgender: A person whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex. Female (XX): Of or denoting the sex that can bear offspring or produce eggs, distinguished biologically by the production of gametes (ova) which can be fertilized by male gametes. Gender identity: A person’s self-concept of their own gender (regardless of biological sex) that may be the same as or different from the gender traditionally associated with their birth sex (male, female, intersex or others). Gender neutral: A person who does not identify as he/him or she/her. Genderfluid: A person whose gender identity frequently changes. Genderqueer: A person with a specific gender that is not a binary gender. Intersex: A general term used for a variety of situations in which .a person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit the boxes of “female” or “male.” Sometimes doctors do surgeries on intersex babies and children to make their bodies fit binary ideas of “male” or “female” Male (XY): Of or denoting the sex that produces small, typically motile gametes, especially spermatozoa, with which a female may be fertilized or inseminated to produce offspring. Non-binary: A term people use to describe genders that don't fall into one of these two categories, male or female. Pangender: A person who feels that they cannot be labeled as female or male in gender. ... The term is meant by the queer community to be one that is inclusive and means "all genders." Transgender: A person whose gender identity or gender expression does not conform to concepts conventionally associated with his or her biological gender Two-spirit: Since 1990, used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender variant) ceremonial and social role in their cultures. 6.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 4 Gender in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 12-minute video lecture for Chapter 4 Gender. - After reading the chapter, respond to these questions on the discussion board: (1) How are differences between sexes determined culturally rather than biologically? (2) In your own words, what is meant by the term “gender diversity”? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz. TBD 6.5 Materials and spaces needed computer and overhead projector, attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, copies of handouts and worksheets, pencils, crayons, etc. 6.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs attendance roster and places name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: I, or someone that I love, identifies as a gender other than the binary male or female. Yes / No 6.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 6.8 Research & statistics (google) - Male/female by age levels - # female heads of households - # single-parent families, blended families, etc. - Impact of mothers or fathers on daughters - Impact of mothers or fathers on sons 6.9 Discuss these scenarios (Dee, 1997). 1. Jennie was walking home from the convenience store and drinking a soda she had just bought. As she passed by a man at a pay phone, he said, "Nice legs!" Jennie ignored his comment, but as she continued walking, he followed her. 2. Sara was standing at her locker between classes. Her boyfriend, Matt, and a group of his friends approached her. She turned to say hi. Matt cornered her against the lockers, cupped her breast in his hand, and said, "Hey, baby, I'm looking forward to Friday night," as his friends looked on and laughed. 3. Lin had recently begun a new job. Since her first day at work, a number of her male coworkers had made comments about her appearance and inquired about her sexual experience. During a lunch break, one of them, Todd, put his hand on her leg and whispered, "I know what you're looking for" in her ear. 4. Stacie and Marie were best friends. Lately, Marie had become concerned about how Stacie's boyfriend was treating her. One day, Stacie showed up at school with a scrape on her face, near her eye. When Marie asked what had happened, Stacie said, "Oh, nothing." 5. Vanessa was quiet in school and didn't have many friends. It was rumored that she had an older boyfriend in another town. One day, the boys in her class surrounded her at lunch and were calling her a slut. Several girls from her class were sitting nearby. 6. Callie's older brother often had his friends over on the weekends, but they never talked to her. Sometimes she heard her name when they were talking loudly and laughing. One night she was trying to fall asleep when one of her brother's friends came into her bedroom and whispered her name. She could smell alcohol on his breath. - What difference does it make in your culture that you are male/female/etc.? - What are the expectations? - How do others treat you? - What is possible? - What is not possible? Uncover attitudes and concepts of gender roles and how their culture affects those attitudes. Consider stereotypes and attitudes that may be in conflict with other cultures' attitudes. The content and process of the discussion may depend on the level of acculturation, ethnic identity, and general developmental level. 6.10 Diversity Story [guest speaker] 6.11 Watch one of these three video-recordings "Good Friend, Bad Friend" 21-minute sketch. "Party Cups" 10-minute sketch. "Say What?!" 18-minute sketch. 6.12 Journal entry TBD 6.13 Announcements and homework for next module - Read chapter 5 of the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the video-recording based on chapter 5 of Gollnick and Chinn. - After reading the chapter, complete the questions on the discussion board: (1) How are differences between sexes determined culturally rather than biologically? (2) What is meant by the term “sexual diversity”? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, Nature vs. Nurture, a survey about characteristics that are determined by nature (biology) or nurture (child-rearing). 6.14 Exit slips TBD Write a thank you note to the guest speaker. References Dee, C. (1997). The Girls' Guide to Life. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). Pearson. Women’s Center @ MSU. (2016a). Good Friend, Bad Friend [video]. MediaSpace https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/%22Good+Friend%2C+Bad+Friend%22+P.E.A.C.E.+2017/0_lvz3eflx Women’s Center @ MSU. (2016b). Party Cups [video]. MediaSpace https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/%22Party+Cups%22+P.E.A.C.E.+2017/0_vr5f3ztc Women’s Center @ MSU. (2016c). Say What? [video]. MediaSpace https://mediaspace.minnstate.edu/media/%22Say+WhatF%22+P.E.A.C.E.+2017/0_jnc2dawt Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Resources attached Human body outline Drop-off area photo In good hands photo Module 7: Sexual Orientation Ch 5 in Gollnick and Chinn Sexual orientation * - Heterosexual ** - Homosexual - Bisexual - Allosexual - Asexual - Pansexual * = those micro-cultures that are immutable = the dominant subcultures 7.1 Introduction to the module This is the second of two modules that relate culture to sex, gender, and sexual orientation. In general terms, “sex” refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. Sexual orientation refers to one’s attraction to another person emotionally, physically, affectionately, romantically, sexually, erotically and/or spiritually. 7.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities around sexual orientation. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 7.3 Key terms: Gender Identity: A person’s self-concept of their own gender (regardless of biological sex) that may be the same as or different from the gender traditionally associated with their birth sex (male, female, intersex or others). Heterosexism: the belief that heterosexuality is or should be the only acceptable sexual orientation. Heterosexual assumption and Heterosexual privilege are products of systematic heterosexism. Heterosexual: A person who is romantically/sexually attracted to or involved with members of the opposite sex. Homophobia: an irrational fear of homosexuals and homosexuality. Further defined as negative feelings, actions, or behaviors against people who either appear to be or who are homosexual. Homosexual: A person who is romantically/sexually attracted to or involved with members of the same sex. See also: Gay and Lesbian. Internalized homophobia: the belief among gay, lesbian, and bisexual people that the stereotypes and devaluation of LGB lives are accurate; is usually unacknowledged. Pansexual: A person whose sexual desire or attraction is not limited to people of a particular gender identity or sexual orientation. Sexual Orientation: Sexual orientation is an important aspect of an individual’s psychological, sexual and relational identity. It refers to one’s attraction to another person emotionally, physically, affectionately, romantically, sexually, erotically and/or spiritually. Those whose sexual orientation is to people of the opposite sex are called "heterosexual," those whose sexual orientation is to people of the same sex are called "homosexual" (or lesbian or gay) and those whose sexual orientation is to people of both sexes are called "bisexual." Sexual Preference: Sexual preference is how a person likes to express their sexuality. 7.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read chapter 5 of the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the video-recording based on chapter 5 of Gollnick and Chinn. - After reading the chapter, complete the questions on the discussion board: (1) In your own words, what is meant by the term “sexual diversity”? (2) What do you think could be done to dramatically reduce incidents of harassment against LGBTQ students in school settings? - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, Nature vs. Nurture, a survey about characteristics that are determined by nature (biology) or nurture (child-rearing) 7.5 Materials and spaces needed Attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, computer and projector, copies of handouts and worksheets and maps, pencils, crayons. 7.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs the Attendance Roster and places their Name Tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module's Daily Census: I, or someone that I love, identifies as a member of the LGBTQ community. Yes / No 7.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 7.8 Gender-bread definitions Review the Gender-bread illustration 7.9 Tower of Violence Review the Tower of Violence illustration 7.10 General Discussion What are the expectations for characteristics of sexual orientation? What is possible? What is not possible? What difference does it make in your culture that you are heterosexual/homosexual/trans-sexual/etc.? How do others treat you because of your sexual orientation? Uncover attitudes and concepts of sexual orientation and how culture affects those attitudes. Consider stereotypes and attitudes that may be in conflict with other cultures' attitudes. The content and process of the discussion may depend on the level of acculturation, state of ethnic/racial identity, and general developmental level. 7.11 Diversity Story [panel from LGBTQ Center] 7.12 Journal entry TBD 7.13 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 7 Language and Culture in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 16-minute video lecture for Chapter 7 Language and Culture. - After reading the sections, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe at least 3 benefits of being bilingual in the US. (2) Why is it important to be sensitive to non-verbal communication? - Complete the SpeakStrong Inventory at http://www.speakstrong.com/inventory/ The is a 20-minute, 20-question instrument that helps individuals discover their communication type. This quiz will reveal one’s communication style and useful communication tips. Try not to think too hard -- just go with your first thought. Select the answers that fit you best, enter your e-mail address (optional; only if you want the results sent), and press the submit button. 7.14 Exit slips TBD Write a thank you note to the guest panel members. References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Image credits [1] Drawing and photo courtesy of author. Attached resources Tower of Violence (blank) Tower of Violence by Scott M. Fearing Nature vs Nurture survey (blank) Nature vs Nurture survey (student example) Interconnected Systems of Oppression Defining Homophobia & Heterosexism (graphic organizer) Components of Sexual Identity (graphic organizer) Module 8: Language and communication [African American] Ch 7 in Gollnick and Chinn Language - Monolingual (e.g., English only) - Bilingual (fluent in 2 or more languages) - ESL (English as a second language) - Multilingual (fluent in more than two languages) * = those micro-cultures that are immutable = the dominant subcultures 8.1 Introduction to the module Communication in any language involves far more than just words. Much of what is conveyed in a spoken message is done so instinctively and unconsciously, using features such as intonation, emphasis, volume, pace, contact and non-verbal gestures. Second-language speakers have great difficulty unlearning these aspects of language, and may even be unaware of such differences. This can result in communication problems even if they use the correct grammar and vocabulary, particularly when they feel under stress. This also applies to forms of English spoken by, for example, Caribbean or Indian communities, which are likely to employ different cultural features. In such cases, the language barrier may be more significant because it is not perceived as a barrier. 8.2 Module learning goals - Understand opportunities and challenges of language diversity in a multi-cultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Improve academic communications skills. 8.3 Key Terms: Bilingual: (of a person or society) Speaking two languages. Communication: The imparting or exchanging of information or news. ELL: English language learner. ESL: English as a second language. Language: The principal method of human communication, consisting of words used in a structured and conventional way and conveyed by speech, writing, or gesture. Monolingual: (e.g., English only) (of a person or society) Speaking only one language. Multilingual: (of a person or society) Speaking more than two languages. 8.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 7 Language and Culture in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch the 16-minute video lecture for Chapter 7 Language and Culture - After reading the sections, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe at least 3 benefits of being bilingual in the US. (2) Why is it important to be sensitive to non-verbal communication? - Complete the SpeakStrong Inventory at http://www.speakstrong.com/inventory/ The is a 20-minute, 20-question instrument that helps individuals discover their communication type. This quiz will reveal one’s communication style and useful communication tips. Try not to think too hard -- just go with your first thought. Select the answers that fit you best, enter your e-mail address (optional; only if you want the results sent), and press the submit button. 8.5 Materials and spaces needed Attendance roster, Daily Census form, textbook, student work file folders, computer and projector, fabric scarves for hijab, copies of worksheets and maps, pencils, crayons, variety of eyeglasses (one per person) with various designs or different lenses. 8.6 Arrival and Daily Census Each student signs the Attendance Roster and places their Name Tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module's Daily Census: I am fluent only in English. Yes / No I am fluent in two or more languages. Yes/ No 8.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 8.8 Communication Styles Students sit in groups according to their communication style, as identified by the SpeakStrong Inventory. Discuss: do they agree or disagree with the classification of their style? Find the online resources of the state’s Department of Education with data about first languages of school pupils in the state. Each small group locates data about at least one school district represented by the members of that small group. List the languages of the pupils in that school district and share the list with the entire class. 8.9 “Communicating Between Cultures” Watch the 28-minute video-recording of "Communicating between Cultures." Discuss the situations in the hand-out, which is based on the discussion guide for the video-recording. The Parable - What does the parable of Grassland have to do with communication between cultures? - Imagine you are transported into Grassland as you are today, without built-in eyeglasses. How would you be received if your message were “It’s time to remove your glasses and see the world as it really is?” Why? Fred and the Gardener - Is Fred merely too quick to judge or is he prejudiced? Why? - Why does the video show BOTH Fred and Jose wearing glasses? Lee Knows Chinese Food - Is this situation an example of ethnic discrimination? Why or why not? Language at Work - How do you feel in the presence of a conversation you do not understand? Why? - Do you “feel” differently if you feel the conversation is ABOUT you? Why? Direct vs. Indirect Communication - How do you feel when people talk to you directly about a problem with you? - How do you feel when people talk to someone else and expect them to solve their problem with you? Kim Is Offered Help - Is Mike giving Kim a “brush off” or is there a cultural misunderstanding here? - Why does Kim seem hurt by the fact that Mike won’t help him at this time? Frishta and Alex - Should Alex have known NOT to offer Frishta a high five? Why or why not? - What is the point of this situation so we don’t make a similar mistake? 8.10 Practice Communicating between Cultures Select a group of 6 students to be in the middle of the classroom. Other students sit around the outside – known as a fishbowl exercise. The small group is to discuss what to do this weekend and group members communicate according to the instructions in the worksheet. 8.11 Code-Switching Watch this 5-minute video-recording: TLAC Field Guide Format Matters Lemov [video]. https://youtu.be/J6AgzwH9iDc. Lisa Delpit, author of Other People’s Children and many other thoughtful writings about race and education, makes the argument that our inclination to tip-toe around the standard-grammar issue is detrimental to our students. In her article, “Silenced Dialogue,” Delpit mentions that white teachers often hesitate to correct their students’ grammatical mistakes as if they are insulting their culture. The majority of black teachers and parents she has spoken to, however, advocate for Standard English to be taught in schools. Code-switching, or the concurrent use of more than one language, is an important skill for everyone. We switch our language based on the situation in which we find ourselves. There is different language for peer groups, for a work environment, for an academic setting. Discuss: Do you agree or disagree with the code-switching strategy? Why? What is in your experience to inform you about this situation? 8.12 Diversity Story [guest speaker] 8.13 Journal entry TBD 8.14 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 8 Religion in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch this xx-minute video-recording about Religion. TBD - After reading chapter, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Explain your understanding of separation of church and state. (2) Do you think the USA is a religious country? Why or why not? - Completion of pre-instruction assessment. TBD 8.15 Exit slips Distribute the eyeglasses. Challenge students to describe the impact of their own “lenses” and how they perceive persons who are different than they are. Write thank you notes to the guest speaker. References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Learning Seed. (2004). Communicating between Cultures [video]. Chicago, IL: Learning Seed. https://learningseed.com Learning Seed. (2004). Communicating between Cultures: Learning Guide. Chicago, IL: Learning Seed. https://ls-guides.s3.amazonaws.com/1277_Communicating_Between_Cultures_Guide.pdf Mankato Area Public Schools. (2020). Mankato Area Public Schools Demographic Report 2020—2021 (p. 21). Mankato, MN: ISD 77 Mankato Area Public Schools. https://resources.finalsite.net/images/v1615918827/isd77org/e0w87117mvyiohugaf5y/Demographicbook20-21.pdf Minnesota Department of Education. (2020). English Learner Education in Minnesota: Fall 2019 Report (p. 29). St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Education. https://education.mn.gov/mde/dse/el/ Runion, M. (2018). SpeakStrong Communication Style Inventory [website]. http://www.speakstrong.com/inventory/ Wiley. (2012, January 6). TLAC Field Guide Format Matters Lemov 9781118116821 [video]. https://youtu.be/J6AgzwH9iDc. Image credits [1] Photo courtesy of author. Attached resources English Learners in Minnesota Report 2019 Mankato Public Schools Demographic Data 2020-2021 Minnesota Language Survey form Communicating between Cultures role play Communicating between Cultures discussion sheet Code Switching Module 9: Religion/spirituality [Middle Eastern American] Ch 8 in Gollnick and Chinn Religion - Christianity – Protestantism - Christianity – Catholicism - Christianity – Other (e.g. Mormon, Jehovah’s Witness, Christian Scientist) - Christianity – Eastern Orthodox - Judaism – Orthodox - Judaism – Reform - Judaism – Conservative - Islam – Sunni - Islam – Shia - Islam – Khariji - Buddhism – Theravada (The School of the Elders) - Buddhism – Mahayana (The Great Vehicle) - Buddhism – Vajrayana (The Way of the Diamond) - Hinduism – Vaishnavism - Hinduism – Shaivism - Hinduism – Shaktism - Hinduism - Smartism - Wicca - Paganism – polytheism - Other * = those micro-cultures that are immutable = the dominant subcultures Here are the questions posed by one group of students: Is it rude for non-Muslims to say PBUH? Are women wearing hijab more at risk for discrimination? Where are the mosques in our city? What's in the black box in Mecca? Have practices over time drifted from the basic teachings? Does the meaning of scripture change because of translation? Note 'rules' of Christian denominations (e.g., nuns who wear habits; in the Wisconsin Lutheran Synod, women cannot hold office, teach, or vote; Southern Baptists women wear long skirts, button up their shirts, and females let their hair grow long). 9.1 Introduction to the module As the Arrival activity for this module may reveal, many of the university students in the US are familiar with the Christian religion. So, for this module, we are looking more deeply at the faith and the geography of the “Muslim world.” This is adapted from a lesson plan by Fakhra Shah, Mission High School, San Francisco, CA. 9.2 Learning Objectives - Define and explain the difference between an Arab and a Muslim. - Locate Arabic speaking countries and understand the basic geography of the “Arab world.” - Read maps in order to understand the presence of Christians in Arabic speaking countries and the large majority of Muslims outside of the “Arab world.” - Explore the origins of world religions such as Islam by taking notes to this power point, answering questions, having discussions, and participating in think-pair-share. - Deconstruct stereotypical images of Muslims and “others” from around the world by participating in a student-centered guessing game that would cause students to see that Muslims can be non-Arab. - Analyze the meaning of Islamophobia and its effects on Muslims and others in western societies such as the U.S. and Europe. - Discuss and explain the relationship of Islamophobia to oppression and its impact on life for Muslims and the Other. - Draw connections between Islamophobia and civil rights violations of other marginalized groups and create a greater awareness and tolerance for difference by participating in this lesson and all of its activities. 9.3 Key Terms: Arab: A member of a Semitic people, originally from the Arabian peninsula and neighboring territories, inhabiting much of the Middle East and North Africa. Arabic: The Semitic language of the Arabs, spoken by some 150 million people throughout the Middle East and North Africa Hijab: a head covering worn in public by some Muslim women; the religious code which governs the wearing of the hijab. Islam: The religion of the Muslims, a monotheistic faith regarded as revealed through Muhammad as the Prophet of Allah. Islamophobia: Intense dislike of or prejudice against Islam or Muslims, especially as a political force. Muslim: A follower of the religion of Islam. Xenophobia: Dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries. 9.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read Chapter 8 (Religion) in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Watch this xx-minute video-recording about Religion. TBD - After reading the sections, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Explain your understanding of separation of church and state. (2) Do you think the USA is a religious country? Why or why not? - Completion of pre-instruction assessment. TBD 9.5 Materials needed textbook, student work file folders, computer and projector, fabric scarves for hijab, copies of worksheets and maps, pencils, crayons, AGREE and DISAGREE posters. 9.6 Arrival Each student signs the Attendance Roster and places their Name Tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module's Daily Census: I have a religious or spiritual faith. Yes / No My religious or spiritual faith is Christian. Yes / No 9.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 9.8 Forced Choice Activity: (Agree/Disagree) In advance, the leader posts 2 papers on opposite walls of the room. One paper says “AGREE,” and the other says “DISAGREE.” Students begin in the center of the classroom. As the leader reads each statement, students decide whether they “Agree” or “Disagree” with the statement and move to the side of the room that is labeled with that choice. After each “choice,” students will be called upon to explain why they have chosen the side they are on. This will stir discussion and get students to critically think about how/why they think what they think (i.e. deconstruct stereotypical ideas, etc). Questions are: - I know what Islamophobia is. - All Muslims are Arab or Middle Eastern. - All Muslims wear turbans. - All Muslim women cover their heads. - All Muslim men have beards. - Groups other than Muslims suffer from Islamophobic prejudice and hate crimes. 9.9 Diversity story - Fakhra Shah, Mission High School, San Francisco, CA. Read this story aloud: One of my students asked me if I wanted to try some of her food. I asked her what she was eating. With a lot of pride, she explained that she was eating pork, she explained that it was a staple of Filipino culture. I then thanked the student but explained that I don’t eat pork. With great sincerity and shock, my student exclaimed: “What kind of people don’t eat pork?” I then explained to her that most Muslims around the world do not eat pork. I shared with her that I am a Muslim, so I do not eat pork. She responded with shock again: “What Ms. Shah! But you don’t look like a Muslim!” So I asked her, “well, what does a Muslim look like? (I ask students: What do you think she was talking about when she said this?) The student then explained: “Well I thought Muslims looked like… and she pointed to a girl in the classroom, a girl from an Arab country who was traditionally dressed, covered from head to toe in black, with only her face showing. This was the moment when I explained the following to my class: There are over 1.5 billion Muslims in the world. With 7 billion people in the world, that means about 23% of the world’s population are Muslims. Muslims are really diverse, some of us cover, some of us do not. Some of us pray five times a day others might not. What’s most important here, is that not all of us are Arab. I am not Arab, my parents came to the U.S. in the 1970’s from Pakistan. I was born here, so I am an American Muslim. 9.10 Who are the Muslims? Diversity story – Shajee Syed-Quadri Watch the 5-minute video-recording, Students learn about Islam from their peers. https://youtu.be/hMHPifw7Q2A. The religion of Islam: - Founded in Arabia almost 1500 years ago. - 1.5 billion Muslims in the world. - People from many different cultures and traditions are Muslim. Watch this video which explains the religion of Islam. 9.11 What is the Arab World? Prepare a K-W-L chart to see what students know. What is the Arab world? What is Islam? Where did Islam originate? If there is a country where Arabic is the official language, does that mean that all people who live there are Muslims? Are Arabs and Muslims the same thing? Why/Why not? Explain. Where are the majority of the Muslims in the world located? 9.12 Geography of the “Arab World” (Use pencils only!) I will now show you the map, and you will see the countries that are part of the Arab world. Try to remember as many as you can so that you can fill in your map. Does anything surprise you? What stood out to you? 9.13 Diversity story - Fatima Watch 9-minute film about Fatima’s Hijab (Hiyab in Spanish) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbK8K0OV6KE A girl named Fatima is asked to remove her headscarf in order to attend school in Spain. Students will answer questions on the attached worksheet and then share their answers with a partner and then the class. Watch 7-minute video and practice!! 9.14 Journal entry TBD 9.15 Announcements and homework for next module - Read Chapter 6 Disabilities in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Read the introductory chapters from the “Disability Etiquette” booklet. These sections are labeled “The Basics” and “Terminology Tips.” - After reading the sections, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe some of the needs of exceptional people. (2) Describe some of the opportunities that occur with providing full inclusion in education to all children with exceptionalities. - Completion of Disability Awareness Quiz. 9.16 Exit slips TBD References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Bakhtash. (2005). Hiyab 2005 [video]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbK8K0OV6KE. Not In Our Town. (2015, December 21). Students learn about Islam from their peers [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/hMHPifw7Q2A. Sukaina. (2017, December 16). 5 easy hijab styles tutorial [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/pHb-29lQsXs. TED. (2016, March 15). What it’s like to be Muslim in America: Dalia Mogahed [video]. https://youtu.be/wzkFoetp-_M Image credits [1] Photo courtesy of author. [2] Chart (c) The Religion Teacher www.thereligionteacher.com Resources TBD Module 10: Disabilities, Exceptionalities, and Ableism: Disability does not mean inability Ch 6 in Gollnick and Chinn 10.1 Introduction to the module The US Census Bureau reports that approximately 56.7 million Americans have a disability. Anyone—with or without a disability—can learn to interact more effectively with people with disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 was conceived with the goal of integrating people with disabilities into all aspects of life, particularly the workplace and the marketplace. Sensitivity toward people with disabilities is not only in the spirit of the ADA, it makes good educational sense. It can help expand educational practice and better serve all pupils. When teachers and co-workers use disability etiquette, pupils and staff members with disabilities feel more comfortable and work more productively. Practicing disability etiquette is an easy way to make people with disabilities feel welcome. 10.2 Module learning goals Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities around disabilities and exceptionalities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which people with disabilities experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of disabilities and exceptionalities in a multi-cultural society. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating) - Develop and act on personal power in creating positive environments when collaborating with diverse groups. - Improve academic communications skills. 10.3 Key terms Accessible: In the case of a facility, readily usable by a particular individual; in the case of a program or activity, presented or provided in such a way that a particular individual can participate, with or without auxiliary aid(s); in the case of electronic resources, accessible with or without assistive computer technology. Chronic illness (e.g., cancer, diabetes, heart disease): Conditions that last 1 year or more and require ongoing medical attention and/or limit activities of daily living. Disability: Physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment (Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990). Emotional illness: Psychological disorders characterized by irrational and uncontrollable fears, persistent anxiety, or extreme hostility. Exceptionality: in educational programming refers to both disabilities and giftedness. Gifted / talented / precocious: Performs at or shows the potential for performing at a remarkably high level of accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experience or environment and who exhibits high-performance capability in an intellectual, creative or artistic area; possesses an unusual capacity for leadership; or excels in a specific academic field. Mental illness: Any of various forms of psychosis or severe neurosis. Non-disabled: Related to a person unaffected by disability, as physical, mental, health, emotional, or cognitive impairment. This micro-culture is immutable and the dominant subculture in most cultures. Person-first language: The rule is to put the word “person” first, before the disability or condition, in order to emphasize that those being referred to are people first, not just diagnoses or disabilities. For example, “people with disabilities,” instead of “disabled people.” Universal design: Designing programs, services, tools, and facilities so that they are useable, without modification, by the widest range of users possible, taking into account a variety of abilities and disabilities. 10.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module Read Chapter 6 Disabilities in the Gollnick and Chinn textbook. - Read the introductory chapters from the “Disability Etiquette” booklet. These sections are labeled “The Basics” and “Terminology Tips.” - After reading the sections, post your responses to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe some of the needs of exceptional people. (2) Describe some of the opportunities that occur with providing full inclusion in education to all children with exceptionalities. - Completion of Disability Awareness Quiz. 10.5 Materials needed textbook, student work file folders, computer and projector, index cards (for questions), copies of “Disability Etiquette” booklet. 10.6 Arrival Each student signs attendance sheet and places their name tent in front of their seat. Then, each student completes the module’s Daily Census: I have a disability. Yes / No Someone that I love has or has had a disability. Yes / No 10.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 10.8 What Would You Do? Watch this 8-minute video-recording of "What Would You Do?" Discuss in small groups how you would react if you witnessed someone verbally harassing an employee with Down Syndrome. 10.9 Disability Etiquette – small group research (source unknown) In their small groups, students engage in a round-robin discussion, continuing to share ideas until a point of saturation has been met and/or students have all spoken on their major takeaways from the reading. - Ask students to open the “Disability Etiquette” booklet (either print or digital works). - While in groups, students examine a section from the booklet and discuss major findings with their group members. Sections may be self-selected, teacher-selected, or randomly selected. The following chapters can be covered by groups: People Who Use Wheelchairs or Other Mobility Devices, People Who Are Blind, People With Low Vision, People Who Are Deaf or Have a Hearing Loss, People With Speech Disabilities, Persons of Short Stature, People With Cerebral palsy, People With Tourette Syndrome, People Who Look Different, People With Hidden Disabilities, People With Epilepsy or Seizure Disorders, People With Multiple Chemical Sensitivity and Respiratory Disabilities, People With HIV and AIDS, People With Psychiatric Disabilities or Mental Illness, People With Developmental Disabilities People with Learning Disabilities, People with Traumatic (or Acquired) Brain Injury, People Who Use Service Animals, Autistic People. - Members of each group read through their assigned section. Each group creates their own role-play experience in which they will teach their classmates the important information they learned. 10.11 Disability Etiquette – small group presentations Each group has 3 to 5 minutes to present their role-play. - After a group presents their work, students in the audience can ask questions to clarify or probe for further understanding of the proper etiquette or behavior presented. 10.12 Diversity stories Watch a 3-minute video-recording of a KARE 11 report on a Mankato, MN student with special needs: https://youtu.be/xdeuivQYnas 10.13 Professional dispositions self-assessment Complete the self-assessment of how you are showing Professional Dispositions during this course. Choose 2 dispositions on which you will focus during the remainder of the course. 10.14 Journal entry Why is it important to understand disability etiquette, especially if you are able-bodied? What was your biggest ah-ha moment with this lesson? 10.15 In summary 10.16 Announcements and homework for next module Read “10 Myths About Immigration,” - After reading, respond to these 2 questions on the discussion board: (1) xxxxxx. (2) xxxxxx - Complete the 10-question practice US Citizenship Test. 10.17 Exit slips Leaving this classroom, what immediate action will you take to ensure that you are engaging in proper disability etiquette? Review References Gollnick, D. M., & Chinn, P. (1991). Multicultural Education for Exceptional Children (ERIC Digest #E498). Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children. https://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9220/exceptional.htm. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. United Spinal Association. (2020). Disability Etiquette: Tips on interacting with people with disabilities. United Spinal Association. https://www.unitedspinal.org/pdf/DisabilityEtiquette.pdf University of Washington. (2012). Glossary of Disability-Related Terms. https://www.washington.edu/doit/sites/default/files/atoms/files/Glossary_DRT_04_09_12.pdf. USAToday. (2015, June 1). Boys’ reaction to bullying will melt your heart [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/xdeuivQYnas. What would you do? (2016, June 18). Customer abuses employee with Down syndrome [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/B2rNcs27Dpg. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Module 11: Immigration/citizenship status [Asian American] 11.1 Introduction to the module Activities in this module are adapted from Immigration Myths by Learning for Justice of the Southern Poverty Law Center https://www.learningforjustice.org/classroom-resources/lessons/immigration-myths. Students will deconstruct common myths about immigrants and the process of immigration in the United States. The topic of immigration to the United States causes much debate. Unfortunately, frustration has caused some people to stereotype all immigrant populations. The focus here is on facing some common misconceptions about immigrants as a group. By connecting stereotypes to myths and then dispelling those myths, students will confront the lies that are the foundation of bigotry toward immigrants. 11.2 Module learning goals - Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities (immigrant, refugee, class). - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multi-cultural society. - Reflect on one’s own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). 11.3 Key terms Citizen: a participatory member of a political community. Citizenship is gained by meeting the legal requirements of a national, state, or local government. A nation grants certain rights and privileges to its citizens. Diversity: a variety or range of differences (e.g., race, religion, gender, sexual orientations, age) Immigrant: a person who voluntarily moves to a country from somewhere else. Oral history: information about the past that is passed down through stories and word of mouth. Outsider: a person who does not belong or is not accepted as a part of a group. Refugee: a person who flees for safety, especially to a foreign country, during times of political trouble, war or other danger. 11.4 Materials needed Printed copies of “10 Myths About Immigration,” student work file folders, computer, projector, notebooks, newsprint chart paper and markers (at least six different colors), newspaper articles about immigration and citizenship, world map, small size stickers, timer 11.5 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Read “10 Myths About Immigration,” - After reading, respond to these 2 questions on the discussion board: (1) TBD. (2) TBD - Complete the 10-question practice US Citizenship Test. 11.6 Arrival Each student signs attendance sheet and places name tent in front of their assigned seat. For the module’s Daily Census, each student places stickers on the world map to indicate their ancestors’ countries of origin. 11.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 11.8 Diversity stories [guest speaker] Select one 8-minute “Meet Young Immigrants” story video to share with students. Ask students to take notes about the worries, struggles and successes they hear in the narrative. Discuss their responses with the whole group. Responses can be recorded on the board in three labeled columns: Worries – Struggles -- Successes Next, ask students to share in their small group about a time when they felt worried, had to struggle or experienced success. Record responses on the board in the same kind of chart: Worries – Struggles -- Successes 11.9 Carousel activity Note: Prepare six workstations around the room. Place a sheet of poster paper at each workstation. Write one of the immigration myths below on the top of the poster paper. Use each myth only once. Workstation 1: Most immigrants are here illegally. Workstation 2: It’s easy to enter the country legally. My ancestors did; why can’t immigrants today? Workstation 3: Immigrants take good jobs from U.S. citizens. Workstation 4: “The worst” people from other countries are coming to the United States and bringing crime and violence. Workstation 5: Undocumented immigrants don’t pay taxes and burden the national economy. Workstation 6: Banning immigrants and refugees from majority-Muslim countries will protect the US from terrorists. To help with classroom management, time students during this activity. Divide the class into six groups, and number the groups 1 through 6. Give each group a different color marker. Instructions to the students: 1) Your classroom has been divided into six separate workstations, each showcasing a different common myth about immigration. Go the workstation that matches your group’s number. 2) With your group, hypothesize why that myth is not accurate. Assign one person to record your responses on the newsprint. Complete the following information for that myth: Where does this myth come from? Who benefits from this myth? Why is this myth untrue? Why do people perpetuate this myth? How can this myth be broken down? 3) Remain at this first workstation until given the next task. Then, smoothly and quickly move to the next workstation. Students now at workstation 1, move to 2, workstation 2 to 3, etc. Once there, write feedback on what the previous group answered and expand upon their responses. Groups have 3 minutes at each station. 4) Repeat step 3 (move stations, offer feedback, and expand upon responses). Repeat continuously until each group has a chance to offer feedback on all the myths. 5) Finally, return to each group’s original workstation to see what others had to say or add. Do group members agree with the feedback? Why or why not? 6) As a group, read the facts about the original specific myth in "Ten Myths About Immigration." In addition to what’s listed, why is the group’s workstation myth inaccurate? 11.10 Group presentations Note: Call on each group to come up and present in front of the class. Take notes on the board as each group dispels a myth. As a group, present your immigration myth chart to the rest of the class along with what you’ve learned. Start with a poll. Ask your classmates to raise their hands if they have ever heard of your immigration myth before. Then, share the reasons why that myth is untrue, using the feedback from the collective experience and from "Ten Myths About Immigration." 11.11 Journal entry Now that you’ve learned about immigration and immigration myths, who else in your life might want to know about this? Think about at least three people in your life with whom you can share this new knowledge. In your journal, write down: a) the person or people you plan to talk to about immigration myths and stereotypes; b) what you plan to say to the person (feel free to copy some quotes directly from the article). Be prepared to share with the class how the experience went. 11.12 Announcements TBD 11.13 Exit slips TBD 11.14 Homework for next module - Readings in text - Postings on discussion board - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, e.g., nature vs. nurture. References CivicsQuestions.com. (2021). Practice US Citizenship Test. Accessed at https://civicsquestions.com/citizenship-test/. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. John Humphrey Centre. (2010, October 28). A World Unknown: Immigrant Parent Experiences with the School System [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/4CQ61S10QrM. Learning for Justice. (2021). Let’s Talk: Facilitating Critical Conversations with Students. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/publications/lets-talk Learning for Justice. (2021). Supporting Students from Immigrant Families. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.learningforjustice.org/moment/supporting-students-immigrant-families Image credits [1] Image courtesy of author. Extension Activity 1 Create myth-busting posters to hang all around your school to help spread knowledge and prove immigration myths wrong. Include all the myths listed in "Ten Myths About Immigration." Extension Activity 2 As a class, ask students to brainstorm an “Immigrant’s Bill of Rights” that outlines how people new to the United States should be welcomed and treated. Ask students to draw from their own families’ experiences in creating the list. Select the best responses and have each of the above groups create a poster illustrating their ideas and place them in the school or community. Extension Activity 3 As a class, read and discuss the four myths listed in "Ten Myths About Immigration" that were not covered during the carousel activity. They are: - Today’s immigrants don’t want to learn English. - The United States is being overrun by immigrants like never before. - We can stop undocumented immigrants coming to the United States by building a wall along the border with Mexico. - Refugees are not screened before entering the United States. Extension Activity 4 Watch the 9-minute video-recording, "A World Unknown: Immigrant Parent Experiences with the School System." Have students spend a few minutes reflecting on these questions: - What are your feelings about the images? - What does it remind you of? - What can you learn from hearing a personal story? - How can you learn more about other people? - How are people similar and different from you? Then, invite students to share their thoughts. Resources Module 12: Socioeconomic status, classism, income, wealth, and poverty Ch 3 in Gollnick and Chinn Class (socioeconomic status) - Underclass – below poverty level, homeless - Working class - lower middle class, blue collar - Middle class – white collar and low-level managerial / administrative - Upper middle class – professionals, high-level managerial / administrative - Upper class – professionals, top-level managerial / administrative, inherited wealth and social status * = those micro-cultures that are immutable ** = the dominant subcultures 12.1 Introduction to the module This lesson was adapted from “Lessons in Poverty,” four lessons from Learning for Justice, Southern Poverty Law Center, in Montgomery, AL. Accessed from: Poverty and Unemployment: Exploring the Connections . There are two overarching goals in this series. First, poverty is systemic, rooted in economics, politics and discrimination. Second, poverty, far from being random, disproportionately affects Americans who have traditionally experienced oppression—African Americans, Latinos, immigrants and children. This lesson helps students understand the connections between poverty and unemployment. Students participate in a game of musical chairs that simulates the job market, helping them see that one reason for poverty is that there are not enough livable-wage jobs for everyone who wants one. Then they explore other factors that also contribute to poverty—education and geography, for example—that are part of the legacy of discrimination in the US. African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to be unemployed, and more likely to live in poverty, than white or Asian Americans. 12.2 Module learning goals - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. - Improve personal communication skills for participating in communities with different ideas and values (speaking and listening). - Improve skills for responding to others with different ideas and values (critical thinking, active listening, evaluating, synthesizing, and negotiating). - Recognize the factors that result in more people seeking living-wage jobs than there are living-wage jobs available. - Understand that unemployment and poverty have disproportionately affected members of diverse racial and ethnic communities, both before and during the current recession. - Reflect on the reasons that unemployment and poverty disproportionately affect members of diverse racial and ethnic communities. 12.3 Key terms Socioeconomic status: the social standing or class of an individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income, and occupation. Upper class: 19% of all American adults, earn a median income of about $190,000 per year. Middle class: 52% of all American adults (professional careers, own property), earn a median income of about $78,000 per year. Lower class: 29% of all American adults (working class, do not own property), earn a median income of about $26,000 per year. Low-income: at 2 x the annual income considered for poor individuals or families. $59,934 for a family of five including three children. $50,930 for a family of four including two children. $40,462 for a family of three including two children. Poor: A family or an individual is considered poor if their household earnings fell below, in 2018: $29,967 for a family of five including three children. $25,465 for a family of four including two children. $20,231 for a family of three including two children. 12.4 Materials and spaces needed Space, chairs, and music to play during the game of musical chairs. Performance Task: A Few Facts about Jobs from Learning for Justice, SPLC (2017). Unemployment and Poverty by Race and Ethnicity from Learning for Justice, SPLC (2017). 12.5 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Readings in Gollnick and Chinn text chapter 3 Class and Socioeconomic Status - Watch the 16-minute video lecture for Chapter 3 Class and Socioeconomic Status. - After reading chapter 3, respond to these questions on the discussion board: (1) How do you think that class and race interact to maintain inequities in society and in schools? (2) What role does education play in maintaining the SES of the population? - Complete Test Your Knowledge of Poverty in America. 12.6 Arrival Each student signs Attendance Roster and places their Name Tent in front of their assigned seat. Each student completes the module’s Daily Census: TBD While I was growing up, my family was in which socioeconomic class: (a) upper class with income of $100,000 per year and up; (b) middle class with income of $26,000 to $99,999 per year; (c) lower class with income less than $26,000 per year. 12.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 12.8 Poverty and unemployment Use this lesson plan adapted from Learning for Justice. (2017). Poverty and unemployment: Exploring the connections. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed from: Poverty and Unemployment: Exploring the Connections To build an understanding of the current climate of poverty and income inequality in the United States, students will glance through the statistical information provided by the United States Census Bureau (2016). To access this document, please refer to the following link: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/P60-259.pdf. 12.9 The musical chairs of unemployment 1. Begin your exploration of unemployment in the US with a game of musical chairs. (Note: Have students set up chairs in a circle. Make sure that there are two fewer chairs than there are people. Bring music to play for the game.) In case you don’t remember how to play, here’s a reminder: When the music starts, walk around the outside of the circle. As long as the music is playing, keep walking. When the music stops, sit down as quickly as you can. 2. Return the chairs to their usual position, sit down and debrief the activity with a class discussion based on these questions: - Why couldn’t everyone sit down when the music stopped? - Think of the game as representing the job market in the United States. If the chairs symbolize jobs and the players symbolize job seekers, what can you say about the job market in the United States? 3. Musical chairs is a game, so some people win and some people lose. But in the job market, why do some people lose? With a partner or small team, complete the performance task: A Few Facts About Jobs (see handout). 4. Now that you have a better understanding about why unemployment exists, think about which people are most affected by it. Unemployment doesn’t affect everyone equally. Some people have a harder time getting work than others. Think back to your game of musical chairs. Imagine that some of the players started the game in the far corner of the room, quite a distance away from the chairs, and that they had their shoelaces tied together. What would have happened to those people when the music stopped? Let’s go back to musical chairs as an analogy for the job market. With a partner, discuss who you think the people with their shoelaces tied together represent. In other words, which job seekers do you think have the most trouble finding a job? Why do you think they have such a hard time? Have pairs share their ideas, and make a class list of your hypotheses. 5. Study Table 1, Unemployment Rates by Race and Ethnicity, and answer the questions so that you’re sure you have read the data correctly. When you look at unemployment among different race and ethnic groups, what do you notice? Among which groups of people is the unemployment rate highest? How does this compare to your class’s hypotheses? Then study Table 2, and answer the questions. How do poverty rates compare to unemployment rates? Which groups are most affected by poverty? 6. Unemployment and poverty disproportionately affect members of non-dominant groups—that is, groups that have historically been oppressed. But it’s important to know that although you may often hear myths that people who live in poverty are lazy, individuals are rarely responsible for their own unemployment and poverty. Think about the student with the shoelaces tied together. Think about the shoelaces as representing obstacles that make it difficult for some people to get jobs. What are some of the obstacles that the shoelaces represent? What are the factors that prevent some people from getting better jobs? And why don’t people simply untie the laces? The reasons that higher percentages of people in non-dominant groups suffer from unemployment and poverty are social and political—not individual. Think about what that means. With a partner, write down a social or political cause of poverty. Share your “cause” with other pairs of students, making your way around the classroom. Then, as a class, make a list of questions you still have about why poverty is not an individual problem, but a social and political problem. 12.10 Diversity Story [guest speaker] 12.11 Journal entry - What is cyclical unemployment? How is unemployment during a recession different from persistent unemployment? - How are poverty and unemployment connected? - How are poverty and discrimination connected? - What groups are most likely to experience unemployment and poverty in the United States? Why? 12.12 Announcements TBD 12.13 Exit slip TBD 12.14 Homework for next module - Readings in Gollnick and Chinn text Chapter 10 Generation. - Watch the 18-minute video lecture for Chapter 10 Generation. - After reading Chapter 10, respond to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe how Gen Y is different than Gen Z. (2) How do you think homelessness would impact youth? References Beegle, D. (2021). Test Your Knowledge of Poverty in America. Tigard, OR: Communication Across Barriers. Accessed from: https://justfaith.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Poverty-Quiz.pdf. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Learning for Justice. (2017). Poverty and unemployment: Exploring the connections. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed from: Poverty and Unemployment: Exploring the Connections. Semega, J.L.; Fontenot, K.R., & Kollar, M.A. (2016). Income and poverty in the United States in 2016. United States Census Bureau. Accessed from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/P60-259.pdf. Image credits [1] Image by Nick Youngson - http://www.nyphotographic.com/ Used under license Creative Commons 3 - CC BY-SA 3.0 Resources Test your knowledge of poverty Module 13: Generation and Age Cohort Ch 10 in Gollnick and Chinn 13.1 Introduction to the module This class module is about understanding cultural and group identities related to age cohorts in a multi-cultural society. This micro-culture is immutable (i.e., it does notchange). Discussion will explore norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which various generational groups experience in a multi-cultural society. Guest speakers may pose some of the opportunities and challenges of specific age cohorts, such as young adults or senior citizens. Activities are provided for two cohorts, including homeless youth and senior citizens with dementia. Note: Instructors may choose to discuss just one or two age cohorts as micro-cultures, due to time or other limitations. The author has taught with each one of the activities in this module at one time or another, however, it’s unlikely that all activities can be included in any single module. 13.2 Module learning goals Define concepts that constitute cultural and group identities. - Know about culture norms, values, oppressions, and contributions which groups experience in a multi-cultural society. - Understand opportunities and challenges of diversity in a multicultural society. 13.3 Key terms Adolescence: 12 – 19 years old Early adulthood: 20 – 35 years old; the dominant cohort in the US. Midlife: 35 – 50 years old Mature adulthood: 50 – 65 years old Late adulthood: 65 – 80 years old Aged: > 80 years old Baby Boomers were born between 1946 and 1964. In 2021, they are between 57-75 years old, and there are ~ 71.6 million in the U.S. Gen X was born between 1965 and 1979/80. In 2021, Gen X is between 41-56 years old and ~ 65.2 million in the U.S. Gen Y, or Millennials, were born between 1981 and 1994/6. In 2021, Gen Y is between 25 and 40 years old (~ 73 million in the U.S.). Gen Y.1 = 25-29 years old (~ 31 million people in the U.S.). Gen Y.2 = 29-39 (~ 42 million people in the U.S.). Gen Z is the newest generation, born between 1997 and 2012/15. In 2021, Gen Z is between 6 and 24 years old (~ 68 million in the U.S.). 13.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module Readings in Gollnick and Chinn text Chapter 10 Generation. Watch the 18-minute video lecture for Chapter 10 Generation. After reading chapter 10, respond to these questions on the discussion board: (1) Describe how Gen Y is different than Gen Z. (2) How do you think homelessness would impact youth? 13.5 Attendance roster and daily census Each student signs Attendance Roster and places their name tent in front of their assigned seat. Each student completes the module’s daily census: I have been homeless at some point in my life. Yes / No Someone that I love has or has had dementia. Yes / No 13.6 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13.7 Gen Z Small groups brainstorm characteristics that make their generation unique. Check their lists with the Marist Mindset List (formerly the Beloit College Mindset List). 13.8 Diversity story: Homeless youth Instructor shares story of homelessness at age 6 years. Watch the 7-minute video of Catching Youth at a Crossroads. 13.9 Training for service learning with homeless youth and families Watch the 7-minute video of My Job at the Homeless Shelter. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13.10 Baby Boomers and Aging adults In pairs, students interview each other with the Mini-Mental State test (Folstein et al, 1975). 13.11 Diversity story: Aging adults with dementia Instructor shares story about family members with dementia. Watch the 4-minute video of Creating a Culture of Compassion for Dementia Patients. 13.12 Training for service learning with aging adults with memory loss Watch about half of the 40-minute video of How to Talk with Someone with Dementia. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13.13 Journal entry TBD 13.14 Announcements and homework for next meeting Postings on discussion board to respond to this question: How did this class help you develop your own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism? Completion of post-instruction assessment. (Note: The author was using the Intercultural Development Inventory.) 13.15 Exit slip Complete these 3 statements. Something that I learned today is … Something about today that I will use in the future … A question that I still have is … References Families and Friends of Morningside Ministries. (2018, September 28). I’m Still in Here! Come and Find Me! How to Talk with Someone with Dementia [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/ilickabmjww. Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189-198. doi: 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6. Ford, Hannah. [Hannah Ford]. (2015, November 22). My Job at the Homeless Shelter [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/gsXrIluW1SI. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Lutheran Social Service of Minnesota. (2015, September 28). Catching Youth at a Crossroads [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/oIfGPdCt0_Y. University of Derby. (2015, July 10). Creating a Culture of Compassion for Dementia Patients [video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/QIYY4nNHkXo Zurhellen, T. (2021). Mindset List. [website]. https://www.marist.edu/mindset-list. Image credits [1] Photo courtesy of author. Resources Module 14: Other, e.g., academics, military, education, sports, clubs (under construction) 14.1 Introduction to the module 14.2 Module learning goals 14.3 Key terms 14.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module - Readings in text - Postings on discussion board - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, e.g., nature vs. nurture. 14.5 Other microcultures - Military - Education - Sports - Clubs 14.6 Arrival Each student signs attendance sheet and places name tent in front of their seat. 14.7 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 14.8 Diversity story [guest speaker] 14.9 xxxx 14.10 xxxxxx 14.11 Journal entry TBD 14.12 Announcements TBD 14.13 Exit slips Write a thank you note to our guest speaker. Write a letter with advice to students who take this course next semester. 14.14 Homework for next module - Readings in text - Postings on discussion board - Completion of pre-instruction quiz, e.g., nature vs. nurture. References Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Image credits [1] Image courtesy of Pixaby. No license or attribution required. Resources Module 15: Conclusion to the Course 15.1 Introduction to the module This class module is all about reflecting on and celebrating the successful learning of the semester. 15.2 Module learning goals Reflect on one’s own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism. Develop a plan to enhance one’s own cultural competency. - Improve academic communications skills (reading, writing, public speaking, and researching). 15.3 Key terms Personal mission statement: One sentence that defines who you are as a person and identifies your purpose, whether that's at work or simply in life. The statement explains how you aim to pursue that purpose and why it matters so much to you. See definition HERE. 15.4 Homework to complete BEFORE entering into this module Postings on discussion board to respond to this question: How did this class help you develop your own attitudes, concepts, and beliefs about diversity, bigotry, and racism? - Completion of post-instruction assessment. (Note: The author was using the Intercultural Development Inventory.) 15.5 Attendance roster and daily census Each student signs Attendance Roster and completes the Daily Census: TBD Each student places name tent in front of their assigned seat. 15.6 Focus minute - 1 minute of silence 15.7 Emphasize success during the semester Emphasize the learning objectives for the course and celebrate that the students completed these objectives. In small groups, students brainstorm a list of all the teaching and learning strategies that they experienced for this course. (There may be more than 100!) Then review the course learning objectives and ask the small groups to discuss and make notes about which class learning strategies helped them meet each learning objective. If students took a post-instruction assessment, such as the IDI, provide an overview of the group's achievements now, again to emphasize what they learned and accomplished. 15.8 Course record-keeping Have students enter information on ENGAGE to document their Cultural Partnership, their Service Learning, and any special extra credit events that they attended. Instructions for entering this information is in this 4-minute video-recording HERE. Students use their Grade Worksheets (which should be in their class work folders) to estimate the grade that they think they earned for the course. Invite students to keep their class work folders (with collection of materials, name tents, etc.) as a portfolio of their work for this semester. If they do not want to keep their folders, suggest you might want them. (These become examples of student work and potentially course evaluation data.) 15.9 Advice to future students Give the students time to write letters with guidance to future students. This has several purposes: (1) The instructor learns how students experienced the classes. (2) Students reflect personally on significant learning. (3) Students develop a sense of empowerment as they can give a 'seasoned' perspective to future students. (4) Students reflect on how their decisions during the class impacted their learning and success within the course. See The Scholarly Teacher by Alexandra Babino and Jacqueline Riley HERE. 15.10 Life mission statement Teach students the value of a life mission statement (provides direction in what to say 'yes' or 'no' to; provides evidence of life success; etc.). Here is a recipe for a Mission Statement: 3 verbs you are good at (e.g., teach, lead, inspire, organize)] + the audience on whose behalf you are motivated to work (e.g., people in transition, children with disabilities, etc.)] + the results that you need to see in order to be happy, satisfied, and effective (e.g., hope for the future, academic success, etc.)]. My example: "My mission is to teach, organize, and host people in transition, so they control their own resources, make their own decisions, and have hope for the future." Invite volunteers to read their mission statements out loud. See The Path: Creating your mission statement for work and for life by Laurie Beth Jones, 1996, Hachette Books, New York, NY. 15.11 Journal entry Name two ways you may enhance your own cultural competency in the future. 15.12 Announcements Instructor makes final remarks and gives instructions for exit slips. 15.13 Exit slips Respond to this question: Name 1 or 2 things that made the difference for you in this class to improve your own cultural competence. Describe why or how you think these things made the difference. Also turn in your Grade Worksheet to provide evidence for the grade that you think you earned in this course. References Babino, A., & Riley, J. (2020, December 10). Recast Student Reflection with Letters to Future Students. The Scholarly Teacher. https://www.scholarlyteacher.com/post/recast-student-reflection-with-letters-to-future-students Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: issues emerging from a review of current literature. Reflective Practice, 16(1), 123-141. Gollnick, D. M. & Chinn, P. (2021). Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Hartog, M. (2017). Educating the reflective educator: a social perspective. In M. Reynolds and R. Vince (Eds.). Organizing reflection (pp. 170-185). London, UK: Routledge. Jones, L. B. (1996). The Path: Creating your mission statement for work and for life. New York, NY: Hachette Books. Reynolds, M., & Vince, R. (2017). An introduction in M. Reynolds and R. Vince (Eds.). Organizing reflection (pp. 1-14). London, UK: Routledge. Image credits [1] Photo courtesy of author. References Mission Statement Advice to future students - example 2 Impact of Class Discussions on ... Personal Mission Statement ... Instructor's Closing Message Addendum: Syllabus Addendum: Syllabus Addendum: Explanation of Routines Routines are used to keep classes running smoothly, to provide a welcoming atmosphere for students and guests, and to collect feedback from students. Here are some descriptions of the routines that I use. Name Tents Name Tents help instructor, students, and guests to know each student is an individual. Using a piece of colored paper or card stock, make a mountain fold and two more folds to create a base and two sides. Make four 1/2-inch cuts along the base from the edges. Print name on the 2 sides of the tent that will show (front and back). On the side of the paper opposite the names, students make an empty table of five columns and 4 rows. The class will use this table during early weeks of the course. Upon arrival, each student places their name tent in front of their place at the table. After the class meeting, each student places their name tent in their work folder. Attendance Rosters and Daily Census For in-person classes, I use Attendance Rosters. There is a separate roster for each class's meeting. If students do not sign in as they arrive in the classroom, they are considered to be absent. Sample sign-in rosters are available from Vertex42. The template attached to this section is by Jon Wittwer, updated 6/2/2020. The Daily Census gives a snapshot of class information about the module topic. It's a way to find out how common some topics are among members of the class. This information may be used later during discussions. As students arrive, they sign the Attendance Roster and complete the Daily Census. Student Work Folders Table Groups Maintaining assigned table groups helps students get acquainted in-depth with just a few other students. They build trust that helps them participate more in the difficult conversations. Occasionally, mix up the groups for specific activities or specific reasons (e.g., shared service learning placements, shared or different learning styles). Daily Agenda I post a Daily Agenda on newsprint. This helps students know what's coming and it helps me (the instructor) remember what's happening next! It's also a place to post any special announcements for the day. Focus Minute The Focus Minute is a grounding strategy for the beginning of each class meeting that helps participants to direct their attention to the class. It is basically a way to direct students to focus on something other than the things that have been going on in their lives. You may also think of grounding as centering, distracting, creating a safe place, or healthy detachment. I implement a Focus MInute after all students seem to have signed in. I introduce the idea by saying a few things: - The Focus Minute is to help us pay attention to the class meeting. - There is nothing religious or spiritual about this silent minute. - Either close your eyes or direct your gaze toward something neutral, rather than a person. - The instructor will keep track of the 60 seconds. More information about the Focus Minute may be found on the Grounding Worksheet attached. Sensory Squeegy Balls Collect or make sensory, squeegy balls for students during tests, speeches, presentations, reading out loud, etc. Keep a bucket of stress -educing items in the front of the class and instruct students to get up and retrieve one before the test, speech, or other event/activity. Here is why these work to promote positive classroom behaviors. Here are some stress ball DIY instructions. Mindmaps or Webs Mindmaps are useful strategies to organize thoughts and concepts. Use it to brainstorm, organize ideas, plan projects, and more. This course uses Mindmaps specifically for students to organize their autobiographies. They can quickly create a structure for their writing assignment or class presentation and then create a document outline and write! Free and useful software is available from Mindup There are documents in this section with a ‘blank’ Mindmap and with a student example of a Mindmap. Chimes, Wood Blocks or Bells The chimes, wood blocks, or bells are useful as a classroom management tool that gets the students' attention within 5 seconds. Line up by ... To mix the group up a bit for discussions, have them get into line according to various characteristics (e.g., birth month and day, height, commuting distance from campus). To make it challenging, have them line up in silence. Persona Dolls Sometimes, instructors have difficulty finding speakers or panels or videos for specific microcultures. Sometimes, instructors just want to provoke students to have empathy with certain microaggressions. Persona dolls can help. Think of the American Girl dolls: each within an historic context and with a back story. The Persona Dolls for this purpose are like just another member of the class. Their characteristics remain constant. Their life experiences unfold just like those of the real students in the classroom. These ingredients help the children connect to the dolls and make them and the stories they tell much more powerful. See the attachment for some ideas. Exit Tickets An Exit Ticket is a great way to end a class meeting. It might provide feedback to the instructor about the class; require some synthesis of the meeting's content; or pose a question requiring some application of what was learned in the lesson. I also use Exit Tickets as a way to have students write more, because, for me, this is a writing intensive course. So I have two basic kinds of Exit Tickets: Thank-You Notes and Minute Papers. Thank-You Notes. Each student or a small group of students write a note of appreciation to the guest speakers or class visitors. They should include at least 4 elements: (1) say thank you; (2) tell about something new that they learned from the speaker; (3) tell about an idea that they will use in their lives; and (4) mention a question that they still have about the topic. Students sign their names to the notes. The instructor collects the notes, reviews them for appropriate language, and sends the notes to the guest. Minute Papers. This is a student-centered reflection strategy to help students discover their own meaning in relation to concepts covered in class and to build instructor-student rapport. The papers respond to an instructor-posed question, such as "What was the most important concept you learned in class today?" Students sign their names to the papers. See some examples for prompts at ON COURSE. For example, in response to the prompt: (1) I learned that … and (2) A question I still have is …, one student wrote: “(1) I thought Henry Ford was a good guy for inventing the ford vehicles, but he was a racist. (2) I would like to know if anyone that lynched the boys was ever punished for their actions.” The instructor collects the papers and may use them in other prompts during the course. Quizzes There are 2 quizzes during the semester. They have objective questions (e.g., multiple choice, true false, ordering/sequencing). They test students' knowledge from the textbook. This is the objective summative assessment of knowledge for the course. Addendum: Glossary Culture: beliefs, values, behaviors, traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to others Microcultures: special groups with own languages, rules, expectations, region, etc. Multiculturalism: equal attention to the co-existence of diverse cultures (religions, ethnic groups) each with their own patterns of thought, values, and communication styles Pluralism: 2 or more groups exist Stereotype: fixed or oversimplified image of a particular person or group or thing Diversity: inclusion of different sorts of persons Bias: prejudice against or for a group Explicit: conscious Implicit: unconscious Race: a myth; a recent human invention; about culture, not biology Racism: a reality; also a human invention; about attitude and belief and behavior Prejudice: Intercultural competence: Addendum: Welcome from the indigenous people of the region insert here For information about the peoples who originally lived in a specific area, text a zipcode or city/state to (855) 917-5263 (active in March 2021). For guidelines to acknowledge the original indigenous people groups, see information HERE. Addendum: Diversity Story See an example of Lauren's diversity story HERE. Photos for her diversity story are HERE. James Abotsi from Ghana Watch this 40-minute videorecording in which James Abotsi, international student at MSU, tells you about his home culture in Ghana. Learning Objectives: - Identify one’s own strengths, values, needs, and professional dispositions. - Develop engagement in one’s own cultural heritage and experiences. Read Arn’s diversity story. Arn Chorn-Pond escaped from Cambodia and came to the United States as a child after most of his family was killed by the Khmer Rouge. In his story, Arn describes how he felt invisible as he struggled to adjust to a vastly different society and. He urges us to recognize that "everyone has a story." Arn explains that in school, “I was sitting next to a boy. . . They didn’t notice that I have a story to share. I didn’t know that he has a story to share either, so we didn’t share.” How much do you know about the people you go to school or work with? Are there some who you do not know much about? Why do you think Arn believes that it is important to know each other’s stories? How does sharing stories help to create community? Why did Arn’s teacher think it was so important for him to share his story? What power did Arn discover when he first spoke about his experiences? How was Arn able to turn his story into a force for change? What enabled him to reach out to others? Develop your own diversity story: Develop and share your own diversity story. Our diversity story can connect us with many other aspects people are keeping under the surface. Describe at least 6 microcultures that are important to your life. A good story has a compelling who, what, where, when, why beginning building up to a climax or change in the middle with a resolution at the conclusion. This is a recipe we learned in middle school English class that we often forget as adults. When have you felt the sting of exclusion? How did adversity in any form shape you as a human being? Have you had an encounter with someone from a different culture, background, or orientation that has influenced you? This person may be a mentor, friend, manager, high-potential performer, customer, or partner. Has that experience altered your leadership style in any way? Addendum: Cultural Autobiography One of the first steps in cultural competence is to understand and engage in your own culture. This project will lead you through integrating your own experiences into an autobiography. It’s all about you! This is your opportunity to reflect on your cultural background and how your behaviors and attitudes have been influenced by your heritage, experiences, and cultural orientation. Your reflection should focus on aspects of your identity that have had a significant influence on your development. Goals for this project include: Foster a sense of connection and attachment to your primary cultural groups. Describe your behavior in core aspects as a member of a cultural community. Increase ‘self-awareness’ of your own, unique experiences around cultural differences and commonalities. Analyze the degree to which you feel connected to your own cultural community. Practice your written, academic communication skills. Steps: Interview an “elder” from your family with a minimum of 10 questions about their own cultural heritage. After you complete the interview, type a paper called a transcript: a word-for-word version of the questions and answers from the interview. Upload the interview transcript to the assignment dropbox. Research the microcultures within the culture of your family of origin. After the interview and research, write an academic paper about the context of your family and community background. (Minimum 8 pages). The paper should address a minimum of six microculture topics such as: ethnicity and race; class and socioeconomic status; gender; sexual orientation; exceptionalities; language; religion; geography and region; age and generation. Other topics might include history and traditions; education values; military service; communication norms and behaviors; etc. Addendum: Cultural Partnership Watch the 3-minute videorecording with Erika's reflection on the long-term impact of her Cultural Partnership experience during this class Watch this 27-minute videorecording of "How to Talk Minnesotan" to learn about Minnesota language and culture. Addendum: Service Learning Complete the Diverse Associations Survey (aka Map) to reflect on your life experiences with diversity. Watch the 3-minute videorecording with Patrick's reflection on the long-term impact of his Service Learning experience at the Mahkato Wacipi (PowWow 2010). Addendum: Resources for Classroom Teachers The Science Museum of Minnesota https://new.smm.org/learn/blog/race-and-racism Learning for Justice (formerly Teaching Tolerance) https://www.learningforjustice.org/ Facing History and Ourselves https://www.facinghistory.org/ Harvard Implicit Bias Tests https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html Minnesota Literacy Council https://www.literacymn.org/educator-resources Babino, A., & Riley, J. (2020, December 10). Recast Student Reflection with Letters to Future Students. The Scholarly Teacher. https://www.scholarlyteacher.com/post/recast-student-reflection-with-letters-to-future-students Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: issues emerging from a review of current literature. Reflective Practice, 16(1), 123-141. Hartog, M. (2017). Educating the reflective educator: a social perspective. In M. Reynolds and R. Vince (Eds.). Organizing reflection (pp. 170-185). London, UK: Routledge. Jones, L. B. (1996). The Path: Creating your mission statement for work and for life New York, NY: Hachette Books. Reynolds, M., & Vince, R. (2017). An introduction in M. Reynolds and R. Vince (Eds.). Organizing reflection (pp. 1-14). London, UK: Routledge. Addendum: Dozens of Class Activities List of as many activities as I can remember that are part of the class: - IDI as pre- and post-instruction assessment, Hammer - Individual debrief with IDI profile & developmental plan, Hammer - Lecture: the Intercultural Development Continuum, Hammer - Iceberg metaphor for culture - Service Learning (selection, interview, reflection paper) - Cultural Partner (selection, interview, reflection paper) - Cultural Autobiography (selection, interview, reflection paper) - Textbook: Gollnick and Chinn - Discussion posts in reponse to prompts based on the textbook. Here is a Sample Rubric for scoring discussion posts. - Collaborative note-taking: Use a collaborative document to create a collection of complete notes: (1) review concepts in depth; (2) keeps notes in instructor's view for corrections; and (3) provides accessibility for students who have note-taking issues. - Diversity stories (by class members) - Lecture: microcultures - Lecture: microaggressions - Lecture: be an ally - Lecture: ancestry and dna and region of childhood - Guest speaker: person/s from the region's indigenous culture to welcome the students to their land - Guest speaker: European American male to talk about privilege and to let European American students know they have cultures, too. - Guest speaker: African American to discuss reality of racism - Guest speaker: Asian American - Guest speaker: Latinx American - Guest speaker: about newcomers, new immigrants - Guest speaker: about elderly with memory loss - Guest speaker: about homeless youth and adults - Guest speaker: international student presentation about home culture - Guest speaker: about military culture (with MREs and cadences) - Women's Center: Presentation and role play - Veteran's Center: Presentation - Panel: students with disabilities - Panel: Greek Life - Panel: students who identify as LGBTQ - Panel: students from Muslim Student Association - Panel: students from Hmong American Student Association - Campus scavenger hunt (to find indications of racism, sexism, able-ism) - Synapse circle (ball toss) - Concentric circle conversation - Four corners - Expert Groups - -isms in the news - Portfolio collections - students collect and share work they are proud of. - Journaling - Resume (create resume entries according to projects completed in class) - Graffiti board - Name tents - Take a Census (of certain characteristics of the class members or the academic program or the university or the community) - Analyze video recordings: see, think, wonder - Analyze video recordings: crop it - Town hall (to get diverse perspectives) - Focus minute - Attendance sign-in sheet - Mou card game - The Shadow of Hate documentary - Jim Crow of the North documentary - Communicating Between Cultures video - Them & Us video - How to Talk Minnesotan PBS program - What Would You Do? television program episode with harassment of bagger who has Down syndrome. - Adam Ruins Suburbs (about redlining) - Mapping Prejudice (actually review property deeds for racial covenants) - Self-assessments (KTS, LifeValues, SpeakStrong, etc.) - Exit slips - Compare/contrast the guest's culture with one's own culture - Thank you notes - Journal entries - Fishbowl discussion - Jigsaw discussion - Think - Pair - Share - Role play - Blogging - World Cafe - - Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) - a classroom technique that teaches content and process skills through teamwork. Rotate group assignments of Manager, Recorder/Note-taker, Reporter/Spokesperson, Analyst. - Wiki combination of learning - Kahoot! survey or discussion prompts - Portfolio of learning products - Examples of assignments from past semesters - FAQs about a topic - Peer review of work products - Course syllabus - Practice interviewing other students in the class - "Stand Up" if you identify with the list of characteristics (If you're teaching online, have participants turn on their cameras or choose a response sticker if they fit that characteristic) - What's In Your Backpack? selection of privileges - Register to vote at VOTE411.org - Diverse Associations Survey and tally board - Social Identities Survey - Index cards to track characteristics - Family composition (drawing stick-figures to illustrate family) - Family journeys (Hmong pan dau & draw my own) - Pinterest - make a collection that relates to this course - LTE - write a letter to the editor - Mission statements - Definitions - The Tower of Violence - Genderbread Person outline - "Nurture vs Nature" survey (related to gender and sexual orientation) - Disability Awareness quiz (related to disabilities) - Fry Bread Intelligence quiz (for native culture) - Internet Scavenger Hunt - Implicit Bias Tests (Harvard University) https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html - Debate (e.g., sports team names; oil pipelines; etc.) - Advice from students in past semesters - Visit with Writing Center tutor - Visit with Honors Program adviser - Visit with College Recruitment and Retention adviser - Small groups assigned by certain characteristics (e.g., learning styles, type of service learning placement, etc.) - Read aloud a children's book that relates to the topic - Teach back: each student learns something about the topic and teaches the info to their small group or the entire class - Post the course objectives and refer to it when it relates to the topic - Student work folders - Graphic organizers to direct students to take notes or organize ideas in specific ways (e.g., mindmap, compare/contrast, etc.) See a QUAD organizer attached below. - Agree / Disagree: students are directed to stand at either end of the classroom to indicate if they agree or disagree with a statement read by the instructor - Infographic: small groups research and create infographic about a topic - T-shirt Day: everyone wears a t-shirt with a design that illustrates something about their culture. Addendum: Anecdotes Stories/Anecdotes - Teaching Dale to put on his own coat. - CHSM ECFE toddler-parent interaction - little poops. - SJBC children's ministry course - importance of choices - Magadan discipline = punishment, usually with belts - ASL sign for discipline is the same sign as spanking. - Know your apple. Know your rock. - Looking over the fence at a ball game. - Thawing the turkey, with a colander on top. - Band-aids on the hurt, but on the same place to be equal. - KKK road sponsorship sign near Harrison, Arkansas. - Eeenie, meenie, minie, moe. - Build your own family (Nara and Vera) - How I learned to be on time (hitchhiking) - Camp Fire Girls blue beads on halloweens - "Eat like a lady!" - homeless at 7 years old; 6 different states; 23 different homes or apartments - Coke - Pop - Soda - enough Russian language to get in trouble	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.774915	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77874/overview", "title": "Human Relations in a Multicultural Society (Instructor's Module Plans)", "author": "Higher Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115656/overview	HIST 0700: World History - Dr. Warsh 2021 Overview This course is an introductory survey of world history. It will offer a historical overview of major processes and interactions in the development of human society since the emergence in Africa of Homo sapiens, or modern humans, some 200,000 years ago. The course should enable students to treat world history as an approach to the past that addresses large-scale patterns as well as local narratives, and though which they can pursue their interest in various types of knowledge. The course is intended for undergraduate students in all majors. For this wide range of students, the course not only provides background on globalization today, but reveals the contrasting processes of large-scale social interaction which take place rapidly (such as technology) as compared with those that take place slowly (such as social values). For majors in History, the course will provide an initial step in the interactive and interdisciplinary study of the past that they will explore in more detail at advanced undergraduate levels. For those considering a career in teaching, this course provides strong background for the world-history curriculum that is now taught in most secondary schools. Attachments The attachment for this resource is a sample syllabus for a course on world history that was updated in 2021. About This Resource This resource was contributed by Dr. Molly Warsh, Associate Professor, Department of History, Associate Director of the World History Center and Head of Educational Outreach, the University of Pittsburgh.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.802794	Alliance for Learning in World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115656/overview", "title": "HIST 0700: World History - Dr. Warsh 2021", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89978/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli nigrosin negative stain 400x p000016 Overview This micrograph was taken at 400X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were stained in a smear of nigrosin negative stain prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph Dark background with several white, rod-shaped cells.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.820558	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89978/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli nigrosin negative stain 400x p000016", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75388/overview	Why self-motivation matters? Overview In this page, self-motivation is discussed into parts and some tips provided to build self-motivation for musicians. What Is Self-motivation? Definition: People are moved to act by very different types of factors, with highly varied experiences and consequences, although motivation is often treated as a singular construct (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Ryan, R., Deci, E, 2000, Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being, American Psychologist, (1)55, 68-78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Understanding and developing your self-motivation can help you to take control of many other aspects of your life. Motivation is one of the three areas of personal skills that are integral to the concept of emotional intelligence. Daniel Goleman indentified four elements that make up motivation: Personal drive to achive, the desire to improve or to meet certain standards; Commitment to personal or organisational goals; Initiative, which he defined as 'readiness to act on opportunities'; and Optimism, the ability to keep going and pursue goals in the face of setbacks, also known as resilience. Goleman, D., 1998, Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, p. 26, https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=z2ivmBQa2X0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=working+with+emotional+intelligence&ots=tXbqfvAWIv&sig=6jsOCZX3mdojDR7mfILDKlkn5Rw#v=onepage&q=working%20with%20emotional%20intelligence&f=false There are two main types of motivators: ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’. Intrinsic: To perform an action or task based on the expected or perceived satisfaction of performing the action or task. Intrinsic motivators include having fun, being interested and personal challenge. Extrinsic: To perform an action or task in order to attain some sort of external reward, including money, power and good marks or grades. Different people are motivated by different things and at different times in their lives. The same task may have more intrinsic motivators at certain times and more extrinsic motivators at others, and most tasks have a combination of the two types of motivation. People have a tendency to work better when they love what they are doing. Self-motivation drives people to keep going even in the face of set-backs, to take up opportunities, and to show commitment to what they want to achieve. Research shows that this is particularly important when we’re under stress. It’s much easier to cope with stress and long hours if we generally enjoy the work. Intrinsic motivators therefore plays a big part in self-motivation for most of us. SkillsYouNeed, Self-Motivation, [Web log post],retrieved from https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ps/self-motivation.html What is the difference between self-motivation and self-efficacy? Perceived self‐efficacy is concerned with people's beliefs in their ability to influence events that affect their lives. This core belief is the foundation of human motivation, performance accomplishments, and emotional well‐being (Bandura, 1997, 2006). From Zimmerman and Bandura's study (1992), students beliefs in their efficacy for self-regulated learning had impact on their perceived self-efficacy for academic achievement, which in turn influenced the academic goals and final academic achievement. To some extent, self-efficacy, belief people hold judging themselves on being able to do something or not, may change the self-motivation and even the achievements. Tips of Improving Self-motivation As Tony Robbins has said, “The one common denominator of all successful people is their hunger to push through their fears.” In this following video, the self-motivation is defined in depth and the presenter incorporates his own drum learning experience to explain how self-motivation is built and rebuilt. "If you get three questions' answers all "Yes", you are very well self-motivated. The first question is "Can you do it?" --asking yourself "Do you believe that you can do it?" The second question is "Will it work?"--asking yourself taking what education/training to achieve the ultimate goal. The third question is "Is it worth it?"--asking yourself the consequences of what you want to do." Learning more from this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7sxpKhIbr0E Here is another talk show and it offers the idea that how you motivate yourself when there is something you are terrified to do. Mel Robbins spreads her "5 seconds rule" to help people gain strategies pushing themselves face and deal with challenges in everyday life. Learn more from her website:https://melrobbins.com/ There are many useful and interesting skills and tips provided by various resources, helping people work on shaping self-motivation and maintaining it. The Skills You Need website lists six vital skills that form the foundation of self-motivation, and they are all skills that you can develop through sustained effort: - Setting high but realistic goals (e.g., SMART goals); - Taking the right level of risk; - Constantly seeking feedback to figure out how to improve; - Being committed to personal and/or organizational goals and going the extra mile to achieve them; - Actively seeking out opportunities and seizing them when they occur; - Being able to deal with setbacks and continue to pursue your goals despite obstacles (i.e., resilience). Further, there are six things you can do to maintain your self-motivation: - Continue learning and acquiring knowledge (i.e., develop a love of learning); - Spend time with motivated, enthusiastic, and supportive people; - Cultivate a positive mindset and build your optimism and resilience; - Identify your strengths and weaknesses, and work on them; - Avoid procrastination and work on your time management skills; - Get help when you need it, and be willing to help others succeed (Skills You Need, n.d.). Create an Imagined Future Self Activity Spend a few minutes imagining what you and your life are like 2 years from now. Either as a personal journal writing exercise or with someone you trust, answer the following questions about this "future you": - What goals did you achieve? - What important decisions have you made? - Where will you studying, working, and living? - What is your health like? - What are your relationships like (friends, family, romantic)? - What obstacles did you overcome or do you still need to overcome?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.841246	12/04/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75388/overview", "title": "Why self-motivation matters?", "author": "farhad dastur" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64617/overview	California Assault Laws Overview In this resource, you will see the different types of law enforcement agencies there. Although there are many more that go into the federal government, this resources talks about state, city and county agencies. Further, it shows what their duties are. California Law Enforcement Agencies and Duties In this attachment, you will see the difference betwen State, City and County law enforcement agencies. You will also learn their different job duties.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:07.857801	03/28/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64617/overview", "title": "California Assault Laws", "author": "Simon Sarkis" }

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